Uzbekistan Human Development Report 2008

NATIONAL HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT TEAM
Team leader Galina Saidova Yulduz Abduganieva Bakhtiyor Daniyarov Anvar Jalalov Kakhramon Juraboev Umida Islamova Nasirulla Mirkurbanov Tatyana Motornyuk Zavihulla Nasretdinkhodjaev Kodirjon Ruziev Edem Seyitkhalilov Laylo Tashpulatova Antonina Fedorova Georgiy Khachiev Statistical data Reyganat Mahmudova International consultant Sheila Marnie Coordinator Kamola Safaeva Editor/Proof reader Daniel Stevens Translators Mukaddam Khaitova Tatyana Vaganova Zarima Zoitova Layout design Kakhramon Abidjanov Cover design Babur Ismailov Anvar Uzbekov
Acknowledgements
The current National Human Development Report was made possible with the support, assistance and valuable contribution from many organizations and individuals in particular. The authors extend their deepest gratitude to the UN Resident Coordinator and UNDP Resident Representative in Uzbekistan Mr. Fikret Akcura for his substantial support and facilitation in elaboration of the report. Exceptionally useful comments and recommendations were provided by members of UN Education Theme Group. The authors team would like to thank the Ministry of Finance of Uzbekistan, Asian Development Bank and UNDP project Development Aid Coordination Platform for their contribution in the part of Financing for Education. Special thanks goes to the State Committee of Statistics in person of Reyganat Makhmudova for the valuable comments, development of Statistical Annex and verification of all statistical data of the current report. A significant contribution to the preparation and revision of the Reports outline was made by representatives of the United Nations Development Programme, Center for Economic Research, Ministry of Education, Ministry of Higher and Special Education and Centre of Higher and Special Education during round-tables held in Tashkent during 2007. Valuble comments and suggestions of the Center of Political Researches, University of World Diplomacy and Economy, Tashkent Institute of Law and TEMPUS projects were highlighted in the report. The authors and the coordinator would like to pay tribute to the blessed memory of untimely deceased Mr. Nasretdinkhodjaev Zavihulla in April, 2007. He was continuous member of teams for all National Human Development Reports and also contributed much into this report.
National Human Development Report
Foreword
I am happy to introduce the latest National Human Development Report for Uzbekistan, in a series UNDP has been producing since the mid-1990s with a view to provide an in-depth assessment of the situation in priority areas of national development and make recommendations for the future. In this report, we are focusing on education, a central pillar of human development and a primary coverage of the Millennium Development Goals. Uzbekistan is in an enviable position in the developing world since it boasts a literacy rate that even many industrialized nations cannot match. Hence, the challenge for Uzbekistan is at a higher level of achievementto improve the quality of education, maintain wide access and lifelong learning for a population that will ensure Uzbekistan a significant position among the community of nations. Already the Welfare Improvement Strategy provided last year a more detailed articulation of education needs in the service of national development over the near term. This particular report expands on that and provides much information, statistics, analysis and recommendations in support of national and international partners engaged in Uzbekistans development endeavors. Among the many dimensions of education articulated in the report, I would like to emphasize a few that the United Nations holds especially dear: ## Education as a fundamental human right, targeting full development of the human personality, the strengthening of respect for all rights and fundamental freedoms, as well as to promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations. ## Education for social cohesion and a harmonious nation will have to start with the family, which is every childs first school and remains a principal source of support and motivation for learning. What children learn at home is precious and indispensable to their development. The United Nations sees the promotion of education not merely as a worthy and necessary end in itself, but as the means to building the foundations of peace in the minds of people. Unless we teach and learn harmony, tolerance, understanding and peace in our homes and families, we will be ill-prepared to practice those virtues in our communities. ## Lifelong learning is important to maintain an educated adult population who are both able to provide a proper growth environment for their families but also to contribute productively to their nations economic growth, which is vital to support all the desirable social goals. The many technological tools now available greatly facilitate learning opportunities for all ages and irrespective of the distance from the great centers of learning.
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## Educations pivotal role in life demands active involvement by the citizen, the civil society and the private sector, to enrich and supplement the role of the public sector both in planning and running education initiatives. Many of the above plus much more are highlighted and broadly discussed in the coming pages. I hope that this National Human Development Report will help prove valuable in the evaluation of the education reforms thus far planned and put into action in Uzbekistan, as well as complementing the Welfare Improvement Strategy during its implementation over 20082010. UNDP is committed to support the people of Uzbekistan in achieving sustainable development and improving living standards throughout the country.
Fikret Akcura UNDP Resident Representative
ABBREVIATIONS LIST
ADB AIDS CIS CPI DSE GDP GNP GOST GTZ HD HDI HDR HIV ISEC JBIC JV MDG MF NES OECD PPP SDF SSPE SSVE TACIS TYUZ UN UNESCO USSR UNDP UNICEF WB WIS (PRSP)
Asian Development Bank Acquired immune deficiency syndrome Commonwealth of Independent States Consumer Price Index German International Development Fund Gross Domestic Product Gross National Product State Educational Standards German Technical Cooperation Society Human Development Human Development Index Human Development Report Human immunodeficiency virus International Standard Classification of Education Japan Bank for International Cooperation Joint Venture Millennium Development Goals Ministry of Finance National Education Standards Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development Purchasing Power Parity School Development Off-Budget Fund Secondary specialized professional education Secondary specialized vocational education Technical Aid to the CIS Young Peoples Theatre United Nations United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Union of Soviet Social Republics United Nations Development Program United Nation Childrens Fund World Bank Welfare Improvement Strategy
Contents
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Chapter 1. Education as the basis of human development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 1.1. Introduction to human development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 1.2.The impact of education on human development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 1.2.1. Global trends in educational levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 1.2.2. Situation in Uzbekistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 1.2.3. Education and progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 1.2.4. Education and Poverty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 1.2.5. Education and Employment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 1.2.6. Education and Inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 1.2.7. Education and Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 1.2.8. Education and gender equality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 1.2.9. Education and democratic development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 1.3. Role of education in a modern society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 1.3.1. The influence of education on economic development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 1.3.2. Influence of education on the socialization process for national and global citizenship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 1.3.3. Providing proper intellectual and moral development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 1.4. Educational models. Education during the transition period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 1.4.1. Educational models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 1.4.2. Education during the transition period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 1.5. International Conventions and the Declaration on Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Chapter 2. Human development in Uzbekistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1. The human development index in Uzbekistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2. Key factors that shape human development in Uzbekistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3. Tools for ensuring rapid economic growth in the future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 62 63 72
Chapter 3. Overview of the education system in Uzbekistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 3.1. Legal framework of the national education policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 3.1.1. The pre-reform system of education in Uzbekistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 3.1.2. Stages of reform and legal framework of Uzbekistans education policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 3.1.3. Governance of the Education System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
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3.2. Overview of the major types of education in Uzbekistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 3.2.1. Pre-school education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 3.2.2. General Secondary Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 3.2.3. Secondary specialized vocational education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 3.2.4. Education of Orphans and Disabled Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 3.2.5. Higher education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 3.2.6. Postgraduate education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 3.3. Financing of education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 3.3.1. International Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 3.3.2. Financing of Education in Uzbekistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 3.3.3. Overview of external assistance to the education sector of Uzbekistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 Chapter 4. An education system for a better future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 4.1. Identifying future demands for education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 4.1.1. The Economys Demands on Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 4.1.2. Societys and Citizens Demands on Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 4.2. Meeting the future demands for education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 4.2.1. Balanced management structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 4.2.2. Developing Training Programs for the Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 4.2.3. Education Financing Must Be a Rational Combination of Public and Private . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 Annexes 1. Major regulatory and legal acts governing the education system in Uzbekistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 2. List of donors supporting educational sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 3. Statistical Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Thems of the National Human Development Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Summary
Considering the huge role of education in social progress and human development, the international community has developed quite a number of international legal norms which regulate attitudes in the educational sphere. The General Declaration of Human rights and freedom, accepted by UN General Assembly on December 1948, has recognized the right of each person for education and has adopted the principle of inadmissibility of discrimination. It has been declared that any discrimination with regard to education sphere would be considered as infringement of human rights. One of the Millennium Development Goals is maintenance of universal primary education for each child on the Earth. As for the goals coverage, present task considers being the only universal one. It calls up the governments, international institutions and donars to create necessary conditions for education for each and every child, but, above all, for those children, who have presently happened to be out of the education sphere. Education is one of the most important components of human development; and it possesses a core role in solving fundamental challenges. As a key component of human development education determines a governing influence in solving of a number of social, economic, political and humane problems. In the course of all centuries, from antiquity to modern multipolar world, attitude would change towards education, as an integral part of human existence and understanding of its significance. However, frequently the role of education would be considered in clerical and intellectual plan. By the middle of 20th century education was a tough and locked enough system, being one of essential elements of statehood of any country. By the end of 20th century considerable transformations took place in educational systems of the world: they were caused by qualitative change of living conditions of people in general, at the scope of civilization, and separate individuals. A dynamic development of education recently made it one of the most important factors in evaluation of the human being and community. The present annual report on human development in Uzbekistan is aimed at problems educationto one of the key parameters making an essence of human being and human development. In the report consisting of four chapters the general tendencies of human development in Uzbekistan, correlation of scholarship index with other indicators of human development are analyzed. The authors of the report emphasized their attention on research of the condition of education mainly in Uzbekistan, comparing to the rest of the world. Communication between education and human development has been consistently analysed, attention aimed towards the present condition of economy and social policy of the Government. Authors have done a huge work by writing one of the chapters in the form of the review of all education system. I this chapter all achievements
and successes are very precisely designated, and so are the barriers on a way to the further improvement of an education system. Logical end of the report is the final chapter which designates the basic priorities of the further development of an education system; recommendations for more effective development of an education system for the good of higher level are given. Chapter 1. EDUCATION AS THE BASIS OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT The main purpose of human development is the creation of the political, economic, social and natural resource environment that would allow people to secure both their material welfare and also the opportunity to enjoy healthy and constructive lives. In the concept of human development education is one of the most important components. In the course of human civilization high rates of development in education, often accompanied by high rates of scientific development, have been the most important drivers of social, technological and economic progress. Statistical data confirms that poverty is very much dependent on the level of education. This is connected with the fact that poorer countries have less financial resources to devote to education. In turn this level of education influences the capacity of the country to increase its labor productivity, and consequently the level of economic development. In the context of globalization, when the ability of a country to innovate gives it a competitive edge, high levels of educational achievement no longer guarantees membership to a prestigious elite group of countries - it is now an absolute necessity for survival and achieving economic and political independence. Countries with a more educated population have a greater chance of developing production and creating new jobs. As a rule, in such countries both the unemployment rate is lower as well as levels of emigration of the potential workforce in search of jobs. An educated person can more easily find a job than a non-educated person. The unemployment rate in any country is higher in the uneducated layer of the population. Education is directly related to the health of the population and life expectancy, another indicator of human development. The Uzbekistan Human Development Report 2006 states that more educated people take better care of themselves, take preventive measures, lead a healthy lifestyle, recognize illness in time and seek qualified medical assistance. One should not forget that a better educated population has better job opportunities, higher income and, as a result, better able to pay for timely and well-qualified medical services. The analysis of long-term trends of economic development and advancements in education in these countries demonstrates that there is a close link between these two indicators. In the long-term there are no rich countries with low levels of education. At the same time, in the short-run and medium term there may be different trends. In past centuries a country could become rich for a period of time as a result of colonial conquests and predatory wars. In the modern period a country can become rich as a result of possessing highly liquid and increasingly valuable natural resources. Yet in the context of globalization and growing international competition, these riches are only sustainable if they are supported by a growing level of education and effectively translating knowledge into economic development.
This can be proved if we compare the key parameters of human development: the education and GDP per capita indices. When countries are grouped in the main three categories of income the education index does not always correlate with a high GDP index. However when they are divided into smaller groups the relationship becomes evident: with an increased index of education, the GDP index also grows. In determining the impact of education on the formation of the spiritual and intellectual needs and abilities of people, specific features of education are usually considered from three interrelated perspectives: those of state, society and the individual. On the individual level the fullest self-realization of an individual is to develop his or her intellectual abilities. At the same time it is the acquisition of general and professional knowledge that creates new job opportunities. Educated people are spiritually richer; their life is full of other values besides material ones. Education allows people to satisfy their spiritual needs, make life more interesting and harmonious. On the state levelthe government should be interested in the development of the intellectual potential of the country. During this period of the expansion of the knowledge economy, education becomes an important component of economic development and accumulation of national wealth. The spiritual wealth of the population is organic and naturally gives rise to a legal culture, as well as an ability of the population to live and work in a free, democratic and legitimate state. As such people can properly use their rights and freedoms for the benefit of the people, the state and society. On the society level education should be focused on the formation of universal spiritual values. Also, it should be focused on the formation of a public mind-set and global outlook, aimed at the development of human society. Only educated and spiritually rich people can form a society which is able to resolve disputes without wars. Really educated and well-bred people will never in any circumstances accept violence, or any manifestation of terrorism and hostile confrontation. Only spiritually rich people can place global ecological problems higher than their own problems and the problems of individual nations and governments. The intellectual development of society is the basis for social progress, without which scientific progress is impossible and discoveries of global importance for humanity cannot be made: it secures the very sustainability of human society. The education system that emerged at the beginning of 1990s in the post-Soviet and post-socialist world preserved many features of the Soviet model. This Soviet model had some positive features such as access to free primary and secondary education for all groups of the population, and the fundamental and technical focus of educational curricula at all levels of learning. At the same time, economic recession, which brought about the collapse of the USSR and the breakdown of the socialistic bloc at the end of the 1980s, had a destructive impact on standards of living of the post-Soviet countries. Strict governmental regulation of the education system, which has been the norm in socialist countries, made the system helpless in the conditions of economic crisis. The problems encountered by these newly independent countries in the sphere of education at the beginning of the 1990s were more or less the same: Financial problems, Problems of content and quality of education, Problems of educational access, Problems of demand for education, Problems of educational facilities.
The main challenges and objectives faced by the governments in transition economies during this period were: 1. Clearly identifying and then overcoming the factors undermining the previously strong educational system such as the loss of teaching staff. 2. Setting clear targets related to the new goals and standards - implementation of an organizational and methodological transformation with the focus on new objectives and targets. 3. Creation of a new system of governance, with the aim of ensuring effective reform of education at all stages in accordance with the principles of a market economy and global challenges. 4. Transition of the education system based on new principles of financing, aiming to accumulate sufficient funds to maintain high levels of effectiveness. 5. Stimulate the demand for qualified professionals being prepared at secondary, specialized and tertiary educational establishments, and increasing the status of the profession of teacher in society. 6. Reconsider the previous approaches to education, in particular rejecting the principles of ideologizing and politicization, strengthen the humanities focus of the educational system without losing the inherited fundamentals and strong technical basis of education. 7. Improving facilities Chapter 2 Human Development in Uzbekistan The ideas and key themes of the concept of human development are not only familiar to the people of Uzbekistan, but are also woven into their aspirations and understanding of life. For Uzbek people the traditional words of greeting used when they meet each other and say farewell are a wish for a long, healthy, productive and good life. In calculating Uzbekistans HDI we can see that the biggest impact is made by the education (40.45%) and life expectancy (34.92%) indexes. These indexes are quite high in Uzbekistan and are very similar to these indicators in the most developed countries of the world. What is also clear is that Uzbekistan lags behind the developed economies of the world and many other countries in its average growth rate of GDP per capita. The future growth of this indicator can bring about a higher HDI in Uzbekistan. Due to the high birth rate at the end of the 1980s, the share of young people aged 1924 grew significantly. Such a situation creates an additional burden not only on the further education system, but also on the labor market. As a result of the demographic trends described above, the proportion of ablebodied, working age within the population has been growing over the last 15 years. Up until 2005, in order to provide jobs for the growing number of the able-bodied, working age population, more than 250,000300,000 new jobs needed to be created each year. Given the large number of people already seeking jobs before that period, currently there is a need to create each year 550,000 new jobs. However given the economic recession of 19911995 and the profound economic restructuring taking place then, the number of jobs was declining. This trend was especially noticeable in the non-agricultural sectors. As a result, the employment growth rate could not keep pace with the growth rate of the able-bodied popu12 National Human Development Report
lation. Many of those having official jobs worked only part-time and wage growth lagged behind the inflation rate. Between 2000 and 2006 economic growth accelerated. It resulted in the growth of new jobs and improvements in the employment rate, which became especially noticeable during the last three years. During this period the employment rate became comparable to the growth in the able-bodied population, both due to the growth in newly created jobs and also an easing of the demographic pressures on the labor market. New jobs have been created mainly in the sphere of services. Employment in the agricultural sector has been declining as a result of the various market reforms that have been carried out. In recent years the share of unofficial employment has remained fairly constant, while the share of unregistered employment has grown. This means that the government should undertake some radical measures to encourage the legalization of unregistered employment, for example cuts in the tax rates on business and, even more importantly, on income. External labor migration plays an increasingly important role in the labor market. According to the estimations of the Ministry of Labor and Social Security, within the last two years the number of labor migrants was between 300,000 and 360,000 a year. Within one year over 500,000 (up to 5% of the labor force of the country) leave the country for short-term or seasonal work). Labor migrants have become a prominent source of foreign currency income. It has a positive impact both on economic growth and income growth. At the same time government policy towards labor migration should be significantly adjusted. Labor migration should be legalized, and the labor migrants should be better protected in the labor markets of other countries. Within the last three years the economic growth of the country has been significant. Many new production and construction enterprises, both large and small, have sprung up employing a large number of people. As a result there is a stronger demand for educated and qualified labor. At the same time some structural distortions have emerged in the labor market, particularly a shortage of qualified workers. The lack of engineers for industrial enterprises as well as educated, experienced managers for small businesses has become evident. The newly established professional colleges as well as the system of higher education are designed to train such specialists for these sectors. Since 1996 the dynamics of real average per capita income growth have been positive. Within a six year period the annual income growth (adjusted for inflation) was about 16.2%. By 2006 real incomes were almost 2.5 times higher than in 2000. Between 20002006 income grew in all regions of the country, with the biggest growth in those regions with high income ratesin Tashkent city and Navoi region. Such rapid growth in per capita income in these industrially developed regions increased the differences between regions. Starting from 2000, every three years the average salary in the country increased by almost 2.5 times. As a result, the share of salary in the structure of household income has grown. Income from various entrepreneurial activities, property and self-employment has been growing at a higher pace. Since 2001 the share of aggregate income from entrepreneurship and from dekhan farms grew from 26.9% to 36.4%. The products produced on private plots of land can be turned into commodities and sold for cash
rather than a source of in-kind household consumption. This result in that the land lots allocated to dekhan farms are being more efficiently and intensively used to produce commodities and generate money income. Income growth gradually decreases the level of poverty. Poverty assessment is carried out on a yearly basis in the country and covers a representative sample of 10,000 households. The poverty line in terms of food is calculated on the basis of the cost of 2,100 kilocalories consumed per capita per day. Those households whose average expenditure is lower than this indicator are considered to be needy. While calculating the cost of household consumption, the elasticity of family expenses as well as the consumption of products produced by this household are taken into consideration. Given these factors, it was calculated that in 2001 about 6.8 million people were poor, or 27.5% of the population. In 2005 the budget survey showed that the level of poverty had declined to 25.8%. Poverty reduction was especially significant in urban areas, though had also occurred in rural areas. The northern and southern regions are considered to be where the greatest concentration of needy people live. At the same time the poverty level in the southern regions of the country is falling quickly. It has recently declined by 9.4 percentage points. Further poverty reduction is dependent on high economic growth rates. The rapid development of industries and entrepreneurship are important factors in poverty reduction. There are also reasons to expect a particular reduction in the northern regions of the country as a result of mining mineral resources at Usturt, and the related production and processing of hydrocarbons and minerals. In 2006 Uzbekistan demonstrated its strong commitment to implementing this priority. First, the government continued with its policy of maintaining macroeconomic stability. The inflation rate was at the relatively acceptable level of 6.8% and there was a budget surplus of 0.5% of GDP. Second, the country continued implementing an export oriented policy aimed at strengthening the balance of trade, not only benefiting from favorable world market prices for raw materials but also increasing the proportion of high value added manufactured goods. The balance of trade now stands at a 2 billion dollar surplus mainly due to raw materials. The share of such commodities in total exports was 59.7%, and their growth rate was 144.5%. The gold and hard currency reserves of the country almost equaled the annual level of imports, having increased four times within the last three years. Third, keeping to a policy aimed at developing private business. Regulation was eased and the intervention of state control authorities in the activity of business was significantly reduced. Much red tape was cut that had hindered the registration and activities of businesses. A decision was made to reduce the number and frequency of financial statements required by the tax authorities. The reduction of tax rates and various charges and fines fostered the improvement of the business climate and the investment opportunities of enterprises. Fourth, an active investment policy is being implemented. In 2006 the amount of capital investment from all sources of financing accounted for 3,838.3 billion soum (109.1% of the 2005 level). Industrial investment accounted for 68.3% of all capital investment. The role of investment provided by sources other than the
central government increased in 2005 to 77.5%. This proportional growth was achieved by increasing the levels of foreign direct investment (116.5% of the previous year), enterprises own capital (108.5% of the previous year) and loans provided by commercial banks (126.3% of the pervious year). The proportion of investment from domestic enterprises accounted for 48% of overall investment in the country. Fifth, small business developed dynamically. The proportion of GDP made up by this kind of business has grown to 42.1%, up from 38.2% in 2005. The annual growth of the small business sector has exceeded 2325%. Sixth, the on-going agricultural reforms contributed to a relatively strong growth rate in this sector. Agricultural production has increased by 6.2%. As a result of these measures the growth rate of the economy is 7.3%, and this indicator has exceeded 7% for the last three years. The populations income is also rapidly increasing. Average wages have increased by more than 30%, and salaries in the public sector have increased by 44%. The populations real income has increased by 22%, therefore it is possible to say that there have been noticeable positive changes in the populations living standards. All regions have demonstrated relatively rapid economic growth but the gross regional product has grown most rapidly in Andijan, Namangan, Samarkand, Surkhandarya, Tashkent region and in Tashkent city. There are indications that the growth rate of the economy will reach 8% in 2007, and investment will grow by more than 20%. This will contribute to significant GRP increases in all the regions, and will positively impact on the growth of the populations real incomes and so further reduce poverty. To significantly increase human capacity, it is necessary to ensure sustainable high economic growth rates that exceed 78% annually for a relatively long period of time. Currently Uzbekistan has achieved a relatively high economic growth rate of over 7.3% a year. If this pace it kept up Uzbekistan will have doubled its GDP (using 2004 as the base) by 2015. However, to maintain this growth rate calls for considerable effort. Continuation of the economic liberalization policy should be aimed, first of all, at strengthening the institutions of private property and the protection of owners rights. Any proprietor who observes the laws and regulations should be confident that the state will never encroach on his/her property, and neither will it permit anyone else to do such a thing. Growth in investment is only possible when investors are not afraid of losing their capital and when, on the contrary, they expect to earn a return on their investment. It is extremely important to continue the policy of relieving the tax burden and optimizing the rates of customs payments. This will improve the competitiveness of domestic products both in the domestic market and in foreign markets. Finally it will stimulate manufacturing to exceed domestic demand. Relieving the tax burden will encourage private investment and create a sustainable source of high rates of economic growth. In the medium-term it is necessary to take temporary measures to selectively support priority branches of the economy. A special zero tax regime can be introduced for them for a 35 year period. Such branches include the manufacturing of consumer goods as well as some promising branches of services such as tourism.
Increasing investment in human capital to create a knowledge based economy. All the above mentioned economic growth factors cannot be successfully implemented without ensuring the appropriate quality of the human capital. Uzbekistan is not behind industrially developed countries worldwide in terms of literacy. However, the quality of the populations knowledge is not adequate in the present situation. Some serious adjustments are required in order to build a knowledge economy. At present, all over the world the most competitive economies are focused on building and selling knowledge. Such products are presented on the world market in the form of new technologies and the latest equipment. Management methods and market research, along with the methods and techniques for knowledge dissemination, are in great demand and very expensive. Building and selling knowledge in the specified forms requires very little in the way of material resources. Transportation costs to deliver the ready products to consumers are extremely low. The final cost of this created knowledge, however, is extremely high. As a result, producers enjoy huge advantages over those who are oriented towards just material production. However, to focus the economy on building and selling knowledge, it is necessary to have highly skilled people who are capable of producing this knowledge. It requires a significant increase in the numbers of well-educated people, especially those with an advanced engineering education. The quality of education should be such that it will help experts not only master new technologies and improve them, but also to anticipate new trends and design things currently not even imagined. Moreover, there is a need for the effective integration of industrial and scientific, experimental and design activities. Experts, who have applied scientific skills and are, at the same time, closely connected to the production process, are best placed to invent these new technologies. It is very important to have a healthy population for any country aspiring to develop in line with the model of building and selling knowledge. The effective use of the knowledge gained is directly dependant on the long term effective labor activity of those who have acquired this knowledge. High rates of disease and premature death rates result in a waste of the potential of experts and sharply worsen the quality of human life. Moreover, physically and psychologically healthy people have more opportunities for fruitful work. The effectiveness of creative and scientific activity as well as producing good results are directly related to peoples health. Therefore the future economic growth in the country directly depends on investment into the development of human capital. These investments are both the most secure as well as having the highest returns. Establishing innovation institutions, capable of pushing development of the knowledge based economy is a key condition without which the implementation of this task is impossible. Such institutions could include various government programs for fostering innovation in both large and small businesses. The experience of developed economies has proven the effectiveness of such government supported programs which provide funds for applied research. The world has already elaborated mechanisms for their further commercial use, as well as programs aimed at the transfer of technologies to domestic production. Thus there is a clear need to establish institutions that will effectively implement the government policy in this area.
CHAPTER 3. OVERVIEW OF THE EDUCATION SYSTEM IN UZBEKISTAN The pre-reform system of education in Uzbekistan had both strengths and weaknesses. On the one hand, it could boast a number of significant achievements: ## All stages of education existed in the country: pre-school, primary, secondary, primary vocational, higher, two-levels of postgraduate, personnel training and upgrading of personnel skills; ## All citizens of the republic had access to all types of education, irrespective of their gender, ethnicity, and religion. Secondary education was general and compulsory and education at all levels was free of charge; ## The level of literacy of the able-bodied, working age population was high. On the other hand, the legal framework of education system had all the shortcomings typical of a centralized economy: ## Curricula, textbooks, teaching methods and methodology were tightly regulated by the center. Educational establishments and teachers were not permitted to teach using textbooks, teaching materials and curricula not previously approved by the Ministry of Education; ## Education was focused on the average child with average knowledge and abilities, there was little teaching catering to individual needs, particularly for talented children; ## Undemocratic and ideology-based education did not teach schoolchildren to think independently. Pupils and students had imposed upon them ideological dogmas set by the state. Alternative methods and ideologies were not accepted; ## Due to the lack of continuity between general and professional curricula, graduates of secondary general schools did not have a relevant professional orientation and the specific skills required by the workplace. Young people encountered serious difficulties when choosing a profession which catered for their abilities and preferences along with their creative and career aspirations. This transformation process can be divided into four major stages: 1. (19911997) preparatory, when the major problems and contradictions of the education system were identified and analyzed along with the disconnect with the economic and political transformations taking place in society; 2. (19972001)initial stage, when the new national policy of personnel training was formed. 3. (20012005) active stage of large-scale transformations of secondary special vocational education. 4. (after 2005) perfection and development of the school education system. In accordance with the Constitution of the Republic of Uzbekistan all citizens of the country are entitled to receive education. The state guarantees everyone a free general education and school education is under the supervision of the state. As a result of the reforms the system of continuous education consists of the following institutions providing educational services: ## Pre-school education (for ages 37)by kindergartens, both public and private; ## General secondary education (for ages 715)mainly by state schools, providing free services, as well as by a small number of private schools, providing services on a fee basis; ## Secondary special, vocational education (for ages 1618)by state vocational colleges and academic lyceums, providing free services;
## Higher education (after graduation from a secondary special vocational educational establishment)by universities and institutes; ## Postgraduate educationat universities, institutes, academies providing education (Banking and Finance, Tax, Public Administration), business schools under universities and academies; ## Raising the level of professional skills and personnel training (during the whole career)at universities, institutions, specialized institutions for upgrading professional skills, and business schools; ## Extracurricular education (while studying at school) independently and at school; ## Home-based education and self-study. Pre-school education is the first stage of the continuous education system. It ensures the formation of healthy, developed children, arouses their inclination to learning, preparing them for systematic study. Pre-school education is provided to children until they are aged 67 at state or private pre-school educational establishments, and also within the family. The 9 year general secondary education in Uzbekistan is compulsory and free. It is divided into primary (14 grades) and secondary (59 grades) education. Education at the 10th and 11th grades has gradually been shifted to secondary special vocational educational establishments. It will sharply decline in general schools during the 2007/2008 academic year and completely stop after 2009. The aim of general secondary education is as follows: ## Formation of knowledge and skills in accordance with the national education standards; ## Adaptation of children to society and development of independent thinking; ## Formation of a harmoniously developed personality, citizen of his/her motherland; ## Instilling a feeling of devotion to the principles of independence and democracy. The quality of education and availability of qualified teachers is the most important factor in school education reform. Compulsory 3-year secondary specialized vocational education (SSVE) is an independent element in the overall system of continuous education. It is provided in compliance with the laws of the Republic of Uzbekistan On Education and National Program of Personnel Training. Though secondary specialized vocational education will only become compulsory as of 2009, currently graduates of secondary general schools already have the right to choose the direction of their further studieswhether at an academic lyceum or a vocational college. Secondary specialized vocational education is provided on a full-time basis, in two types of educational establishments: academic lyceums and vocational colleges. The goal of higher education is to provide for the professional training of qualified, competitive personnel meeting the modern requirements of graduates. They must be able to independently work in their chosen areas of knowledge (professions), to contribute to the scientific, technical, economic, social and cultural development of the country and have high moral, cultural and ethical characteristics. Postgraduate education is targeted at meeting the societys needs for highly qualified scientists and teachers, in line with the creative, educational and vocational interests of individuals. In contrast to developed countries, where postgraduate education includes studying for a Masters degree and Doctors degree, in Uzbekistan postgraduate educa18 National Human Development Report
tion includes the stages inherited from the Soviet system such as the candidate qualification and doctorate. Each stage entails preparing and defending a dissertation with the aim of receiving a Candidates degree at the first stage and Doctors degree at the second stage. Study at theses stages can be both full-time and by correspondence, and can be on a competitive basis. Approximately 50% of all defended candidate and doctor dissertations are defended on a competitive basis. Candidates of science are prepared in 298 scientific directions, and doctors of science are prepared in 60 scientific areas. Though the range of scientific directions is wide, there are no candidates and doctors in a number of priority areas due to the lack of corresponding scientific schools and insufficiency of academics in some specific directions. Within the period starting in 2000 the number of those studying at candidate and doctoral courses dropped sharply. In 2005 this figure was less than half the figure in 2000. At the same time, the effectiveness of these courses also did not grow significantly. The number of those who graduated from such courses and successfully defended their dissertations increased both in absolute and relative terms. However, the effectiveness of such courses is very low. Only 15.6% of candidate students and 8.6% of doctoral students finish their studies and defend their dissertations. Public expenditure on education in Uzbekistan as a proportion of GDP is relatively high. Over the last few years it has constantly exceeded 10% of GDP (twice as much as the OECD average) and in 2005 it was 10.8%. Despite the scarcity of budget resources, government expenditure as a proportion of total expenditure on education has always exceeded 80%, and this testifies to the governments commitment to support the education system. Government expenditure on education is made up of three main sources: current budget expenditures, future expenditures of future budgets allocated to cover foreign loans that have been used to develop the education system, and also the funds of the extrabudgetary School Development Fund established in 2004. Public financing of education in Uzbekistan has always been targeted, most recently by adopting and implementing two large-scale national programs: the National Program for Personnel Training that was introduced in 1996 (the first priority of which was to establish a new secondary special vocational training system on the basis of new principles) and the Program for Basic Education Development established in 2004 (the objective of which is to radically improve the basic education sector). In accordance with these programs, a large portion of public resources is allocated to the education sector due to significant investments made in the new school buildings and the provision of equipment to the secondary special vocational education institutions, and to the new construction, reconstruction and provision of equipment to basic schools. CHAPTER 4. AN EDUCATION SYSTEM FOR A BETTER FUTURE As in many other countries during the transition period, Uzbekistan faced serious problems in the field of education during the initial years of independence. It was necessary for the country to undertake Herculean efforts not to lose the positive achievements of the previous period, and at the same time to escape the negative aspects of the past heritage and the difficulties related to the transition period.
In 1996, Uzbekistan was the first of the countries of the CIS to begin institutional reforms in the educational sector. These were based on the new concept of lifelong learning, on the close connection between education and the labor market in order to meet its demands through creating a fundamentally new system of secondary special vocational training, as well as keeping the system of a 12 year general free primary and secondary education. During 19972006, Uzbekistan annually spent an average of 910% of its GDP and 2339% of the state budget expenditures on its educational system. As a result of the reforms the country had the following by 2007: ## The system of a free 9 year general school education was getting stronger. ## The system of a free three-year general secondary special vocational education. ## The system of higher education. ## The system of postgraduate education. ## Annual increases in numbers at all levels of education. ## The mature system of preparation of textbooks and manuals for schools, secondary special vocational educational institutions, and also the printing industry for publishing textbooks and manuals; ## The mature industrial base for manufacturing and providing educational institutions with furniture, lab equipment and different kinds of equipment for vocational training. Although basic secondary and vocational training is easily available for all, the most important objective for society should be to provide for the population unlimited access to education: Along with the objective of providing unlimited access to education, there is a more pressing issue for society at the momentthe quality of education. To radically change the situation related to the quality of education it is necessary: 1. To accelerate the process of increasing teachers salaries at all levels of the educational sector so that the prestige of the profession is high, and the people who have chosen teaching as their profession should meet certain requirements. 2. To establish a system of incentives to involve leading practitioners in teaching, especially in the areas of economics (economy, finance, accounting etc.), management (organization and production management, marketing etc.), law and engineering. 3. To establish a system for sharing best practice at all levels of the education sector. meaning to widely disseminate and promote the best experience. 4. To expand the social incentives and recognition of teachers work. To produce feature films and documentaries which heighten the recognition of teachers professional activities and their contribution to society. 5. To take drastic measures against corruption in higher educational institutions involving both law enforcement bodies and the public including organizations like Kamolot, Students Councils and womens non-government organizations. 6. To review curricula and training programs so that the number of academic subjects and examinations in each academic term are considerably reduced. 7. Raise the prestige level of quality education, with prizes on offer such as giving the best students an opportunity for employment in the most prestigious organizations and companies in the country. It is critically important to improve educational management in order to implement reforms in the education sector. As was mentioned in the previous sections,
in Uzbekistan the education sector is under the management of two ministries and one specialized Centre. In the regions there are local and regional departments that are responsible for school education management, and there are also regional departments for managing secondary special vocational training. To further improve the education management system in the light of international experience, in our opinion it is necessary to balance out centralized and decentralized management of the education sector. There is no other alternative than to establish a progressive system of education that is able to meet the current demands. It must be said that a great deal has already been done in the country. It is difficult to find another country having gone through the difficult process of transition that has managed to allocate as much funds to the reform and upgrading of its educational facilities. This is the initiative of the President and each annually approved state budget is clearly focused on the priority of education. Uzbekistan is the first country to have started improving school buildings and facilities. There was a lot of catching up to do because for many decades there had been little construction and renovation of school buildings, or provision of new state of the art educational equipment. However, the country aspires to implement all these things in just five years. It is a pleasure to see childrens eyes, when they happily sit down at new school desks, use modern learning materials and equipment, and they understand that the country greatly values their education. However, much more should be done. And this Report, which has analyzed the countrys achievements and difficulties in developing education, together with the new goals and challenges, is a small contribution to the future development of education.
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Chapter 1 EDUCATION ASTHEBASIS OFHUMAN DEVELOPMENT

1.1. Introduction toHuman Development
Nodoubt about thegoal ofthewhole creationWeare, Andthesource ofallknowledge andrevelationWeare, Thecircle oftheuniverse islike aring, Where there isnodoubt whoarethediamondsWeare. Omar Khayam
Allcountries aspire todevelop, andyetwhat arethecriteria indeciding which country is developed and which is less developed? What is the correlation between the notions of development and progress, development and social justice, development andequality, development andstability? Theanswers tothese questions depend onwhat weunderstand themain purpose ofdevelopment tobe: whether itisjust narrowly wealth aggregation orsomething broader such asexpanding peoples wellbeing, thecreation oftheconditions necessary forthefreedom andsocial protection ofeach individual, enabling creative andinnovative work, andsustainable resource useandharmony with thenatural environment. This broader approach istheoneembraced bytheUNDevelopment Program (UNDP) asthebasis foritshuman development concept. Theorigins oftheconcept ofhuman development canbetraced totheearliest periods of human history. Both the historians and philosophers of ancient times (such asDemocritus, Plato, Aris totle andLucrecius) tried toexpound thenature ofdevelopment. Didro, notable among philosophers oftheAgeofEnlightenment, believed that thehuman being hasthehighest value astheonly creator ofallthecultural achievements onearth, astheintelligent centre oftheuniverse, thepoint from which everything should descend andtowhere everything should ascend. Theideal ofprogress isanintegral part ofthenotions ofequality andsocial justice andcritical to theconcept ofhuman development. Itcanbefound intheworks ofthegreat philosophers ofthe East such asIbnSina whowrote that what makes a human being human is that he satisfies the needs of other people and the latter actinthesame way. Oneplants, another bakes, thethird sews, thefourth manufactures aneedle andthus allarebrought together tosatisfy theneeds ofeach other.1 According toNavoi, serving thehuman being isthepurpose ofallcreation, ofthesunandtheuniverse, ofmountains andlandscapes, ofseas andrivers, offlora andfauna, offlowers andnightin1 IbnSina. Shifo
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gales, oftheairandfireallofthewondrous nature, itsinexhaustible wealth anddelights2. Beruniy maintained that theprosperity ofthecountry isdetermined bythethriving ofthesciences. Forhimthegreatest happiness ofthehuman being isinunderstanding, since then heisreasoning. Only this understanding ofhappiness will bring peace andwelfare tothepeople. True delight istheaspiration forthat which becomes greater themore onepossesses it. Andthis isthecondition ofthehuman soul, when heunderstands that which hedidnotknow before3 andthat which ismost worthy ofbeing human istocare forother people, especially thepoor. Thetheoretical work ofAmartya Senpublished inDevelopment asCapability Expansion, has greatly influenced thecontemporary concept ofhuman development. Inhispaper, Senconsidered development asaprocess ofexpanding capabilities, ofcreating opportunities forpeople toincrease their choices, rather than simply increasing material andeconomic wellbeing. Helinked this process totheexpansion of freedom and the ability to choose the most favourable from a large number ofoptions. Sendefined development astheprocess inwhich thehuman being isthefocal point. Later, this andother ideas were brought together byagroup ofexperts atUNDP, leading tothelaunch in1990 oftheseries ofannual human development reports, added towhich arenowthenational human development reports published inmany countries where UNDP works. Thebasis oftheconcept isthat allpeople arenotmerely themeans butrather the end of economic development. Human development is about creating an environment in which people can develop their full potential and lead productive, creative lives inaccord with their needs andinterests. Fundamental toenlarging choices isbuilding human capabilities therange ofthings people candoorbeinlife. Themost basic capabilities forhuman development aretolead long andhealthy lives, tobeknowledgeable, tohave access totheresources needed foradecent standard ofliving andtobeable toparticipate inthelife ofthecommunity. Without these, many choices simply arenotavailable andmany opportunities inlife remain inaccessible4. Thehuman development concept does notcontradict thetraditional theories ofeconomic growth butchannels ittowards human development. Rather than merely aiming foranincrease inGDP, itbroadens theargument toputpeople atthecentre asboth theagents ofandthereason fornational development. Thedifference between theschools ofeconomic growth andhuman development isthat thefirst oneemphasizes exclusively expanding onearea ofchoiceincomeandthesecond implies increasing choice inallareaseconomic, social, cultural andpolitical. The concept consists ofatwofold approach to human development: both expanding capabilities bymeans ofimproving health, education andwork skills, aswell asemphasizing thecultural, political andrecreational aspects ofpeoples lives. According tothehuman development concept, income is only oneofthechoices that people seek, although itisavery significant one. However, itcannot determine the entire complexity and diversity of human life. Health, education, housing, freedom of action and belief are no less important. Therefore, development must mean more than just increasing income andwealth. Income isnotthefinal goal; itismerely ameans toexpand thecapabilities ofpeople inthemarket place, thepublic square, ineducation, health andsoon.
2 V.Y.Zakhidov. TheWorld ofIdeas andImages ofAlisher Navoi, Tashkent, 1961 3 Beruniy. Mineralogy 4 Human Development Report, 2001, p.9
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Theconcept ofhuman development consists offour major components:5 1. Efficiency. People must beproductive agents oftheeconomy sothat they possess theeconomic means tobroaden their choices. Therefore, economic growth isasignificant dimension ofhuman development. 2. Equality. People must notbediscriminated against. That narrows their choices inlife andreduces their potential forhuman development. Consequently, thesociety also fails toattain itsfull development. 3. Sustainability. Access to capabilities must be secured both for the present and the future generations. Anymodel ofdevelopment that only supports thepresent and deprives future generations isclearly notfeasible, as history illustrates with examples ofcivilizations which failed tosurvive due to unsus tainable practices. 4. Capabilities Expansion. Development istobecarried outintheinterests andwith theefforts ofpeople, whoshould participate inthedecision-making processes that determine their lives. They areborn with certain potential abilities. Thetarget ofhuman development istoestablish theenabling environment sothat people candevelop their abilities andcapabilities. Hence, themain purpose ofhuman development isthecreation ofthepolitical, economic, social andnatural resource environment that would allow people tosecure both their material welfare andalso theopportunity toenjoy healthy andconstructive lives. Since 1990, the Human Development Reports have published the human development index (HDI) that tries toquantify, albeit inasimple way, peoples wellbeing across many countries. TheHDIprovides acomposite measure ofthree dimensions ofhuman development andserves asarough measure formonitoring progress inhuman development inmany countries, regions andtheworld ingeneral. Thethree dimensions are: ## Long andhealthy life, measured bylife expectancy; ## Knowledge, measured byadult literacy andeducationenrolment atprimary, secondary andtertiary levels; and ## Decent standard of living, measured by income at purchasing power parity (PPP). Itisvitally important that theHDIisnotunderstood aslimiting thehuman development concept andstrategy. Thesuccess oftheHDIasacombined index assessing human development goals, such asexpanding access toeducation, improving health andlife expectancy, aswell asincreasing income, hasresulted inanarrow interpretation of the concept. Despite great efforts to explain that the idea of human development is broader than the HDI, very often the two are seen asoneandthesame. Actually thehuman development concept isaqualitatively newperspective andapproach totheunderstanding ofprogress, where theexpansion ofhuman choices isthecornerstone. Both the theoretical and applied aspects of the concept of human development are reflected in the annual global human development reports issued byUNDP. Thenational reports, being anessential tool foranalysis andstrategic planning bytheUN, aredesigned toreach awide audience andtoinitiate specific actions onhuman development within each individual country. Since thefirst na5 Human Development Report 1995
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tional report waspublished in1992 inBangladesh nowover 350national reports have been issued. These national human development reports seek tobeindependent andunbiased, using statistical andother data toconnect thehuman development perspective with thepriorities ofeach individual country with itsnewproblems andnewvisions. Increasingly governmental agencies, international organizations, academic circles, mass media andcivil society arepaying close attention tothese reports. In Uzbekistan, the first National Human Development Report was published in1995 andsince then there have been atotal ofeight. These have been focused onthesocio-economic development priorities ofUzbekistan andhave furthered wide-ranging, nationwide discussions about sustainable human development issues. TheNational Human Development Reports serve asanimportant information source andinputs forelaborating various government programs. 1.2. Theimpact ofeducation onhuman development In the concept of human development education is one of the most important components. Even asimplified statistical analysis shows that 40% ofUzbekistans HDIindex isdetermined bythelevel ofeducation intherepublic. Outofthat 40% two-thirds isdetermined bytheliteracy level oftheadult population andone-third isdetermined bythegross coefficient ofthose enrolled into educational institutions, i.e.total share ofstudents outoftheagegroup of624year olds. 1.2.1. Global trends ineducational levels During thelast decade theworld hasachieved significant progress inthedevelopment ofeducation. In1960 about 36% oftheworlds population didnoteven have abasic education, whereas in2000, even with two-fold population growth within this period, this proportion declined to25%. Prior to1975 half oftheworlds adult population could not read and write, whereas now the share of illiterate people hasmore than halved. The most economically developed countries rank first in the education index, while thecountries oftropical Africa arenear thebottom. Inindustrially developed countries theshare ofilliterate people isless than 12%. Inthese countries app roximately 32% ofthepotential workforce (those aged 2565) hasahigher education. Theshare ofpeople with auniversity education isthehighest inCanada (43%), intheUS(38%) andinJapan (36%). Among developing countries theaverage level ofliteracy hasincreased to80%. Compared to1990, thenumber ofchildren whodonotattend primary school declined by more than 30 million, and the average length of studies at school increased bymore than 6months. Although there isobvious progress ineducation allover theworld, there aremany problems left to be solved. About 100 million children of school age do not attend school, 60% ofthem being girls. InSub-Saharan Africa, only /ofthose children whobegin studies atelementary school complete it. Inspite ofsome success ineradicating illiteracy, inlowincome countries every fourth young manandevery third adult cannot read andwrite. Overall elementary education inthese countries isprovided toonly / ofchildren.
On the eve of the twenty-first century out of 680 million children of primary school ageindeveloping countries 115million, orabout 17%, have never attended school. InIndia 40million children arenotenrolled inelementary school, which isover /ofallthechildren intheworld notreceiving elementary education. Table 1.1. Number ofchildren ofschool age notattending primary school (thousands, 2004)
Boys Pakistan. . . . . . . . . 2294 SaudiArabia. . . . . . 824 USA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 740 Ghana. . . . . . . . . . . . 624 Kenya . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618 Niger. . . . . . . . . . . . . 609 Burkina-Faso. . . . . . 590 Mali . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557 CotedIvory . . . . . . 519 Mozambique. . . . . 475 Tanzania. . . . . . . . . . 465 Myanmar. . . . . . . . . 408 Iran. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 Philippines. . . . . . . . 385 Columbia. . . . . . . . . 379 Thailand. . . . . . . . . . 365 Turkey. . . . . . . . . . . . 332 Girls Pakistan. . . . . . . . . 3834 SaudiArabia. . . . . . 806 Niger. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717 CotedIvory . . . . . . 705 Burkina-Faso. . . . . . . 681 Mali . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615 Mozambique. . . . . . 614 Kenya . . . . . . . . . . . . 607 Ghana. . . . . . . . . . . . . 597 USA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584 Turkey. . . . . . . . . . . . 548 Tanzania. . . . . . . . . . 518 Thailand. . . . . . . . . . 433 Iran. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402 Myanmar. . . . . . . . . 374 Columbia. . . . . . . . . 334 Senegal. . . . . . . . . . . 320
Source: 2006 World Development Indicators, pp.8890.
Thequality ofprimary education isalso anissue, with poor quality having various causes, including toomany pupils inoneclass incountries with lowincome percapita. Duetothis andother factors every 17th elementary school student hastoretake ayear and onesixth ofthose whodofinish abasic education donotcontinue with further study. There aregreat differences intheprobability that young people will getthechance toprogress tosecondary education andthen higher education. This isclosely related totheaverage number ofyears ofstudy. Forexample, anordinary citizen ofSubSaharan Africa whowasborn inthesecond half ofthe1970s would have less than 6years ofschooling, while hisorherpeer living inacountry oftheOrganization ofEconomic Cooperation andDevelopment (OECD) would have almost 146. Table 1.2. Number ofstudents enrolling, as% oftherespective agegroup (2004)
Basic education Highest Denmark,France, Japan, Mexico, Spain, United Kingdom, South Korea, Sweden, Peru, anumber of other high and midincome countries . . . . . . . . . 100 Lowest Niger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Burkina-Faso . . . . . . . 40 Mali,Ethiopia . . . . . . 46 Eritrea . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 SaudiArabia . . . . . . . 53 CotedIvory . . . . . . . 56 Burundi . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Chad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Secondary education Highest Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Belgium . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 France,Spain, Norway, United Kingdom, Denmark, Slovenia . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Lithuania . . . . . . . . . . 94 Finland . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 Lowest Mozambique . . . . . . . 4 Niger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Burundi . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Burkina-Faso . . . . . . . 10 Chad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Mauritania . . . . . . . . . 14 Senegal,Uganda . . . 15 Eritrea . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Source: 2006 World Development Indicators, pp.9294. 6 World Development Report 2006. pp.6, 7.
26
1.2.2. Situation inUzbekistan InallCIScountries, including Uzbekistan, theindex ofeducation isrelatively high, andproportionately greater than theother twocomponents oftheHuman Development Indexlife expectancy andGDP. Uzbekistan actually ranks amongst themost developed countries with aneducation index of0.927, compared totheworld average of0.77. Uzbekistan hasahigher index than some European countries such asMalta (0.86), Romania (0.90) andCroatia (0.90), aswell asthemost industrially developed country ofCentral AmericaCosta Rica (0.87) andeven Hong Kong (0.88). Other countries with successful track records oftechnical progress and economic growth, largely duetooil, also have lower indexes than Uzbekistanforexample Bahrain andBrunei (0.88each), Kuwait (0.87), Qatar (0.86), andtheUnited Arabic Emirates (0.71), Mexico (0.86) and Malaysia (0.84). It is worth mentioning that all the above countries areinthegroup ofcountries with thehighest human development level. Table 1.3. Education index 2004
Countries with thehighest indexes (more then 0.9) Australia Denmark Ireland Norway Finland NewZealand Netherlands Belgium Iceland Spain Slovenia Sweden South Korea Uzbekistan Countries with lowest Other countries indexes forcomparison Burkina-Faso. . . . . . Mali . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Niger. . . . . . . . . . . . . Chad. . . . . . . . . . . . . Guinea . . . . . . . . . . . Senegal. . . . . . . . . . . Guinea-Bissau . . . . 0.23 0.24 0.26 0.29 0.34 0.39 0.39 USA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.97 Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.95 Japan. . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.94 Brasilia. . . . . . . . . . . . 0.88 China. . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.84 Indonesia. . . . . . . . . 0.83 India. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.61
Source: Human Development Report 2006. pp.283286.
Theproblem ofgeneral primary andsecondary education hasbeen fully solved inUzbekistan andaccording totheNational Program ofPersonnel Training soon after 2009 thecountry will solve theproblem ofoverall secondary vocational education. After 12-years ofstudy young people will receive adiploma ofsecondary special education aswell asaprofessional qualification. As a result of this approach to educational management, the level of literacy among theadult population oftheRepublic is99.3% and, according tothis indicator, Uzbekistan leaves behind such economically advanced countries asItaly (98.4%), Spain, South Korea (98%) andIsrael (97.1%). During thelast fewyears thenumber ofteachers andstudents hasbeen growing, andthefacilities improving, mainly duetotheconstruction ofalarge number of new school, college and lyceum buildings as well as the provision of modern equipment. Significant progress was made in high schools during the period 20002006 and in higher education admissions to bachelors degree courses andmasters degree courses grew byafactor of1.3 and2respectively. Itshould
7 According tothedata oftheState Committee ofStatistics ofUzbekistan. IntheHuman Development Report 2006 this indicator is0.92.
27
be noted that the number of females entering higher educational courses grew bymore than 1.6times, higher than wasexpected. Intheacademic year 20052006 alone, over half a billion US dollars was allocated from the state budget and extra-budgetary funds forimplementing theNational Program ofPersonnel Training andtheProgram ofSchool Education Development8. Asaresult ofthereforms undertaken inUzbekistan, theaverage duration ofschool education in2004 wasabout 12years, which ismore than in, forexample, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Turkey andanumber ofother countries with middling scores ofhuman development. However quantitative indicators alone arenotsufficient tofully measure theimpact ofeducation onhuman development. Qualitatively speaking, education isacontributor anddriver ofhuman development insocieties. Itisalso aneffective means ofcombating poverty andinequality. Education serves to create a global outlook and to expand life style choices. Ithasaprofound ability toshape theactivities ofpeople andsociety. 1.2.3. Education andprogress Inthecourse ofhuman civilization high rates ofdevelopment ineducation, often accompanied byhigh rates ofscientific development, have been themost important drivers ofsocial, technological andeconomic progress. Thegreat achievements ofancient countries andcivilizations, whose rulers paid special attention to the development of science, art and culture, are well known totheworld community. Thehistory ofancient Egypt, ancient China, ancient Greece andRome, aswell asthestates ofCentral Asia intheearly middle ages, arenotonly great epochs inthehistory ofourcivilization, butalso models forimitation. Themore recent history ofhuman development, inparticular thecases ofJapan, Europe, theUSA, Singapore, Taiwan (China), andanumber ofother countries provide uswith amazing examples that testify tothehuge impact that scientific discoveries canhave ontheprosperity anddevelopment ofasociety. These accomplishments arebased onvaluing education andscience, andtheir effect onartandculture. The industrial revolution of the nineteenth century was only possible in those countries where thesystem ofeducation hadbeen radically reformed. Incontrast, almost thewhole history oftheAfrican continent, thedark ages oftheearly European medieval period, andthelate medieval period inthecountries ofSouth andCentral Asia testifies that forvarious reasons education wasundervalued and so we characterize these periods as ones of stagnation. During such periods thesocial andeconomic development ofsociety slowed down, humanity wasdevalued, andtheresult wasalowliving standard forthemajority ofthepopulation. On the eve of the twenty-first century the world community has attempted toradically reconsider therole andfunctions ofeducation intheformation ofhuman civilization, thedevelopment ofcountries andtheshaping oftheindividual. Initially radical reforms ineducation were considered tobeasocial consequence of the scientific and technological revolution. Later, however, the consequence turned into thecause. Education became acrucial factor foreconomic andtechno8 In-depth survey ofeducation inUzbekistan will begiven inchapter 3 ofthis Report.
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Box 1.1. Historic examples of the impact of education on the development of Central Asian states Thedevelopment ofCentral Asia inthelate medieval period isavivid example ofthenegative impact onsocial andeconomic progress ofadecline ineducation andscience. TheCentral Asian Renaissance oftheeighth tothirteenth centuries andthefollowing twocenturies wascharacterized byincreasing numbers ofmadrasas, where secular science wastaught alongside religious and ethical subjects. Many large libraries were built and the scientific, cultural and spiritual spheres were quickly developing. From the sixteenth century, though, allthese educational andresearch centres gradually declined. Feudal wars, thefall oftheGreat Silk Road, thecollapse oftheTimurids power, andthen totalitarian regimes sharply reduced theattention paid toeducation andresearch, depriving them ofproper support. This, inturn, brought about along recession intheeconomy, technological development andmilitary strength oftheregion. Finally inthe1860s itwasconquered. Thesituation started tochange only atthebeginning ofthetwentieth century, when theJadids actively fought against feudal backwardness, prejudice andconservatism inTurkistan. They opened new schools and publishing houses to go alongside the educational establishments opened earlier bytheRussian administration, laying thefoundations fortheending ofilliteracy andthespread ofknowledge. This hadapositive impact onthesocial andeconomic development oftheregion.
logical progress andamechanism forshaping thesocial structure anddetermining ones social status. There areanumber ofclear andconsistent trends inthedevelopment ofeducation anditsradical transformation. The first trend is the radical democratization of education that has occurred innewly industrialized and, tosome degree, developing countries. Inmost developed countries thegoal wastowiden access tohigher education. Some countries achieved theidea ofuniversal access tobasic professional education. Thesecond trend istheconcept ofcontinuous learning, born inthe1960s. Gradually, the world community shifted from the old paradigm of learning to prepare forlife tothis newoneoflifelong learning. Itmeans re-evaluating education asastate, societal andpersonal value. Thelast, most important, trend istheintroduction ofthenewprogressive principle into thepublic consciousness andgovernment policy that education isnotjust fortraining specialists, butitisrather theinstrument forupgrading thegeneral intellectual, technological andcultural level ofsociety, forsupporting itscapacity forinnovation andprogress, andtoform amodern lifestyle within society. 1.2.4. Education andPoverty Statistical data confirms that poverty isvery much dependent onthelevel ofeducation. This isconnected with thefact that poorer countries have less financial resources todevote toeducation. In turn this level ofeducation influences thecapacity ofthecountry toincrease itslabour productivity, andconsequently thelevel ofeconomic development. Inthecontext ofglobalization, when theability ofacountry toinnovate gives itacompetitive edge, high levels ofeducational achievement nolonger guarantees membership toaprestigious elite group ofcountriesitisnowanabsolute necessity forsurvival andachieving economic andpolitical independence.
Table 1.4. Relationship between level ofeducation andeconomic development

World Groups ofcountries HighMidLowincome income income 0.97 0.84 0.58 5.6 4.4 n/a 13.1 16.3 37.8 93.5 96.9 96.2 81.0 89.9 86.4 92 97 22 3 91 73 n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a 65.9 75.2 66.2 51.6 62.3 50.2 66 74 43 6 83 54 n/a 10 8
Education level index 0.77 Public expenditure oneducation as% of GDP (2004) 4.4 Public expenditure perpupil, as% ofGDPpercapita (2004): primary education 15.2 19.1 secondary education 18.9 24.7 higher education 34.6 28.9 Level ofliteracy among young people (ages 1524) as%: 1990 n/a n/a 2004 n/a n/a 2004 (only girls andwomen) 84.2 n/a Level ofliteracy amongst adult population (attheageof15 andolder) as%: 1990 n/a n/a 2004 86.5 n/a 2004 (only girls andwomen) 74.4 n/a Attainment ofgeneral primary education as%: 1991 n/a n/a 2004 n/a n/a Average number ofpupils per1teacher inprimary 29 16 schools (2004) Share ofpupils ofprimary schools, having torepeat ayear as% (2004) Share ofgraduates ofprimary schools, whocontinue to study insecondary educational establishments as% (2004) Overall access toprimary, secondary andhigher education as% (2004) n/a n/a 67 n/a n/a 94
Share ofeducational establishments having access n/a 98 totheInternet as% (2004) Expected number ofyears ofschooling ineducational establishments Male n/a 16 Female n/a 17
Sources: Human Development Report 2006: pp.286, 326, 330, 374; 2006 World Development Indicators: pp.2426, 8486, 8890, 92, 94, 306308.
Thecorrelation between education andpoverty levels isclear. Statistical research frequently demonstrates that the population groups with higher levels of education also have greater income. In 1974 Jack Mincer9 deployed extensive statistical data toprove that each year ofstudy increases by7% theincome ofaperson engaged innon-agricultural work
9 Jack Mincer, Schooling, Earning, andExperience, 1974
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Household budget surveys undertaken in Uzbekistan also reinforce this finding: in 2004 those who had a higher education had an income 1.5 times higher than those who did not have any education. In 2005 the difference increased upto1.6times. These surveys show that people with a low level of education are more likely tobecome poor. Atthesame time, therisk ofpoverty canbedecreased forfamilies where thehead ofthefamily hasatleast completed asecondary education. Table 1.5. Uzbekistan households classified bylevel ofeducation
Average Poor Not-poor 2004 2005 2004 2005 2004 2005 Thepercentage ofhouseholds with thehead having thefollowing education: 09years ofschooling 15.4 14.4 17.1 17.3 14.9 13.7 complete secondary 39.5 40.5 48.9 48.7 36.9 38.4 incomplete andcomplete secondary 28.5 28.8 24.0 25.2 29.8 29.7 vocational education incomplete higher education, higher education andadvanced study 16.6 16.3 10.0 8.8 18.4 18.2
Source: State Committee ofStatistics, Survey ofhouseholds
1.2.5. Education andEmployment Countries with amore educated population have agreater chance ofdeveloping production and creating new jobs. As a rule, in such countries both the unemployment rate islower aswell aslevels ofemigration ofthepotential workforce insearch ofjobs. Countries with awell-educated population that isconstantly upgrading itsprofessional skills andacquiring themost sophisticated technologies always attract theattention oftransnational corporations. This isespecially important intheinvestment policy ofcompanies that produce science-intensive goods andprovide high tech services. Foreign direct investment, asarule, flows into those countries with higher levels ofeducation andcreates newandbetter paid jobs. Countries with aless educated population, having asmaller number ofqualified workers, engineers, managers andother professionals, have torely only oninternal investment which will beinsufficient given thepredominance inthese economies oflower value activities such aslowormid-tech production orassembly, mining andtheprocessing ofrawmaterials. Aneducated person canmore easily find ajobthan anon-educated person. Theunemployment rate inanycountry ishigher intheuneducated layer of the population. Data from the household budget surveys carried out in Uzbekistan demonstrates that the lowest unemployment rate was among those who had greater levels of education. Thus the development of education and increasing access to education should become anintegral part ofpolicy aimed attackling unemployment.
Table 1.6. Level ofeducation depending onsocial anddemographic features ofhousehold members inUzbekistan
Incomplete andcomplete Incomplete 09years secondary andcomplete ofschooling vocational tertiary, orprofessional andhigher education 2004 2005 2004 2005 2004 2005 1.7 1.1 1.7 1.2 1.8 1.3 1.7 1.4 1.6 1.4 1.5 1.3
Illiterate
2004 Number ofchildren, average perhousehold Working members ofhouseholds, average perhousehold Non-working members ofhouseholds, aged 16years orolder, average perhousehold Theunemployed, average per100households 2.2 1.3
2005 2.1 1.1
2.6
2.7
2.5
2.6
1.8
1.8
1.9
1.9
20.5
25.5
19.4
25.1
17.1
17.6
15.6
16.8
Source: State Committee ofStatistics, Household Budget Survey
1.2.6 Education andInequality Reforms ineducation aswell asthedynamics andfocus ofscientific progress vary across thecountries andregions oftheworld. Asaresult, thegapbetween developed countries anddeveloping ones hasincreased even more. Indeveloped countries widespread tertiary andlifelong education hasbecome areality, while developing countries arestill atthestage ofaddressing basic literacy. Inequality in access to education has a negative impact on global progress and in particular each individual countrys development. The amount of public money spent ontheeducation ofthemost vulnerable citizens ofpoor countries is, asarule, proportionally less than inricher countries. Children from poor families areoften deprived ofthechance togetasecondary education, letalone higher education. Inanumber ofpoor countries private education hasbeen introduced which brings about additional problems since poor families cannot payfortheeducation oftheir children. Orphans andhomeless children, thenumber ofwhich is especially large in underdeveloped countries of the world, find themselves inthesame position. Atthesame time, increasing access toeducation canease theeconomic inequality between countries aswell associal inequality within acountry. In1990 Bangladeshs human development index waslower than eight other countries listed intable 1.7. By2003 ithadleft them allbehind. Partly this canbeexplained bytheeffective measures undertaken byboth thegovernment andcivil society, inexpanding access to education. The program Food for school studies appears to have been particularly successful. Itprovided food forpoor families provided that their children attended primary school. As a result girls enrolment rose significantly
andthenumber ofdropouts declined. Theresult hasbeen afairly high economic growth rate andlower inequality: theincome oftherichest 10% is6.8times higher than theincome ofthepoorest 10%, while inMadagascar this figure is19, inZimbabwe 22, inKenya 34, inSwaziland 50, andinLesotho 105times! Table 1.7 Differences inaccess toeducation compared toGDPgrowth and HDIchange
Netprimary enrolment ratio, % Annual 1991 2004 19902004 (%) 71 94 2.5 40 43 3.4 79 n/a 0.2 64 79 n/a n/a 82 1.9 64 89 1.1 77 77 2.1 71 86 4.5 n/a 76 -0.6 Human Development Index 1990 2004 0.422 0.530 0.427 0.518 0.528 0.520 0.498 0.495 0.639 0.491 0.448 0.509 0.622 0.500 0.572 0.494 0.548 0.491
Bangladesh Sudan Congo Togo Zimbabwe Madagascar Swaziland Lesotho Kenya
Source: Human Development Report 2006
The impressive success of some Asian countries during the last quarter ofthetwentieth century isalready well known. Prior tothis period these countries had lowlevels ofeconomic development and were considered to be amongst thepoorest countries intheworld. Theeconomic growth intheRepublic ofKorea, Malaysia, China, Taiwan (China) andother countries wasmainly theresult ofdeep reforms undertaken inthesphere ofeducation andexpanding access toeducation atalllevels. Inthemajority ofcountries that increased access toeducation, thelevel ofincome inequality ismuch lower than incountries providing less access toeducation. 1.2.7 Education andHealth Education is directly related to the health of the population and life expectancy, another indicator of human development. The Uzbekistan Human Development Report 2006 states that more educated people take better care ofthemselves, take preventive measures, lead ahealthy lifestyle, recognize illness intime andseek qualified medical assistance. Weshould notforget that abetter educated population hasbetter jobopportunities, higher income and, asaresult, better able topayfortimely andwell-qualified medical services10. High levels ofeducation andresearch helps acountry toavoid future epidemics andpandemics. Thanks totheefforts undertaken bythecountries with higher levels ofeducation, today humankind iscombating such diseases asHIV/AIDS, bird fluandcancer.
10 Uzbekistan 2006. Human Development Report. Tashkent, UNDP, 2006, p.27
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Table 1.8. Health andEducation intheUzbekistan Household Budget Survey (as% ofadults inhouseholds)
Education level ofthehead ofhousehold Primary andlower Incomplete secondary General secondary Special secondary Incomplete higher Tertiary Hadtemporary ornohealth problems 2002 89.3 90.6 95.5 94.3 88.6 91.9 2005 91.9 93 97.4 96 97.4 94.9 Constantly hadhealth problems andhave serious chronic diseases 2002 10.5 8.0 3.9 5.3 8.5 7.7 2005 8.1 6.9 2.6 4.0 2.6 5.0
Source: State Committee ofStatistics, Household Budget Survey
Incountries with higher levels ofeducation therates ofsocially dangerous highly infectious diseases such astuberculosis, acute intestinal infections, malaria, cholera, andtheplague aresignificantly lower. Higher education levels amongst women decreases the fertility rate. Given thehigh birth rate inUzbekistan, education isanimportant factor ineasing thedemographic burden andtherates ofillness among women andanaemia among children. This, in turn, leads to a decrease in infant and maternal mortality. Children borne bywomen with higher education have, asarule, anoptimal weight andareless prone tocomplications atbirth anddiseases during their childhood. 1.2.8 Education andgender equality Inmiddle-income countries themale literacy rate isslightly higher than thefemale, while inlow-income countries itcanbeasmuch as1.31.5times higher. In the poorest countries of the world male literacy is twice as high as female literacy. Table 1.9. Level ofliteracy oftheadult population (15years andolder) inanumber ofcountries (%) in2002
Men Majority ofhighincome countries, Uzbekistan and majority ofCIS countries . . . . . 99100 China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Greece . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 Indonesia . . . . . . . . . . 92 Kuwait . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Kenya . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Nigeria . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Yemen . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Morocco . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Haiti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Bangladesh . . . . . . . . 50 Ethiopia . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Chad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Niger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Women Majority ofhighincome countries, Uzbekistan and majority ofCIS countries . . . . . 99100 Greece . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Indonesia . . . . . . . . . . 83 Kuwait . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Kenya . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Nigeria . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Haiti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Morocco . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Ethiopia . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Bangladesh . . . . . . . . 31 Yemen . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Chad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Niger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Source: 2006 World Development Indicators, pp.9698.
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Atthesame time itshould benoted that though gender disparities in the age group 15 to24still exist, they aremuch smaller andhave completely disappeared in some countries. Comparing data from tables 1.9 and 1.10 we can see that in India the difference inliteracy ofmenandwomen is25%, while among young people itisjust 19%. Similar patterns arefound inIndonesia (9% and1%), Morocco (25% and16%) and Ethiopia (15% and 13%). The gender disparity in the literacy rate of young people inChina isnegligible, andinKuwait andHaiti (twocontrasting countries) thesituation istheoppositeintheagegroup 1524women aremore literate than men. Table 1.10. Level ofliteracy ofthepopulation inanumber ofcountries oftheworld attheageof1524 (%) in2002
Men Majority of highincome countries, Uzbekistan and majority ofCIS countries . . . . . . . . . 100 Ethiopia . . . . . . . . . . . 63 China, Indonesia . . . . . . . . . . 99 Kenya . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Morocco . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Haiti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Ethiopia . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Bangladesh . . . . . . . . 58 Sierra-Leone . . . . . . . 47 Niger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Women Majority ofhighincome countries, Uzbekistan and majority ofCIS countries . . . . . . . . . 100 China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Indonesia . . . . . . . . . . 98 Kuwait . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 Kenya . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Haiti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Morocco . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Bangladesh . . . . . . . . 41 Sierra-Leone . . . . . . . 30 Niger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Source:2006 World Development Indicators, pp.9698.
Gender disparity is not a problem in Uzbekistan since the illiteracy of both menandwomen waseradicated several decades ago. 1.2.9. Education anddemocratic development Itiswidely considered that there isaclose relationship between thelevel ofeducation andthelevel offreedom enjoyed byapopulation. Mainly this istrue forthecountries ofmodern Western Europe, where anincrease ineducation levels wasaccompanied byawidening ofdemocratic freedoms andtheability tousethem. Atthesame time there aremany historical andmodern examples showing that upgrading the education level and the development of democracy and democratic institutions arenotconcurrent processes. Usually increases ineducation levels precede democratization andsometimes thetime lagissignificant. Itisdifficult toimagine that liberalization anddemocratic development arepossible inuneducated societies. Yet the development of democracy even in a society with high levels of education is not automatic. The development of democracy in a society with rapidly increasing levels ofeducation, especially inasociety with newly established democratic institutions andfreedoms, requires some time andconsiderable effort. Itisrelated notjust toeducation, butrather tothemind-setofthepopulation, which isimpossible tochange asquickly asthelevel ofeducation. Widening access toeducation andupgrading theeducation level arenecessary butnotsufficient conditions fordemocratization. Educated people dont just value freedom, butvery importantly usethat freedom anddemocratic values nottoharm buttobenefit society. Theattempt toskip
this stage ofnurturing ademocratic mindset amongst thepopulation, necessary fordemocratic institutions andfreedoms, canendinfailure. Thus according totheconcept ofhuman development, education isthemost important human (individual andsocietal) capital forsolving thefundamental problems ofthemodern world community. Atthesame time, thehistorical facts show that theimpact ofeducation onsocial progress depends onthree keyfactors. First isthelevel ofinterest, political will andability ofthegovernment todevelop education andthesciences. Each ofthese things plays acrucial role inthemeasures undertaken bythegovernment todevelop education. Itmeans that ifanyoneismissing, educational development cannot besuccessful. Interest indeveloping education isdependent onthegovernment being committed toimproving theliving standards ofthepopulation. Agovernment setonenriching itself orimplementing itsownambitions would hinder theadvancement of the educational level of the population. Unfortunately there are many examples when governments and rulers consciously limit the chances of the population tobeeducated. These examples arenotonly from ancient ormedieval history, butalso from modern times. Itiseasier tomanage less educated andpoorer people, though from along-term perspective this paradigm isharmful both forthecountry andforitspopulation. Itisnotenough just tobeinterested, itisalso important tohave thepolitical will inorder tocarry outreform andimplement large-scale education programs. Thepolitical will ofthegovernment canbeopposed byexternal andinternal forces, forwhom upgrading theeducational level ofthepopulation isnotintheir interests. Atcertain points inhistory aconservative section ofthereligious elite created such obstacles indifferent countries. Nowadays inmany countries religious fundamentalism creates obstacles forthedevelopment ofeducation andscience. Toovercome this negative impact many countries separated religion from theinstitutions ofthestate. Theability ofthegovernment toadvance educational reform andwiden access toeducation isrelated totheeducational level ofthemembers ofthegovernment andthefinancial resources atthestates disposal. Thesecond keyfactor inmediating theimpact ofeducation onsocial progress istheaccessibility ofeducation foralllayers ofthepopulation. Theflourishing ofscience andculture inancient civilizations, aswell asinthecountries ofEurope andCentral Asia during theRenaissance andearly medieval period haditslimitations. This progress was not based on the education of the whole population but rather onahigh quality ofeducation just fortheelite. Asaresult, many ofthediscoveries made bythis elite remained underutilized since society wasnotready tounderstand andimplement them. Education reform undertaken inmany European countries aswell asinanumber of Asian and American countries has made education accessible for wide layers ofthepopulation. Itisthese countries that gave rise tothemain industrial andscientific innovations ofthetwentieth century. Third, thequality ofeducation andtheability totransform itinto action. A high level of literacy of the population, while important, is not the only criterion of high educational attainment. Many countries have high rates of access toeducation butdonothave high levels ofinnovation insociety. This phenomenon canbeexplained bymany factors. Twokeyones deserve mention: ) theneed
toraise educational levels intheareas ofscience andengineering andb) thecreation ofinstitutions able torapidly convert knowledge into practice inallspheres ofhuman activity. Diagram 1.1. Seven school systems with the highest indeces in the sphere of teaching mathematics and natural sciences
10 8 6 4 2 0 2
Hungary Slovenia USSR Great Britain France Canada Israel Overageof 19countries
O Knowledge O Use of knowledge O Use of knowledge in unforeseen consequences L.Grebnev. Education: service or life? Questions of economics, 3, 2005, p.39.
For example, the Soviet system of education not only provided wide access butalso high quality school andhigher education. This system, however, wasweaker indeveloping therelevant skills necessary toapply this knowledge. Asaresult, graduates ofeducational establishments wasted alotofadditional time inlearning howtoapply their knowledge atwork. This diagram illustrates that even thehighest indicator ofeducational level does notguarantee effective application ofthat knowledge. This difference iseven more significant intheability ofthepopulation toapply this knowledge incritical situations. Inthethird andfourth chapters ofthis report wewill examine this process oftransforming education into aknowledge economy. 1.3. Role ofeducation inamodern society Inaddition tothefactors discussed above that impact oneducation andinturn human development, there areother types ofhuman activity forwhich education hasbecome much more important. 1.3.1 Theinfluence ofeducation oneconomic development GDPpercapita isthemost important quantitative factor that shapes thehuman development index, anditvaries greatly around theworld. Whyitdiffers canbeexplained by many factors, including historical pathways, the political context, andtheresource potential ofthecountry. Theanalysis oflong-term trends ofeconomic development andadvancements ineducation inthese countries demonstrates that there isaclose link between these
twoindicators. Inthelong-term there arenorich countries with lowlevels ofeducation. Atthesame time, intheshort-runandmedium term there maybedifferent trends. Inpast centuries acountry could become rich foraperiod oftime asaresult ofcolonial conquests andpredatory warsGreat Britain andSpain, being examples ofthis inthepast. Inthemodern period acountry canbecome rich asaresult ofpossessing highly liquid andincreasingly valuable natural resources. Forexample insixMiddle Eastern oilmonarchs, Bahrain, Qatar, Kuwait, theEmirates, Oman andSaudi Arabia, theeducation index islower than inUzbekistan. InKuwait andBahrain itisonly 6points lower, andinQatar 7points, butinother countries thedifference isconsiderable. Thus, inOman this indicator is15points lower than inUzbekistan, inSaudi Arabia 20points, andintheEmirates 23points (these last twocountries have lower levels than insuch poor countries asZimbabwe, Lesotho andEquatorial Guinea). Yettheir huge reserves ofhydrocarbon fuel allow them torank amongst thecountries with thehighest incomes. In 2004 GDPpercapita inthese countries wasmany times higher than inUzbekistanabout $14,000 inSaudi Arabia, over $15,000 inOman, $19,00021,000 inKuwait, Qatar andBahrain andintheEmirates over $24,000. The countries with the biggest difference between the education level and GDP per capita indices in 2004 was Tajikistan (0.90 and 0.41 respectively, so education being 49points higher) andintheEmirates (with GDPpercapital 21points higher than education). This range ofdifference isinsharp contrast with theaverage global difference which isjust twopoints (index ofeducation is0.77; GDPindex is0.75). Yetinthecontext ofglobalization andgrowing international competition, these riches are only sustainable if they are supported by a growing level of education andeffectively translating knowledge into economic development. This canbeproved if wecompare the key parameters of human development: theeducation andGDPpercapita indices. When countries aregrouped inthemain three categories ofincome theeducation index does notalways correlate with ahigh GDPindex. However when they aredivided into smaller groups therelationship becomes evident: with anincreased index ofeducation, theGDPindex also grows. Table 1.11 Comparison ofaverage indices ofeducation level andGDP inselected countries (2004)
World total Including: high-income countries middle-income countries low-income countries first group of10countries with high HDI second group of10countries with high HDI third group of10countries with high HDI last butonegroup of10countries with lowHDI last 10countries with lowHDI
Source: Human Development Report 2006, pp.283286
Education level index 0.77 0.97 0.84 0.58 0.975 0.973 0.943 0.540 0.367
GDP index 0.75 0.96 0.70 0.52 0.970 0.951 0.911 0.404 0.374
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Education asasphere, atype ofactivity, specializing inteaching andtransferring knowledge andskills, became animportant sector oftheworld economy. Figures ontheeconomic value ofeducation andthescientific research linked toitarequite impressive. Suffice tosaythat public expenditure onthedevelopment ofeducation intheworld isclose to$2trillion ayear. Thenumber ofstudents ofhigher educational establishments exceeds 150million people. Thenumber ofresearchers working inhigh-income countries isover 3.6million andthetotal allocation forthedevelopment ofthis sphere isover $1trillion ayear11. IntheUSA8% ofthepopulation isengaged inthesphere ofresearch andthis contributes about 20% ofGDP. About 66% oftheworking population hasahigher orincomplete higher education. Thegovernment ofthecountry intends toraise this indicator upto90% during thelifetime ofthepresent generation.12 Education isclosely related toeconomic development bythefollowing means: 1. Scientific inventions, innovation andintroduction ofmodern tech no lo gies. Radical change in the use of all types of resources in the production sphere canbeachieved only byintroducing scientific inventions into themodern technological process. Various theories of economic growth prove that sustainable economic growth isonly possible when economic development isinnovative. 2. Qualifications andquality ofthelabour force. Thelack ofcapital investment into thedevelopment ofthesocial sector, especially into education andpublic health, hinders economic growth. Newtechnologies cannot beeffectively introduced into theproduction process if there isashortage ofprofessionals inthis area. Itisineducation, being a source of knowledge, where qualified professionals are forged, and that is the most important condition for introducing innovations. Education provides for high levels ofmodern technology, their application, efficiency growth, competitiveness, anattractive investment climate and, finally, thesecurity ofthenational economy. Countries with a poor track record of training workers, engineers, managers andother specialists aremost likely going toberestricted tolowandmid-tech production, mineral extraction, thesimple processing ofrawmaterials andassembling simple products. Incontrast those countries with highly educated workers arestriving tomaster andapply themost sophisticated technologies, areattracting theattention ofmultinational corporations, and are focusing on the production of science intensive products andproviding high tech services. Itisbecoming increasingly evident that investment into human potential, i.e.raising thequality ofeducation, should take precedence over investment into theproduction ofgoods andservices. Good examples arecountries such asMalaysia, Mauritius South Korea, andSingapore which have made great efforts toform aprogressive system ofeducation atthevery beginning oftheir development. Anactive renovation oftheeducation systems inthese countries wasstarted attheperiod when income percapita waslow, andeconomic reforms aswell astheinflow offoreign investment were just attheinitial stage.
11 Calculated onthebase ofdata from Human Development Report 2006.pp. 300, 320, 334. 12 Uzbekistan: Challenges foreconomic development, based onknowledge. Report prepared bytheCenter forEconomic Research, Tashkent, 2004, p.9
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Box 1.2. Experience ofSingapore inthedevelopment ofeducation When Singapore wasaBritish colony itsindustry wasessentially being asupplier of raw materials and the processing of mineral fuel and agricultural products such as tin, oil, rub ber, cotton and coconut. Atthesame time, even during this period, much attention was paid to the development oftheeducation system. In1954 thepopulation ofSingapore was 1.2mil lion andthecountry had563educational establishments (including over 200English schools anduniversities) with 186,000students*. Several years after thecountry gained its independence thegovernment, planning toachieve rapid economic growth, launched a program ofintensive personnel training atthebest foreign universities. Inthe1980s, with the aim ofmaintaining the pace of economic development, the government undertook several measures toprovide higher education towomen. Inthefollowing years itbecame apriority to educate specialists atnational andoverseas universities intheareas ofthelatest directions of research andadvanced technologies. Asaresult ofthese andother measures Singapore became oneoftheworld leaders inthearea oftechnical progress. Currently this country isamong thetopfive countries oftheworld interms ofratio ofscientists tothepopulation (47) per10,000people. Interms ofspending onresearch anddesign, which account for2.1% ofGDP, Singapore leaves behind itsformer mother country Great Britain, andinterms ofexport ofhigh tech products ($88billion in2003) itranks fifth intheworld. Interms ofitsshare ofprocessed exports (59%) itranks second intheworld.
* Foreign countries. Reference book. Moscow, 1957. - p.499
3. Spread andapplication ofknowledge about thebasics ofenvironmental pro tection, preventative measures against pollution, andthesupport of biological diversity and ecological culture. Countries which pay special attention to these problems minimize theresource waste andenvironmental pollution associated with industrial andagrarian policies. They develop efficient measures with the aim of banning the development ofenergy andresource intensive production. The governments of these countries areoriented towards theeconomical useofwater resources and themeasured useofmineral fertilizers, herbicides andpesticides. This can preserve non-renewable resources andthenatural environment. 4. Theimpact onthetransition from traditional production tohigh tech pro duction inthesectors ofindustry, agriculture, transport, services andother sectors ofmaterial production. This transition requires well-timed quality training andretraining andtheupgrading ofprofessional skills ofasufficient number ofprofessionals engaged inthedesign ofadvanced technologies: First, forthearea ofscientific anddesign work; Second, for those sectors, enterprises and productions, where these scientific findings areintroduced andapplied. Uzbekistan has every potential to improve its position in the GDP index. First, itcanbeachieved bygreater investment anddeeper reform into thefinancial sector, sectors ofmaterial production, aswell asinthose industries providing themanufacturing infrastructure. Themost crucial reforms should beundertaken inthesocial sector. Huge investment should bedirected into this sector, mainly into thesystem ofeducation. Understanding this, thegovernment ofthecountry regularly allocates 50% ofitspublic budget toeducation.
Itcantake along time before theresults become evident. Thebigger thescale within which theoutput should becalculated, themore difficult thetask. Forexample, itisnotsodifficult tocalculate theresults received from training farmers innewtechnologies: asimple comparison oftheyield growth setagainst thecosts of training will help identify the profit and time periods for recouping the expenses. Much more complicated is the process of calculating return from overall investment into education. Thefruits ofthat investment cantake many forms andcanappear indifferent periods oftime inpractically every sector oftheeconomy andsociety. Atthesame time, investment into education mayfail tobring about theexpected economic growth duetosome ofthefollowing reasons: ## An inappropriate country development strategy and serious shortcomings intheeconomic policy ofthegovernment. These include, forexample, forced development ofthemining industry andexports ofrawmaterials without appropriate support forthehigh technology production andservices sector. Ifthere wasafall intheworld market price ofnon-renewable rawmaterials then economic growth might stop oratleast slow down given thelack ofsupport formanufacturing industry andthehigh technology sector. Meanwhile, theeducation system will continue toproduce specialists towork inthese sectors. butthis growth ofeducational level inthecountry will notbeaccompanied bysimilar progress intheeconomy, andmany ofthem wont find jobs. ## Constant outflow ofqualified specialistsotherwise known asthebrain drain. The insufficient development oftechnology intensive sectors, areduction in financing, thelack ofmaterial incentives andmechanisms forinnovation can bring about an irreversible loss of well qualified specialists. In such a case the huge funds allocated totrain these specialists will beappropriated by those countries which canoffer better conditions forresearch, innovation and production. ## Mismatch between the educational process and the needs and requirements ofemployers. Asaresult, graduates ofeducational establishments cannot apply theknowledge they receive aswell asbeing unable toadapt theadvanced experience ofother countries. ## Low quality of educational establishmentsparticularly corruption, leading toasignificant deterioration inthequality ofspecialists teaching and, asaresult, professional incompetence ingraduates. ## Overcoming these risks should become apart oftheeconomic and education reforms in any country which strives topreserve itscompetitiveness in the modern world. 1.3.2 Influence ofeducation onthesocialization process fornational andglobal citizenship
Iabsolutely disagree with what yousay, butIwill defend tothedeath your right tosayit. Voltaire
Conflicts between different ethnic groups anddifferent confessions aswell asseparatism, religious andpolitical extremism creating social tension areadirect threat tothesecurity ofanycountry.
The danger of widespread international terrorism is a challenge for the whole world andremains aserious problem ofthemodern world community. Thecauses andsources ofthis danger aredeeply rooted. Theproblems ofhuge economic andsocial disparities between countries arealso very important inaggravating conflicts andreinforcing tension intheworld. Thepoverty ofmany countries andwhole continents andthelowlevel ofeducation ofthepopulation arefertile ground forthespringing upofdestructive forces. Using terror andother means ofpolitical andeconomic extortion, these forces trytobuild upaninternational system ofinfluence andpower. Thehistory ofhumankind teaches usthat there will nobewinners insuch struggles. Onthecontrary. While there maybesome conditional winners, allthose involved intheconfrontation, whether voluntarily orinvoluntarily, will lose outsince social progress will besetback. Currently international terrorism utilizes the latest achievements of science andtechnology, often attracting educated people, asweapons with theaimofdestroying theworld andpeace between peoples. Itisclear though that terrorism could notdevelop aninternational character if it wasnt foritsability todraw from aprotesting layer ofthepopulation ofpoor countries. Themethod ofdirect military suppression ofsubjectively selected centres ofinternational terrorism is a widely used form of combating international terrorism. Oneoftheaims ofthis approach istocreate alayer ofthepopulation that would protest against international terrorism. Inexamining thecases ofIraq, Libya andPalestine wecansaythat this method applied bytheUSAandsome other countries of the coalition has not so far produced the desired effect. Moreover, it has provoked awidening andworsening confrontation between these twoprotesting layers ofpoor andrich countries, transforming this confrontation into thechronic international disease ofthetwenty-first century. Efforts byallcountries toreduce economic inequality between therich andpoor countries isnottheonly means ofcombating international terrorism butitmight bethemost effective way. This canbeachieved byexpanding education inthese countries, since aneducated population hasagreater chance andpossibility to: ## Beengaged andearn stable andgrowing incomes. Itnarrows thescale ofpoverty andsocial disparity, both within thecountry andintheworld; ## Beinterested intheconstant improvement ofones ownprofessional skills, participating invarious educational andtraining programs; ## Have different hobbies during ones leisure time; ## Bringing upchildren inawaythat develops their interest ineducation, andforming inthem theprinciples oflove ofpeople andtolerance, introducing young people tothemoral norms common toallmankind. Educated people usually value thethings they have, strive towiden their knowledge, improve their economic welfare and pass it down to their children. They, asarule, arenotinterested inconflicts, understanding that both theprogress oftheir society andtheir ownpersonal progress areonly possible inpeaceful conditions. Itisdifficult todeceive educated people andinvolve them indestructive activities. They have anaccess toavariety ofliterature andmass media. They canthink andmake their owndecisions. Theprogressive world community should beinterested inupgrading thelevel ofeducation ofthepopulation inallcountries oftheworld, first ofallinthepoor42 National Human Development Report
est countries. Thehuge financial resources allocated tofinancing thearmed suppression ofso-called centres ofinternational terrorism would bemore efficiently spent onreducing inequality, combating poverty andraising theeducation level ofthepopulation indeveloping countries. Developing countries should also be interested in raising the education level of their own population, since literate people are the transmitters of civil values, without which itisimpossible tobuild upapolitically mature state. Civil society cannot beformed anddemocratic principles andfreedoms cannot bedeveloped without aneducated population. Only educated people areable toseethepotential oftheir country, andparticipate with civil responsibility inbuilding upitsfuture. Education ofthepopulation isrequired tosupport newdevelopment strategies andtotrain educated national elite. Theresult ofsuch measures isaneducated people, capable ofgenerating innovative strategies, making fundamental andapplied scientific discoveries. Theconcept ofhuman development recognizes theconditions which give rise totheprinciple ofdiversity fordevelopment. Anideology based upon dogmatism does notaccept dissent, distorts social awareness, impedes harmonic relations between thestate andindividuals andhinders progress insociety. Such ideologies, based onmonopolistic power andabsolute facts, have nofuture. This type ofideology, inrestricting free-thinking, violates thebasic rights offreedom ofconscience, speech andviews, andisindicative ofmonopolistic, totalitarian regimes anddespotism. Itisobvious that each individual orsocial group, freely expressing itsopinions andviews, should firstly have clear andjustified goals. Also, itisimportant tobear in mind ones responsibility for the consequences of implementing these ideas aswell astheacceptable norms fordisputes. Inother words, thediversity ofthoughts, ideas andopinions should notoppose thelaw, contradict national interests, orviolate human norms ofethics andmorals common toallmankind. Building up civil society requires that special techniques be introduced into thelearning process, which cancontribute totheformation ofthebasics ofcivic consciousness. Civic consciousness should beconsidered asasetofcultural, historical, spiritual andmoral knowledge, andtheskills andcapacities ofanindividual. This setofqualities andknowledge will allow people toactively participate indemocratic civil society, think independently andcritically, actreasonably intheconditions ofpluralism andhave adeep sense ofnational pride anddignity along with chances toachieve their owngoals aswell asassist others. Thenurturing ofthecivic consciousness occurs attheintersect between themoral andintellectually critical capacities ofaperson. Thevalue ofspecial educational courses cannot beoverstated. They help toform acivic consciousness atalllevels oftheeducation system ofacountry. Thecurricula ofsuch courses should feature thestudy ofsocial sciences andthehumanities asafundamental dialogue between thestudent andthehistory andculture ofthecountry. Students should begiven awide range oftopics andproblems fordiscussion, andmaterials forcritical analysis of civic values of both their own country as well as of other countries. Finally, such courses should analyze theheritage anddiversity oflanguages, which feed andshape civic values. Young people should beengaged inthediscussion andexplanation oftheir ownvalues andtheconditions necessary forthedevelopment ofcivil society, inthepast, present andfuture.
Theformation ofsuch acivic consciousness should beconsidered asaninnovative means ofdevelopment, intheprocess ofwhich students learn howtodesign andimplement projects forvarious public agencies andinstitutions. Inthis wayyoung people will become interested inworking with other people, which inthefuture canhelp them toactively participate inthepolitical andeconomic life ofthecountry. 1.3.3 Providing proper intellectual andmoral development Theconcept ofhuman development incontrast totheconcept ofhuman capital values education notonly asaninstrument forraising theproductivity ofthelabour force andcontributing toeconomic growth. Here thehuman isconsidered only asthemeans toachieve thegoal andisdefined asthemost important index determining theability ofthecountry toproduce wealth.13 The concept of human development is focused on a person; its aim is to create equal conditions ofaccess toresources, providing overall andharmonious human development. Economic growth, inthis case, isthemeans fortheachievement ofthis noble goal. Material prosperity should notbetheonly endofpeoples life. People differ from the rest of the living creatures of the world by their ability to participate inintellectual andspiritual life. Moreover, intellectual andspiritual activity wasalways anintegral part ofhuman life, without which life would bedull andincomplete. Education encourages the development of these multiple non-economic abilities ofpeople. Education isthebasis oftheculture andartofallnations. Literature, painting, theater, cinema andtelevision appeared thanks toeducation. Itisnotbychance that theprosperity ofculture andartisobserved incountries with high educational levels. Indetermining theimpact ofeducation ontheformation ofthespiritual andintellectual needs and abilities of people, specific features of education are usually considered from three interrelated perspectives: those ofstate, society andtheindividual. Identifying thedistinct interests ofthese three isthebasis ofdeveloping strategic objectives forthedevelopment ofeducation taking into account theinterests ofallstakeholders. Ontheindividual level thefullest self-realization ofanindividual istodevelop hisorherintellectual abilities. Atthesame time itistheacquisition ofgeneral andprofessional knowledge that creates newjobopportunities. Educated people arespiritually richer; their life isfull ofother values besides material ones. Education allows people tosatisfy their spiritual needs, make life more interesting andharmonious. On the state level the government should be interested in the development of the intellectual potential of the country. During this period of the expansion of the knowledge economy, education becomes an important component ofeconomic development andaccumulation ofnational wealth. Thespiritual wealth ofthepopulation isorganic andnaturally gives rise toalegal culture, aswell asanability ofthepopulation tolive andwork inafree, democratic andlegitimate state. As such people can properly use their rights and freedoms for the benefit ofthepeople, thestate andsociety.
13 Drucer P.TheEducational Revolution// Education Economy andSociety. New-YorkLondon,1969, p.19
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Box 1.3. Shortcomings ofthestate ideology oftheSoviet education system TheSoviet system ofeducation: ## wastooideology-based andintolerant ofwhatever didnotfitinto theframework ofexisting ideology; ## denied access tomany values ofinternational science, literature andculture, denouncing them asbeing harmful foryoung people, withdrawing them from libraries andreserving theright tojudge what wasandwhat wasnotnecessary foryouth; ## inculcated intolerance oftheWest, tocapitalism, torich people, toreligion, andtotruth ifthey didnotcorrespond toSoviet ideology; ## deleted orslandered whole pages from thepast ofthecountry andthenation, forgetting that ourhistory, despite allitscontradictions, isourwealth; ## introduced dogmas, created clichs inthemind ofyoung people, anddidnotallow alternative views ofsociety andtheworld. ## Acountry which builds education onsuch principles cannot prosper forlong: weneed tolearn this lesson ofhistory! From Uzbekistan Human Development Report, 1997, . 78
Onthesociety level education should befocused ontheformation ofuniversal spiritual values. Also, itshould befocused ontheformation ofapublic mindset and global outlook, aimed at the development of human society. Only educated and spiritually rich people can form a society which is able to resolve disputes without wars. Really educated andwell-bred people will never inanycircumstances accept violence, oranymanifestation ofterrorism andhostile confrontation. Only spiritually rich people canplace global ecological problems higher than their ownproblems andtheproblems ofindividual nations andgovernments. Theintellectual development ofsociety isthebasis forsocial progress, without which scientific progress isimpossible anddiscoveries ofglobal importance forhumanity cannot bemade: itsecures thevery sustainability ofhuman society.
Box 1.4. Therole ofeducation inmaintaining social cohesion Therole ofeducation should beasfollows: Toreconcile ourpast with thepresent andfuture. Itisnecessary nottodelete thepast, and to be able toseethetruth inthepast, toanalyze it, totake from iteverything ofvalue. It is necessary tovalue ourancestors, their lives, andtheir history. Bycrossing outhistory, wecross out their lives; Tocreate conditions formutual respect towards people ofdifferent races, nationalities and languages. International experience demonstrates that there cannot beaconsensus in a society if national minorities donothave opportunities forthedevelopment oftheir culture, language andliterature. Astate isolated initsnational culture, language andliterature cannot develop itself; Tocreate aconsensus between various religions andcreeds; To solve the problem of fathers and sons, the problem of mutual understanding between people ofvarious ages andgenerations; To create conditions for social cohesion taking account of globalization. There should not exist any human contradictions neither on the line East-West, nor on the line NorthSouth. Theworld istired ofcontradictions.
From Uzbekistan Human Development Report, 1997, p. 7879
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1.4. Educational models. Education during thetransition period Anystate striving todevelop thematerial, intellectual andspiritual wealth ofitspeople hastodevelop some mechanisms intheform ofnational models toimplement these objectives. 1.4.1 Educational models There exist many different national models ofeducation. Yet, some basic principles canbementioned that differ depending onthefollowing keycriteria: ## Main aimandexpected result when calculating thereturn forthecountry during some specified historical period; ## Economic potential ofthestate andsociety infinancing thesystem of edu ca tion; ## Mechanisms andinstruments applied fortheachievement oftargets. Taking into consideration these criteria onecanidentify three models ofeducation, variations ofwhich areused indifferent developed anddynamically developing countries: ## European (theSoviet system ofeducation wasonevariant) ## American ## Asian The European model of education, starting from primary school, is aimed atahigh level ofrequirements forstudents aswell asatproviding them with fundamental knowledge inthesocial andnatural sciences. There isalso apreschool system ofeducation. Education at primary andsecondary school generally lasts from 1012years andisageneral one. Thenext steps areprofessional, tertiary andpost-tertiary education. Education inthis model ismainly public andfree with relatively high centralization. Starting from theprimary school thecriteria used toevaluate theknowledge ofschoolchildren inorder tomove upfrom onegrade toanother isvery high. Theautonomy ofEuropean universities hasdeep historical roots, though itissignificantly less than intheUSA. Academic circles play animportant role inthemanagement ofeducational institutions, while intheUSAthese functions aremainly carried outbytutorial councils. IntheEuropean model wecandistinguish between theEnglish, French andGerman ones, aswell asthemodels ofEastern European countries. Forexample, aspecific feature oftheGerman model istheso-called dual principle (studies combined with production), andaspecific feature oftheFrench model iscompletely free education. The European system of education is supplemented by a system of training andretraining foraspecific profession, which isalso free andcoordinated bytheemployment agencies. Atthesame time there exists abroad system oftraining courses aimed atimproving theprofessional skills ofemployees that arefinancially covered bytheemployers orbythetrainees themselves. TheAmerican model isdistinguished bythefact that itisfinanced notonly by the government butalso byprivate business. Schools areregulated bymunicipal bodies andthere areroughly equal numbers ofprivate andpublic universities. Generally local sources offinancing outweigh national ones. Primary andsecondary education ismainly free ofcharge, while higher education ismainly feebased. Yet, there isahuge network offinancial assistance provided tostudents intheform ofgrants andloans.
The quality of education differs significantly in the American system between public andprivate schools, elite andordinary universities. Thelevel ofrequirements forknowledge, simplified atprimary school, rises sharply with each following step of education. In primary school the proportion of broad humanitarian subjects islarge, while insecondary school there areopportunities toreceive amore specialized education. Universities canindependently determine thecontent ofeducation. Inthis process therole ofgovernmental agencies isvery limited. Differentiation and specialization are common and there are common factors ensuring effective education inboth theEuropean andAmerican systems. Schoolchildren areusually streamed inaccordance with their preference foraspecific subject orprofession, their abilities andcapacities, aswell ascatering formixed interests. Such anapproach became fundamental intheUSA, UK, Germany, France, Italy, Canada andinother countries. These principles areconsidered tobethemost important preconditions forhuman development andtheprogress ofsociety. The Asian model of education represents a unique combination of eastern and western, traditional and contemporary approaches to the organization and methodology ofeducating andtraining experts. This model hasdynamically incorporated some elements typical forAsian countries with institutional structures that were adopted from theoutsideprimarily from theUSA, Great Britain andanumber ofother European countries. Special emphasis wasbeen given tothemaximum development ofhuman potential, primarily through education, inJapan andintheother four countries known as theAsian Tigers. South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore andHong Kong were socalled because oftheir phenomenal achievements insocio-economic progress andfortheir breakthrough into global markets and export expansion. All of these countries hadvery little valuable natural resources ormuch land, sotheir main wealth wastheir human resources. Itwastheuseofthis resource, intellectual capabilities andinnovation rather than thereserves ofoilandgold which they lacked, which enabled these countries tomove upfrom thecategory ofbeing poor andtechnically primitive tothepath of continuous progress, toaccomplish aneconomic miracle. Later thelist ofcountries with this approach toeducation waslengthened bythelikes ofMalaysia, China, India, Turkey andother Asian countries with rich andvaried natural resources. Inexplaining this impressive achievement inthesphere ofeducation andrelated scientific and technical progress, oneexplanation hasbeen thespecifics oftheEastern mentality as striving forspiritual improvement, towards higher status andleadership (insociety and intheworld), patriotism andahigh level ofmotivation forsolving national problems. The Asian model of education, comparing to the European or American one, isdistinguished byits: ## greater emphasis onprimary education (inthemajority ofthese countries, inparticular inJapan andSouth Korea, theduration ofstudies is6rather than 4years); ## increased role ofspiritual orethical subjects (music, arts, ethics andaesthetics) intheprograms ofschool education with theintention ofproviding schoolchildren with asense ofharmony andhigh moral standards; ## approach notonly toprovide students with academic knowledge, butalso totransfer the skills of creative and original thinking (in Singapore the most important oftheseven skills that school graduates have topossess aretheability toreflect andexpress your thoughts andtake aninterest insurrounding things);
## very well equipped educational establishments, including primary schools, with computers and Internet access (South Korea was the second in the world behind Singapore todothis inschools, villages, andeven onislands). Inaddition totheeducational value ithadalso aneconomic impact, such astheadministration managing tominimize expenditures onsuch things aspublishing textbooks, other guides andonlibrary maintenance; ## wide access toeducation forawide range ofsocial groups (inSouth Korea 97% of citizens aged 2537have ahigher educationthehighest figure in the world); ## flexibility andhigh level ofdifferentiating types ofeducational establishments (in South Korea inthesphere ofhigher education, besides general colleges and universities, there exist vocational colleges, anddistance learning universities); ## high level ofstudent freedom andflexibility inwhich courses totake andwhen andinwhat order (inJapanese colleges andhigh schools less than 50% ofcourses arerequired courses) while atthesame time providing awide range ofspecialized andgeneral courses; ## greater share of the private sector in financing and regulating educational establishments (inSouth Korea private sources contribute half thebudget ofpreschool institutions, 80% ofuniversities andthefigure is50% inJapan. Since 1994, China hasbeen gradually integrating thesystem ofgovernment funding forsecondary andhigher education side byside with developing opportunities forstudents totake outeducational loans andgrants); ## great attention towards learning foreign languages, primarily English (with ahigh proficiency level not only intheex-British colonies such asSingapore, Hong Kong, Malaysia andIndia, butalso in Japan and South Korea where discussion isunderway about making English thesecond national language); ## availability of special programs in identifying and directing gifted students tostudy inthebest foreign universities (forexample inSingapore andMalaysia such programs were coordinated bythehighest level ofgovernment). Itgoes without saying that theAsian model hasitsspecifics ineach ofthecountries of Asia, some of which have been recently highlighted in various countries. Forexample inIndia thepriorities arestill toincrease access toeducation, international recognition ofIndian diplomas, andtheestablishment ofbranches ofthetopforeign universities. Inthecase ofTurkey oneofthepriorities isaccreditation ofitsbest universities according toAmerican andEuropean standards. Some authoritative international organizations (specifically theOECD) andother experts consider that theAsian model ofeducation ismore comprehensive than theEuropean one. Particularly Japan, South Korea, Singapore andTaiwan areconstantly ranked within asmall group ofcounties (along with Finland andCanada) ashaving thebest national educational systems intheworld. Further confirmation oftheeffectiveness oftheAsian model ofeducation isthefact that four oftheabove mentioned countries were listed asthemost socio-economically developed intheworld. Itisworth mentioning that Hong Kong (being aformer British colony) hasahigher GDPpercapita (based onpurchasing power parity) than Great Britain ($34,700 in2005). Singapore, which also wasacolony just half acentury ago, ranks higher than Germany andItaly ($29,800). South Korea andTaiwan range between $22,000 and$25,000both extremely high figures. Itisaninteresting fact that Singapore holds thesecond place intheworld inthesphere ofexporting high-tech goods (60% ofindustrial exports), andtheother three Asian tigers areatthesame level astheUSA(33%).
Itisworth mentioning that themost powerful country oftheworld hasnt been able toresist theadvance ofChina notonly inthesphere oftextiles andelectronics, but also in school education. Hundreds of American high schools decided toswitch from their methods ofteaching mathematics totextbooks andmethods used inChina andSingapore. Theeffect wasimmediate, asthepupils ofsuch high schools have demonstrated much higher levels ofknowledge. Deepening global economic, scientific andcultural integration involves allcountries oftheworld, radically changing allareas ofhuman activity. National andglobal systems ofeducation arealso influenced bythis phenomenon. Theso-called internationalization ofhigher education isavivid example ofthis influence, which resulted inasocalled mobile student body. Wenowneed tospeak interms ofaninternational model ofeducation, having itsnational specific features indifferent countries It is extremely difficult to speak about the exclusiveness or some obvious advantages of these education models. Generally, these models coexist peacefully intheeducational systems ofEuropean countries andtheUSA. Itshould beremembered that both theEuropean andAmerican education systems were formed astheresult ofapplying theexperience andreforming three national systems formed attheendofthenineteenth andbeginning ofthetwentieth century: theBritish, French andGerman. TheAmerican system isaclassic example ofhowdifferent models canbeused when forming anewsystem ofhigher education. TheAmerican system gradually implemented elements oftheBritish, French andGerman models. Thefirst stage ofeducation intheUSAisinfluenced bytheBritish system, thesecond stage issimilar totheFrench model ofprofessional education, andthethird onefocuses ontheresearch function which istypical oftheGerman model. Uzbekistan always hadastrategy forreform based upon adopting themost valuable legacies ofSoviet practices, local traditions, aswell asincorporating thebest foreign experience. Inthecourse ofreforming thenational system ofeducation, Uzbekistans strategy seeks togive full attention tohowtoblend itsownmodel with those ofother countriesnamely thethree models outlined andprimarily theAsian model.
Box 1.5. Analytical review ofthelist ofthe top 500universities intheworld (2006) In2006, 37countries oftheworld possessed universities andhigher educational institutions inTheList ofTop500Universities intheWorld, compiled bytheInstitute ofHigher Education, Shanghai Jiao Tong University. These were distributed asfollows: Europe (207universities in19countries), Americas (196universities in6countries), Asia (71universities in8countries), Australia andOceania (21universities in2countries) andAfrica (5universities in2countries). AsTable 1 below shows, onethird ofthetop500universities oftheworld areintheUnited States, thus making USAthechampion inthis regard. With only apopulation of60million inaworld of6billion people, Great Britains second place intheranking isvery impressive. Overall, theEUiswell represented inthelist. OntheAsian side, Japan dominates thelist, while Hong Kong andSingapore arenoted forexcellence well above thesize oftheir national territory orpopulation. Brazil, Russia, India andChina arerepresented inthelist butmuch below their economic andother attributes. Asawhole, ifonewould take into consideration theratio ofthenumber ofuniversities tothepopulation size, then thechampions aresmall countries such asSweden, Switzerland, Israel, Denmark, Finland andNorway. Each ofthem possesses oneprestigious university peramillion citizens. Some countries with significant populations, such asUkraine, Turkey, Thailand, andIndonesia arenotable fornothaving even asingle university inthelist.
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Table 1. Countries that hadtheir higher education establishments listed among top500universities oftheworld
USA. . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 Great Britain. . . . . . 43 Germany. . . . . . . . . 40 Japan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Italy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Canada. . . . . . . . . . . 22 France. . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Australia. . . . . . . . . . . 16 Netherlands. . . . . . . 12 Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . 11 South Korea. . . . . . . . 9 Spain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 China1. . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Switzerland. . . . . . . . . 8 Israel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Belgium. . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Austria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Denmark. . . . . . . . . . . 5 Finland. . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 China-HK. . . . . . . . . . . 5 China-TW. . . . . . . . . . . 5 New Zealand. . . . . . . 5 Norway. . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Brazil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 South Africa. . . . . . . . 4 Ireland. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Russia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 India. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Poland . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Singapore. . . . . . . . . . 2 Hungary. . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Greece . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Argentina. . . . . . . . . . . 1 Czech. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Mexico. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Chile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Egypt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1 Without Hong-Kong andTaiwan There are37countries listed intheTop500Universities ranks. But, asonestarts looking into thetop10, top20, top50 andtop100categories, another fact emergesUSuniversities overwhelm theranks: 8 outof10, 17 outof20, 37 outof50 and52 outof100best universities oftheworld areAmerican. Inthetop10, there are8USuniversities and2from Great Britainnoother country isrepresented! Table 2 displays another stark picture oftheprominence oftheUSAandUKintertiary education. TheAnglo-Saxon part oftheworld hasbuilt upahuge advantage ineducation with acommanding lead intheranks ofexcellence. Ingeneral, though, one observes astrong correlation between theposition ofacountry inthelist (Table 1) anditseconomic prowess orhuman development index (HDI). Table 2. Topworld powers ineducation
Thetop100 universities USA Great Britain Japan Canada Switzerland Netherlands France Sweden Germany Australia Denmark Israel Norway Russia Finland Italy 1 2 19 24 27 40 45 48 51 54 56 60 68 70 74 100 Thenumber ofuniversities ofthecountry among thetop intheworld 20 universities 50 universities 100 universities 17 37 52 2 5 11 1 2 6 2 4 1 4 1 2 1 4 1 4 5 2 1 1 1 1 1 1
10 universities 8 2
Data presented inTable 2 testifies that population, natural resource endowment orGDP, even forindustrialized nations, does notnecessarily carry acountry higher inthetop100university list. Great Britain, Japan, Switzerland andtheNetherlands arewell ahead ofGermany, Russia andItaly.
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Table 3. Top20universities oftheworld

1. Harvard Univ (USA) 2. Univ Cambridge (Great Britain) 3. Stanford Univ (USA) 4. Univ CaliforniaBerkeley (USA) 5. Massachusetts Inst Tech (USA) 6. California Inst Tech (USA) 7. Columbia Univ (USA) 8. Princeton Univ (USA) 9.Univ Chicago (USA) 10.Univ Oxford (Great Britain) 11. Yale Univ (USA) 12. Cornell Univ (USA) 13. Univ CaliforniaSan Diego (USA) 14. Univ CaliforniaLos Angeles (USA) 15. Univ Pennsylvania (USA) 16. Univ WisconsinMadison (USA) 17. Univ Washington Seattle (USA) 18. Univ CaliforniaSan Francisco (USA) 19.Tokyo Univ (Japan) 20.Johns Hopkins Univ (USA)
1.4.2. Education during thetransition period Theeducation system that emerged atthebeginning of1990s inthepost-Soviet andpost-socialist world preserved many features oftheSoviet model. This Soviet model had some positive features such as access to free primary and secondary education forallgroups ofthepopulation, andthefundamental andtechnical focus ofeducational curricula atalllevels oflearning. At the same time, economic recession, which brought about the collapse of the USSR and the breakdown of the socialistic bloc at the end of the 1980s, hadadestructive impact onstandards ofliving ofthepost-Soviet countries. Strict governmental regulation oftheeducation system, which hasbeen thenorm insocialist countries, made thesystem helpless intheconditions ofeconomic crisis. Theproblems encountered bythese newly independent countries inthesphere ofeducation atthebeginning ofthe1990s were more orless thesame: Table 1.12 Share ofpublic expenditure oneducation inselected transition economies, as% ofGDP
Czech Republic Slovakia Belarus 1990 4.1 5.1 4.6* 200002 4.4 4.4 6.0 Moldova Russia Ukraine 1990 7.8** 3.7 5.3*** 200002 4.6 3.8 5.4
Source: W.Scott. Human Development inStatistics. UNDP, Bratislava, 2006, p.135; Human Development Report 2006, Moscow, TheWhole World, 2006. Note: *1991 **1992 ***1994
1. Financial problems ## Sharp reduction ofbudget sources forthefull-fledged financing ofeducation duetoeconomic recession anddecreased government budget revenues; ## reduction infinancing andhigh inflation rate which resulted inasharp decline insalaries and living standards ofthepersonnel. Asaresult qualified teachers left forother sectors such assmall business and trade. Thesituation wasaggravated because ofthesharp drop innewteaching personnel and shortage ofteachers, especially inschools. In1990 thenumber ofteachers with a higher education working inother sectors oftheeconomy was31,500. By1994 this number hadgrown
to42,800. Theshortage ofteachers in1994 was23,000, 20,000ofwhich was for secondary schools14; ## decline offunding forthemaintenance ofeducational establishments resulted in a further wor se ning of the already poor facilities and physical deterioration ofthebuildings and equip ment, including laboratories; ## the shortfall in financing restricted possibilities to provide schoolchildren with newtext books. For example in1994 inUzbekistan twooutofevery 10schoolchildren didnothave afull set of text books; ## preschool education suffered most from insufficient financing; allcountries were notable tomaintain itsprevious scale, letalone enlarge it; ## financing ofhigher education dropped sharply, with theresult that thenumber ofstudents studying forfree declined. 2. Problems ofcontent andquality ofeducation ## there were noapproved newcurricula andtextbooks forsubjects inwhich significant changes were called forinterms ofcontent: history, literature, geography, economics, lawandother humanities andsocial sciences; ## duetotheshortage ofqualified staff thequality ofeducation wasdeclining. Many teachers of the humanities andsocial sciences could notdeliver thenewcontent andamount ofteaching re qui red; ## the liberalization of education was not accompanied by an adequate system ofteaching thehumanities andsocial sciences, which resulted inanuncertainty inglobal outlook ofyoung people, andaloss offramework ofvalues formany young people. 3. Problems ofeducational access ## thedecline inthestandard ofliving, growth ofpoverty duetotheeconomic crisis, and re orga ni zation ofthewhole economic system reduced thefinancial capacity ofmany families, espe cially inrural areas, tosend their children toschool onaregular basis. Many schoolchildren missed classes forreasons related topoverty: lack ofclothes andshoes toattend school during the winter period, lack of money to buy textbooks and other school supplies, and the need to earn money with theaimofincreasing thefamily income; ## in a number of countries armed conflicts and civil wars (Tajikistan, former Yugoslavia, South Ossetia, Chechnya) also deterred children from attending schools; ## theintroduction offeepaying education, especially inthesystem ofpre-school anduniversity education, reduced theaccess tothese services forchildren from poor families. 4. Problems ofdemand foreducation ## economies inthethrows ofreform andrecession could notabsorb alluniversity graduates. Many enterprises halted production andasaresult graduates oftechnical universities andother educational institutions were notindemand. Even more qualified andexperienced people lost their jobs. Young graduates hadserious difficulties trying tofind ajobwithin their specialization; ## education during this period stopped being a key condition for career growth, growth ofincome andmaterial welfare. Theweakness ofthelegislative framework intransition economies inthe1990s created opportunities
14 Human Development Report, Uzbekistan, 1995, p.31
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for making large amounts of money via dubious financial and trade transactions. People with lowmoral principles andthose whothought nothing of violating the law quickly adjusted to these new conditions. These people were notnecessarily those with ahigher education. Moreover, such factors aseducation, intelligence andlawcompliance were inmany ways anobstacle forachieving material welfare byanymeans. Soduring this period citizens could earn alotwithout higher education oreven acompleted secondary education. 5. Problems ofeducational facilities ## the quality of facilities was low even before the economic crisis, especially inmany republics oftheformer USSR where themajority ofschools inrural areas didnothave appropriate buildings. Theschools didnothave running water, sewage, telephone orgas; ## duetotheshortage offunds inthe1990s school administrations could not pro perly repair andmaintain buildings, which ledtoconsiderable deterioration. The construction ofnew schools almost completely ceased. Asaresult, the average number ofshifts schools ranbecame close totwo, andmany school children hadtoattend schools located farfrom their houses. Theproblem of transportation wasalso left unresolved; ## schools anduniversities were physically decaying andmost oftheequipment, especially inlaboratories, became obsolete. There wasalack ofschool furniture, andlibraries didnothave sufficient number oftextbooks. Many ofthese problems oftheperiod prior to1996 were also relevant forUzbekistan. Table 1.13 Some indices, characterizing education inUzbekistan in19921996
Education indices Enrolment of722year olds (%) Number of19-year olds still infull-time education (%) Government expenditure oneducation (as% ofGDP) 1992 72.5 30.8 10.2 1993 70.8 26 9.5 1994 68.9 26.2 8.3 1995 69.5 24.9 7.4 1996 69.3 20.8 7.7
Source: State Committee ofStatistics oftheRepublic ofUzbekistan
Themain challenges andobjectives faced bythegovernments intransition economies during this period were: 1. Clearly identifying andthen overcoming thefactors undermining thepreviously strong educational system such astheloss ofteaching staff. 2. Setting clear targets related to the new goals and standardsimplementation of an organizational and methodological transformation with the focus onnewobjectives andtargets. 3. Creation ofanewsystem ofgovernance, with theaimofensuring effective reform of education at all stages in accordance with the principles of a market economy andglobal challenges. 4. Transition oftheeducation system based onnewprinciples offinancing, aiming toaccumulate sufficient funds tomaintain high levels ofeffectiveness.
5. Stimulate thedemand forqualified professionals being prepared atsecondary, specialized and tertiary educational establishments, and increasing the status oftheprofession ofteacher insociety. 6. Reconsider theprevious approaches toeducation, inparticular rejecting the prin ciples ofideologizing andpoliticization, strengthen thehumanities focus of the educational system without losing theinherited fundamentals andstrong technical basis ofeducation. 7. Improving facilities Thegovernment ofUzbekistan clearly understood allthese problems andtherefore in1996 itwasthefirst post-Soviet country todesign andapprove theNational Program ofPersonnel Training with theaimofgradually reforming thewhole system ofeducation15. 1.5 International Conventions andtheDeclaration onEducation
Only using thechildrens rights-based approach will allcountries will beable toachieve their goals indeveloping andensuring peace. Kofi A.Annan
Regarding the critical role of education in social progress and human development, theinternational community hasdeveloped asetofinternational legal regulations fordealing with issues related toeducation. Themost important are the following: ## Universal Declaration ofHuman Rights; ## Geneva Declaration oftheRights oftheChild; ## Convention ontheRights oftheChild (1989); ## Recommendation Concerning theStatus ofTeachers (1966); ## Convention against Discrimination inEducation (1960); ## Convention onTechnical andVocational Education (1989); ## Recommendation Concerning Education toPromote Mutual International Under standing/Cooperation andPeace; toPromote Human Rights and Key Freedoms (1974). TheUniversal Declaration ofHuman Rights adopted attheUNGeneral Assembly inDecember 1948 asserted theright ofallpeople toeducation16 andproclaims that discrimination isinadmissible. Itstates that anydiscrimination ineducation violates human rights. Inline with Clause 26 oftheDeclaration, primary education must becompulsory, technical andvocational education must bewidely available, andhigher education must beequally available foreveryone onthebasis ofindividual capabilities. Thus education must befree ofcharge, oratleast primary andbasic education. In 1924 the League of Nations adopted the Geneva Declaration of the Rights oftheChild, thus theinternational community made asetofcommitments toprotect childrens rights tolife, healthcare andeducation.
15 In-depth analysis ofreforms ineducation carried outinUzbekistan will becarried outinthethird chapter oftheReport. 16 Collection of International Treaties. Vol. 1 (Part One). Universal Treaties. United Nations Organization, New-York and Geneva, 1994, p.7.
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Themost comprehensive andfullest coverage ofgovernments commitments toeducation forallpeople hasbeen provided intheConvention ontheRights of the Child that was adopted be the General Assembly of the United Nations in1989.17 This Convention hasbeen metwith complete approval because theConvention anditsOptional Protocols declare legal obligations ofthestates tochildren. In1992 allcountries throughout theworld ratified theConvention, and since then childrens survival and ensuring their development and protection have notbeen considered aspurely charitable activities butasmoral andlegal obligations. Twoarticles oftheConvention ontheRights oftheChild exclusively concern education, andfive other articles setupgoals tosupport education. Article 28 lays down thefundamental right toeducation such that thestates responsibility is: ## toprovide free andcompulsory primary education; ## topromote various forms ofsecondary education; ## toensure theavailability ofinformation andmaterials about thefield ofeducation andvocational training forallchildren; ## totake measures inorder topromote childrens school attendance onaregular basis andtoreduce thenumber ofschool dropouts. Article 29 recognizes thenecessity of: ## developing thepersonality, talent, intellectual andphysical capabilities ofthechild totheir fullest potential; ## preparing thechild foraresponsible life inafree society; ## bringing upthechild with respect forparents, cultural identity, language andmoral values, andrespect fortheculture andvalues ofother people aswell. There areprovisions intheConvention that deal with childrens rights: ## tobeprovided with useful social andcultural information (Article 17); ## tobelooked after atspecial institutions while parents areatwork (Article 18); ## tobeentitled torest andleisure time, tofree participation incultural life and ## toparticipate freely inthearts (Article 31). In line with Article 42 the member-states of the Convention are responsible for informing both adults andchildren about theprinciples andprovisions of the Convention toensure that they areaware oftheir rights that arepertinent to international law. Discrimination ineducation means anytype ofdifference, exclusion, restriction orpreference onthebasis ofrace, skin colour, gender, language, religion, political orother belief, national orsocial origin, economic position orbirth, andanyaction which violates theprinciple ofequality. Article 1 oftheConvention ontheStruggle against discrimination ineducation, adopted onDecember 14, 1960 bytheGeneral UNConference, onissues ofeducation, science andculture enumerates four types ofdiscrimination: ## closure ofaccess toeducation atanystage orofanytype foraperson oragroup ofpeople; ## restriction ofeducation foraperson oragroup ofpeople with loweducation levels;
17 Collection of International Treaties. Vol. 1 (Part One). Universal Treaties. United Nations Organization, New-York and Geneva, 1994, p.192.
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## creation orpreservation ofseparate teaching systems oreducational estab lish ments foraperson oragroup ofpeople; ## situation inwhich aperson oragroup ofpeople canbesetwhich isnotcompatible with thepersons dignity18. Article 13 oftheInternational Pact oneconomic, social andcultural rights shows that education should befocused onhuman development andanunderstanding of human dignity. Education should strengthen respect forhuman rights and the main freedoms19. Atthesame time, education should: ## Provide opportunities toalltobecome useful members ofafree society; ## Facilitate mutual understanding, tolerance andfriendship between allpeoples andraces, ethnic andreligious groups; ## Support thework ofUNagencies inmaintaining peace. Theprovision oflife-long education atallstages isoneofthemajor directions ofUNactivity related toissues ofeducation, science andculture (UNESCO). UNESCO programs consider thefact that education plays animportant role inhuman development, economic growth andstrengthening social links. These programs stress that education isanimportant instrument tocombat poverty andisoneofthefoundations ofsustainable development. In1975 theGeneva International conference oneducation, organized byUNESCO, approved thefirst International Standard Classification ofEducation (ISEC). Yetthis classification failed tokeep pace with therapid educational revolution that wastaking place during thelast decade ofthetwentieth century, primarily thediversification ofeducation, i.e.theemergence ofmore diversified forms ofeducation tailored totheparticular needs ofdifferent groups andstrata ofthepopulation. Asaresult, inNovember 1997 theUNESCO General Conference adopted anewISEC. The system of education in each country is as unique as its cultural traditions, customs, andsocial andeconomic conditions. TheISEC, therefore, does notseek toimpose common standards forthewhole world community. Itisaninstrument forthecollection, processing andanalysis ofindicators andstatistical data oneducation both inindividual countries andworldwide. Analyzing this data helps toguide national education policy andcansuggest changes andamendments tothewhole national model ofeducation. Theexperience over time ofapplying ISEC byboth national authorities andinternational agencies (including UNESCO) hascontributed totheconsideration of new trends andchanges ineducation occurring invarious parts oftheworld, such as: ## increasing number ofdifferent forms ofprofessional education andstaff training; ## increasing thevariety ofinstitutions providing education; ## wider use of distance learning and other educational opportunities related to new technologies. TheWorld Conference Education forAll, held inJomtieng (Thailand) in1990, drew theattention oftheworld community tothefact that after twodecades ofprogress ineducation theinflux ofinvestment into primary education haddeclined inmany developing countries, while insome regions ofAfrica theindicator haddropped sharply. In some countries public budget allocations for education are not sufficient tocover thecosts oftextbooks andstaff salaries; thequality ofteaching isre18 Collection ofInternational Treaties. Volume 1 (part one). Universal Treaties. United Nations, NewYork andGeneva, 1994, p.114. 19 ibid, p.15.
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puted tobepoor andthenumber ofdropouts extremely high. Asurvey carried outbyUNESCO in100countries attheendofthe1980s showed that twothirds of countries had cut budget allocations per pupil, while in half of the countries thenumber ofpupils atprimary schools hadreduced. Itwasfound outthat indeveloping countries every fourth adult could neither read norwrite. TheJomtieng conference document, based ontheUniversal Declaration ofHuman Rights andConvention ontheRights oftheChild, declared that anychild, young person oradult, asahuman being isentitled toeducation, meaning that their basic education needs should besatisfied inthehighest andfullest sense oftheword. Itwasdeclared that people should have theoption tolearn tothink, act, live andcoexist with others. It was declared that the system of education should promote thedevelopment ofthetalents andpotential ofeach person andencourage human development sothat people could improve their life andtransform society. Discrimination against women ineducation isexpensive. Educated women directly contribute tothegross national product (GNP) growth ofthecountry duetotheir more efficient work. They give birth tohealthier children because they understand theimportance ofsuch keyfactors ashealthy meals, hygiene, primary healthcare, emergency aid, immunization andfamily planning. Healthy children distract their parents less from labour activities, andthey will bethehealthy andeducated people ofthefuture. Research hasrepeatedly proven that educated women generally getmarried later, have fewer buthealthier children, andinvest money intheeducation oftheir offspring. Onesurvey inMalaysia showed that girls education ismore efficient (by20%) interms ofwages andproductivity than boys. Womens literacy is a critical factor in reducing child mortality. The children ofmore educated mothers have more opportunities tosurvive andhealthfully develop than thechildren ofless educated orilliterate mothers. Federico Mayor, UNESCO General Director, said at the Conference in Jomtieng that the provision of school education to more children is only the beginning. It is necessary to resolve the problems related to improving childrens literacy. Inadequate education inmany countries means that students attend school formany years butthey donotachieve thesustainable literacy level. Itisestimated that anadditional $5billion peryear isnecessary toimprove primary education though itiswidely recognized that itispossible toraise most ofthis bysimply reallocating existing resources. TheDeclaration announced theendoftherigid, prescribed educational system andthebeginning ofaneweraofflexible systems. Allcountries were recommended toputinto place educational systems that areable toadapt totheusers needs andrequirements. Itwasunderlined that itisnecessary totake into account thecultural andhistoric context ofthestudents while teaching. Thekeysponsors oftheConference inJomtieng were UNESCO, UNICEF, theUNDevelopment Program (UNDP) andtheWorld Bank, andthey appealed tothecountries tochange thehierarchy ofpriorities inthefield ofexpenditures toachieve three keygoals: ## basic education fornoless than 80% ofchildren worldwide bytheyear 2000; ## halving adult illiteracy using 1990 asabaseline; ## provision ofequal opportunities forgirls andboys. Over the last few years world leaders have reaffirmed these commitments, andidentified specific goals, measures andtimetables.
Thus, inApril of2000 theWorld Education Forum inDakar (Senegal) summed up the outcomes ofimplementing theEducation forAllstrategy during theprevious ten years. TheDakar Forum strengthened thefocus oneducation asthemost important component ofhuman development. Themain document oftheforum, the Dakar Framework ofActionEducation forAll: Compliance with OurCommitments reaffirms that education isabasic human right. Itisakeytosustainable development, peace andstability within thecountry andgood neighbourly relations with other countries. Education isanessential tool foreffective participation inthesocial and economic life ofthetwenty-first century characterized asitisbytheunrelenting process ofglobalization. The principles on basic education established by the Jomtieng and Dakar forums areorganically complemented bytheideas andgoals setforth bytheWorld Higher Education Conference held by UNESCO in Paris in 1998. The Conference recommended that governments of all countries make access to higher education andequal opportunities forreceiving itaprimary goal ofeducational policy. Itwasclearly stated that higher education should collaborate with thelabour market andnotjust react toit. Thus the world community opposed the restriction of educational functions tojust creating alabour force orstaff training. TheParis Conference, therefore, expressed concerns about theweakening ofthesocial, interpersonal, cultural andmoral functions ofeducation. Theproblems ofadult education development were discussed atspecial international conferences in1960 inMontreal, 1972 inTokyo, 1985 inParis, andin1977 inHamburg. In1976 they were thefocus oftheUNESCO General Assembly inNairobi. Allthese forums highlighted that education foradults determines themoral andaesthetic climate ofasociety andplays acrucial role inthesocial andeconomic progress ofmankind. Thedeclaration adopted attheHamburg International Conference proclaimed that education foradults isnotonly aright, butalso oneofthekeys toopen thedoor into thetwenty-first century. Developing capabilities, improving knowledge andtheupgrading ofprofessional qualifications ofadults areconsidered tobeaninalienable part andcritical component oftheneweducational strategylifelong learning. Theconcept oflifelong learning isofcritical importance incountries with economies intransition, where both individuals andthegeneral lifestyles ofsociety change soquickly. Thevery essence ofthis concept recognizes thenecessity ofcreating thenecessary conditions anddeveloping thelearning abilities ofanindividual tostudy notonly atschool agebutduring hisorherprofessional occupation inboth formal andinformal educational andtraining institutions. Thekeygoal ofthis concept istopromote theself-development oftheindividual whomakes his or her fortune atthesame time asactively andskilfully participating intheeconomic andsocial life of society. IntheMillennium Declaration that wasadopted bytheUNGeneral Assembly in September 2000 atthedawn ofthenewmillennium, theheads ofstates andgovernments unanimously stated that they would redouble their efforts topromote democracy andstrengthen therule oflaw. They promised toensure alltheinalienable human rights andkeyfreedoms intheir countries including theright ofdevelopment. Thecommitments ofthegovernments made attheMillennium Summit and at the Special Session oftheGeneral Assembly onthestatus ofchildren, a World Fit for Children that washeld inMay2002, areallinagreement. They are mutually comple58 National Human Development Report
mentary andseem tobeaholistic strategyaMillennium Agenda ofmeasures to protect human rights atthebeginning ofthetwenty-first century. Achieving thegoals andobjectives that have been formulated intheMillennium Declaration (theMillennium Development Goals) isaimed atimproving thequality oflife ofalarge proportion oftheworlds population. Mankind will besaved from many diseases and untimely death, extreme poverty and malnutrition. And finally, thepoorest people allover theworld will getaccess tosafe water andsanitation, andtouniversal basic education aswell. AllUNmember-countries arecommitted toachieving theMDGs, therefore they have united around asetofkeyinitiatives toaccelerate progress. Education issues arecovered bygoals number 2 and3: ensuring universal basic education andempowering women through eliminating gender disparities ineducation.
Box 1.6. Development Goals formulated intheMillennium Declaration asthekeyobjectives oftheMillennium Agenda Goals (Objectives for2015) 1. Eradicating extreme poverty andhunger. ## Reduce byhalf theproportion ofpeople living onless than adollar aday. ## Reduce byhalf theproportion ofpeople whosuffer from hunger. 2. Achieving universal basic education ## Ensure that allboys andgirls complete afull course ofprimary schooling. 3. Promoting gender equality andempowering women ## Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education preferably by 2005, andatalllevels by2015. 4. Reducing child mortality ## Reduce bytwothirds themortality rate among children under five. 5. Improving maternal health ## Reduce bythree quarters thematernal mortality ratio. 6. Combating HIV/AIDS, malaria andother diseases ## Halt andbegin toreverse thespread ofHIV/AIDS. Halt andbegin toreverse theincidence ofmalaria andother major diseases. 7. Ensuring environmental sustainability ## Reduce byhalf theproportion ofpeople without sustainable access tosafe drinking water. ## Integrate theprinciples ofsustainable development into country policies andprograms; reverse loss ofenvironmental resources 8. Developing global partnership fordevelopment ## Incooperation with private sector totake measures toprovide forallpeople theaccess tothebenefits ofnewtechnologies, especially toinformation andcommunication technologies.
Source: UNMillennium Declaration of2000 andother UNdocuments.
One of the development goals is to provide universal primary education forallboys andgirls worldwide. This istheonly goal inwhich universality andcompletion isaimed at. Itappeals toallgovernments, international institutions anddonors to create the necessary conditions for providing all children with education, andespecially forthose whoarecurrently excluded from education. In many countries girls have fewer opportunities to attend school than boys. Thesituation worsens forgirls athigher levels ofeducation. Thegender parity deNational Human Development Report 59
clared intheMillennium Declaration isakeyobjective inthefield ofhuman development. Itisavery important component that effects changes ingender relations andgives aguarantee that boys andgirls have equal access toalleducational levels. Itisexpected that allthenecessary conditions should beputinplace tohelp them fully usetheir capacities. Around 121million children, themajority girls, donotattend school andassuch are deprived of their right to education. Although they ratified the Convention ontheRights oftheChild, thegovernments ofsome countries could notfully meet their commitments. If the second Millennium Declaration Goal is not achieved 75million children, 70% ofthem inSub-Saharan Africa, will notenjoy their legal right toprimary education in201520. Gender inequality inprimary andsecondary education will bethefirst unrealized MDgoal. This will bepartly duetoashortage ofsecondary education provision. According totheassessments made byUNESCO, itisunlikely that 76countries could achieve gender equality inprimary andsecondary education by2005. Given current trends gender equality will notbeachieved in54countries by2015. Itisnecessary tosupport these countries intaking initiatives toachieve equality ineducation by201521. Additional resources will be needed to provide all children with primary education butthis goal cannot beconsidered asoptional orunachievable. Toprovide quality primary education for all boys and girls worldwide will cost $717 billion peryear. This amount ofmoney isrelatively small incomparison with other governmental expenditures. Andyetthebenefits from these investments areenormous interms ofhealth, productivity andthesocial welfare ofchildren ofthis generation andthegeneration tocome. Diagramme 1.5. Girls secondary school attendance incomparison with boys secondary school attendance (number ofgirls per100boys)
South Asia Western and Central Africa Middle East and North Africa East Asia and the Pacific East and South Africa Latin America and the Caribbean Less developed countries Developing countries Worldwide 81 84 85 106 112 115 90 93 93
Source: Data provided by the UNESCO Statistical Institute (1998-2002), including assessment data collected in 2000 as part of the program Education for All.
Achieving theMDGs should benefit notonly thewell offbutalso thevulnerable children whocannot fully exercise their rights. These children aremarginalized be20 TheState oftheWorlds Children, 2005. Threatened Childhood. UNICEF. 21 UNMillennium Project, Task Force onEducation andGender Equality, Toward Universal Primary Education: investments, incentives, andinstitutions. Earthscan, London, 2005, p.9.
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cause they donothave access tovital services, andbecause society andthestate do not protect them. The activities of all UN member states should be focused onaddressing these deficits within theMillennium Agenda. Thenewinternational legal order ofthetwenty-first century canonly beachieved with theefforts ofallcountries. TheUNGeneral Assembly atitsanniversary session inSeptember 2005 made anappeal forallcountries andgovernments tocontinue taking decisive actions toimplement internal andexternal policy aimed atprotecting human rights, andthis isstated intheResolution oftheWorld Summit. This reaffirms thedecisiveness andwill ofcountries worldwide tomake theworld better forhuman beings, including inthesphere ofeducation.
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Chapter 2 Human Development in Uzbekistan
2.1. Introduction: Uzbekistan and the Human Development Index Uzbek people greet each other with a series of questions about their well-being, family, and work and traditionally end by wishing the other person a long, healthy, productive and good life. The concept of human development is thus an inherent and integral part of the Uzbek culture and mentality. Despite the problems faced in the transition period, the government of Uzbekistan has striven to honor this traditional cultural value attached to human development. This can be seen inter alia in the priority which the government has always attached to redistributive policies, to investing in health and education services, and to social protection for the vulnerable groups in society. It is only through the peoplethe human capital of societythat prosperity can be created. For example, Uzbekistan was the first amongst the post-Soviet states: ## To declare that social protection of the population would be one of its main priorities during the transition period. As early as 1994, i.e. three years after independence, the whole system of social protection was restructured in order to provide targeted social assistance to the most vulnerable sections of the population; ## To embark on radical reform of the education system and start strengthening its infrastructure. Reform started in 1996, whereas many other transition economies launched reform of the education system ten years later, while others have not yet started; ## To launch a public healthcare reform program (1998), the first stage of which entailed a dramatic change of approach to the provision of primary health care, the creation of a fundamentally new type of well-equipped medical facility providing primary care in rural areas where 64% of the population lives, new approaches to the provision of maternal and child care, and new approaches to emergency health care services. As a result of these and other social policy initiatives almost all of the HDI indicators in Uzbekistan have shown a stable upward trend (see table 1 in the Statistical Annex). The education (40.45%) and life expectancy (34.92%) indexes carry the greatest weight in the HDI score (in education it ranked 80th out of 177 countries in 2004, and in life expectancy it ranked 112th). Uzbekistans per capita GDP figures (ranking 141st out of 177) are less optimistic. If the country can succeed in improving this indicator, it could achieve a further increase in its HDI score and ranking. Chapter 1 of this report set out the basic principles of human development, which is based on the principle of expanding choices through building human capabilities, including the capability to lead long and health lives, to be knowledgeable, to have
Box 2.1: Every year a new social policy priority. Uzbekistan has established a tradition of attaching to each year a certain name to emphasize the priority areas of reforms in social policy. It aims at focusing the attention of society, joining efforts, and consolidating a range of government, private sector and civil society resources to address particular problems. Since 1997 each year has been dedicated to a specific goal and a special program adopted and implemented: 1997year of the peoples interests; 1998year of the family; 1999year of women; 2000year of a healthy generation; 2001year of mother and child; 2002year of the older generations interests; 2003year of the Mahalla; 2004year of kindness and mercy; 2005year of health; 2006year of charity and medical workers; 2007year of social protection. 2007year of social protection.
access to resources needed for a decent standard of living, and to be able to participate in the life of the community. While the other chapters in this report focus on the countrys efforts to improve the access and quality of education provided to its citizens, this chapter focuses on recent government efforts to improve per capita GDP and to provide opportunities for all citizens to have a decent standard of living. In order to ensure that citizens have access to the resources needed to achieve a decent standard of living, the country has to achieve high rates of economic growth and ensure that the benefits of this growth are enjoyed by the various strata of society through access to remunerative employment and production resources, such as land, credit etc. Analysis of the latest economic and social data shows that, while per capita GDP rates have been increasing, the strong economic growth experienced by the country since 2003 has not been reflected in a proportionate reduction in income poverty rates, especially in rural areas. Therefore, a sizeable section of the population has not yet benefited from this growth. Productive job creation, however daunting a task, is vital and pivotal to the Welfare Improvement Strategy (WIS) for 20082010. This comprehensive strategy envisages a series of policy measures to change the character of economic growth, make it more broad based and labour-intensive, as well as to strengthen the redistributive policies currently in place (mainly but not only in the form of targeted social transfers) and increase public investment in social and economic infrastructure. 2.2. The challenge: Economic growth which leads to the creation of new productive jobs As indicated above, the country has experienced steady growth in recent years. Figure 2.1 shows that in the period 20032006 rates of economic growth increased to 78 per cent annually (compared to 34 per cent in the period 19962002), and growth rates are forecast to remain in the range of 89 per cent in the period up till 2010 (see WIS Table 1.1)
Figure 2.1 GDP Growth rate in Uzbekistan

10 5 0 5 10 15 20 3.8 4.4 7.7 7.0 7.3
1.7
-11.1 1992 1996 2000 2003 2004 2005 2006
Figure 2.2. Inflation rate by CPI

30 25 20 15 10 5 0 24.9 27.4 27.5
10.28 1.58 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
6.35 2005
8.7
2006
Figure 2.3. Budget Deficit (Surplus)

0.50 0.25 0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 0.5 0.1
0.4 1.0 2000 1.0 2001 0.8 2002 2003
0.4
2004
2005
2006
Table 2.1. Growth in Real Disposable Household Incomes

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Compared to the previous year (%) 124.7 117.9 111.4 101.0 112.9 120.2 144.5 Compared to 2000 (%) 100.0 117.9 131.3 132.7 149.8 180.0 260.1
Source: annual Household Budget Surveys carried out by the State Committee of Statistics
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The government has also continued to pursue policies aimed at maintaining macroeconomic stability, and the inflation rate was kept at the relatively acceptable level of 6.8% (compared to levels in the range of 2128 per cent in 19972002), and since 2005 there has been a budget surplus, constituting 0.5 per cent of GDP by 2006. The positive results reported above have been reflected in trends for real average per capita income growth, and by 2006 real disposable incomes were almost 2.6 times higher than in 2000. However growth in average income levels does not give the full picture on living standards in the country. Firstly, they do not capture the income inequality and differences in rates of income growth (between regions and between population groups). Secondly, income is generally known to be a poor indicator of living standards in transition economies, where income is often derived from informal economies and goes undeclared. For this reason, since 2001 poverty levels have been calculated for the country using data on per capita consumption levels from the annual Household Budget Surveys conducted by the State Statistical Committee, and using a food poverty line, based on the cost of typical basket of goods that yields a daily intake of 2,100 calories. On this basis it has been estimated that 6.8 million people were living in poverty in 2001, comprising 27.5 per cent of the total population. Since these results are based on food consumption only, i.e. the poverty line is based on quite a restrictive basket of goods, with no allowance for non-food expenditure, these can be taken as estimates of quite severe poverty. Analysis of the results for the period 20012005 suggests that there has been a slowly decreasing trend in poverty rates (from 27.5 to 25.8 per cent, see table 1 below), but that the main reduction has been achieved in urban areas, where poverty rates have fallen from just over 22 per cent in 2001 to 18 per cent in 2005. Poverty rates in rural areas have remained stable, and were even slightly higher in 2005 compared to 2003. The difference in poverty risk (and living standards) for those living in urban and rural areas appears to be growing: while there was an 8 per cent difference in 2001, the difference is now almost 12 per cent (table 1). And while 64.4 per cent of the total population lives in rural areas, the share of the poor population living in rural areas is 74.7 per cent. Table 2.2. Poverty headcount 20012005 (per cent)
Overall Urban Rural 2000/01 27.5 22.5 30.5 2002 26.5 21.8 29.4 2003 27.2 22.6 29.8 2004 26.1 18.8 30.3 2005 25.8 18.3 30.0
Source: WIS, chapter 3 (based on results from the Household Budget Survey conducted by the State Statistical Committee)
As for the geographical distribution of the poor, there is evidence of a large differentiation in poverty risk between regions, and of a striking difference in living standards and opportunities between Tashkent city and the rest of the country. The poverty risk is highest in Karakalpakstan (44 per cent), and lowest in Tashkent city (6.7
per cent); Fergana is the oblast with the lowest poverty risk if we exclude Tashkent city (15.8 per cent). Tashkent city accounts for 8.2 per cent of the population, but just 2.1 per cent of the poor population (see table 2.3 below). Table 2.3. Geographical Distribution of the Poor Population in 2005
Area/Oblast Overall Urban Rural Karakalpakstan Andizhan Bukhara Dzhizak Kashkadarya Navoi Namangan Samarkand Surkhandarya Syrdarya Tashkent oblast Fergana Khorezm Tashkent city
Source: WIS, Chapter 3
Poverty headcount 25.8 18.3 30.0 44.0 23.1 20.8 29.6 41.0 26.3 33.4 23.9 34.6 32.6 20.4 15.8 31.0 6.7
Share of total population 100 35.6 64.4 5.1 9.5 6.4 3.7 8.5 2.9 7.9 11.2 7.3 2.4 10.1 11.6 5.1 8.2
Share of poor population 100 25.3 74.7 8.7 8.5 5.1 4.3 13.5 3.0 10.2 10.4 9.8 3.0 8.0 7.1 6.1 2.1
Analysis of the 2005 annual Household Budget Survey data showed that in poor households 11 per cent of able bodied family members are employed, compared to 56 per cent in rich households, suggesting that access to productive employment is critical to improving household living standards (see WIS, chapter 3). Households with more than 2 children were more likely to be poor, as were those with more than 2 working age adults. In 2005, the average size of poor families was 6.5 members, while it constituted 4.76 for non-poor families, and the average dependence rate for poor households was 0.81, compared to 0.73 for non-poor. This suggests that the government has to enhance and strengthen its efforts to provide strong support to families with children (through child benefits and the provision of health and education services). Another result which has been highlighted already in chapter 1, is that the risk of poverty was higher for households whose head had acquired only secondary education (see chapter 1, table 1.5), suggesting that encouraging access to post-secondary education should also be a policy priority. Demographic Trends and Living Standards Demographic trends in the country have a considerable effect on the countrys HDI scoresespecially annual per capita GDP, education, and life expectancy.
While GDP has displayed an impressive growth in recent years, Uzbekistans population has also continued to grow, therefore continuous GDP growth has had to be diluted among a larger population size, and as a result per capita GDP growth is slower than the growth rate for real GDP (see table 2.4 below). While population growth has slowed down since the 1980s, the population is currently still growing at circa 1.2% a year, and the UN Population Division forecasts suggest that during 20062010 the population will grow by 6 per cent. The growing population of children places a significant burden on education and public health care budgets and delivery systems, as well as social infrastructure, and makes it more challenging to maintain standards of quality in basic social services. Table 2.4. Growth in GDP (real), GDP per capita, and population (change in % of previous year)
Year 19951996 19961997 19971998 19981999 19992000 20002001 20012002 20022003 20032004 20042005 20052006 Growth in real GDP 1.74 5.20 4.26 4.33 3.84 4.16 3.97 4.23 7.44 6.95 7.34 Growth in per capita GDP 0.20 3.28 2.55 2.81 2.41 2.86 2.71 3.03 6.22 5.72 6.06 Population growth 1.98 1.93 1.81 1.53 1.46 1.33 1.22 1.24 1.10 1.22 1.12
Source: World Development Indicators (World Bank 2007, available on line), and TransMONEE data base (UNICEF 2007, available on line)
The age structure of the population reflects this high birth rate over the last few decades. In 2006 children aged 018 years represented circa 42% of the overall population. Although this proportion has been declining (in 1995 children represented 48.7% of the population), children and young people still represent a sizeable share of the population, as can be seen in the age pyramids for 1989 and 2006 below. The implications for human development and government policy are several. Firstly, children are dependents and therefore represent an extra burden on the household budget; as stated above, families with children are particularly reliant on support from the statein the form of welfare benefits, access to education, health services. Secondly, the number of young people entering the labour market has been and will continue to be large. To maintain household living standards, and guarantee a decent standard of living, economic growth in the short to medium term will have to be as labour-intensive as possible, in order to ensure access to productive jobs and incomes for this growing working age population. Thirdly, it is important to invest in the education and health of this growing generation in order to increase their capabilities to compete in the labour market, and meet the growing demand for skilled labour.
Figure 2.4. Uzbekistans population structure (age and sex) for 1989 and 2006
males
75+ 7074 6569 6064 5559 5054 4549 4044 3539 3034 2529 2024 1519 1014 59 04
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
females
O 1989 O 2006
Box 2.2: Factors contributing to the decline in the birth rate in Uzbekistan ## Before the transition period the average annual population growth rate was at least 2.5% with the average family having 5.5 members. Within the last 15 years these indicators have declined significantly due to the following factors: ## The demographic policy of the government has changed. The government has reversed the previous Soviet policy of encouraging, both materially and morally, couples to have many children; ## Public health policy has changed, and is now oriented towards the birth and upbringing of healthy children by increasing the number of years between the birth of each child and encouraging women to give birth between the ages of 2030, which is considered to be the best age for pregnancy and motherhood; ## Access to contraceptives has been improved, including those provided for free. Contraceptives have been widely advertised with the aim of avoiding unwanted pregnancies; ## The majority of families have decided to limit the number of children due to the problems faced during the transition period. These problems include price rises and the greater expenses for providing for their children, as well as the reduction in free pre-school education; ## Many families have had to adapt their life style because the man (or sometimes the woman) has had to leave home and work as labour migrant abroad ## More women are taking on the role of major contributor to the family budget, or primary breadwinner, thus shifting gender roles and influencing reproductive preferences within the family ## In addition the impact of world trends in declining birth rates was also important. 68 National Human Development Report
Employment and Living Standards Due to the demographic trends described above, the proportion of able-bodied, working age within the population has been growing over the last 15 years, creating considerable pressure on the labour market. Table 2.5 shows that the working age population accounted for 58 per cent of the population in 2006 compared to just under 50 per cent in 1991). In 2006 alone the working age population grew by 9 per cent. Table 2.5. Trends in employment
Indicators Able-bodied, working age population: Million people As % of the total population Employment rate, as % of the able-bodied, working age population
Source: State Statistical Committee
1991 10.2 49.1 80.6
2000 12.9 52.5 69.4
2001 13.4 53.5 68.4
2002 13.8 54.5 67.7
2003 14.2 55.6 67.5
2004 14.7 56.6 67.7
2005 15.1 57.5 67.7
2006 15.5 58.3 67.7
In addition to demographic pressure on the labour market, the transition period has also witnessed a process of shedding labour, first from industrial enterprises (former state enterprises) and more recently from the agricultural sector, due to the transformation of former collective (kolkhoz) and cooperative (shirkat) farms. As a result of these processes, employment rates have fallen from 80 per cent in 1991 to just over 68 per cent of the population in 2006 (Table 2.2). Since 2000 the pace of economic growth has accelerated, but employment rates have shown only a weak positive trend. This can partly be explained by the character of recent economic growth, which was largely based on exports of natural resources (primary commodities), rather than a broader-based growth in private sector employment. (Exports grew by 18 per cent from 20032006.) Despite the pressures of demographic trends on the labour market, unemployment rates are low, at around 4 per cent, and registered unemployment is only 0.2 per cent (WIS, chapter 3). However there is evidence that a section of the employed population is engaged in low productivity and low wage jobs, often in the informal sector. These jobs do not always secure enough income to ensure the employed and their dependents with a decent standard of living. Thus the problem for many is not unemployment, but under-employment. In the formal sector there has been a marked decline in employment in the agricultural sector. This sector represented 42 per cent of all formal employment in 1991, compared to 28.3 per cent in 2006. This slump in formal agricultural employment has been largely due to the process of transforming the previous collective farms into cooperatives (shirkats), and more recently into private farms. Since early 2000s the process of converting shirkats into private farms has taken place and is due to finish in 2007. It has led to an increase in labour surplus in rural areas, and a rise in seasonal employment. Private farms are more productive, and employ on average 25 per cent fewer workers than shirkats with some of their workforce employed on a
formal basis. The rest is hired on a temporary or seasonal basis. It has been estimated that 460,000 workers were made redundant from the elimination of shirkats in 2004 alone. This has been happening in a period in which the working age population has been increasing by circa 250,000 annually (see WIS, chapter 2). Table 2.6. Employment in Uzbekistan by sector, 19912006 (as % of the employed)
Sectors Agriculture Industry Construction Services, total Out of which: Trade, catering, procurement Transport and communications Municipal and consumer services Finances, banking, insurance, other financial services Education, culture, science Public health, sports, social security Other sectors
Source: State committee on Statistics
1991 41.9 14.3 8.2 35.6 5.6 4.8 2.3 0.3 13.6 5.9 3.1
1995 41.2 12.9 6.4 39.5 8.3 4.1 2.5 0.5 12.5 5.8 5.8
2000 34.4 12.7 7.5 45.4 8.4 4.3 2.8 0.6 12.8 6.5 10.0
2003 31.9 12.8 8.0 47.3 8.5 4.5 3.0 0.5 13.1 6.8 10.9
2004 30.7 13.0 8.2 48.1 8.7 4.6 3.0 0.5 13.3 7.0 11.0
2005 29.1 13.2 8.3 49.4 8.9 4.8 3.1 0.5 13.6 7.2 11.3
2006 28.1 13.4 8.4 50.1 9.3 4.8 3.2 0.5 13.7 7.3 11.3
The data in table 2.6 demonstrates the employment trends in the formal sectors of the economy. However labour market surveys conducted by the Ministry of Labour and Social Protection show that under half of all the employed work in the formal sector. In recent years the informal sector has absorbed much of the increase in supply, and now accounts for the employment of circa 56 per cent of the workforce. Over 23 per cent of those are small farmers with small land plots (dekhan households); since 2003 there has been a significant increase in those employed in seasonal and temporary jobs (mainly agriculture and construction). Therefore, the shedding of labour from the formal agriculture sector has brought about a rise in the share of low-wage temporary and seasonal employment, often within agriculture, which has had a negative effect on living standards for households in rural areas (as seen in the poverty figures reported in Table 2.2 above). The labour oversupply has led not only to an increase in seasonal and temporary employment (increasing underemployment), but also to an increase in labor migration. It is estimated that the number of labour migrants going abroad each year has increased from 44,000 in 2001 to more than 330,000 in 2006 (WIS). Recent estimates are even higher suggesting that within one year over 500,000 (up to 5% of the labor force of the country) leave the country for short-term or seasonal work. Labor migration has not only helped to ease some of the pressure on the labour market, it has also had a positive impact both on economic growth and income growth. It is estimated that remittances account for almost 10 per cent of GDP. (WIS chapter 2 ). However, a lot of the migration is informal, and labour migrants are exluded from the social protection systems in the host countries. If remittances are re70 National Human Development Report
Table 2.7. Employment structure in the informal sector

Indicators Number employed in the informal sector (thousands) Share of employed population Of whom: (%) Individual entrepreneurs dekhan farmers Unregistered entrepreneurs Family members doing unpaid work 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
4064.5 4318.9 4657.3 5141.5 5657.6 5904.2 44.5 2.5 12.9 17.9 11.2 46.3 2.5 12.9 19.4 11.5 48.6 1.6 12.8 27.1 7.1 51.8 1.6 12.6 30.4 7.2 55.5 1.5 13.2 33.2 7.6 56.4 1.5 13.7 33.7 7.5
Source: State Statistical Committee and Ministry of Labor and Social Protection (from WIS chapter 3, table 3.14)
invested in Uzbekistan, they could also play a role in stimulating local job creation and increasing living standards. To summarise: rates of economic growth have accelerated since 2003, but the character of this growth has not been employment intensive, and therefore the effect on improving living standards has been patchy: not all population groups, nor all regions have benefited. Underemployment and lack of income-generating opportunities is a significant problem both in rural areas, and in small towns where Soviet-era factories have closed down or are operating at reduced levels. In recent years the share of unofficial employment has remained fairly constant, while the share of unregistered informal employment has grown. The large informal sector means reduced job protection, low wage and insecure jobs for workers, but also represents a considerable loss in tax revenue for the government. The character and quality of employment is the problem. The challenge for the government is to achieve economic growth which can create productive jobs, and to create incentives for the expansion of the formal sector. This is also necessary in order to raise revenue which can be invested in public expenditure in the education and health and social infrastructure for the growing population. Further poverty reduction is dependent on the high economic growth rates, but growth which translates into productive employment, especially for the poor, and which can reduce rural-urban and sectoral disparities. There is also evidence of further imbalances in the labour market, namely between demand for skilled workers, and an oversupply of unskilled labour. For instance, industrial enterprises lack engineers, and there is a need for educated, experienced managers for small businesses, as well as agricultural specialists (see WIS chapter 2). The newly established professional colleges as well as the system of higher education are designed to train such specialists for these sectors. However, return-to-work services and retraining assistance, continuous upgrading of worker skills and a policy of encouraging life-long learning are also needed. The following section summarises the mix of policy measures envisaged by the government, and set out in its Welfare Improvement Strategy, in order to reduce differences in living standards by ensuring more broad based economic growth. These include measures aimed at improving the business environment and providing incentives for private sector development (e.g. ease the tax burden, optimization in tax administration, institutional strengthening to ensure protection of propNational Human Development Report 71
erty rights and limited government interference in the economy), increasing public investment in agriculture, and measures to promote private investment, access to credit lines through further reform of the banking sector and the development of microfinance. The strategy also envisages further development in the countrys human capital, through public expenditure on health and education, and measures to improve the quality of the services provided in these sectors; and strengthening of social protection for families with children, the elderly and the disabled. 2.3. Policies to further improve Uzbekistans HDI: increasing opportunities and choices for all citizens In order to not only improve the GDP per capita index, but also to ensure a more equitable distribution of income and a reduction in poverty, as well as decent work for all22 , the government has been working on several policy directions to stimulate growth with job creation. The country has continued with its export-oriented policy aimed at strengthening the balance of trade. Exports have continued to increase, not only due to favorable world market prices for raw materials, but also due to the increasing proportion of high value-added manufactured goods in the export basket. The balance of trade now stands at a 2 billion dollar surplus, mainly due to raw materials. The mining, energy and gold sectors which represent a large share of the export basket are not labour-intensive sectors, and in the future, the share of manufactured goods in the export basket will have to further increase if current economic growth rates are to remain sustainable. This in turn requires private sector development. The government has already taken several measures to promote the development of private business. Regulation was eased and the intervention of state authorities in the activity of business has been significantly reduced. Much of the red tape involved in the registration and running of businesses has been cut, and there has been a reduction in the number and frequency of financial statements required by the tax authorities. Apart from improvements in tax administration, the reduction in tax rates and various charges and fines has fostered an improvement in the business and investment climate. For example, the corporate tax rate has been gradually reduced from 18 per cent in 2004 to 10 per cent in 2007. As a result of this and other measures, small businesses are showing signs of development. The contribution of small businesses to GDP has grown from 38.2% in 2005 to 42.1 per cent, and the annual growth of the small business sector has exceeded 2325%. It will be extremely important to continue the policy of relieving the tax burden and optimizing the rates of customs payments. This will improve the competitiveness of domestic products both in the domestic market and in foreign markets. Relieving the tax burden will also encourage private investment and contribute to the creation of a more sustainable base for high rates of economic growth. Policies aimed at promoting private sector investment have been implemented. In 2006 the amount of capital investment from all sources of financing accounted for 4041.0 billion soums. Industrial investment accounted for 34.3% of all capital investment. The role of investment provided by sources other than the central government increased in 2005 to 77.5%. This growth was due to an increase in for22 The ILO promotes the right of women and men to obtain decent and productive work
72
Figure 2.4. Structure of Capital Investment

60 50 40 30 20 10 0 55.2 46.0 48.4 10.4 2006 18.5 22.7 21.7 20.1 2005
26.6
23.9
41.2 20.1 14.8 2002 18.2
1992
O State budget O Enterprises own capital O Foreign investment and credit O Other sources
eign direct investment (16.5% more than in the previous year), enterprises own capital (14.8% more than the previous year) and loans provided by commercial banks (16.6% more than the pervious year). However, further financial sector reforms, especially commercial banks, are needed to mobilize savings and encourage private investment. There is currently a low level of trust in the banking system, due to the fact that commercial banks carry out functions which should not be within their remit, eg tax collection and control of money supply. This does not encourage confidence of citizens in the banking system or encourage the accumulation of saving and increase in capital. Commerical Banks will gradually divest themselves of these roles. There is also a need to broaden the opportunities for accessing microfinance, through the further development of micro-financing institutions and credit unions. The legal basis for this has been provided through the 2006 laws on Microcredit Organizations and Microfinancing. In order to encourage further private investment and private sector growth, the government plans to increase public investment, i.e. public investment will be used to stimulate private investment. The country now has quite a large current account surplus, which represents idle resources. These resources can be invested in the countrys development, since the reserves are no longer needed to pay off external debt. Public investment has declined from an already low 3.8 per cent of GDP in 2003 to 2.6 per cent in 2006. As part of this process, any remaining state privileges for capital-intensive industries will be removed. This in turn should help promote a broader-based growth, which will increase demand for labour and drive up wages. Promoting private sector development and investment will require institutional changes in order to protect private property and owners rights. Any proprietor who observes the laws and regulations should be confident that the state will never encroach on his/her property, and that the state will not permit anyone else to do this. Growth in investment is only possible when investors are not afraid of losing their capital and when, on the contrary, they expect to earn a return on their investment. Since most of the poor live in rural areas, there is also a need for policies which contribute to the development or rural areas. There is a need to increase the share of public investment for agriculture and rural infrastructure (irrigation, roads, land reclamation). At present there is a lot of unproductive employment in agriculture.
12.2
Productivity has to increase in this sector, which has already implied, and will imply more, shedding of labour. However, even with shedding of labour, land degradation may have reached such levels that productivity cannot be expected to rise significantly in the short to medium term. For this reason, it is urgent that new employment opportunities open up in parallel in the non-farm sector (such as light and food industry, construction materials, low-technology enterprises in the engineering sector). This requires the attraction of public and private investment. As indicated above, the quality of land has been deteriorating, mainly due to salinity and degradation caused by overuse, but also to poor maintenance of and lack of investment in irrigation and drainage systems. The amount of irrigated land available for cultivation has been decreasing annually, while the rural population has continued to grow. Contrary to past practices, environmental considerations have to be taken into account in the further development of agriculture and also the industrial sector. Both new agricultural and non-agricultural enterprises have to operate in ways which are economically and environmentally sustainable. Rural households are far less likely to have access to piped water, central heating, and central sewage systems (see table 2.8 below). This contributes to inequalities in living standards between urban and rural citizens, and is another issue which is being tackled by public investment. Table 2.8. Access to Social Infrastructure/ communal services, (Share of households with access to listed services, in working order)
Urban population Total Piped water Piped hot water Piped Gas Central heating Central sewerage 84.9 34.7 93.4 33.2 46.0 Urban poor 71.9 16.7 92.4 18.8 21.5 Urban nonpoor 86.8 37.3 93.6 35.4 49.6 Total 24.3 1.1 71.8 3.9 0.3 Rural population Rural poor 22.1 1.1 67.0 4.3 0.2 Rural nonpoor 25.0 1.1 73.4 3.8 0.4
Source: State Statistical Committee, Household Budget Survey, 2005
Improvements in the health status of the population are being achieved through reform of the system of primary health care in order to improve access to basic health services, especially in rural areas. Programmes are also being implemented to improve maternal and child care, improve nutrition levels, and prevent the spread of infectious diseases, including TB and HIV/AIDS. However the share of GDP currently allocated to health is low (2.48 per cent of GDP in 2005), and public expenditure on health will have to increase. Crucial to all the above is further investment in countrys the human capital. Uzbekistan is not behind industrially developed countries in terms of literacy levels, however, the quality of the populations knowledge is not always adequate for the building of a knowledge economy. At present, all over the world the most competitive economies are focused on building and selling knowledge. Such products are presented on the world mar74 National Human Development Report
ket in the form of new technologies and the latest equipment. Management methods and market research, along with the methods and techniques for knowledge dissemination, are in great demand and very expensive. Building and selling knowledge require very little in the way of material resources. Transportation costs to deliver the ready products to consumers are extremely low. The final cost of this knowledge, however, is extremely high. As a result, producers enjoy huge advantages over those who are oriented towards just material production. However, to focus the economy on building and selling knowledge, it is necessary to have highly skilled people who are capable of producing this knowledge. It requires a significant increase in the numbers of well-educated people, especially those with an advanced engineering education. The quality of education should be such that it will help experts not only master new technologies and improve them, but also to anticipate new trends and design things currently not even imagined. Moreover, there is a need for the effective integration of industrial and scientific work with research and design activities. The governments current focus on achieving 12 year school education, including vocational education for all, will help improve the quality of labour resources in the country. The government is also encouraging closer links between enterprises and public educational institutions in order to provide relevant vocational training and promote research. Promoting innovation is one of the factors behind the development of the knowledge based economy. The experience of developed economies provides examples of how government-supported programs can foster innovation in large and small businesses. Government policy in this area needs to be backed up with the establishment of institutions that can effectively implement the various policy measures aimed at promoting innovation and a knowledge-based economy.
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Chapter 3 OVERVIEW OFTHEEDUCATION SYSTEM INUZBEKISTAN

Thestate policy inthesphere ofpersonnel training envisages theformation ofawell-educated individual andcitizen through a system ofcontinuous education, closely related with theintellectual andspiritual upbringing ofaperson23 Islam Karimov
3.1. Legal framework ofthenational education policy 3.1.1. Thepre-reform system ofeducation inUzbekistan hadboth strengths and weaknesses. Ontheonehand, itcould boast anumber ofsignificant achievements: ## Allstages ofeducation existed inthecountry: pre-school, primary, secondary, primary vocational, higher, two-levels ofpostgraduate, personnel training andupgrading ofpersonnel skills; ## Allcitizens oftherepublic hadaccess toalltypes ofeducation, irrespective oftheir gender, ethnicity, andreligion. Secondary education wasgeneral andcompulsory andeducation atalllevels wasfree ofcharge; ## Thelevel ofliteracy oftheable-bodied, working agepopulation washigh. Ontheother hand, thelegal framework ofeducation system hadalltheshortcomings typical ofacentralized economy: ## Curricula, textbooks, teaching methods and methodology were tightly regulated bythecentre. Educational establishments andteachers were notpermitted toteach using textbooks, teaching materials andcurricula notpreviously approved bytheMinistry ofEducation; ## Education wasfocused ontheaverage child with average knowledge andabilities, there waslittle teaching catering toindividual needs, particularly fortalented children; ## Undemocratic andideology-based education didnotteach schoolchildren to think inde pen dent ly. Pupils andstudents hadimposed upon them ideological dogmas set by the state. Alternative methods andideologies were not accepted; ## Due to the lack of continuity between general and professional curricula, graduates ofsecondary general schools didnothave arelevant professional orientation andthespecific skills required bytheworkplace. Young people encountered serious difficulties when choosing a profession which catered for their abilities andpreferences along with their creative andcareer aspirations.
23 I.Karimov. Aharmoniously developed generation isthebasis ofprogress inUzbekistan. p.43.
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3.1.2. Stages ofreform andlegal framework ofUzbekistans education policy. After Uzbekistan gained itsindependence inSeptember 1991, itwasable todevelop itsownlegal framework foranational education policy. Thecountry embarked on a radical transformation of the old system. New reforms sought to improve thestructure andcontent ofeducation. This transformation process canbedivided into four major stages: 1) (19911997)preparatory, when the major problems and contradictions oftheeducation system were identified andanalyzed along with thedisconnect with theeconomic andpolitical transformations taking place insociety; 2) (19972001)initial stage, when thenewnational policy ofpersonnel training wasformed. 3) (20012005) active stage oflarge-scale transformations ofsecondary special vocational education. 4) (after 2005) perfection anddevelopment oftheschool education system. In accordance with the Constitution of the Republic of Uzbekistan all citizens ofthecountry areentitled toreceive education. Thestate guarantees everyone afree general education andschool education isunder thesupervision ofthestate. During thepreparatory stage theenvisaged reforms could notbelaunched immediately after independence foranumber ofreasons: firstly, atthis stage theunderstanding ofwhat kind ofeconomic andpolitical reform wasrequired inanewsociety hadnotyetbeen formed, anditwasthis understanding that would need tobereflected inthechanges made totheeducation system; secondly, some time wasrequired toidentify thecontradictions andproblems of the existing education system and to study the best international education models with theaimofforming thenational idea andmodel ofeducation; thirdly, due to the deep economic recession during theperiod prior to 1996, thecountry didnothave sufficient financial funds toreform theeducation system. Some attempts topartly reform theeducation system were undertaken in1992, i.e. at the preparatory stage, when a new law On Education was adopted in Uzbekistan. This law established the legal guarantee of free and compulsory general secondary school education, aswell astheopportunity togeteducation both atstate andatprivate educational establishments. Also, thelawprovided theopportunity togeteducation intheform ofdistance study orexternal education. Higher educational establishments were allowed tochoose their owncurricula, textbooks andmethods ofteaching. Thelawalso sought tointroduce national standards ineducation. Educational establishments started tousenewcurricula, study plans, textbooks andteaching materials. Thesystem ofgovernance waspartly reorganized andsome neweducational establishments were created ateach educational level. Taking into consideration thespecific features ofthelabour market indifferent regions oftherepublic, mainly inrural areas, newvocational schools, vocational lyceums andbusiness schools were established. Inhigher education adecentralization andregionalization ofpersonnel development wasintroduced. Enrolment tohigher educational establishments inTashkent wasreduced, while enrolment tohigher educational establishments inother regions
wasexpanded. Newuniversities were created specializing innewspheres ofpersonnel training, such astheUniversity ofWorld Economy andDiplomacy andtheIslamic University. Thetransition ofhigher education toatwo-tier system began. Unfortunately, the law On Education of 1992 continued without any change some norms from itspredecessor, thelawOnEducation adopted intheSoviet Union. Inpart, theregulation about 9-year compulsory andtwo-year voluntary general secondary education wasduplicated. This approach affected thequality ofeducation insecondary schools. Moreover, many graduates ofthe9th form ofschools, who did not continue their studies, were not provided for. Their lack of a professional qualification andtheagerequirement that forbade children working before theageof1624 undermined thepossibility ofstarting their working life. Asaresult about 10% ofthepopulation aged 1516 were thrown outonto thestreet without any guarantee ofemployment. This created some serious problems onthelabour market, which theyoung people joined, often illegally. They were notyetready foraworking life, notonly because oftheir lack ofprofessional skills butalso interms of maturity. In the years up to 1997 about 103,000 school leavers (having completed just nine years ofsecondary education andsowithout anyprofessional training) or21.5% ofthetotal number (compared to5.4% in1991) joined thelabour market. This increased number of young people who failed to find a job after school wasathreat tosocial stability. Such teenagers laybehind thegrowth injuvenile crime andthespread ofdrug addiction. During this period theshortage offinancial resources also created some serious problems. Many qualified professionals left theeducation system, thequality ofeducation fell along with attendance levels. During theninth session oftheOliy Majlis thePresident oftheRepublic ofUzbekistan, Islam Karimov, presented a critical analysis of the education system andsetthepriorities forradical reform inthis sphere. Firstly, itwasnoted that thecontent ofeducation hadnotbeen fully freed from theideological dogmas oftheSoviet period25. This problem wasespecially acute intheteaching ofthesocial sciences andhumanities, thearts andalso thecontent andorganization ofeducational andmoral development. Practical measures undertaken with the aim of reforming the system of education inaccordance with theLawOnEducation of1992 didnotensure compatibility between the content and organization of the system of continuous education. Theneed forsome subjects atdifferent stages ofgeneral secondary education had not been deeply studied and fully justified. Some basic principles of continuity ofcontent hadbeen violated andthespecific requirements ofvarious agegroups hadnotbeen considered. Inaddition, itwasdebatable whether itwasappropriate tohave extended thenumber ofyears ofgeneral secondary schooling from 10 to11. Asignificant drawback ofthepre-reform system ofgeneral secondary education wastheunnecessary number ofcompulsory subjectstwenty intotal. Some subjects obviously were notnowappropriate given thedemocratic andmarket changes taking place. Curricula paid insufficient attention tothose subjects which taught thebasics ofethics andmorality, providing forsocial, economic andlegal knowledge. Teaching foreign languages also didnotmeet modern requirements.
24 Graduates ofthe9th form were aged 1516. 25 I. Karimov. A harmoniously developed generation is the basis for progress of Uzbekistan. Tashkent, Uzbekistan, 1997, p.17
78
One of the major shortcomings of the former system of general secondary education was the poor preparation of the new generation for independent social and work roles. Without any professional skills or general work and life skills, school graduates (including those with an11year education) haddifficulties infinding a job that matched their abilities, desires and preferences. This shortcoming was, infact, built into the11year system ofgeneral secondary education. Itneither trained schoolchildren forindependent labor activity, noradapted totheconditions ofamarket economy. Also, there were some drawbacks intheorganizational structure ofgeneral secondary education andthesystem ofcontinuous education. The continuity of educational and vocational curricula, disrupted at the level of general secondary education, created problems at the following stage inthesystem ofprimary vocational andtechnical, andsecondary special education. Thelowprofessional level ofteachers didnotensure anappropriate quality ofteaching and education. Schoolchildren received poor knowledge and only a narrow specialization. These educational establishments andthequalifications ofthegraduates were notsufficiently uptodate. These serious contradictions, which appeared inthesystem ofeducation during 19911996, necessitated the second stage of reformsthe initial stage related topersonnel training. Thegovernment ofUzbekistan wasthefirst post-Soviet country tomake adecision ontheradical transformation oftheeducation system. In1997 thePresident oftheRepublic ofUzbekistan initiated andsupervised theNational Program ofPersonnel Training, which wasadopted asaLaw. Thebasic components oftheProgram were thefollowing: ## Creation of a system ensuring life-long learning: starting from pre-school ageuptoretirement age; ## Compulsory andfree general 9-year education; ## Introduction ofanewsystem of3year free general compulsory secondary special vocational education forgraduates of9th forms ofgeneral schools; ## Introduction ofatwo-tier system ofhigher education, divided into Bachelors degree andMasters degree programs; ## Preservation of the two-tier system of postgraduate education, including the postgraduate candidate course anddoctoral study; ## Declaration ofthenecessity ofacontinuous education system, professional training andraising thelevel ofpersonnel skills. TheNational Program ofPersonnel Training introduced anewstage, three-year free compulsory secondary special vocational education. This stage connected thegeneral secondary education with theprofessional training ofyoung people. In doing so the government bridged the gap between the knowledge received atschool andthelack ofpractical skills andexperience necessary intheworkplace. Thereform envisaged twotypes ofsecondary special vocational educational establishments: Vocational colleges, which taught general subjects and provided professional skills andknowledge forachosen profession; Academic lyceums, which provided anin-depth knowledge ofboth academic andpractical subjects. At the initial stage of implementing the National Program of Personnel Training much work was done in establishing the legal framework. Some regulatory acts were adopted todetermine thegeneral principles ofeducation atallstages,
Scheme 3.1. Reform oftheeducation system

During theperiod ofNational Program ofPersonnel Training implementation School 11grade general secondary education Compulsory secondary education education 1011grade secondary education Primary (compulsory 14grades) Primary (compulso Compulsory secondry14forms) (59) ary59grades) System ofcompulsory Secondary System ofvocational educa- System of secondary special education secondary, vocational special, vo- tion cational ed(technical schools, spe- education ucation cialized schools) 1) Vocational technical Technical schools Academic Vocational schools based on9th grade andtheir branchlyceums colleges (term ofstudy 11.5years es based onschool workers) without acertifiandsecondary vocacate ofsecondary education, tional technical school schoolchildren join thelabour leavers from the9th market orenter atechnical and11th grades vocational school, providing acertificate ofsecondary education, orenter atechnical school based ona9-year education. 2) Secondary vocationTerm ofstudy Term ofstudy 3years after al technical schools 34yearsprofession- general secondary school based on9forms (term als ofthemiddle lev- (9years)junior specialist ofstudy3years el, after finishing gradworkers)certificate ofsec- uates join thelabour ondary education, after finish- market orcanenter ing graduates join labour mar- ahigher institute. ket orenter atechnical vocational school orhigher institute. Higher Universities (45years)specialist with higher edu- Universities: Bachelors education cation degreenotless than 4years, Masters degree notless than 2years Educational Pre-reform period stages
from pre-school topostgraduate education. Specific principles forthefunctioning ofsecondary special vocational educational establishments were legally approved aswell asprograms fordeveloping theinfrastructure andfacilities, aswell aspreparation oftextbooks andteaching materials. Assuch thepractical implementation oftheProgram hadbegun. Now graduates of academic lyceums and vocational colleges have an opportunity toacquire deep professional knowledge andskills. Along with general subjects they get in-depth knowledge related to their future profession and can test their abilities in their chosen research area. According to the reforms these general andvocational courses, closely related tothegeneral sec80 National Human Development Report
Scheme 3.2. General direction and measures aimed at creating and developing the national model of continuous education
Initial stagebeginning of reforms in 1997 Reform of the education system, ensuring its development as a single educational and production complex based on state-owned and private educational establishments thus introducing competition. Adjustment of the system of education to the on-going transformation in society, namely the creation of a developed democratic state. Provision of an educational system with highly qualified teachers and engineers engaged in teaching, upgrading the status of pedagogical activity. Reorganization of the structure and content of continuous education in light of the social and economic development of the country, the needs of society, and the latest achievements of science, culture, engineering and technology. Introduction of effective forms and methods of the moral evelopment of students. Introduction of a new system to fairly assess the quality of education, certification and accreditation of educational establishments. Creation of a regulatory framework and also physical facilities to ensure the required level and quality of education, guarantees for functioning and sustainable development, raising the priority of the education system in the new social and economic conditions. Ensuring the effective integration of education, science and production; Introduction of effective mechanisms with the aim of improving the financing of the educational system, attract private funding, including foreign investment. Development of mutually beneficial international cooperation in the area of education. Stages of reforming the continuous education system Achievement of the targetcreation of a perfect system of continuous education based on the rich legacy of the nations and international values, achievements of modern culture, economics, science, engineering and technology, formation of a perfect generation.
Second stage (20012005)large-scale First stage (19972001)creation of the Third stage (2005 onwards)improveimplementation of the National Prolegal, personnel, scientific, methodo lo ment and further development of the gram, its adjustment, taking into congi cal, financial and material conditions system of continuous education based with the aim of reforming and develop- sideration both accumulated experi- on analysis and generalization of the acence in labor market development and ing the system of continuous education cumulated experience, in accordance real social and economic conditions. while preserving the existing positives with the prospects of social and economic development of the country. Further strengthening of resources, personnel and the information resources of educational institutions, sufficient provision of the newest textbooks, advanced teaching and information technologies. Improvement of the content and organization of continuous education taking into consideration the changing needs of society, the social and economic development of the country and world experience.
Structural transformation and radical Complete transition to compulsory renovation of educational content. general secondary and secondary voTraining and upgrading the qualificacational education, based on nationtions of teachers and engineers teaching al standards, as well as differentiated at educational establishments to meet teaching, taking into consideration the modern requirements. abilities of students. Creation and introduction of national Staffing educational establishmnets educational standards. with highly qualified teachers. Elaboration and introduction of a new Continued improvement of the faciligeneration of textbooks, teaching mateties of educational establishments, prorials, didactic and IT provision of the eduvision of quality textbooks, advanced cation process. teaching and information technologies. Creation of the relevant material infra- Efficient use of all mechanisms to form a structure and facilities, academic, methmarket for educational services. odological and personnel base for secondary special vocational education. Improvement of the system and me cha nisms for education fi nan cing, crea tion of a competitive en vironment in edu ca tional service provision. Introduction of a rating system to assess the performance of educational establishments, as well as the achievements of students.
ondary, secondary special and vocational education, were to prepare graduates forlife, active participation inthelabour market, andalso create amarket foreducational services. This compulsory 12-year education system entailed a choice for 9th grade graduates to choose between studying at academic lyceums or vocational colleges in accordance with their abilities. Since the general curricula of lyceums andcolleges areequivalent, allgraduates have theright tocontinue their education ontothenext stage. Thus, thenewsystem ofeducation hasbeen brought forth toform awell educated individual able tothink independently, having high spiritual andmoral qualities, well-bred andprofessional.
Box 3.1. Evaluation ofeducation reforms undertaken inUzbekistan Thedevelopment oftheNational Program ofPersonnel Training isanabsolutely scientific andinnovative approach andsolution totheproblem. Theexperience ofUzbekistan inimplementing this national model ofpersonnel training will become theknow-how ofthePresident oftheRepublic ofUzbekistan. This canbecalled anexport, which canbeused incountries with similar social, economic and demographic conditions, as well as similar cultural andhistorical traditions andcustoms V.A.Shukshunov, President oftheInternational Academy ofSciences ofHigh Schools
Source: Neweratime tostudy inanewway, Pravda Vostoka daily newspaper. May, 29, 2007
Also much hasbeen done inschools toimprove textbook provision, aswell as in transferring teaching from theCyrillic alphabet toLatin. Atwo-tier system ofuniversity education wasintroduced atthis stage, including masters degree andbachelors degree courses andstudents being selected on the basis of tests. A large program called Umid (Hope) was introduced, according towhich thebest students were selected andgiven grants togetMasters and Bachelors degrees at overseas universities. The system of university financing waschanged with some students starting tostudy onafeebasis. During the third stage, based on the experience already gained in implementing theNational Program ofPersonnel Training, thecurricula andstudy plans of vocational colleges andacademic lyceums were improved andprogram indicators were adjusted. Thesystem ofhigher education started torecruit notonly onagrant (scholarship) basis butalso onacontract orfeepaying basis, with anincreasing proportion ofstudents studying onafeebasis. Thefourth stage ofreform wasfocused onradical changes carried out in the system ofschool education. In2006 anewprogram ofschool education development wasadopted, which envisaged: Improvement inthecurricula andstudy plans ofschool education, creation of new textbooks andteaching materials; Increasing teachers wages andintroducing aspecial directors fund tocreate financial incentives toassist inmotivating theteachers ofgeneral schools;
Upgrading ofschool facilities, construction ofnewschools, capital renovation, repair of schools, and provision of new facilities and equipment, including the widescale creation ofcomputer labs; Development ofsports, including atgeneral schools. Tohelp achieve these school reforms, aspecial School Education Fund wasestablished along with theChildrens Sports Fund. This stage ofreform istobecompleted in2009, when theobjectives focused atreforming thesystem ofschool education andsecondary special vocational education will befully achieved. 3.1.3. Governance oftheEducation System System ofcontinuous education. Asaresult ofthereforms thesystem ofcontinuous education consists ofthefollowing institutions providing educational services: ## Pre-school education (forages 37)bykindergartens, both public andprivate; ## General secondary education (forages 715)mainly bystate schools, providing free services, aswell asbyasmall number ofprivate schools, providing services onafeebasis; ## Secondary special, vocational education (for ages 1618)by state vocational colleges andacademic lyceums, providing free services; ## Higher education (after graduation from asecondary special vocational educational establishment)byuniversities andinstitutes; ## postgraduate educationatuniversities, institutes, academies providing education (Banking and Finance, Tax, Public Administration), business schools under universities andacademies; ## extracurricular education (while studying atschool)independently and at school; Table 3.1 Dynamics ofenrolment ineducational establishments intheRepublic ofUzbekistan during theperiod ofimplementing theNational Program ofPersonnel Training (per10,000people)
Education stages 1998 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 People Growth rates 2000, 2006, 2006, 2006 as% as% as% of1998 of2000 of1998
Total Including: General schools System of secondary vocational education System ofhigher education System ofpostgraduate education
2347 2424 2410 2480 105 65 1.8 130 74 1.6 177 82 1.5 214 91 1.3
2427 2355 2257 2135 103.3 265 99 1.1 302 101 0.9 337 106 0.9
88.1
91.0
402 123.7 308.8 381.8 107 112.5 145.2 163.4 0.9 91.2 56.1 51.2
Source: State Committee onStatistics
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## raising thelevel ofprofessional skills andpersonnel training (during thewhole career)atuniversities, institutions, specialized institutions forupgrading professional skills, andbusiness schools; ## home-based education andself-study. Governance. Thesystem ofeducation isgoverned bytheDepartment operating under theCabinet ofMinisters. This Department isresponsible forthedevelopment oftheoverall social sector, including theimplementation ofreforms inthesystem ofeducation. TheCabinet ofMinisters bears direct responsibility forthegovernance ofsome higher educational establishments such astheUniversity ofWorld Economy andDiplomacy, Islamic University, aswell asbranches ofrecognized overseas universities (Moscow State University, Westminster University). Atthesame time, some functions related totheadministrative management of theeducation system areperformed bycentral economic agencies such as the Ministry ofFinance (system offinancing), Ministry ofEconomy (program offacilities development, demographic forecasts, forecast andprograms forenrolment toeducational establishments, including feepaying andothers). Twoministries, theMinistry ofPublic Education andtheMinistry ofHigher and Secon dary Special Education, areresponsible forthegovernance ofeducational establishments. TheMinistry ofPublic Education isresponsible fortheactivity ofpre-school, extracurricular educational establishments and general education schools. In addition, five higher educational establishments and16institutions providing upgrading courses forteachers arealso under thejurisdiction ofthis Ministry. TheMinistry hasacentral office aswell asregional, district andcity branches ofpublic education, which provide methodological supervision over theactivity ofthese educational establishments. Prior to2007 these agencies provided thefinancing ofthese educational establishments. Since 2007 this financing function hasbeen fully transferred tothecorresponding branches oftheMinistry ofFinance. The Ministry of Higher Education bears responsibility for the activity of educational establishments providing secondary special vocational andhigher education. Aspecial Centre with local branches hasbeen established with theaimofcontrolling theactivity ofthese educational establishments. The Ministry of Labour and Social Security is responsible for some programs aimed atprofessional training andraising thelevel ofemployees professional skills. Inmost countries only oneministry isresponsible foreducation, mainly focusing onschool education. Secondary special andhigher educational establishments aremainly self-governed. Theexistence oftwoministries responsible foreducation isnecessitated atthis stage because: ## oftheshare ofchildren ofpre-school andschool ageasaproportion ofthewhole population (31.5%). Itisnecessary togovern alarge number ofgeneral schools (about 10,000) inwhich upto6million schoolchildren areenrolled, andkindergartens (over 6,000) catering for 562,200 children. Over half a million teachers andeducators areemployed; ## thereforms inthesystem ofschool andsecondary special professional education have notbeen completed. These reforms entail ahuge amount ofmanagement, intellectual andhuman effort; ## the self-governance of universities is restricted by the necessity of upgrading thequality ofeducation.
3.2. Overview ofthemajor types ofeducation inUzbekistan 3.2.1. Pre-school education. Pre-school education isthefirst stage ofthecontinuous education system. Itensures theformation ofhealthy, developed children, arouses their inclination tolearning, preparing them forsystematic study. Pre-school education isprovided tochildren until they areaged 67atstate orprivate pre-school educational establishments, andalso within thefamily. Theobjective ofpre-school education istoprepare children forschool studies, toform healthy, developed andfree children, reveal their abilities, todevelop aninterest ineducation, including systematic learning. Pre-school education, irrespective ofitsforms andways togetit, solves thefollowing tasks: ## Targeted andsystematic preparation ofchildren forschool studies, development oftheir individual abilities andgifts; ## Informing children about the moral and cultural values of their nation as well asofthewhole humankind; intellectual development ofchildren; ## Formation ofafoundation ofhigh spirituality andmorality; ## Strengthening thephysical andpsychological health ofchildren. Public and charity agencies, mahallas and international funds also participate in the achievement of these objectives and the implementation of these tasks ofpre-school education. Pre-school educational establishments. State andprivate educational establishments aretoassist parents andsociety inbringing upphysically healthy, fully developed children, ready tostudy atschools. Pre-school educational establishments are created taking into account the demographic, economic andother specific features ofdifferent regions. Pre-school education inUzbekistan isprovided inthestate language (Uzbek), aswell asinthelanguages ofethnic groups where there isaconcentration ofthat population: Karakalpak, Russian, Tajik, Kyrgyz andKazakh. Pre-school educational establishments aredivided into thefollowing types according totheir specific activity: ## nursery, nursery-kindergarten, kindergarten, home-kindergarten (both asanindependent institution andasabranch); ## institution ofpre-school instruction andprimary education (kindergarten-school); ## pre-school educational establishment with one or several specializations (language, art, sports andothers); ## specialized kindergarten catering forspecial needs childrenthose with problems ofphysical andpsychological development; ## rehabilitation kindergarten for children with poor health, providing medical andother pre ven ta tive treatment; ## kindergarten combining thecharacteristics ofmore than onetypewith several specific directions (general, special needs andrehabilitation types indifferent combinations); ## Childrens homes. Theworking hours ofpre-school educational establishments andthelength oftime that children stay atthem aredetermined bynational requirements, byindividual charNational Human Development Report 85
ters, andbased ontheagreement between theeducational establishment andtheparents, aswell asthefounders (owners). There arespecialized educational establishments forchildren with health problems. Children areenrolled tothese institutions onthebasis ofamedical certificate ofapsychological, medical and pedagogical commission, established by the local education andhealthcare authorities. Thetask ofproviding continuity ofpre-school, school andgeneral secondary education isstill anongoing one. With this inmind there have been established 205educational complexes known askindergarten-schools. Non-traditional forms ofpre-school education such ashome-based andsmall kindergartens, various centres forearly instruction ofchildren ofpre-schooling age, andSunday schools arebeing developed. Thenumber ofgroups innon-traditional pre-school establishments totalled 13,744, inwhich over 123,600children arebeing instructed. Thecontent oftheeducational andinstruction process inpre-school educational establishments, irrespective oftheir ownership form, isdetermined bytheBasic National Program. Pre-school educational institutions have anoption either tochoose for their activity any curriculum from the set of curricula approved by the Ministry of Public Education, or to elaborate their own curricula based on the model onewhich should then beapproved bytheMinistry ofPublic Education. Access to pre-school education. There are 6,413 state-owned pre-school educational establishments in Uzbekistan, with the total number of children aged 17covered bythem being over 562,200. Within thelast fewyears thenumber ofchildren enrolled insuch establishments hasincreased (by2.8% in2005) upfrom 16.2 in1999 to19.0% ofthetotal number ofchildren in2005. Table 3. 2 Trends inpre-school educational establishments inUzbekistan (19972006)
1997 Total Number ofestablishments Number ofchildren covered (thousand) Nonstate-owned pre-school establishments Number ofestablishment Number ofchildren (thousand) Outofthem private: Number ofestablishments Number ofchildren (thousand) Percentage ofchildren atpre-school establishments as% ofchildren ofrespective age
2000 6,704 624.6
2001 6,865 642.5
2004 6,603 575.1
2005 6,495 565.6
2006 6,413 562.2
7,546 681.2
2,405 143.7 17.6
588 31.6 1 18.2
407 22.5 1 19.4
85 4.0 7 0.1 19.3
72 3.5 15 0.3 19.0
57 3.0 12 0.2 18.8
Thenumber ofpre-school educational establishments andthenumber ofchildren enrolled sharply declined after 1991.26 Themain reasons were:
26 In1991, 9,834 preschool establishments enrolled 1,339,500 children, including 14,500 children at the age of 1.5 to3 years enrolled at173 pre-schools. Thecoverage ofthis pre-schooling network was35.1%.
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## Changed national policy towards family (home) upbringing ofpre-school age children andinstruction atpre-school educational establishments. Thesharp reduction inthenumber ofchildren aged upto3 atnurseries ofUzbekistan was caused byahigh sickness rate andwide-spread infectious diseases among children ofanearly age. With theaimoforganizing home-based upbringing ofsmall children, mothers were given partly paid maternity leave totake care of children until they are 2 years old. After this mothers can continue bringing upthechild at home until he/sheisaged 3, having theguarantee ofapreserved job; ## Reductions in state subsidies provided to support children at pre-school educational establishments andtherefore increased fees paid bytheparents. Families having several children ofpre-school age faced financial difficulties in trying topayforservices provided bymany pre-school establishments. Forexample, according toasurvey conducted bytheMinistry ofPublic Education insixregions ofthecountry, 86.4% ofthepopulation isinterested inpre-school education. However, duetofinancial andother reasons 74.4% ofthepopulation cannot afford theservices provided bythepre-schooling network. Enrolment isespecially lowintheregions ofKashkadarya (11.7%), Surkhandarya (12.4%) andKhorezm (16.1%); ## Altered demographic situation with a significant reduction of the birth rate, asaresult ofwhich thedemand fortheservices ofpre-school educational establishments dramatically declined; ## Reduction in jobs, and as a result a growth in the number of women unable to find work. These women then stayed at home and took care of their preschool agechildren; ## Concerns amongst parents about the falling quality of pre-schooling. The level ofprovision ofdevelopmental toys isonly 53%. There isalso alack ofmodern childrens andmethodological literature, manuals forclasses, andtechnical teaching aids. Public funds arenotallocated forthepurchase ofstationary which restricts theability ofclasses todomodelling, painting, anddesigning. Theimplementation ofamodel program forthepreschool network Child ofthethird millennium is supported neither materially, nor technologically, nor methodically. Levels ofprovision ofsports equipment stand atjust 41%, sports areas atjust 78% andonly 20.4% pre-schools have gyms. There isabsolutely nomodern sports equipment forpre-school aged children. Alltheequipment used forsports classes ishome-made bytheinstructors; ## Theinsufficiency offinancial resources allocated topre-schools especially inrural areas. Forexample, inthe2006 financial year thereal amount offunds allocated perchild topreschool establishments averaged less than 723soum perday. This figure ranges indifferent regions from 376 to741soum innursery groups, and from 550 to 1214 in kindergarten groups. Due to the difference in costs offood perchild indifferent regions, thequality offood also differs significantly. In2006, duetothelack offunds, pre-schools bought only 83.5% oftheplanned meat, 72.2% of butter, 65.6% of sugar, and 76% of potato and other vegetables. Asaresult, children didnotgetsufficient amounts ofdairy products, fruit, andasforfish they donotgetitatall. These factors affect thephysical andpsychological health ofchildren ofpre-school age, andthreaten theimplementation ofthenational education standards.
The need for pre-school education is partly met by special preparation programs organized at pre-schools in the form of part-time groups. Currently there are over 30,000 such groups in the country, where children study for 34 hours adaytoreceive theknowledge andskills necessary forschool. Within theframework ofaUNICEF project some special methodological manuals have been elaborated aimed atproviding such educational services. Also, non-traditional forms ofpre-school education arebeing developed, such ashome-based andsmall kindergartens, various centres fortheearly development ofchildren atpre-school age, andSunday schools. Thenumber ofnon-traditional pre-schools totalled 13,744, inwhich 123,600children aretrained. Measures toupgrade thequality ofpre-schooling. Theeducational content inpre-school educational establishments, irrespective oftheir form, isdetermined by the Basic national program. Pre-school educational establishments can either choose anycurriculum from asetofcurricula approved bytheMinistry ofPublic Education, orelaborate their owncopyrighted curriculum onthebasis oftheBasic national program, which should beapproved bytheMinistry ofPublic Education. The National Program of Personnel Training envisages a number of measures toincrease thequality ofeducation atpre-schools: Firstly, priority training ofqualified professionals, both teachers andinstructors. Itisimportant that pre-school children beinstructed bythebest teachers, motivated intheir work, andwhole-heartedly caring forthechildren. Effective pedagogical methods are gradually being introduced into the education and instruction process, ensuring the development of childrens abilities, skills andinterests, andmeeting their growing needs. Pre-schools laythefoundations for the spiritual and moral upbringing of pre-school aged children based ontherich cultural, historical andspiritual heritage ofthenation andvalues common tothewhole ofhumankind. Itisplanned toelaborate andproduce modern teaching aids, technical devices, toys andgames forchildren. Some manuals andrecommendations have been prepared forpreschool instructors andparents. Local authorities provide some incentives forpre-schools within thelegal framework. Inaddition, they take care oftheproduction andprocurement ofgoods forchildren andpre-schools located intheir regions. Departments, enterprises, organizations, various funds andother participants of the educational process canbefounders ofpre-school educational establishments, providing material, technical orfinancial aid, andorganizing theproduction ofsome goods required forchildren atpre-school ageandforthepre-school network. Inaccordance with Resolution oftheCabinet ofMinisters oftheRepublic ofUzbekistan ofJune 24, 1999 #313 Onmeasures aimed atcreating anddeveloping the private pre-school educational network there arenowways ofwidening thenetwork of private pre-schools operating onacommercial basis andensuring a high quality ofservice. In2006 thenumber ofprivate kindergartens was12. Pre-school education provided athome. IntheRepublic ofUzbekistan family upbringing isconsidered tobeanecessary element ofpre-school education, alongside education provided bystate-owned establishments27. Government and
27 Inaccordance with thearticle 31 oftheLawOnEducation parents (orthose performing their functions) aretoprotect therights andinterests ofchildren, andareresponsible tosociety andthenation fortheir upbringing, irrespective oftheways ofgetting quality pre-school education andpreparation forsystematic learning atschool. According toarticle 34 parents canbecalled toaccount fortheviolation ofthis Law.
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society seek toprovide thenecessary organizational andmethodological support tofamilies. Itiswell-known that thefamily isthemain contributor tothesocialization of a child. Inthefamily such values asrespect forparents, forones ownhome, and for the motherland areformed. Inthefamily children getacquainted with their culture, national traditions andmoral values forthefirst time. Thedevelopment ofthinking, independence andresponsibility forones actions arerooted inthefamily upbringing. According tothelaws ofUzbekistan parents (orwhoever performs their function) aretoprovide fortheoverall protection andharmonious development ofchildren. Itisthefamily that creates theconditions fortheemotional well-being ofchildren andthefamily bears primary responsibility fortheir preparation forschool. Pre-school education inthefamily canbeprovided either onanindependent basis, or children can occasionally attend one or several state-owned pre-school (extra-curricula) educational establishments. With theaimofsupporting families thegovernment andsociety organize centres toprovide professional medical, psychological andpedagogical advice. Issues ofpre-school education arediscussed inperiodicals, radio andTVprograms. Special pedagogical literature isavailable insufficient copies. Local authorities use various ways and means to encourage families to provide the highest level ofpreparation forschool studies. Parents canreceive quality consultations onallissues ofpre-school education. Children aged 17 receiving pre-school education infamilies oratpre-schools areeligible forannual medical examinations. 3.2.2. General Secondary Education The9year general secondary education inUzbekistan iscompulsory andfree. Itisdivided into primary (14grades) andsecondary (59grades) education. Education atthe10th and11th grades hasgradually been shifted tosecondary special vocational educational establishments. Itwill sharply decline ingeneral schools during the2007/2008 academic year andcompletely stop after 2009. Table 3.3 Trends atgeneral schools, byeducation stages*
School year Number ofpupils (thousand) Including: Pupils of14grades Pupils of59grades Pupils of1011grades 2004/2005 6111.1 2383.3 3143.2 584.6 2005/2006 5928.7 2277.2 3146.4 505.1 2006/2007 5687.9 2164.8 3106.0 417.1
Note: * pupils with restricted mental andphysical abilities arenotincluded Source: State Committee onStatistics
Theaimofgeneral secondary education isasfollows: ## Formation of knowledge and skills in accordance with the national education standards; ## Adaptation ofchildren tosociety anddevelopment ofindependent thinking;
## Formation ofaharmoniously developed personality, citizen ofhis/hermotherland; ## Instilling afeeling ofdevotion totheprinciples ofindependence anddemocracy. Primary education inUzbekistan iscompulsory, free andgeneral. Itmeans that allchildren ofschool ageattend general orspecialized (forspecial needs children both physical andmental) primary school. Theprimary education covers 100% of children oftherespective agegroup. After primary schooling children should have reading, writing andcalculating skills. Pupils areintroduced tosuch things astheoretical thinking andtheskills ofself-control. They acquire knowledge instandards ofspeech, basics ofpersonal hygienic, healthy life-style and behaviour in society. The quality and content of subjects at primary school areflexible inrespect todifferent types ofschools andlearning conditions. At primary schools the differentiation of teaching and educational activity according totheabilities ofchildren isachieved inthefollowing ways: ## Options within theeducational process; ## Rates oflearning; ## Opportunity tochoose in-depth study ofsome subjects; ## Adaptation ofstudy assignments totheindividual abilities ofchildren; ## Organization oflevelling classes andgroups. Allfirst-form pupils areprovided with thenecessary newtextbooks andstationary free ofcharge. Since 1996 pupils ofthe19grades from needy families areannually provided with sets ofschool equipment andwinter clothes free ofcharge, allcosts being covered from thegovernment budget. Primary andsecondary education inUzbekistan areclosely interrelated interms ofboth organization andcontent. Each general school provides teaching atboth stages ofthegeneral secondary education. This enables full monitoring ofthenumber ofgraduates ofprimary schools andalso continuity inthesystem ofgeneral secondary education. General secondary education is the logical continuation of primary education, though ithasadifferent content andincorporates different methods of teaching. Secondary education ensures theformation ofthepupils personality, their preferences, interests and ability tomake choices insociety. Secondary school pupils have a systematic knowledge inthebasics ofthesciences. During their studies they become broad-minded and develop abilities increative thinking. Through sharing knowledge on the spiritual and cultural heritage ofthenation, teachers inculcate a responsible attitude towards thesurrounding world. Secondary school provides schoolchildren with more opportunities for independent study. The structure of secondary education content includes both compulsory and optional subjects. Thecompulsory component is determined by the national educational standards which sets theminimum requirement foreach educational level. This isguaranteed bythegeneral secondary educational establishments. This component is settaking into account theneeds ofsociety aswell astheinterests andneeds of theindividual. The optional component is determined on the basis of the pupils needs andabilities, available facilities, staffing, andtherequirements ofsocial andeconomic development oftheparticular area where theschool islocated. Thevolume ofthis additional study load isdetermined bynorms fixed bytheMinistry ofPublic Education.
Teaching andthegeneral education activity ofschools isbased ontheBasic study plan andeducation curricula ofgeneral secondary education approved bytheMinistry ofPublic Education. The list of subjects, educational curricula, and length of study time are determined bythenational education standards ofgeneral secondary education aswell asbytheBasic study plan. General secondary education isprovided onafull-time basis. Attheendofthestudies graduates receive state certificates andthose whohave thebest results receive certificates with excellence. Schoolchildren cantake part inexternal studies which iscertified onthebasis oftheRegulation onexternal studies, approved bytheMinistry ofPublic Education. Accessibility ofschool education, itsinfrastructure andfacilities. The accessibility ofschool education isensured notonly bythefact that itisfree, but also bythepossibility tostudy inones native language. Also, asufficient number of schools and their convenient location are very important for attendance. There are9,800dayschools, including 2,100 inurban areas and7,700 inrural areas. Thetotal number ofschoolchildren inthe2006/2007 academic year was 5,707,200pupils, including 1,805,700 inurban areas and3,901,500 inrural areas. Table 3.4 Trends ingeneral schools andtheir pupils 20002006
2000/2001 Total Number ofschool Number ofpupils (thousand) Proportion ofschools with more than oneshift 9,726 6017.6 Including: urban rural 2,065 1922.5 7,661 4095.1 Total 9,796 5707.2 2006/2007 Including: urban rural 2,085 1805.7 7,711 3901.5 Total 100.7 94.8 2006/2007 as% of2000/2001 Including: urban Rural 101.0 93.9 100.7 95.3
73.6
76.1
72.7
72.6
73.8
72.0
98.6
97.0
99.0
Thefall inthenumber ofpupils atgeneral secondary schools ismainly related to the transition tosecondary specialized vocational education. Thedeclining birth rate also hadsome impact onthis process. Thetotal number ofschools, though, has not recently decreased, onthecontrary ithasgrown. Asaresult, thepercentage of children studying indifferent shifts wasreduced from 73.6 in2000 down to72.6 in 2006. Thenumber ofschools instructing inlanguages other than thestate language also grew.
Table 3.5 Trends oflanguage ofinstruction

Language 2003/2004 Number ofschools Number ofpupils (thousand) 2004/2005 Number ofschools Number ofpupils (thousand) 2005/2006 Number ofschools Number ofpupils (thousand) 2006/2007 Number ofschools Number ofpupils (thousand)
Uzbek Russian Karakal. Kazakh 8,765 5506.3 8,801 5440.8 8858 5299.0 8,827 5075.3 780 284.1 753 277.0 760 270.1 760 282.6 375 144.6 376 134.6 383 128.5 383 116.3 555 140.6 544 127.4 531 115.7 522 99.1
Tajik 307 116.3 282 101.8 261 90.5 258 91.1
Kyrgyz 69 15.5 67 14.4 63 12.4 61 12.2
Turk m. 56 14.1 56 15.0 50 12.4 48 11.0
Inatotal of760schools instruction isprovided inRussian andthelanguages of other ethnic groups (Russian-Uzbek, Russian-Karakalpak, andothers). Out of them in 93schools children aretaught only inRussian. Theopportunity tostudy inones ownnative language creates favourable conditions forgetting agood education. Atthesame time, thequality ofschool facilities hasbeen poor sofar. Atthebeginning ofthe2006/2007 academic year 37.3% ofschools were housed inbuildings constructed forother purposes, while thebuildings of252schools (2.6% ofthetotal) were inemergency accommodation. Many schools didnothave centralized heating systems, running water andgas. Over 27% ofpupils studied in23shifts. Theproportion ofschools with sufficient teaching aids andlaboratory equipment wasjust 29%, andonly 4.6% hadsufficient computer equipment. Just 48.4% ofschools hadgyms, andthose with sufficient sports equipment andinventory were just 23%. Theproblem wasespecially acute inrural areas. This situation necessitated the adoption of a large-scale and innovative (first in the former Soviet Union) Program of School Education Development. According to this program, during the 20042009 period it was planned to build 325newschools, toreconstruct 2,313schools andtoconduct major androutine repairs at5,838schools. This wasthelargest construction project inthehistory ofthecountry. In accordance with this program in 20042005 129 new schools were constructed for35,800pupils, andmajor repairs were carried outon286schools for 112,800 pupils. Inaddition, local authorities andsponsors financed construction and repair works at380schools foratotal number of209,500pupils, allocating over 25.1billion soum. By2007, into thethird year oftheprogram, thenumber ofschools having drinking water increased from 70% in2004 to80%, having gasgrew from 52.8% to59.8%, having communications rose from 48% to59%, andhaving sewage grew from 43% to47%. In2006alone, 409schools were connected with drinking water, 318schools were provided with gas, and276schools were linked tothetelephone network.
Table 3.6 Improvement ofschool infrastructure andfacilities in20052006

Types ofimprovement Newconstruction Capital reconstruction Capital repair Number schools students schools students schools students 20042005 129 35,798 286 112,756 436 246,628 actual 2006 65 23,621 388 149,195 525 278,700 2007 62 20,390 497 188,181 676 378,934 planned 20052009 299 108,193 2,305 777,831 3,339 1,698,949
*data oncapital repair isonly available for2005 Source: State Committee onStatistics
Within theframework ofthis program between 20042006 schools bought furniture, teaching aids and laboratory equipment, computers and sports inventory worth over 100billion soum (ortheequivalent toabout 100million USD). Asaresult, bythebeginning of2007 theprovision ofphysics laboratories with special teaching andlaboratory equipment reached 40%, ofchemistry laboratories 38%, biology laboratories 37%, andcomputer classes 38%.
Box 3.2. Indirect benefits oftheschool education development program In order to provide the necessary equipment for schools, new modern production of special school furniture, teaching aids andlaboratory equipment wasestablished. Here aresome oftheindicators: ## Thenumber ofcompanies producing specialized furniture, laboratory andsports equipment grew by22.3times, while production wasestablished inmore than 10provinces; ## Production volume increased by1.3times, whereas imports oflaboratory andspecialized equipment declined by2325%; ## Over 170types offurniture andequipment were produced locally anditisexpected that in2007 theprocess oflocalization will increase byafactor of1.2.
Theprovision oftextbooks wassignificantly improved. Forthis purpose in 2004 2006 the government allocated 46.4billion soum. Schools bought 55.2million copies of textbooks and school books, which upgraded the provision of textbooks to the new generation from 82.1% in 2004 up to 92.1% in 2006. Within this period 1,435titles were published in7languages ofinstruction, with renewed content andquality printing. Access toschool education forallgroups ofchildren isachieved inpart bytheavailability of specialized educational establishments (subsidiary schools), where children with special needs (physical and psychological abilities) are instructed. Children with limited abilities andpoor health areeducated atsanatorium type boarding schools. Thequality ofeducation andavailability ofqualified teachers isthemost important factor inschool education reform. Within theframework oftheNational program ofschool educa tion therelevant agencies elaborated newandimproved
national education standards (NES) and curricula. Since the 2004/2005 academic year this newimproved NESandmodernized curri cu la hasbeen piloted initially in29experimental centres. Inaddition, forallsubjects, theauthorities organized experimental classes invarious regions. Well-known scientists andleading specialists inteaching methods, along with teachers specializing in innovative teaching methods, were attracted from different regions oftherepublic tothework carried outatthese centres. Atthefirst stage oftheNESandcurricula testing 31subjects were developed inthelight ofthis experience andinthenewinstruction languages. Thesecond stage oftheexperimental work aimed atimproving theNESandcurricula continued during the2005/2006 academic year with 81subjects organized bysubject andlanguages ofinstruction in45experimental classes. Itshould benoted that among thesubjects tested were 26subjects forschools with instruction inRussian andother minority languages. Theresults oftheexperimental centres were approved bytheboard oftheMinistry ofPublic Education andrecommended forthegeneral schools nationally. During the2005/2006 school year pilots ofthese newNESandcurricula were launched inanadditional 50subjects compared tothe2004/2005 school year. Systematic monitoring of the curricula and the NES pilots shows that the level of childrens knowledge and skills is rising in all subjects, grades and instruction languages when compared with the requirements of the former version oftheNESandcurricula. Thus, attheendofthe2005/2006 academic year thelevel ofacquired knowledge andskills inexperimental classes accounted wasat87.6%, which is2.4% higher than intheprevious year. During the2006/2007 academic year thethird stage ofthis piloting waslaunched. Currently 53subjects at54experimental centres arebeing tested out. Theintroduction ofthenational education standards into theeducational process hasproduced positive results. These improvements were influenced bythegradual improvement intheschool infrastructure and facilities, as well as the modernization of the NES and curricula. Theprovision ofschools with modern textbooks wasofparticular importance, aswell astheapplication ofnewpedagogical andcommunication technologies. Forthedevelopment ofchildrens abilities andtalents theauthorities established specialized schools andclasses forgreater in-depth study ofsome school subjects. The organization of such activities in both general and specializing schools with focus onafewparticular subjects isoneofthetools used with theaimofraising theoverall quality ofeducation. Table 3.7 Numbers ofschools andpupils with in-depth study ofsome subjects
Number ofspecial schools andlyceums Number ofpupils (thousand) Number ofschools with in-depth study ofsome subjects Number ofpupils (thousand)
2003/2004 355 153.6 3,116 594.0
2004/2005 376 160.3 2,853 473.0
2005/2006 265 115.1 2,341 383.1
2006/2007 245 116.1 1,845 291.0
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Schools carry outalotofgroundwork insearching for, selecting andteaching gifted children. Such children areprovided with special (including copyrighted) curricula designed especially for them, additional scientific and methodological literature as well as computers. Gifted and talented children can be given individual study programs. Theresults ofUzbekistans schoolchildren atvarious international contests testify totheimprovement inthequality ofeducation. Between 20042006 118pupils ofUzbekistan participated ininternational competitions andwon36medals and 41diplomas. Itshould benoted that recently theprestige ofschools andteachers hasgrown. Thenumber ofapplicants topedagogical institutions increased from 36,205 to49,055 within a3-year period. Aspecial role inreforming general secondary education isplayed bytheeducational establishments (schools) inrural areas. Byimplementing educational programs, they execute anumber ofspecific functions andobjectives related tothesocial andeconomic development ofrural areas. Many instruction hours areused inrural schools toorganize optional classes related to agriculture andwork training. Teaching andthe education process in rural areas has improved significantly. The gap in pupils knowledge between rural schools andurban schools narrowed insuch subjects asmathematics, physics, native language andforeign languages. Work training organized forhigh-school pupils atplots ofland allocated to the schools bythelocal authorities canbeconsidered asapositive experience. Atthesame time, thequality ofeducation atschools where instruction is in the state language isaffected bythelack ofcertain types ofliterature, including textbooks, fiction, andbooks onsocial andpolitical issues written inthenewLatin alphabet. As a result, many schoolchildren donothave theopportunity tobroaden their understanding oftheworld byreading books additional totheschool curricula. There are big divergences inthequality ofeducation indifferent schools not only within regions ofthecountry, buteven within oneregion. Therole played by the school director is especially important. Heorsheistheperson whoorganizes thework oftheprofessional teachers. There isanational certification toassess the professional qualities of school directorstheir abilities tomanage andlead the staff. Theresults oftherecent certification show that among directors not everybody meets these requirements. Out of9,601school directors whowere certified in 2006 just 3,459 (36%) mettherequirements, 2617 (27.3%) were certified conditionally, and 1,378 (14.4%) of directors showed avery lowlevel ofknowledge andassuch were notcertified. There isstill alack ofteachers, especially inrural schools. Atthebeginning of the 20062007 school year, schools lacked atotal of1,455teachers offoreign languages and551teachers ofmathematics. Currently 141,900teachers donothave ahigher education (31.4%), including 15,800teachers (3.5%) teaching oneofthemajor subjects such asnative language andliterature, mathematics, physics, chemistry, history, fundamentals ofthestate andlaw, foreign languages, geography andbiology. Rural schools arestill theweak link intheeducational process where teachers with a higher education make uponly 66% ofthetotal, while forcities this figure is76%. There theprimary school teachers aremainly trained atcolleges rather than athigher educational institutions. This isaserious drawback since psychologists have proven that thefoundation forthewhole human life islaid inprimary school.
Inorder toresolve these problems theauthorities created asystem toform areserve for future school directors and ensure their gradual upgrading of qualifications atspecially tailored courses. Inaddition, currently animproved system ofsalary payment inthepublic education sector isbeing introduced. Teaching personnel have been given more rights andthepedagogical boards ofgeneral schools have become more independent. Amechanism fortransparent andfair payment toteachers isbeing introduced. TheDirectors Fund hasbeen established atallschools through which teachers work canberewarded. Teachers canreceive additional payments forthefollowing activities: ## Forclass tutoring andfortheregular checking ofstudents homework(up to 100% and50% oftheminimum salary respectively); ## Forhigh levels ofeducational andextra-curricula work with pupilsupto15% of thebasic wage rate ofthecorresponding qualification category; ## Forprofessionalism andsignificant contribution totheeducational process and good quality workupto25% ofthebasic wage rate ofthecorresponding qualification category. Between 2005 and2006 teachers salaries have grown byafactor ofalmost 1.9. This created amore effective wayof encouraging talented teachersthose who show devotion totheir profession, initiative andhigh levels ofprofessional skill. Better organization of the teaching load, carried out in compliance with educational standards, attracted newprofessionals into thepublic education sector. Theincrease of thebasic wage rates formanaging staff intheeducation system hadapositive impact ontheactivities ofmanaging staff atalllevels. A good system of training and upgrading qualifications has been established forteachers ofallschool subjects. Itisprovided at22higher education institutions ofthecountry. Tashkent State Pedagogical University named after Nizamiy isthecoordinating agency engaged indeveloping themethodology forteachers training. Theuniversity hascreated theconditions necessary forstudying andthen disseminating best practice aswell asforapplying thelessons learned. Table 3.8 Number ofteachers andtheir qualifications (20002006)
Thousand people 443.0 316.7 2000 As% of total 100 71.5 Thousand people 451.7 309.8 2006 As% of total 100 68.6 2006, as% of2000 102 97.8
Total Outofthem with higher education including: Inurban areas Total With higher education Inrural areas Total With higher education
114.7 89.9 328.3 226.8
100 78.4 100 69.1
115.8 88.2 335.8 221.6
100 76.2 100 66.0
101 98.1 102.3 97.7
96
Within theframework ofinvestment projects byinternational organizations such asDB, JBIC, FW andGZ, educational resource centres fordistance learning have been established in70selected schools and15institutes forteacher training. Asaresult ofthis work intraining qualified personnel andimproving theskills of tea chers, thequality ofteaching isconstantly improving. Thenumber ofteachers at ge ne ral schools is451,700 (full-timers), including 309,800 with ahigher education degree. Additional extra-curricula education. Inorder todevelop supplementary education forchildren andteenagers theGovernment oftheRepublic ofUzbekistan adopted anumber ofcomprehensive programs todevelop extra-curricula education, including sports, especially inrural areas. These programs give priority tothose sports which donotneed expensive sports equipment. Special attention wasalso paid to include children from needy families, orphans and the disabled. Governmental programs provided forthecreation ofsports grounds andbasic play areas ontheterritory ofeach district foreach local body ofself-governance (mahalla). In2006 anetwork of1,400childrens sports andextra-curricula educational institutions involved over 16% ofschool pupils from grades 19. Table 3.9 Number ofinstitutions ofsupplementary education forchildren andteenagers in20002005
I 581 190 130 108 65 88 530 311 2000 II III 32.8 487.6 14.0 205.8 7.0 5.1 4.7 2.0 95.5 72.5 79.8 34.0 261.2 70.3 6061 105.1 I 628 144 134 112 107 131 516 304 6192 2006 2005 as % of2000 II III I II III 26.2 551.2 108.1 79.9 113.0 7.2 157.0 75.8 51.4 76.3
Extra-curricula institutions-total Including: Clubs ofschoolchildren Centres of creative technical work Nature centres Centres ofchildrens creative work Others Number of sports schools for children and teenagers Number of art and music schools Number of groups of collective creative work for children and teenagers operating under clubs
5.3 115.2 103.1 3.8 79.9 103.7
75.7 120.6 74.5 110.2
6.9 139.6 164.6 146.8 174.9 3.0 59.5 148.9 150.0 175.0 298.6 39.7 97.8 97.4 97.7 102.2 114.3 56.5 93.1
INo; IINo of groups (thousand); IIINo of participants (thousand) Source: State Committee onStatistics
General schools have organized over 122,000groups andsections with agreat range of profiles and titles. Supplementary education is provided to more than 2.4million pupils (38%). Theproblem ofsupplementary education andchildrens leisure time isalso addressed by opening extended day groups. In 2006 such groups were opened at 2,854 schools, which covered 390,200 pupils of grades 19, including 147,800 inurban areas and242,400 inrural areas.
Preventative measures arealso undertaken toensure that young people do not get into trouble with thelaw. These measures include explanatory work inthemass media, aswell astargeted interventions forthemost atrisk children andteenagers, those deemed tobemost likely tobecome involved incrime. With thesupport ofthelocal authorities such families receive assistance at the local (mahalla) level. Members of the mahalla committees are usually older respected citizens (aksakals). Themahalla committees help to create afavourable environment inrural andurban areas, tosupport therole ofthefamily inbringing upyoung people, andtoprovide material aidtoneedy families andfamilies with many children. In89% ofmahallas (outofatotal of11,400) teachers work jointly with themahalla committees inorganizing extra-curricula work forschoolchildren intheir ownneighbourhood, which isseen asaneffective wayoforganizing theleisure time ofschoolchildren andproviding them with assistance ingetting additional education. At the same time, this system of supplementary extra-curricula education should befurther developed. Themain constraint isfinancial, andsofarthedemand forthese types ofservices isnothigh. 3.2.3. Secondary specialized vocational education General description ofsecondary specialized vocational education. Compulsory 3-year secondary specialized vocational education (SSVE) is an independent element intheoverall system ofcontinuous education. Itisprovided incompliance with thelaws oftheRepublic ofUzbekistan OnEducation andNational Program ofPersonnel Training. Though secondary specialized vocational education will only become compulsory asof2009, currently graduates ofsecondary general schools already have the right to choose the direction of their further studieswhether atanacademic lyceum oravocational college. Theobjective ofsecondary specialized vocational education isnotonly intensive intellectual development andin-depth study ofgeneral subjects, butalso preparing graduates tojoin thelabour market andproviding them with professional skills. Secondary specialized vocational education isprovided onafull-time basis, in two types ofeducational establishments: academic lyceums andvocational colleges. Academic lyceums are secondary specialized vocational educational establishments, providing a3-year education incompliance with thenational education standards. Lyceums arefocused onintensive intellectual development, adeep specialized andprofessionally-oriented education, taking into consideration thepupils interests andabilities. While studying atacademic lyceums pupils canchoose thedirection ofstudies (humanities, sciences, agriculture andothers). Academic lyceums areusually established under higher educational establishments inorder to involve qualified university teachers, andinsome cases useuniversity laboratories, equipment andlibraries. Toprovide in-depth, specialized education, academic lyceums caninvolve relevant research institutions, which canactaspatrons ofanacademic lyceum based on an agreement with theMinistry ofHigher andSecondary Specialized Education. Vocational colleges arethesecond type ofsecondary specialized vocational educational establishments providing a3-year education. Incompliance with thenational education standards these colleges provide secondary specialized vocation98 National Human Development Report
al education with in-depth development of professional skillstraining students inoneorseveral trades ofachosen profession. Local authorities, industry andother bodies canfunction astrustees toprovide support tothese vocational colleges andsome canalso have higher educational establishments astheir patrons. Implementation ofthis vocational andeducational curricula atvocational colleges takes place atboth thecollege andinindustry, onthebasis ofthenational education standards. Vocational colleges areequipped with up-to-date equipment asrequired by the relevant profession. Inusing such equipment students canacquire relevant special skills andwork experience. Theeducation andvocational curricula ofacademic lyceums andvocational colleges isprovided ona3-year basis. Attheendofeach year ofstudies students are tested inexams inorder toassess thestudents level ofknowledge andskills. Theacademic year isdivided into twoterms, with holidays ranging from 1012 weeks. Allclasses inlyceums andvocational colleges last for40minutes. When necessary, classes canbejoined into pairs. Upon completion students ofsecondary specialized vocational educational establishments areawarded adiploma ofsecondary specialized vocational education with thefollowing information: ## Foracademic lyceumsprofile ofstudies including academic specialization; ## Forvocational collegesawarding relevant professional qualification. Academic lyceums andvocational colleges provide asecondary specialized vocational education with which they cangoontofurther study orjoin thelabour market inaccordance with their acquired skills andprofession. Access tosecondary specialized vocational education. AsofJanuary 1, 2007 there were 1,055newsecondary specialized vocational educational establishments, including 99academic lyceums and953vocational colleges. Ofthese vocational colleges 296 arehoused innewly constructed buildings and628 arehoused inthebuildings offormer vocational schools having undergone major reconstruction including equipping them with modern teaching materials andlaboratories. Thetotal amount ofgovernment investment between 19982006 ontheinfrastructure andfacilities ofthesecondary specialized vocational education network was: ## Forconstruction andreconstruction981.3billion soum; ## Forprovision ofequipment78.5billion soum, andanadditional 113million USD from foreign investment; ## Forteaching materials11.4billion soum. Currently secondary specialized vocational educational establishments cater for 1,075,000students, outofwhich 1,021,900students (164,400 after the 11th grade) enrolled in 953 vocational colleges and 53,100 students enrolled in 99 academic lyceums. Thesecondary specialized vocational education network covers 62.8% ofthegraduates ofgeneral schools. Atthesame time, theaccess tovocational education isrestricted bythefollowing factors: Firstly, vocational colleges arenotalways located intheright places. Currently 684, ormore than half, ofthevocational colleges andalmost alloftheacademic lyceums arelocated incities. Asaresult graduates ofgeneral schools situated inrural
areas canencounter difficulties. Forwhile theeducation provided byvocational colleges isfree, students donotreceive scholarships andassuch there isanadditional expense forthose whohave tomove tothecity andlive indormitories. Secondly, theirrational specialization ofvocational colleges restricts thechoice pupils have of their profession. For example, most rural school graduates have tostudy atthecolleges located close tothem butthemajority ofthecolleges inrural areas specialize inagriculture. While initially this mayseem logical, given theimportance to the economy of agriculture (25%), in fact the reforms in agriculture arecreating asurplus oflabour intheagricultural sector, meaning that many school graduates need toandwant totrain forother professions. Thirdly, access toeducation incertain specialties isrestricted. Thebiggest proportion of students of vocational colleges are being trained in the production sphere: industry, transport, construction and communication. However training in many types ofspecialties inthese spheres isnotprovided. There isanurgent need toreview thespecialization ofmany colleges, especially those focused on training professionals forsuch emerging sectors asoilandgas, light industry and food processing. Unfortunately, within the last five years the sector specialization of colleges hashardly changed andasaresult does notfully reflect theneeds of economy. Table 3.10 Structure ofstudents atvocational colleges bysectors in2006 (as% oftotal number ofpupils)
Industry, construction, transport, communications Agriculture Economics, law Healthcare Education, sports Service sector Culture andart
28.2 18.5 13.1 14.0 14.3 9.5 2.4
Thus, structural reform ofthesecondary specialized vocational education and the radical renovation ofitsgovernance system should beamong thepriorities forfurther reform oftheeducation system. Fourthly, access tovocational education forgirls iseven more restricted. They can study only at educational institutions close to home. This can be explained bythetraditional concerns ofparents, common inMuslim countries, about sending their daughters toother regions forstudies, where they would have tolive inadormitory. As a result girls are usually taught at nearby colleges specializing in training pedagogical andmedical personnel. Among students ofcolleges specializing inproduction, transport, construction andagriculture theshare offemale students ismuch lower than 50%. Fifthly, there areproblems with access tosecondary specialized vocational education forchildren from needy families. Thedirect andindirect costs ofeducation areespecially high ifchildren study outside their home region. Sochildren from needy families tend tostudy only inthevery local colleges. Even then, everyday transport ex100 National Human Development Report
penses andthecost ofliving separately from thefamily (inadormitory) arequite high. There isnocentralized transportation ofstudents totheplace oftheir studies. Sixthly, the problem of access to secondary specialized vocational education forstudents with special needs hasalso notbeen solved. There arenosecondary specialized vocational educational establishments fortraining such students. There arenoappropriately developed curricula, textbooks andmanuals. Thecontent ofsecondary specialized vocational education (SSVE). Thecontent ofSSVE includes those sectors determined bythenational education standards: ## Thegeneral curricula foracademic lyceums andvocational colleges isthefoundation forthepotential continuation ofstudies atuniversity level (togetaBachelors degree); ## In-depth curricula on subjects relevant to the particular specialty of each academic lyceum; ## Professional curricula forvocational colleges. Study atthese vocational colleges andacademic lyceums isorganized according toarecently introduced Classifier ofdirections, specialties andprofessions ofsecondary specialized vocational education along with qualification requirements forjunior specialists. TheClassifier currently inforce includes 348specialties and840professions. Training iscurrently provided in268specialties which cover 712professions. During theperiod 19982006 277branch educational standards and3,503curricula ongeneral vocational andspecial subjects forvocational colleges, 5branch standards, 11study plans and69curricula forin-depth general preparation according to the specialties of academic lyceums were designed, piloted in experimental classes, discussed atseminars andconferences, approved andintroduced. During the2006/2007 school year 268newtypical study plans, characterized bymobility, flexibility andfast adaptation totheneeds oflabour market, were approved andintroduced. Modernized study plans take into consideration allforms andtypes ofstudies, theorganization oftheindependent work ofstudents, aswell assome hours allocated foreducational establishments tomake their ownchoices. Anassessment rating system hasbeen elaborated andintroduced with the aim of assessing thequality ofstudents knowledge. This newly introduced mechanism ensures continuity with therating systems ofboth general secondary andhigher education. Theintegration ofsecondary special vocational education with industry is achie ved inthefollowing ways: ## Bythecreation ofjoint production atvocational colleges anddepartments ofcolleges organized atfactories andplants; ## Bydevelopment ofadual system ofpersonnel training; ## Bythepreparation anddevelopment ofqualified personnel through combining classroom training with paid internships inindustry; ## Bysystematically upgrading teachers qualifications inthearea ofadvanced technologies, andproviding on-site training; ## provision ofstudents with jobs forpractical training; ## provision ofeducational establishments with up-to-date equipment; ## participation ofindustry infunding educational establishments asfounders, trustees, andsponsors; ## provision ofstudents ofacademic lyceums with theinfrastructure andfacilities ofhigher educational establishments andresearch institutions, orforthose studNational Human Development Report 101
ying atvocational collegeswith arelevant patron andhigher educational establishment; ## encouraging theactive involvement ofstudents inboth social pursuits andalso theproduction process with real output. Atsome vocational colleges inareas forwhich legislation sets ageorother restrictions thestructure ofstudy isdetermined byspecial study plans inaccordance with thenational educational standards byprofessions. Thecontent ofsecondary special vocational education forteenagers with both physical special needs andlearning disabilities (blind, deaf, slower learners andothers) isdetermined bytheeducation authorities incollaboration with thehealthcare andsocial protection agencies. Modernization ofteaching methods andresource base. Between 2001 and 2005 995newtextbooks andschool books were published, totalling 5.1million copies, andatatotal cost of9.1billion soum. Inaddition 131electronic textbooks were created. Within theframework offoreign investment projects andgrants there areplans to organize a number of events to develop and publish more new textbooks and school books that meet world standards. For example, in the framework of the Asian Development Project UZB1737 Development of secondary special education intheRepublic ofUzbekistan study materials on19subjects were developed and published, and in the framework of the German bank KFB project study materials for16subjects were developed fortraining specialists ininformation andcommunication technologies. The libraries of educational establishments have been fully stocked with literature ongeneral subjects inUzbek andRussian. Inaddition, with theaimofmodernizing the educational process and introducing new pedagogical and information technologies, academic lyceums andvocational colleges have been equipped with multimedia computer systems andlanguage laboratories, andadditional educational material hasbeen created such aseducational films, multimedia software, electronic mini-posters andothers. Teacher workshops andseminars have been organized toupgrade thequalifications ofteachers sothat they caneffectively utilize these newteaching aids andequipment. Tofurther support themodernization andincreased quality oftheeducational process a new set of regulatory documents have been approved andsince the 2005/2006 academic year introduced into thestudy process. These include Individual schedule ofteachers activity, Rating system for theassessment ofpupils knowledge, Ontheorganization ofpupils independent work, Onpupils written works, Onopen classes, Onwork load norms andOnrating ofteachers. Between 20002006 over 240newtypes ofteaching aids andequipment were introduced for teaching general subjects. Special laboratories and production shops arebeing equipped with these newdevices, with 70% to90% ofthem being themost uptodate technology. TheSSVE Centre under theMinistry ofHigher andSecondary Specialized Education isresponsible formanaging theacademic, methodological andorganizational activities ofacademic lyceums andvocational colleges, providing services related tosecondary special vocational education fortheleaders ofgovernance bodies (asagreed with thelocal authorities), andalso forproviding qualified professors, teachers andtechnical trainers.
This SSVE Centre thus hasasupervisory andcoordinating role over this sector, with theaimofdeveloping andintroducing national educational standards, bringing coherence into theeducation programs, andtraining andretraining theteaching staff. Theexisting secondary special educational institutions which were established asvocational colleges under theMinistry ofCulture, Academy ofArts orMinistry ofHealth arestill under their control. The secondary special and vocational-technical educational institutions established asvocational colleges under branch ministries, agencies, corporations, associations andenterprises aresupervised bytwobodies. Thebranch ministries, agencies, corporations, associations and enterprises provide for them material and financial assistance, students vocational andpractical skills training, make needs assessments toidentify therequired number ofspecialists, andresolve issues related tothejobplacement ofgraduates. A secondary special educational institution is headed by a director who is appointed anddismissed bythehigher education management body. Foraccredited private educational institutions this isdone according totheschools charter. Thedirector isfully responsible fortheresults ofthat educational institution. Inboth academic lyceums andvocational colleges there arescientific andpedagogical councils that arecollective bodies under thedirector. They support inorganizing andimproving theteaching andpedagogic process. There isnowanopportunity toestablish public governing bodies (trustees orsupervisory councils) insecondary special vocational educational institutions. These function onthebasis ofthelegislation andtheschool charter. Teaching personnel. 62,835teachers andvocational training officers work in the system ofSSVEs. 57,591 ofthem (92%) have ahigher education and5,244 (8%) ofthem have asecondary special education. There are103 (0.2%) doctors ofsciences, 875 (1.4%) candidates ofscience amongst them. Between 1998 and2006 66,900teachers andvocational training officers upgraded their qualifications in 43 retraining and in-service training courses that areoffered onaconstant basis. Toquickly train upthenecessary number ofteachers forsecondary special vocational training aspecial correspondence bachelors degree program wassetupatspecial departments ofTashkent State Pedagogical University, Bukhara Food andLight Industry Technology Institute, Namangan Engineering-Pedagogical Institute, andalso theUrgench, Karakalpak, Andijan, Samarkand andFergana State Universities. These teachers have been selected amongst theteaching personnel that already have asecondary special education andwhohadatleast three years ofrelevant teaching experience. Inorder toprovide qualified pedagogical andtechnical teachers foracademic lyceums andvocational colleges, aTarget Program forselecting, certifying, preparing, upgrading andretraining ofleaders andpedagogical personnel wasdeveloped andimplemented. 9Centres fortheupgrading andre-training ofpedagogical andtechnical teachers ofsecondary special vocational training were established attheRepublics best vocational colleges, selected fortheir highly qualified personnel andgood facilities. Asaresult offoreign investment during theperiod 19982006, 1,087teachers participated instudy visits andupgraded their qualifications abroad. Within theframework of theinvestment projects ofADB, JBIC, KFW, andGTZinthe20052006 academic year alone courses were conducted for3,708SSVE teachers tostudy andmasNational Human Development Report 103
ter new educational standards and state of the art pedagogical and information technologies. Regional In-Service Training Centres were established at14vocational colleges included intheADBproject, andsimilar centres were also established in9vocational colleges. Thus, during 2005 and2006, itwasnecessary tore-train andupgrade thequalifications of22,200teachers athigher educational institutions. In2007 there isless needjust 13,000 teachers from the technical training colleges which are closing and teachers who used to teach at the 10th and 11th grades being phased outofgeneral schools will need re-training. Itisplanned toinvolve inacademic lyceums andvocational colleges 2,800specialists from other branches oftheeconomy andengineering teachers from higher education after their relevant retraining. Existing educational institutions andalso theopportunities provided bytheFund Istedod arewidely used forthevocational training andretraining ofteaching staff. Thus, in2006 944leaders andteachers upgraded their qualifications with thehelp offoreign experts andtheFund attheTashkent Information Resource Centre. Atthesame time, thecurrent differences insalary restrict thepossibilities ofuniversity professors teaching intheSSVE sector, anditisalso difficult torecruit qualified specialists from various branches ofeconomy tobevocational training officers. Thefacilities inthein-service training institutions aremuch worse than inthenewly established SSVE educational institutions, andthis affects thequality oftraining provided atthese centres. Job placement of graduates of vocational colleges and academic lyceums. Toaddress this issue andto integrate the economy and education, theGovernment oftheRepublic ofUzbe kis tan approved theTerritorial Programs onQuality Training and Use of the Labour of Graduates of Vocational Colleges and Academic Lyceums for20062010 onthe23rd November 2005. These ter ri to rial programs take into account thespecificity ofeach region inline with theadministrative division which has been developed on the basis of this Program. Coordination Councils have been established under theregional governments (Khokimiyats). They areheaded bythemayor (Khokim) andinclude representatives ofmany governmental andpublic organizations. Theterritorial programs areaimed atemploying asmany graduates aspossible, andalso atcreating newjobs through using thefunds oftheEmployment Fund; developing regional vocational training institutions responsive totheneeds oflocal labour markets; measuring supply anddemand inthelabour market inthat region; andestablishing themechanism foreffective monitoring oftheperformance ofvocational colleges from theemployers point ofview. The employment issue is not only related to a shortage of jobs, although this isalso thecase. There arealso some other problems tobeaddressed, some ofthem serious. It is necessary to tackle these problems in order to change the situation regarding the SSVE graduates employment. For example, it is necessary to develop and introduce an appropriate social partnership mechanism for the participants oftheeducation sector, labour market, employers, andpublic organizations; itis necessary to improve the system of selection of older pupils and give them theopportunity tochoose professions they like, otherwise after finishing theSSVE they maynotwant towork intheir professions. However, despite themeasures taken, there arestill many problems with theemployment ofgraduates ofsecondary special educational institutions. In2006 only
Box 3.3. International Assistance inEstablishing theSystem ofSecondary Special Vocational Education inUzbekistan International donors and organizations have provided considerable assistance in the process of reforming theeducation sector inUzbekistan. Between 1998 and2006 thefollowing projects were implemented: ## Financed byaloan from theGovernment oftheRepublic Korea totalling $35million, 218vocational colleges and academic lyceums were equipped with learning and lab equipment, 240 SSVE teachers, technical trainers andmanagement upgraded their qualifications inKorea. ## Assistance in Reforming the Area of Vocational Training in Uzbekistan within the framework of the TACIS program managed by the European Union was a project worth 1 million Euros. As part oftheproject 3vocational colleges were equipped, manuals and learning materials covering 6 areas ofpilot colleges were developed, andover 30teachers andcollege leaders andSSVE Centre personnel were trained abroad; ## As a result of a grant given by the German Technical Cooperation Society entitled Support for Developing Primary Vocational Schools in Uzbekistan, totalling 5.25 million DM, 850,000 DM was spent on equipping 8 model colleges. The teaching staff of these model colleges upgraded their qualifications andatthesame time textbooks andlearning material related tocertain academic fields were developed andintroduced into these colleges; ## Another project waswith theGerman International Development Fund (DSE) andinvolved conducting six-month courses on upgrading the qualifications of 72 employees of the SSVE in Germany with preliminary teaching of the German language in Uzbekistan; ## A Government of Japan grant worth $6.3 million dollars had the objective of delivering learning and lab equipment to the Institute of Upgrading Qualifications and Retraining of Personnel intheSSVE sector andalso equipped 9regional centres for the training of teachers, retraining and upgrading thequalifications ofthetechnical teaching personnel intheSSVE sector atvocational colleges; ## TheDevelopment ofSecondary Special Vocational Education in the Republic of Uzbekistan was implemented thanks to a loan given by the Japanese Government. The total amount of the loan was 6,347 million Japanese yen. 5,506 million Japanese yen was utilized to purchase equipment and491million Japanese yenwasused toupgrade qualifications. Equipment for 50 agricultural vocational colleges in7agricultural areas waspurchased, and50directors ofmodel educational institutions and 6 members of personnel of the SSVE Centre Management, 50 teachers (trainers) of model educational institutions and employees of the SSVE Centre were trained abroad within the framework oftheproject; ## Social Partnership in Education and Training in Uzbekistan was implemented as a result of a grant of the TACIS program of the European Union. 950,000Euros were spent ondeveloping social partnership. During theproject vocational colleges were equipped with the necessary items for their areas oftraining (these were located inBukhara, Samarkand, Navoi, Tashkent region andthecity ofTashkent). Projects currently being implemented: ## In support of the Development of Secondary Special Vocational Education in the Republic of Uzbekistan the Asian Development Bank has given a loan worth 391 million dollars. The objectives ofthis project aretopurchase equipment for42vocational colleges and 3 academic lyceums; to upgrade thequalifications both abroad andincountry of263directors andteachers ofmodel educational institutions, along with the personnel of the Development ofSecondary Special Vocational Education intheRepublic ofUzbekistan andtheSSVE Centre; todevelop andproduce learning materials forsixareas of general educational subjects and for 30 areas in specialist subjects, to purchase textbooks and manuals for model educational institutions, and to establish resource centres in which authors canproduce textbooks; ## The preferential loan long-term project of the Government of Germany that is implemented through KFWandtheGerman Technical Cooperation Society (GTZ) aims toequip 24vocational colleges inthearea ofinformation andtelecommunication technologies, to upgrade the qualifications of leaders and teachers ofmodel colleges; topublish teaching materials and manuals; and to prepare multipliers for the Institute of Upgrading Qualifications and Retraining ofPersonnel intheSSVE sector. Thesize oftheloan is7.6million euros andjust over 1million euros isprovided fortechnical assistance intheproject; ## TheDevelopment ofVocational Education isbeing implemented thanks toasoft loan provided byPoland to deliver learning and technical equipment to 84 vocational colleges in the spheres of agriculture andlight industry. Thesize oftheloan is15million USdollars; ## TheDevelopment of Vocational SkillsUzbekistan isfinanced asaresult ofagrant given bytheSwiss Consulate. The size of the grant is 3.5 million Swiss francs. The objective of the project is to prepare Uzbekistans sector of secondary special vocational education to tackle the challenges posed bythechanging social andeconomic environment through creating models of cooperation between colleges andemployers;
61% of all graduates of vocational colleges found a job, with just 45.1% finding ajobaccording totheir trade. Almost 79,700graduates or33.6% didnotfind ajob. Table 3.11 Employment ofGraduates ofSecondary Special Vocational Educational Institutions in2006
Type ofsecondary special educational institution Number ofgraduates, inthousands Entered universities, % Were employed, % overall intheir specialty Not employed, %
Vocational colleges Academic lyceums

23,7126 7,872
5.3 59.2
61 11.8
45 n/a
33.6 28.9
This employment problem iscreated notjust because ofashortage ofjobs, although this isaproblem. There aresome other serious problems which will need tobeaddressed inorder toimprove thejobprospects ofSSVE graduates. First, itisnecessary totake amore flexible approach tothespecialization ofeducational institutions, especially those located inrural areas. Itisnotsurprising that it is difficult to solve the employment problem if every year hundreds of specialists inonearea finish thecollege located intheregion (forexample teachers ofkindergartens orlibrarians orworkers ofmunicipal services). Thepopulations mobility isquite low, andtheresult isanexcess supply ofworkers insome areas inoneregion, andashortage inothers. Ofcourse nooneeducational institution cantrain specialists forallrequired professions attheappropriate level, however itisclearly necessary tobemore flexible inchoosing thespecialization ofvocational colleges. Second, college vocational training in industrial professions is multiple-disciplinary, there isnovocational specialization even during thelast years oftraining. Forexample, theeducation ofspecialists forthefood processing industry ortextile industry does notprovide students with abroad spectrum ofthenecessary specialties required bytherelevant industrial enterprises. This means that many newly established industrial enterprises arehaving toretrain graduates ofvocational colleges inorder toenable them towork inthese narrower fields ofactivity. Third, theeducational standards arenotperfect. Many SSVE educational standards arefocused ontheprocess oftraining rather than theoutputs. Fourth, the quality of the academic curricula and programs does not result in the required quality of training. For example, the general academic programs are insufficiently consistent with school programs, with quite a bit of overlap and are not consistent with the vocational part of training. The vocational training programs aretraining professionals inline with therequirements ofemployers because they have been developed without serious consultation andcoordination with employers. Students study alotofsubjects inawaythat results insuperficial learning, andthis isnotsufficient forpreparing fortheselected profession in-depth. There arenoinstruction manuals forteachers inmany subject areas which isaproblem because especially invocational training theeducational process depends very much ontheteachers skills. Fifth, theinsufficient qualifications oftheteaching staff, inmany cases, iscaused byalack ofteachers instruction manuals, lack ofasystem oftraining andretraining
teachers inspecific areas towork insecondary special vocational educational institutions, lack ofsystems ofsharing experiences among teachers andtraining teachers atrelevant modern enterprises. Thecurrent system does notyethave sufficient resource capacity toorganize thesystematic upgrading ofqualifications andsharing experiences among thepedagogical personnel. Sixth, themajority ofstudents insecondary special vocational educational institutions donothave access topractice andinternships attherelevant modern enterprises. 3.2.4. Education ofOrphans andDisabled Children The social security of the population is a priority of government policy. In recent years various targeted social security programs fordifferent categories ofthepopulation have been introduced. TheGovernment pays special attention toissues related tothesocial security ofvulnerable children. Theobjective ofthesocial security system aimed atchildren incritical life situations isnotonly toenable their survival, development andactive participation insocial life once they leave their institutions, butalso totake preventative measures toavoid social orphans. Asaresult intheRepublic: thesystem ofstate bodies tobeengaged inprotecting childrens rights andinterests within theframework oftheir competence hasbeen established. TheLegislative Chamber oftheOliy Majlis oftheRepublic ofUzbekistan (Parliament), theCabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Uzbekistan, the National Human Rights Centre, the Human Rights Commissioner under the Parliament, along with the relevant ministries andinstitutions, Supreme judicial andinvestigating bodies areallengaged indealing with these issues atthenational level. Khokimiyats, law-enforcement bodies, commissions onjuveniles affairs, trusteeship andguardianship bodies, public prosecutors offices, courts, andsome other bodies areengaged inprotecting childs rights atthelocal level; ## there has been a strengthening of the coordination of such issues as addressing the needs of vulnerable children, child neglect and juvenile delinquency, andalso disabled children; ## work is being carried out to improve the legislative framework related to childrens rights, andthesystem tofacilitate thereintegration ofchildren from Mehribonlik (mercy) childrens homes and also those children particularly at risk back into society; ## theeducational content isbeing updated, with neweducational forms andmethods being putinplace; ## the social support for children from families having many children, the needy andtroublesome families, orphans andchildren without parental care isprovided (theeducation andcare oforphans andchildren without parental care orother legal representatives iscarried outbythestate asdetermined bythelegislation); ## anEducational Centre hasbeen established toaddress access issues ofchildren from orphanages andneedy families toadditional education, andtheir self-image when they reach adulthood; ## abroad network ofnewinstitutions isbeing built including social health centres forfamilies andchildren, forthepsychological-pedagogical rehabilitation ofdifficult teenagers, pedagogical andsocial services forchildren, andeducational centres forchildren andadults;
## psychological support isprovided fororphans andpsychological andlawbodies have been established toprovide them with relevant services, anddetailed information onallthepupils ofMehribonlik childrens homes hasbeen collected andthedata stored; ## programs fortheprofessional training ofspecialists insocial work andchildrens rehabilitation have been introduced inhigher andsecondary special educational institutions. TheGovernment hastaken radical measures toprovide social security foryounger generations, which have laid thefoundation forfuture prevention oftheproblem ofdeserted children. About 7,000children andteenagers without parental care arefound each year and all of them are sent to different public educational-pedagogic institutions, orareplaced infoster families oradopted. Specialized preschool educational institutions areestablished forchildren suffering from mental andhealth abnormalities. They areadmitted onthebasis ofamedical certificate given bythepsychological-medical andpedagogic commissions established by the authorized public bodies responsible for managing education andhealth care atthelocal level. Atpresent, inthecountry there areoperating 13infants homes with 700infants enrolled, 28childrens homes with 3,100pupils enrolled, and17boarding schools for children from needy families andchildren without parental care. Over 5,100children andteenagers, including 1,600orphans andchildren without parental care live andstudy inthem. Each of these institutions makes a significant contribution to the elimination ofsocietys social diseases which cancause much suffering forthese children. Table 3.12 Functions oftheSocial Support System forChildren andTeenagers in2005
number ofchildren bytheendof2005. Units Including theageof Intotal under Under 7 years old From 7to18 years old Including placed in2006. Including theageof Intotal under Under 7 years old From 7 to 18 years old
Infants homes Orphanages Boarding-schools forchildren from needy families and children without parental care Infoster families Adopted infamilies
13 28 17
732 2992 5076 26173 36943
732 349 104
0 2643 4972
109 505 230 3634 2415
109 154 14 823 1571
n/a 351 230 2811 844
In2006, 900disabled children were admitted toacademic lyceums andvocational colleges bringing thetotal to2,600disabled students currently studying inthem. 1,200thousand orphans were admitted in2006, bringing thetotal to3,600orphans studying inthem.
Disabled children receive thenecessary treatment andeducation tosupport their overall development andpreparation forindependent life andwork atspecial medical-educational institutions. Sanatorium schools and sanatorium boarding-schools have been established for children suffering from chronic diseases, where the working schedule adapts totheir specific conditions andmedical-educational objectives. Table 3.13 Network ofeducational institutions forchildren with disabilities requiring long term medical care andnumber ofstudents catered forin2000 and2006
2000 units Schools forchildren with mental orphysical disabilities blind andvisually impaired deaf-and-dumb andhearing impaired other Sanatorium-boarding schools forchildren suffering from different diseases forms oftuberculosis patients with ascoliosis Other diseases 87 10 18 59 21 3 8 10 number of students (ths) 20.9 2.4 4.1 14.4 6 0.9 2.3 2.8 unit 88 12 18 58 21 6 10 5 2006 number of students (ths) 19.6 2.3 4.7 12.6 6.2 1.9 3.2 1.1
Children with mental and physical disabilities study at schools and boarding-schools for the mentally retarded children, deaf and hearing impaired, blind andvisually impaired, forchild ren with po liomyelitis after effects andcerebral palsy, andwith dysphasia. These children study foralonger ti me asthey require special methods ofeducation andrehabilitation. In the country there are 5 boarding-houses for handicapped children with 1,600children enrolled inthem. Within theeducation system special provision has been made forchildren with learning disabilities such asspecial schools andcompensation classes. Rapid tiring, lethargy, andalack ofsufficient vocabulary arepotential problems if these students are placed at normal schools. These boarding-schools help tointroduce these children totherhythm ofschool life, inorder to satisfactorily cope with academic programs. Asaresult ofthis additional support, some ofthem cansubsequently attend normal schools, while others stay attheboarding-school toreceive apartial secondary education over alonger period ofstudy time. Atthesame time, much more should bedone tosupport theinclusive education ofhandicapped children atalllevels ofeducation. Itisvery important nottowaste their mental capacities forthesake oftheir ownself development andself-image, aswell asforthesake ofsociety.
3.2.5. Higher education General characteristics ofthehigher education sector. Access tohigher education is on the basis of completion of secondary special vocational training (and up until 2009 also se condary schools), which as discussed exists as an independent part ofawider system oflife-long education. Higher education provision isbased ontheLaws oftheRepublic ofUzbekistan OnEducation andOntheNational Vocational Training Program. Thegoal ofhigher education istoprovide fortheprofessional training ofqualified, competitive personnel meeting themodern requirements ofgraduates. They must beable toindependently work intheir chosen areas ofknowledge (professions), tocontribute tothescientific, technical, economic, social andcultural development ofthecountry andhave high moral, cultural andethical characteristics. Thehigher education system includes thefollowing: ## higher educational institutions that carry outeducational andvocational programs inline with thestate educational standards irrespective ofownership types anddepartmental subordination; ## scientific andpedagogical institutions which conduct research necessary for the development ofhigher education; ## education management government bodies, and also the enterprises, institutions andentities that areunder their jurisdiction. Government policy inthis sector isbased onthefollowing principles: ## humanistic, democratic character oftraining andeducation; ## thepriority ofuniversity education; ## continuity with both secondary special vocational, andhigher andpost-university education; ## secular nature oftheeducation system; ## availability ofeducation forallwithin state educational standards; ## holistic anddifferentiated approach tochoosing education programs; ## fostering endowments andtalents; ## combination ofgovernment andprivate management within thesystem ofhigher education; ## integration ofhigher education, science andindustry. Students areadmitted toeducational institutions bymeans ofordinary andadditional tests that check theknowledge ofentrants. Higher educational institutions provide professional training funded both bygovernment grants butalso onafeebasis. There aretwomain tiers inhigher education sector: bachelors andmasters. Bachelors otherwise known asbasic higher education. This provides thefundamental andapplied knowledge inthearea ofprofessional training fortheduration offour years. After finishing thebachelors program, graduates areawarded with degree bachelor according totheir chosen field ofeducation, andthey aregiven state attested diplomas. Masters higher education that provides both fundamental and applied knowledge inthechosen field ofspecialization fortheduration oftwoyears. Entry isonacompetitive basis upon completion ofabachelors degree. After finishing masters programs, graduates areawarded with aMasters degree according totheir chosen field ofeducation, andthey aregiven state diplomas.
Box 3.4. Extracts from theHistory ofHigher Education before Gaining Independence Thefirst ideas forestablishing asecular national university emerged inTurkistan, themotherland ofgreat oriental philosophers, attheendofthenineteenth century. These ideas were developed intheJadids (reformers) publications such asTarjimon (Translator) andOyna (Mirror). Aninitiative council including liberal representatives ofthenation wassetuptodevelop asystem, identify theareas ofeducation, structure ofdepartments anddrafts ofcurricula. The well-known educator Munavvarkori Abdurashithonov (18781931), the first Rector oftheNational University, declared that theuniversity would start itsactivity on12th May1918. Theevent washeld inoneofthemonumental buildings oftheoldcity (subsequently TYUZ washoused inthat building). Atthefirst stage ofitsactivity theNational University provided training atthree educational levels: primary, secondary andhigher. Atthehigher education level there were five departments: literature andphilosophy, economics andsociology, agriculture andlivestock, natural sciences andmathematics, andalso industry andengineering. Inashort period oftime, by1921, theUniversity wasproviding professional training forstudents inphysics, mathematics, medicine, social economy, engineering, history, philology, agriculture, andmilitary science. Moreover, professional training wasprovided forstudents attherabfak. TheNational University waspart ofthevery foundation ofhigher education andaleading educational institution of the country, andsoestablished regional branches andother independent higher educational institutions across thecountry. During theSoviet period, there were 42higher educational institutions, including three state universities (Tashkent, Samarkand and Karakalpak), 14 Pedagogical or Linguistic-Pedagogical, 9Engineering-Technical, 3Agricultural, 7Medical-Pharmaceutical, 3Institutes ofArts andCulture, andalso theNational Economics Institute, theCooperative Institute andtheInstitute ofPhysical Training andSports. Almost half (19) ofthese higher educational institutions were located inTashkent andSamarkand (5 ineach), Andijan (4) andBukhara (3). Thus three quarters ofthehigher educational institutions oftheRepublic were located infour cities. Professional training inmany important areas wasprovided only inthecentral higher educational institutions atthecentre oftheformer Soviet Union andtheaccess ofschool graduates of the Republic of Uzbekistan was limited for many reasons. Curricula and academic programs which were used attherepublic level ofhigher education hadtobeapproved intheUnion centre, anditwasprohibited tobring about anychanges regarding regional characteristics.
Holders ofbachelors andmasters degrees arequalified forprofessional work according totheir specialization ortocontinue training inthehigher educational institutions. Higher Educational Institutions. Higher educational institutions are legal entities andareofthefollowing types: university provides academic programs in the sector of higher education andpost-university education inawide spectrum offields ofknowledge andareas ofprofessional training; academy provides academic programs in the sector of higher education andpostgraduate education inaspecific field ofknowledge andareas oftraining; institute provides academic programs inthesector ofhigher education and, asarule, atthepostgraduate level inspecific fields ofprofessional training within onearea ofknowledge. Legislation permits the establishment of non-governmental higher educational institutions. The educational institution of this type can operate if accredited andcertified inline with theestablished guidelines.
TheQuality Management Agency responsible forsupervising professional training grants certification tohigher educational institutions irrespective ofwhich department they come under ortheir type ofownership. Inaddition itcertifies thefaculty andother teaching personnel, andthestate testing centres, according toprocedures approved bytheCabinet ofMinisters oftheRepublic ofUzbekistan. Thestate accreditation ofanyhigher educational institution canbewithdrawn onthebasis ofthecertification results.
Box 3.5. Organization ofteaching andlearning Toorganize theeducational processes inhigher educational institution, faculties, departments, chairs andstudents academic groups have been formed. Theeducational process inhigher educational institutions isperformed inline with thestate educational standards andisregulated bythecurricula, academic calendar andtimetables. Educational activities canbeofthefollowing types: lecture, tutorial, seminar, case study, laboratory work, test, colloquium, independent work, practice, course project (work), orfinal attestation work. The length of an academic hour is 45 (or 402 for a lecture without breaks) minutes. Thelength ofthebreak between classes is10minutes. Generally there aretwoterms inanacademic year. Attheendofeach term itisnecessary tocheck thestudents knowledge through assessing them on the basis of their achievements (rating scores). Students progress is assessed through rating them onthebasis ofscores achieved. Advanced students transfer to the next course upon the confirmation of the head oftheeducational institution atthesuggestion ofthedean offaculty. Conditional transfer isnotpermitted. Students whodonotmeet therequirements ofthecurriculum buthave avalid reason aregiven theopportunity toclear their academic debts prior tothebeginning ofthenewacademic year oraregiven academic leave. Students whodonotreach thenecessary standards within areasonable amount oftime would have todrop out. Attheendoftheeducational process inahigher educational institution, graduates must be tested through taking compulsory final examinations. In addition it is the employers whoassess therelevance andquality oftraining courses. Educational-vocational programs inhigher education canbetaken indifferent modes: fulltime education orcorrespondence education intheform ofexternal studies anddistance learning. With thepermission ofthehead ofahigher educational institution, itispossible tochange themode ofstudy andeducational institution butwithin onearea ofeducation. Itisalso possible tosimultaneously study forasecond higher education inanother mode onafeebasis. Students who study full time with state grants are provided with stipends, the level of which issetbytheCabinet ofMinisters oftheRepublic ofUzbekistan. Themost gifted students mayreceive special individual stipends. Students whostudy bycorrespondence aregiven paid leave fortheperiod ofstudy andpassing examinations.
External studies a student may independently study the academic disciplines according totheeducational-vocational program ofhigher education intheir chosen field andsheorhewill have final examinations inahigher educational institution. Distance learning astudent works andstudies atthesame time, andtheeducational institution islocated inadifferent place. Distance learning isbased onusing modern information technologies andtelecommunication facilities. Thelist ofprofessional training that canbeprovided only onthefull time mode hasbeen drawn upbytheCabinet ofMinisters oftheRepublic ofUzbekistan.
Reforms inthehigher education system. Thefirst stage ofreforms inhigher education canbecalled thestage ofrestructuring, anditmainly took place between 1991 and1995. Thebasic areas ofreforming higher education during that period were: priority of university education. Tashkent State Technical University, Tashkent State Economic University, the University of World Economy and Diplomacy, and the Tashkent Islamic University were established. Andijan, Bukhara, Gulistan, Karshi, Namangan, Fergana, andUrgench universities were established onthebasis theexisting regional pedagogical institutes. Thestatus ofuniversity wasalso awarded totheTashkent Institute ofForeign Languages andTashkent Agricultural Institute; breaking upinto smaller units andthespecialization ofhigher education institutions. From onelarge Tashkent Polytechnic Institute twomore universities were established: theTashkent Chemical Technological Institute andtheTashkent Architectural-Construction Institute inaddition totheexisting Tashkent State Technical University. TheTashkent State Institute ofOriental Studies branched offfrom Tashkent State University tobecome anautonomous university; localization ofhigher education. Toovercome askew inthelocation ofhigher educational institutions, three quarters ofwhich were located inseveral large cities andthemajority inTashkent, universities were established inallregions ofthecountry. They include thealready mentioned 7regional universities andtheuniversities established onthebasis ofbranches ofTashkent universities: Djizak Polytechnic Institute, Karshi Engineering-Economics Institute, Namangan Engineering-Economics Institute, andtheNavoi State Pedagogical Institute. Each higher educational institution hadaconcrete program forrestructuring theforms andcontent ofeducation according tothenewstatus given. Thesecond stage ofreforms inthesystem ofhigher education began in1996, when theHigher Education Development Concept wasdeveloped. This document wasfirstly discussed intheuniversities oftheRepublic, andthen itwaspublished inthemass-media tobewidely discussed bythepublic. Thebasic priorities ofthat stage were thefollowing: ## transition toatwo-tier system ofhigher education: bachelors andmasters; ## transition toanewsystem offunding that provides financing from government budget funds intheform ofstate grants forthestudents whohave thebest results intheentrance tests andalso private financing intheform ofadmitting students onafeebasis; ## complete transition toadmitting students onthebasis ofentrance tests (instead of theprevious oral andwritten examinations) which aregiven ononespecific dayandtime throughout thewhole country using state-of-the-artcomputer technologies. Access tohigher education intheRepublic isensured through 64higher educational institutions ofwhich 20 areuniversities, 40institutes, and2academies. Inaddition, inTashkent there areinternational universities such asWestminster International University in Tashkent, branches of the Russian Academy of Economics named after G. V. Plehanov, and the Moscow State University named after . V. Lomonosov. Abranch oftheRussian University ofOilandGasnamed after Gubkin will start providing higher education asof1st September 2007. Taking into account thebranches of different universities, thenumber ofhigher education institutions hasreached 72, and 35 outofthem ornearly half arelocated intheregions, thus increasing theavailability ofthis kind ofeducation tomany graduates ofschools andsecondary special vocationNational Human Development Report 113
al institutions. Atthesame time, Tashkent isstill thelargest centre ofhigher education because 37higher educational institutions arelocated inthis city. Among the countrys universities 22 provide professional training in the field ofeducation, 15 intheareas ofindustry, construction, transport andcommunication, 5 inmedicine, 4 inagriculture, 9 ineconomics andlaw, and7 inother sectors. There areatotal of286,300students inhigher education, including 273,700 at the bachelors level and12,600people atmasters level. 69% ofstudents study onafeebasis atthebachelors level and75% students study onafeebasis atthemasters level. Since 2000 thenumber ofnewuniversity students enrolling each year hasincreased by over athird, andtheoverall number ofstudents studying inuniversities hasincreased byover 1.5times. Themasters level isdeveloping even more dynamically. Thenumber ofnewly enrolled students each year hasincreased byover 2times, andthenumber ofstudents whostudy byover 3times during theperiod inquestion. Table 3.14 Trends inhigher education development 20002006, inthousands ofpeople
2000 Number ofhigher educational institutions (units) Enrolment inhigher educational institutions (people) Bachelors Masters Number ofstudents Bachelors Masters Graduates ofhigher educational institutions Their share as% ofthetotal number 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2006 as% of2000 101.6
61
61
62
62
63
62
62
44.7 41.9 2.8 183.6 179.6 4.0 31.6 35.9
50.6 46.6 4.0 207.2 200.4 6.8 36 33.8
54.6 50.6 4.0 232.2 223.5 8.7 39.8 32.3
61.0 56.1 4.9 254.4 244.9 9.5 45.5 32.3
59.3 54.2 5.1 263.6 253.2 10.4 52.8 31.3
59.6 54.2 5.4 278.7 267.4 11.3 57.8 31.2
61.1 55.4 5.7 286.3 273.7 12.6 60.7 27.4
136.7 132.2 203.6 155.9 152.4 315.0 192.1
Internationally there aretwomodels ofentrance tohigher educational institutions: limited access andunlimited access. Themajority ofcountries throughout theworld limit access tohigher educational institutions oneither acentralized ordecentralized basis. Thefactors which influence thechoice aretheamount offinance available, the resource capacity ofhigher education institutions, andalso theresults ofentrance examinations (ortests) ofthose whowish toenter. Inmany countries (such asJapan, South Korea andChina) there arerelatively high assessment criteria forbeing admitted tohigher education institutions. This approach initially provides avery high quality of education asitallows fortheselection ofthemost gifted andwell prepared young people.
Under thedecentralized system theadmission quota isdetermined byeach higher educational institution onthebasis ofitsownresources. This quota isaboundary line andthose applicants whose entrance scores fall below this cutoffpoint are notadmitted. Moreover, inmany countries limited access tohigher education isrelated to the fact that atuition feeischarged andthelevel ofthis feeplays animportant role. There aremany whoareinterested butjust dont have thefinancial means tostudy or even complete intheentrance tests. When admission tohigher educational isunlimited, andthis model ismost popular intheindustrially developed countries ofEurope, access tohigher education is easy and the only reason it does not cover all the population is due to family andindividual choices. However thequality oflearning isnotalways sohigh under this system, asthose less able struggle tocope with theprogram, andthey either have torepeat thecourse ortherequirements areadjusted tostudents orthestandards arelowered toinclude those less able students. However, this system does provide forahigh level ofsecondary education inthecountry anditmeans that talented butneedy students arenotexcluded from higher education. Access tohigher education inUzbekistan islimited duetoseveral factors: ## there aresetquotas forentrance toeducational institutions. This makes sense since education isprovided both onagrant basis andalso onafeebasis. Atthesame time, these quotas areoften unrelated totheresource andpersonnel capacity oftheinstitution. Thequotas aredetermined bygovernment bodies responsible forregulating theneeds ofthelabour market invarious professions, andthis isdone onthebasis ofrather subjective estimations oftheinstitutions inquestion; ## test results. Therequired entrance level isseparately established foreach higher educational institution. Theresult isthat this system often produces double exclusionsthestudent whodidnotgetasufficient score forhisorherchosen university might have scored enough togetinto another university, butstudents canonly apply foroneeach year. Asaresult many talented entrants have tomiss anacademic year, andsometimes completely miss outonreceiving ahigher education; ## thehigh tuition fees forthose whostudy onafeebasis. Although theannual tuition feeisapproximately $400800peryear, this isvery expensive forneedy families. The existing system of educational loans is practically not accessible forneedy families asitdemands guarantees orcollaterals, andneedy families frequently cannot meet these requirements; ## there are less educational opportunities for girls compared to young men. The share of girls amongst students in higher educational institutions is 40% as a result of family restrictions on girls studying in higher educational institutions. The reasons might be the location of higher educational institutions andtheparents unwillingness, common inmany Islamic countries, fortheir girls toleave homes, orgirls getmarried before they finish their educational andtheir newfamilies donotwish them tocontinue their education, orlow-income families arereluctant toinvest money inaneducation they maynotbeable tocomplete oruseafter marriage Lack ofinclusive education forstudents with disabilities. Access tohigher education canbeincreased using newforms oftraining, such asexternal studies, distance learning andevening classes.
Thequality ofhigher education isassured through introducing theState Educational Standards (GOST) established for149bachelors areas andfor650professions atthelevel ofmasters. Animportant component ofhigher education quality isthecontinuity andlinks between general secondary, secondary special, vocational andhigher education. The Higher Educational Institution Development Fund has been established within thesystem ofhigher education toallocate funds tocreate newtextbooks, improve educational facilities andstudents accommodation, andtointroduce advanced information technologies. Thanks tothis Fund, thepersonnel ofhigher educational institutions have created many newtextbooks (over 3,400titles). Moreover, modern effective sources ofprofessional information have been createdincluding original electronic books (over 170titles) andtheelectronic versions ofexisting books (over 2,900titles). Inallhigher educational institutions abstracts oflectures, methodical aids forlaboratory works andpractical classes, instructions forcourse projects andinternships, handbooks forfinal bachelors andmasters dissertations, andother methodological documents have been developed and introduced. With the aim of developing thestudents skills ofindependent leaning, newstudy plans have been introduced which reduce thevolume ofclasses from 36hours to32hours andsoincrease theproportion ofstudents independent work. Acorporate information system established under theMinistry ofHigher andSecondary Special Education enables thebringing together ofthehigher educational institutions oftherepublic inasingle information area, introducing elements ofelectronic document circulation, raising management efficiency and cooperation between higher educational institutions. Aprogram hasbeen introduced fordeveloping content forthepublic education information network ZiyeNET with historical, scientific, cultural, moral andideological information resources. Thegateway oftheMinistry ofHigher andSecondary Special Education hasadata base with thefull texts of8,798electronic educational sources. Electronic profiles ofallhigher educational institutions andinformation onallteachers, students studying atbachelors degree courses, masters andpostgraduate courses areentered into acorporate information network oftheMinistry. Also, information onthestudents assessments isavailable atthesite which ensures regular monitoring oftheeducational process. The main libraries of higher educational institutions are equipped with computers and various means of information exchange and delivery. The system Irbis forstoring andsearching forinformation search isbeing introduced. Tocomplement thetraditional stocks ofbooks andmagazines, modern libraries have introduced electronic versions ofbooks andelectronic textbooks, both locally developed andfrom abroad. At the same time, the poor quality of education in higher educational institutions has given rise to harsh criticism from students and their parents, and also ofthegraduates whoarethemain consumers. Thequality ofeducation attheMasters level isparticularly poor. Firstly, thecauses are: ## Theeducational process isexcessively overloaded with toomany subjects having to be learned. In the leading higher educational institutions in Western countries students study 34 subjects during a term, whereas in Uzbekistan that number is1014. Asaresult themajority ofsubjects arenotstudied insuf116 National Human Development Report
ficient depth, and students do not focus on the detail needed for their future profession. Forexample, according tothestate standards approved inUzbekistan, astudents maximum amount ofacademic hours perweek is54hours, including upto32hours ofclassroom work andnoless than 22hours forindependent study. Atuniversities oftheindustrially developed countries classroom study accounts forupto24hours, andupto30hours aregiven toindependent study; ## thekeyfocus remains onacademic study intheclassroom, andtheentire educational process isoriented toward this mode ofstudy. Students donothave enough time to study independently. A teachers classroom load is greater incomparison with leading foreign higher educational institutions, andthesalary foroneacademic hour inclass islow. Theresult isapoor quality ofstudents education that does notmeet current requirements; ## lab equipment and educational facilities in higher educational institutions do not meet contemporary requirements. Many types of educational and lab equipment either are not in place or are outdated. This is the cause of the very poor quality oftraining forstudents inthetechnical andengineering professions; ## students internships andstudy visits arefrequently only aformality. Inmost cases this iswhythey arenotaneffective component oftheeducational process, andthey donotensure thenecessary quality ofprofessionals; ## thelowanddecreasing level ofteaching atschools andsecondary special vocational educational institutions intheareas ofmathematics, physics, chemistry, andbiology hasaknock oneffect onthequality ofeducation inhigher educational institutions, especially inthenatural sciences andtechnical professions; ## the low level of teachers salaries not only leads to a poor quality of teaching butalso causes corruption inthehigher education sector, andunfortunately this isawidespread phenomenon inmany higher educational institutions; ## theassessment ofstudents knowledge based ontests isnotconducive topromoting transparency in assessment and the struggle against corruption. Thus, this formalization ofassessment frequently results inlosing thequality ofeducation since students arenotfocused ongaining acomprehensive andprofound knowledge butonly answering these formalized questions; ## masters programs andcurricula arebadly developed, andthey areinadequately related tothebachelors programs. There isashortage oftextbooks andmanuals aswell asinstruction materials. Thelowlevel ofteachers qualifications whoteach atthis level issofarhindering thefull implementation oftheidea ofahigh-quality two-tier education. Pedagogical personnel of higher educational establishments. Over 20,000professors andteachers work intheeducation system ofthecountry, including professors and doctors of science8.2%; and assistant professors and candidates ofscience35.2%. With theaimofencouraging andincreasing responsibility fortheresults oftheir work, themechanism ofteachers rating wasintroduced. The resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers On further improvement of pedagogical personnel training and qualification upgrading was adopted, which envisages compulsory and differentiated qualification upgrading by professors
andteachers ofuniversities, aswell ascertification andresults assessment. With theaimofproviding governmental support toupgrading qualifications, thePresidents Fund Istedod (meaning progress) wasestablished. Grants have been provided to935teachers toorganize their qualification upgrading attheeducational establishments ofdeveloped countries. Alltheresources made available forqualification upgrading meant that bytheendof2006 about 3,000teachers hadinternships andhadincreased their qualifications. With theaimoffully utilizing staff resources, theTypical staff ofhigher educational establishments program wasintroduced. While thesupply ofteachers working inthehigher educational network seems to be relatively satisfactory, there isalack ofqualified teachers. In20002006 the number ofcandidates ofscience peruniversity decreased from 108 to103. Due to the low inflow ofdoctors ofscience into theeducation sphere, thenumber ofstudents peronedoctor ofscience grew from 131 to191, orbyalmost 1.5times. Most university teachers do not have close links with the world of practice andsocanonly share theoretical knowledge. Thebest teachers ofoverseas universities usually have significant experience ofwork atcompanies orcombine teaching with work atacompany inarole such asconsultant orexpert. Table 3.15 Number ofteachers andprofessors perhigher educational institution inproportion tothenumber ofstudents, 20002006, thousand people
2000 Number of professors and teachers per university (total) Outofthem: Doctors ofscience Candidates ofscience With higher education Number of students per teacher (total) Outofthem: Doctor ofscience Candidate ofscience With higher education 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2006, as% of2000
302
325
349
360
360
373
377
124.9
23 108 171 177
28 110 187 171
23 113 214 216
24 116 220 224
23 113 224 232
23 116 234 257
24 103 250 254
105.4 95.4 146.2 143.5
131 28 18
122 31 18
166 33 17
170 35 19
176 37 19
199 39 19
191 45 18
145.5 160.8 104.6
International links andcooperation inhigher education. With theaimofimproving the quality of the educational process and upgrading teachers qualifica118 National Human Development Report
tions, theMinistry ofHigher Education oftheRepublic hasengaged inwide-scale international cooperation. Currently affiliates of leading universities of foreign countries such as Westminster International University in Tashkent, the Russian Academy named after Plekhanov, and Moscow State University named after Lomonosov are operating in the Republic. A branch of the Russian Institute of Oil and Gas named after Gubkin isbeing established inTashkent, andamasters department isbeing created atSamarkand State University jointly with Bologna University (Italy). Negotiations arebeing carried outwith Japan, theNetherlands, andSpain concerning joint staff training. Forexample, Spanish partners provided favourable credit amounting to25million euro with theaimofdeveloping joint forms ofpersonnel training with theUzbek State University ofWorld Languages. Close cooperation wasestablished with anumber ofleading overseas universities such asCambridge, Sorbonne, Oxford, Harvard and others. The Japanese government provided agrant totheTashkent Textile Institute amounting to440million yenwith theaimofequipping itmodern laboratory equipment. Distance learning using theeducational curricula oftheMassachusetts Technological University hasbeen arranged. Over 200foreign students study atuniversities ofthecountry. Allthese andsome other initiatives enable Uzbekistans national network ofcontinuous education tointegrate into theworld education community. 3.2.6. Postgraduate education Postgraduate education istargeted atmeeting thesocietys needs forhighly qualified scientists andteachers, inline with thecreative, educational andvocational interests ofindividuals. In contrast to developed countries, where postgraduate education includes studying foraMasters degree andDoctors degree, inUzbekistan postgraduate education includes thestages inherited from theSoviet system such asthecandidate qualification and doctorate. Each stage entails preparing and defending a dissertation with the aim of receiving a Candidates degree at the first stage andDoctors degree atthesecond stage. Study attheses stages canbeboth fulltime andbycorrespondence, andcanbeonacompetitive basis. Approximately 50% ofalldefended candidate anddoctor dissertations aredefended onacompetitive basis. Candidates of science are prepared in 298 scientific directions, and doctors ofscience areprepared in60scientific areas. Though therange ofscientific directions is wide, there are no candidates and doctors in a number of priority areas duetothelack ofcorresponding scientific schools andinsufficiency ofacademics insome specific directions. Within the period starting in 2000 the number of those studying at candidate and doctoral courses dropped sharply. In2005 this figure wasless than half thefigure in2000. Atthesame time, theeffectiveness ofthese courses also did notgrow significantly. Thenumber ofthose whograduated from such courses andsuccessfully defended their dissertations increased both inabsolute and relative terms. However, theeffectiveness ofsuch courses isvery low. Only 15.6% ofcandidate students and8.6% ofdoctoral students finish their studies anddefend their dissertations.
Table 3.16 Dynamics ofpreparation ofresearch personnel in20002005 per1000researchers

Post-graduate courses 2005, as% 2005 2000 of2000 Entrants Total currently studying (people) Graduates Including with thesis defence As% ofgraduates 32.9 144.5 35.0 3.0 8.6 23.4 74.2 29.4 4.6 15.7 71.2 51.3 84.1 154.2 Doctorate courses 2005 4.6 13.3 3.8 0.2 6.3 2000 2005, as% of2000 2.2 47.8 7.2 2.6 0.22 8.6 54.3 69.3 94.0
Within thelast two-year period thestate quota forenrolment tocandidate and doctorate courses slightly increased: in 2005 (compared to 2004) to candidate courses by 30% (by 76 people) and to doctorate courses by 40% (by 10people); in2006 (against 2005) tocandidate courses by28% (by92people) and to doctoral courses by 54% (by 19 people). Currently within just the network oftheMinistry ofHigher andSecondary Specialized Education (33higher educational establishments and 2research institutions) there areover 900postgraduate students in200academic areas, 75 ofwhom arepreparing doctorate dissertations in70areas. Thekeycauses ofthis loweffectiveness ofthepostgraduate education network areasfollows: ## Insufficient qualifications of entrants to candidate and doctorate courses. Due tothelack ofincentives forworking asteachers atuniversities, thebest university graduates prefer towork atmore prestigious andbetter paid jobs incompanies and joint ventures. Asaresult thebest graduates dont enrol; ## Inoverseas universities thefirst stage ofapostgraduate education isconsidered tobethemasters. Thenext stage isthen thedoctorate. Uzbekistan preserved anadditional stage ofeducation which requires additional time. Inleading overseas universities higher and postgraduate education last from 7 to 10 years28, while inUzbekistan there isnooption buttostudy 11years29, andformedical personnel ittakes 1315years; ## The complicated and expensive process of preparing and defending a dissertation for both candidate and doctoral students, especially for those students located intheregions. Practically allthespecialized councils arelocated inTashkent. Topass alltheprocedures starting from thedissertation preparation toitsdefence, itisrequired todiscuss theresearch work many times atdiverse seminars, usually held atTashkent universities. Asaresult, students from theregions regularly have totravel toTashkent, which isexpensive andtime
28 Theminimum term ofstudies includes 4 years attheBachelors degree level, 1 year atmasters and2 years for the doctorate, andmaximum term is4 years foraBachelors degree, 2 years atmasters and4 years forthedoctorate. 29 4 years atBachelors level, 2 years ofmasters, 3 years ofcandidate studies and2 years ofdoctorate.
120
consuming. Theprocesses ofpresentation, choice anddiscussions with official opponents or examiners, and the external examiner, as well as the defence ataspecialized council, also require multiple trips toTashkent. This complicated andexpensive procedure ofdissertation preparation remains anobstacle forallstudents from theregions; ## The insufficient number of qualified research personnel in regional universities and research institutions hinders the creation of the academic environment required forthedevelopment ofanewgeneration ofresearch personnel. This becomes avicious circle when thelack ofqualified personnel does notcreate theright research environment, andthen thelack ofthis research environment discourages the inflow of qualified research personnel into regional universities; ## Lack ofaproven andeffective curricula forcandidate anddoctorate studies, alack ofconnection between dissertations andpractice, andasaresult alowlevel ofapplication oftheresearch. 3.3. Financing ofEducation 3.3.1. International Experience Progress inthefield ofeducation isclosely related tothefinancing andeffective utilization oftheallocated financial resources. Ofcourse notalllevels ofeducation require special funding. Itwasestimated that only 20% oftheknowledge people acquire is through a formal education (such as in academic institutions, completing in-service training courses, various seminars and workshops). The remaining 80% isgained through life experienceinformal education such asintheir families, atwork, while interacting with other people andorganizations, atmeetings, conferences, andonbusiness trips.30 Thus most oftheknowledge hasbeen acquired forfree, oratleast nobody intentionally funded it. Thus, here wecanonly discuss the financing of formal education, and just a few aspects of informal education (such asinformal tutoring). ) Worldwide Comparison ofExpenditures onEducation Theshare ofexpenditures oneducation asaproportion ofGDPdiffers significantly inallcountries oftheworld. Thehighest is15% ofGDPintheMarshall Islands, located inthePacific Ocean. Asof2004 itsshare ofspending was25times higher than inEquatorial Guinea where itwas0.6%6. Therichest countries allocate thelargest funds. This istrue regarding public expenditure, which (being onaverage 5.6%) exceeds theworld average (4.4%) byover onefourth andistwice ashigh asinthose countries with thelowest level ofhuman development2. However, this does nottake into account private investment, which duetothewealth ofthese countries isable tocomplement public funding toasignificant degree (theaverage level ofprivate investment amounts to2% ofGDP). This level ofspending isnotonly high inrelative terms butalso, ofcourse, much higher inabsolute terms because 1% ofGDPinrich countries ismany times larger than 1% ofGDPinpoorer countries.
30 Modernization of Higher Education Economics: Challenges, Priorities and Prospects. Collection ofAbstracts oftheInternational Scientific-Practical Conference.Tashkent, TGEU, 2007, p.305.
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Table 3.17 Government Expenditure onEducation inSelected Countries Worldwide in2004 (aspercentage)
Uzbekistan Morocco Ethiopia Belarus South African Columbia Iran Hong Kong (China) Kyrgyzstan Ukraine Thailand Panama Tajikistan Lebanon % ofGDP % ofgovernment expenditure 8.5 36.2 6.3 27.8 6.1 20.4 5.8 13.0 5.4 18.1 4.9 117 4.8 17.7 4.7 23.3 4.6 23.0 4.6 18.3 4.2 27.5 3.9 8.9 2.8 16.9 2.6 12.7
Source: 2006 World Development Indicators. TheWorld Bank, Washington D.C.
Inthemajority ofcountries worldwide theincrease ineducational expenditures percapita depends onthelevel ofeducation: theincreases areminimal attheelementary education level, whereas they reach thehighest level inhigher education. However, there areexceptions tothis general rule. According totheGDPpercapita indicator inAustralia, Great Britain, Iceland, Macedonia, Nepal, Poland, andTurkey andinsome other countries public expenditure perstudent insecondary education islower than forprimary. Inatleast twocountries oftheworldinJapan, Kazakhstanexpenditure onhigher education isonaverage lower than onsecondary, andeven onprimary education. InPortugal expenditures forhigher education arelower than forsecondary, butgreater than forprimary. Inindustrialized andindustrializing countries expenditures perstudent attheprimary, secondary andhigher levels aresimilar, thedifferences between them usually notexceeding three orfour times. Malaysia andKuwait aretheexceptions because theexpenditures forhigher education arelarger than inprimary education byafactor of5 and7times, andBelize isalso anexception because here thedifference reaches double digits13times larger. Asforthepoorest countries oftheworld similar contrasts aremore likely therule than theexception: expenditures forhigher education aremore significant than onprimary education. Forexample, inGambia, theCongo andLesotho approximately 30times more isspent percapita, andinEritrea byafactor of110! B) Models ofFinancing Education Worldwide there areseveral models offinancing education depending onseveral factors: ## thecountrys economic development andbudget resources; ## theideological commitment ofthecountrys government toraising thepopulations educational level forhuman development andfortheeconomic progress ofthestate asawhole;
## opportunities toraise extra-budgetary financial resources fortheeducation sector; ## thepopulations values related toeducation asawhole, andalso toeducation ofacertain level andquality. Thecharacteristic ofthefirst model offinancing education isthat thestate completely andindependently finances alllevels ofeducation, except forsmall amounts ofparental fees forchildren inpreschool establishments, school uniforms, textbooks and educational accessories, and also for able-bodied but not working students fortheir full time study insecondary special andhigher educational institutions. Over anumber ofdecades this model formed thebasis ofpolicy inallformer socialist countries (theformer USSR, anumber ofEastern European andAsian countries along with Cuba), where education atschools, secondary special educational institutions, high schools, postgraduate courses anddoctoral courses, andalso various in-service courses wasfree-of-charge. Atpresent this model isused inalimited number ofcountries. Theadvantages ofthis model areobvious: itensured practically equal opportunities ofaccess toeach level ofeducation fortheentire population, irrespective oftheir financial situation orplace ofresidence. Itisnoaccident that there ispractically noilliteracy inallthecountries that used tohave this model, irrespective oftheir level ofeconomic development, andtheir educational indicators areamongst thehighest intheworld. Thedisadvantages ofthis model arerelated tolimitations inthegovernment budget, especially intheareas ofexpensive capital spending fortherenewal andreconstruction ofeducational facilities andtheir equipping with state oftheartequipment. There isalso alowreturn ontheinvestment interms ofthequality oftraining, andlimited opportunities toraise additional financial resources forthesector ofeducation toimprove itsquality andeffectiveness. Thesecond model offinancing education istheopposite ofthefirst one, and it is characterized byinsignificant amounts ofgovernment expenditure andcharging fees formost educational services. This model wasinuseupuntil about themid1990s inmany poor African countries which did not have the budgets to finance even primary education. Consequently the level of illiteracy was extremely high, and the weighted distribution ofthepopulation according totheir number ofyears ofeducation wascharacterized byabimodal (two-peak) curve. Oneofthepeaks showed that many people just hadtwoyears ofeducation, andasecond large group hadaround 8years317. However, thesituation drastically changed intheperiod between 1960 and2000 because themajority ofthese African countries independently, orassisted byinternational aid, began tointroduce asystem ofcompulsory free ofcharge primary education stage bystage. Thethird model offinancing ofeducation ischaracterized byboth public and private financing, supplemented by external sponsors contributions. In turn, this model issubdivided into several types: ## dual financing atalleducation levels; ## some levels ofeducation arefinanced completely bythestate (forexample primary education andinsome countries also secondary), andhigher levels ofeducation arefunded from avariety offinancial sources;
31
7
Justice andDevelopment. World Development Report. TheWorld Bank, 2006, p.55.
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## some levels ofeducation (lower ones) arefunded from diverse financial sources, andhigher ones arefunded byonly private money. This model offinancing education isused inthemajority ofcountries throughout theworld. Thebest type isconsidered tobethevariant inwhich primary schooling, and even better, also secondary school education, is significantly financed bythegovernment, providing equal access toeducation forallsocial groups, despite their differences interms oftheir income. Theadvantage ofthedual financing model isthediversification offinancial sources that together canprovide sustainable sums because thesystem does not depend ononefinancial source alone. Moreover, much research demonstrates that thefinancial expenses foreducation incurred byconsumers ofeducational services motivate them tolearn more effectively, andthey demand more from teachers and theeducation system. This creates additional incentives toraise thelevel andquality ofeducation. Thedisadvantages ofthis multi-channel financing model arerelated to the restrictions onaccess tofeebased education ofchildren from relatively poor families, andtounequal human development opportunities forasignificant number of the population, especially inthepoor anddeveloping countries. Table 3.18 Government Share ofFinancing ofExpenditures forEducation (as% oftotal expenditure oneducation)
Countries Mongolia, Equatorial Guinea Austria, Denmark, Israel, Costa Rica, Finland, Czech Republic, Sweden Italy, TheNetherlands, France Barbados, Latvia, Cyprus, Rumania, Slovenia, Turkey Argentina, Bulgaria, Great Britain, Germany, Mexico TheUSA, Japan Columbia, Fiji Chilli, South Korea
Source: World Education Report 2006. UNESCO, Montreal.
Government expenditure asproportion oftotal expenditure oneducation 100 9598 9092 8589 8083 75 6063 5558
Analysis ofinternational trends inthemodels offinancing education show that they gradually develop in favour of one version of the third model because this model ismore flexible anditallows countries toquickly change theproportions ofsources offunding inline with thefinancial opportunities ofcountries andcommitments ofthegovernments toeducation. TheUNrecommends that countries significantly expand free education, initially atthelevel ofschooling, andalso toprovide government assistance forvarious forms ofearly learning. This approach creates equal access toeducation forchildren irrespective oftheir economic background. More and more governments aspire to fund school education but funding forhigher education isdone through many different forms: ## free higher education is provided for students in public universities in some countries (forexample inmany industrially developed European countries such
as Austria, Denmark, Finland, andGermany). Funding isprovided bycentral government, butalso city government, sponsors, money made byuniversities from foreign student fees, andselling scientific andresearch outputs andexperimental-design projects; ## free higher education atpublic universities forsome students (provided with government grants) and fee paying education for others (this system is widely used intheCIS, including inUzbekistan); ## subsidized education in public universities, when students pay only a portion of the real cost and the rest is covered by the government (public universities inthemajority ofindustrially developed countries such astheUSA, Japan, andtheUK); ## feebased education atpublic universities (themajority ofdeveloping countries inAsia, Africa andLatin America); ## fee based education in private universities (the majority of countries all over theworld). Private anduniversity grants aresometimes given togifted students (andarevery common inthemost famous universities intheindustrially developed countries); ## subsidized education in private universities (For example in Chile this accounts forover 60% ofhigher education, inThailand about 50%, inOECD country-members about 33% andinIndia over 20%). Table 3.19 Proportion ofstudents inprivate universities inselected countries in2004 (as% oftotal number ofstudents inthecountry)
Countries Japan, South Korea Chile Brazil ThePhilippines Indonesia Paraguay Columbia
Source: World Report onEducation 2006. UNESCO, Montreal.
Proportion ofstudents inprivate universities,as% 80 74 68 66 61 58 55
Thechoice offinancing model mainly depends onandisconnected tothechosen model of economic development. For example, it is imperative for developing countries to have aliterate population asthepeople should beable toadopt industrial production processes transferred from more advanced countries. These countries should be ready toeffectively manufacture goods using thetechnologies transferred to them. Therefore thegovernment funding approach toschool education quickly began totake root inthese countries. Asforhigher education, the situation was quite different. In the less developed countries there were, asarule, fewuniversities because ofalack ofbudget resources to fund them. Therefore private universities andfeebased forms ofeducation began to develop. InChile, forexample, thestudents from prosperous families have been
charged afeeforauniversity education, which means that notonly hasthis enabled thefunding ofasignificant expansion ofthehigher education system (at present over 40% oftheagegroup 1824 arecovered, avery high level) butalso it hasenabled thegovernment tofocus state funding onsupporting poorer students. Themajority ofindustrially developed countries, especially theEuropean countries, aspire toprovide higher education forallbecause their policy istodevelop a knowledge-based economy. Labour intensive industries that needed competent workers butofarelatively loweducation level aregradually moving offshore todeveloping countries. Intheir place high technology andknowledge intensive industries which areresponsible fordriving economic progress aretobedeveloped, andthese require highly trained workers. Sothere isaneed toraise theeducational andintellectual levels ofthepopulation toenable such large-scale involvement in the high technology sector. These countries are preparing for knowledge production intheform ofscientific andtechnical development andinventions. ) Principles ofGovernment Financing ofEducational Institutions In many developing countries the financing of school education is changing from providing targeted subsidies forsome items tothedirect financing formula according towhich operating expenses arecovered according toacertain formula, such asthenumber ofpupils. Insome countries thesystem ofschool financing encourages competition between schools using theprinciple ofthemoney follows thepupil. Allocating funds toschools then depends onthequality oftheir educational services andonthesatisfaction levels ofpupils andtheir parents (andeven of future employers). This is a powerful incentive for the leadership and teaching staff of schools. Teachers are similarly rewarded: school principals are authorized tomake adifferentiation intheir salaries depending ontheir pupils successes, aswell astogrant scholarships forgifted children. Thus there hasemerged atrend in some countries of granting primary and secondary schools significant autonomy in how they budget what has been allocated to them, in how they recruit and pay teachers, and in selecting textbooks and educational material. However, itisonly possible todothis ifthere aregood results andprogress, otherwise some schools (asisthecase intheUSA) maycompletely lose their funding. Increasing the effectiveness of government expenditure on universities, their commercialization ofthem, andincreasing theproportion offeepaying students arethefocus ofmeasures taken toexpand funding forhigher education. Insome countries, where reforms areseen tohave been successful, there hasbeen atransition away from thebasic principle ofallocating funds tohigh schools (inwhich theallocation fortheprevious year istaken asthestarting point) totheuseofstandard inputs perstudent that aredifferentiated according tothestructure oftraining andother circumstances. Insome countries this innovation hasanadditional featureforexample intheCzech Republic thefunding system takes into consideration notonly thenumber ofstudents enrolled attheuniversity butalso thenumber ofsuccessful graduates. Sothepublic financing ofuniversities depends simultaneously onawhole range ofcriteria. Thefocus isnotonly onthenumber ofstudents enrolled inuniversities but increasingly on the number of students who have achieved the best results intheentrance exams orduring tests. Other factors tobetaken into consideration arewhether theuniversity hasmetacommitment toincrease thequality andeffectiveness ofitsactivities, orifauniversity designs newprojects forimproving itsactivi126 National Human Development Report
ties. While allocating public funding touniversities, special attention ispaid tothecomplexity of educational programs and their productivity (dropout level, proportion ofbachelors, masters anddoctoral qualifications inthemakeup oftheir graduates), andthequalifications ofthefaculty (number ofacademic degrees andacademic status amongst theteaching staff). Theother important innovation inthesystem ofpublic financing ofuniversities istheallocation offunds tothesector intheform ofso-called block grants (sometimes forperiods ofanumber ofyears into thefuture) that cover administrative costs, wear andtear offacilities, andrenewing thebasic funds oftheuniversity. Asforuniversity expenses onresearch, they areeither included insuch block grants orhave aseparate budget line. Insuch cases consideration isgiven totheresearch anddevelopmental plans oftheuniversities, theamount offunds they have raised byother means inparticular from private companies andnational andinternational research funds, andwhat other similar institutions aredoing. Financial pressures sometimes force universities toearn additional funds through providing services notrelated totheir core activities. InJapan, forexample, many universities have medical departments which produce upto20% oftheir budget revenues, then 12% isproduced bytuition fees andcharged examinations, 3% from bank loans andasimilar percentage through cooperation between university researchers and theprivate sector. AsforHungarian Technical Universities, oneofthekeysources of financing hasbeen incomes generated bycarrying outcontracts forprivate enterprises. Approximately half ofalluniversity departments sell educational courses for the general population, andthis generates from between 5% to20% oftheir income. Universities intheCzech Republic generate 20% oftheir income independently. IntheUSA, Australia andinmany other industrially developed countries themajority ofuniversities arefull participants inthemarket place, forming partnerships with business. They earn alotofmoney selling educational services, theoutputs oftheir research activity, transferring high technologies, andlaunching small knowledge-based andinnovational enterprises. Anincreasing source ofraising additional funding foruniversities istheexport ofeducational services. Forexample, theUKearns over $5.3billion peryear from international students. IntheUSAuniversities earn much more money from international students than from government funding. c) Public andbank co-financing ofprivate education. Atpresent, inthemajority of OECD countries approximately 10% of students are enrolled in private primary schools. Governments allocate similar levels offunding forprimary andsecondary schools. InIndia support forprivate educational institutions makes upabigger proportion ofexpenditures onschool educationalmost 1/3. Governments provide significant financial support forprivate schools inLatin America (where every seventh student studies inone), andinthecountries ofSub-Saharan Africa andinsome other regions. Much attention isgiven tosolving theproblem ofaccess ofchildren from poor families tothebest schools, especially theprivate ones. This isapressing problem both fordeveloping andindustrially developed countries. InBangladesh, theUK, Columbia, Puerto Rico andChile itis solved through granting vouchers topoor families foreducating their children inprivate secondary schools. Similar vouchers aregiven tothepoor (those whose incomes areless than $25,000) intheUSA, however this isdone onthebasis that avoucher does notcover alltheexpenses forprivate education butonly aportion ofthem. Therest should befinanced from thefamily budget.
Inorder tominimize theamount poor households have tospend ontheir childrens school education, inIndia uniforms have been abolished, andinSriLanka students aregiven free uniforms andschool dinners. Also inSriLanka, andinMalawi, Botswana andinsome other developing countries, parental fees forprimary school education have been abolished attheurging oftheWorld Bank. Inmany countries worldwide there areefforts todevelop mutually advantageous cooperation between thestate funding ofschool education andtheprivate sector. Such cooperation isbetter able tosatisfy thelevel ofdemand forthequality ofeducation aswell asitsquality. Oneoftheforms this cooperation takes isforlocal governments tocontract out with private schools toadmit students from both poor andwealthy families, funded bythegovernment budget. Thestate thus manages toavoid large capital expenses forbuilding neweducational institutions andatthesame time private schools have astable source offinancing. Inpractice this creates competition between private schools over which ones receive this type ofgovernment support. Problems of access to higher education have been successfully addressed in many countries oftheworld asaresult ofthewide useofavariety offorms offinan cial support forstudents. Most notable amongst these areeducational vouchers, targeted grants, subsidies, credits on favourable terms, interest-free loans and incentive grants. Therisks related totheincomplete ordelayed repayment ofeducational loans are generally notsogreat. This isbecause thestudents whomake useofthem aresensitive todeveloping apoor credit history andsotend tostrictly follow theterms of repayment. Theinsurance risks forsuch credits arealso insignificant since students aregenerally quite healthy andwill behealthy during theperiod when they need to payback theloan. In the majority of the countries worldwide, and, in particular in China, the tuition feeisless than thereal expense. Quite often this feeissetaccording tothefuture earning potential forgraduates, theeffectiveness oftheteaching andresearch activities oftheuniversities, andalso theform ofpayment. InAustralia, forexample, the tuition feeisreduced byaquarter forthose paying upfront andthere are anumber ofother privileges. InBelarus thetuition feeisreduced orwaived for students ofpublic universities whoarethechildren ofthepolice inthat region, and for thefamilies living inareas affected bytheChernobyl disaster. Educational loans aregenerally provided byspecial governmental financial institutions orprivate banks. They arepaid back usually within 57years or23years after graduating from university. InSweden andinsome other countries, theinterest rate forthese educational loans issetaccording totheinflation rate. There arecertain restrictions andprivileges inthesystem ofeducational loans insome countries. InLithuania, forexample, these loans areonly forstudents inpublic universities, inSouth Africa andinsome other countries they areonly given tostudents in need. To stimulate high academic achievement, students in the Netherlands, forexample, canhave their loans transferred into agrant onacompetitive basis. Itispossible, andeven encouraged, that part oftheloan ispaid back bytheemployer. In China graduates loans can be written off if they work in remote areas foracertain time. D) Structure of expenditure in educational institutions. The basic items ofexpenditure ineducational institutions aretheoperational expenses (consist128 National Human Development Report
ing ofwages andother costs) andalso capital expenses. Inprimary andsecondary school education thelargest item ofexpenditure issalaries. Innearly allcases this ismore than half oftheoverall expenditure with theexception ofMalaysia andtheComoro Islands where thesalary isalittle less than half. This item also dominates the structure of expenditure in higher education, however there aremany more exceptions inthis case. Inparticular, inanumber of countries including Romania, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Columbia, Cyprus, and Greece the item in question is less than 50%, and in Moldova it accounts forlittle over 25% andinMalaysia only 20%. Capital expenses arealways less than operational expenditures with the maximum being over 40% of expenditure inPanama, Greece andMalaysia. ) Financing reforms ineducation. Around theworld there aregreat differences inhowfunds areallocated tofinance reforms ineducation. Some countries have chosen reforms that arerelatively cheap tocarry out, while others have carried outcomprehensive reforms that require significant financial resources. Government policy onfunding education inRussia, forexample, isaimed at anticipating the growth in allocations of public expenditure for the education sector, significantly increasing theefficiency ofspending andcreating theconditions forraising funds from private sources. InChina thegovernment hasresolutely rejected thepractice ofresidual budgetary financing ofeducation, andtangible tax benefits foreducational institutions andtheir investors have been provided for. IntheUkraine theeducation financing system hasimproved asaresult of linking theamount offunds allocated toeducational institutions with the quality ofeducational services. Budgetary allocations aremade bythestate on the basis ofcompetitive bidding from educational institutions ofvarious patterns of ownership. 3.3.2 Financing ofEducation inUzbekistan Total expenditure oneducation. Public expenditure oneducation inUzbe kistan as a proportion ofGDPisrelatively high. Over thelast fewyears it has constantly exceeded 10% ofGDP(twice asmuch astheOECD average) and in 2005 it was 10.8%. Table 3.20 Total Expenditure onEducation inUzbekistan (as% ofGDP)
Source offinancing Government expenditures Extra-budgetary expenditures Total
* forecasted data Source: Ministry ofFinance
2000 9.6 1.1 10.7
2001 8.8 2.2 11.0
2002 9.1 2.6 11.7
2003 8.6 1.8 10.4
2004 8.5 2.2 10.7
2005 8.8 2.0* 10.8
Much research hasfocused onthefact that Uzbekistans educational expenditure indicators exceed those intheother Central Asian countries andinanycountry oftheEuropean Union. There areseveral objective reasons forthis high weighting ofexpenditure foreducation inUzbekistan.
First, itis related to the clear commitment of the government to the dynamic development andfoundational importance ofthis sector forhuman development inthecountry, toreduce poverty anddevelop theeconomy. Second, itisrelated to the demographic situation in the country since the proportion of the population under 24years oldis52.9%, andsothere aremany more young people inUzbekistan than inthemajority oftheindustrially developed countries. Thecountry hasabright future ifthis young population iswell-educated andiscapable ofensuring theincrease ofeffectiveness andefficiency inthelabour market. These twofactors impact ontheproportion ofexpenditure oneducation. Moreover, GDPpercapita inUzbekistan isnotvery high, andsoitisimpossible tocompare thegovernments budget with those oftheindustrially developed countries. This isanother reason forthehigh proportion. Government expenditure on education. Despite the scarcity of budget resources, government expenditure asaproportion oftotal expenditure oneducation hasalways exceeded 80%, andthis testifies tothegovernments commitment tosupport theeducation system. Government expenditure oneducation ismade upofthree main sources: current budget expenditures, future expenditures offuture budgets allocated to cover foreign loans that have been used to develop theeducation system, andalso thefunds oftheextra-budgetary School Development Fund established in2004. Table 3.21 Public Expenditures onEducation (as% ofGDP)
Public bysources: state budget foreign loans andgrants repaid from future budget revenues* Expenditure ofthepublic School Development Fund** 1988 1989 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 7.8 9.9 9.6 8.8 9.1 8.6 8.5 8.8 7.8 0.0 0.0 9.9 0.0 0.0 9.6 0.0 0.0 8.7 0.1 0.0 8.7 0.4 0.0 8.4 0.2 0.0 8.0 0.5 0.0 8.2 n/a 1.0
* Converted attheaverage official exchange rate. ** Financing ofBasic Education capital investment through theSchool Development Fund (SDF). Source: Calculations arebased ondata provided byMinistry ofFinance oftheRepublic ofUzbekistan, July 2005.
Public financing ofeducation inUzbekistan hasalways been targeted, most recently byadopting andimplementing twolarge-scale national programs: theNational Program for Personnel Training that was introduced in 1996 (the first priority ofwhich wastoestablish anewsecondary special vocational training system onthebasis ofnewprinciples) andtheProgram forBasic Education Development established in2004 (theobjective ofwhich istoradically improve thebasic education sector). Inaccordance with these programs, alarge portion ofpublic resources isallocated totheeducation sector duetosignificant investments made inthenewschool buildings andtheprovision ofequipment tothesecondary special vocational education institutions, and to the new construction, reconstruction and provision ofequipment tobasic schools.
Table 3.22 Public Education Expenditure inUzbekistan byMain Types ofExpenses (as% total public expenditure)
Type ofexpenses Operational expenses Capital expenses 1998 91.0 9.0 1999 71.9 28.1 2000 65.6 34.4 2001 72.6 27.4 2002 68.7 31.3 2003 70.1 29.9 2004 68.5 31.5 2005 65.5 34.5
Source: Ministry ofFinance oftheRepublic ofUzbekistan, 2005
The government of Uzbekistan considers capital expenses to be of critical importance for building modern and functional facilities for the educational process, therefore itwasthefirst amongst thepost-Soviet countries todeclare andcarry outrelevant measures toradically change these facilitiesthemost resource intensive type ofexpenditure ineducation. Theimplementation ofthese twonational large-scale programs hasresulted in changing thecomposition ofpublic expenditure fordifferent education levels. Table 3.23 Public Expenditure onEducation bysectors (as% ofGDP)
1988 Alllevels ofeducation including: pre-school basic education secondary special and vocational education, higher education other education institutions Retraining and upgrading thelevel of teaching staff 1.14 4.02 1.50 0.55 0.53 1.18 4.24 3.40 0.50 0.54 1.03 3.59 3.93 0.48 0.57 1.12 3.85 2.83 0.48 0.47 1.18 3.81 2.98 0.45 0.58 1.08 3.71 2.81 0.45 0.49 1.00 3.80 2.80 0.44 0.42 0.9 4.6 2.3 0.4 0.5 7.8 1989 9.9 2000 9.6 2001 8.8 2002 9.1 2003 8.6 2004 8.5 2005 8.8
0.06
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.06
0.07
0.06
0.1
Source: Calculations arebased ondata provided byMinistry ofFinance oftheRepublic ofUzbekistan, July 2005.
In2006, theSDFfinanced newconstruction andrenovation ofbasic schools to the value of200billion sums (around $180million), which istwice asmuch asin2005. These renovated schools received equipment tothevalue of53billion sums in2006 as compared to34billion in2005. In2005capital investment inthesector ofsecondary special vocational education made up353.8billion sums, andthis amount isplanned onanannual basis, including for2009, thelast year ofimplementing theprogram.
Box 3.6. TheExtra-Budgetary School Development Fund Complementing budget allocations, theExtra-Budgetary School Development Fund (SDF) hasbeen established tofinance theNational Program forCompulsory Basic Education Development fortheperiod 20042009. This Fund hastaken onakeyrole infunding education inUzbekistan. TheSDFs revenue isdrawn from three sourcestheSchool Development Tax, contributions from local governments (khokimiyats) andother extra-budgetary contributions, including sponsorship from various entities. Commencing in2005 theSchool Development Taxwill becollected inthetaxsystem as1% ofthesales revenue ofalllegal trading entities. TheSDFconstituted 10.4% oftotal education expenditure in2005, andthis proportion will rise to24.2% in2009. Thewinding upoftheSDFin2009 suggests that there could beasudden drop ineducation expenditure for2010onwards. Current themain objectives oftheSDFaretoaccumulate sufficient funds tomeet thepriority upgrading needs, tofinance therenovation ofbasic schools andtoprovide them with therequired level offurniture, labequipment, computers andsports equipment. TheSDFismanaged byanExecutive Office (Directorate) with three departments and 10personnel members andisaccountable totheSDFManagement Council. TheManagement Council includes 13council members andisheaded bythePrime Minister. TheGovernment places great importance ontheadequate financing ofthis Program, andthepresence of high ranking council members isdesigned toensure ahigh level offinancial accountability. The SDFs revenues and expenditures are estimated in line with the development of the state budget according totheLawOntheBudget System. Thenewconstruction, capital construction andcapital repair ofschools areorganized andfinanced atRegional (Oblast) level through theSDFRegional Special Accounts. Regional andLocal (Rayon) Finance andEducation Departments areresponsible forfinancing therenovation andequipping oftargeted schools. Theorganizational arrangements forthefinancing process arewell designed interms oftheaccumulation anddistribution offunds.
Table 3.24. School Development Fund Revenues andExpenditures

2005 162,615 89 10 1 133,603 75 16 35 20 4 25 10 10 3 2 Fact 2006 247,969 82 9 9 254,111 79 16 40 20 3 21 8 9 2 2 2007 360,950 68 5 27 364,227 72 12 39 19 2 28 7 16 11 4 Forecast 2008 2009 495,700 569,572 57 4 39 495,700 71 12 39 17 3 29 9 15 3 2 57 4 39 569,572 70 10 40 17 3 30 9 14 5 2
Revenue, inmillion soums Sources ofRevenue (%): 1. 1% School Development Tax 2. Contributions ofLocal Khokimiyats 3. Sponsorship andother extra-budgetary funds Revenue, inmillion soums Sources ofRevenue (%): 1. Building andrepairs Including: Newconstruction Capital reconstruction Capital repair Maintenance 2. Equipment Including: Furniture Labequipment Computers Sports equipment
Source: Data provided bytheMinistry ofFinance oftheRepublic ofUzbekistan (2007).
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Since theproportion offunding allocated tobasic andsecondary special vocational education asashare ofGDPhasincreased significantly, there hasbeen asmall decline inthesectors ofpre-school andhigher education. Between 1998 and2004 pre-schools were allocated less than 3% ofthetotal education budget forcapital investments. Pre-school education isthemost vulnerable sub-sector because ithasreceived relatively little investment over thepast tenyears. Asaresult, buildings and equipment have deteriorated and are now in urgent need ofrepair and/orreplacement. During thesame period oftime, only 8% ofthetotal budget allocated tocapital expenditures went tobasic education butin2005 theamount dramatically increased duetoimplementing thenewtarget program (upto23.4%). Many higher educational institutions are in need of modern equipment, andthebuildings need capital repair andmaintenance. There isaclear gapbetween thenumber ofstudents enrolled atdifferent levels of education and government expenditures allocated to maintain and develop them: forpre-school education institutions, secondary special vocational educational institutions anduniversities this gapisnegative, meaning that theproportion ofallocated funds isless than theproportion ofenrolled students. Table 3.25 Public Expenditure onEducation bySectors (as% oftotal expenditure oneducation)
Pre-school Uzbekistan 2005 Proportion of education expenditure Proportion of students enrolled 7.4 11.1 OECD 2001 8.0 11.0 Uzbekistan 2005 78.9 55.0 Basic OECD 2001 67 74.0 Uzbekistan 2005 10.2 29.3 SSVE OECD 2001 1 1 Uzbekistan 2005 3.4 4.6 Higher OECD 2001 2.4 14
Source: Calculations arebased ondata provided bytheMinistry ofFinance oftheRepublic ofUzbekistan, July 2005, andon2001 OECD data (Education ataGlance, 2005)
At the same time, the prioritizing of expenditure on capital projects necessarily created tensions in financing the broader education sector, including schools andsecondary special vocational educational institutions. Operational expenditures comprise of six major categories: salaries and social charges, meals, stipends, learning materials, office supplies, current repair andmaintenance. Inthe1990s thedramatic decrease ofthereal salaries ofteachers resulted innegative phenomena such asanoutflow ofteachers, decline inquality andlack ofincentives forstudents tostudy tobeateacher. Before 2006 the government took measures to gradually increase salaries but these were notsufficient interms ofstimulating teachers performance because the absolute monthly average teachers salaries reached only 6070% ofthemonthly average throughout thecountry and4050% ofitslevel inindustry. Moreover, the inadequate level of teachers salaries has resulted in such negative phenomena asinformal parental expenditures oneducation. Forexample, acNational Human Development Report 133
cording tothe2002 World Bank Living Standards Assessment inUzbekistan, approximately 10% of households report making unofficial payments or providing gifts toteaching personnel fortheir primary school aged children, 18% percent fortheir secondary school agechildren, andover 20% fortheir older children inhigher education. Thesize ofthese informal payments isgreater atthehigher education level. Itisnotable that poor families contributed less than non-poor families informal payments toinstitutions atalllevels ofeducation, butcontributed more ininformal payments than non-poor families forSSVEs. There were noinformal poor contributions inhigher education which suggests that they have limited access tothis level ofeducation. Table 3.26. Informal Household Contributions PerPupil onEducation September1999 May2000
715years poor non-poor Average expenditures perpupil, insoum Expenditures as% ofhousehold budget 528 3.1 568 12.8 1618years poor non-poor 3,369 19.3 2,277 17.5 1922years poor non-poor 0 0 3,271 28.0
Source: 2002 WBLiving Standards Assessment. September 2000 Education Module, weighted* n<10
Thegradual increase ofsalaries resulted inincreasing theproportion ofsalaries of allemployees ineducational institutions inthetotal current budget from 54% in 1997 to76% in2005. Chart 3.1. Continuous Expenditure on Education by Categories
2005 2004 2003 2002 2001 2000 1999 1998 1997 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
O Salaries and social charges O Office supplies O Stipends O Food O Learning materials O Reconstruction O Other expenditures Source: Calculations are based on Ministry of Finance data, July 2005.
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In 2006 within the Program for Basic Education Development measures were taken tosignificantly improve theincentive system forteachers and school directors. Ateachers salary wasincreased byupto15% forafter class work with pupils, and upto25% forexcellent performance andspecial contributions toincreasing the quality oftheeducation process. TheDirectors Fund wassetupineach school to thetune of15% ofthetotal annual payroll inorder toprovide incentives for teachers. Aspecial committee wasestablished consisting ofthemost respected teachers oftheschool andparents inorder tomake decisions about theawards. During 2006, 43% ofallteachers received additional incentive payments. However, theincrease inaverage salaries hasnotbeen accompanied byanadequate increase inthebudget allocation foroperational expenditures ineducation. Theresult isasignificant disproportion anddeficit offunds allocated tothecurrent maintenance ofalleducational sectors. Theinsufficiency offunds forcurrent expenses leads toanaccelerated depreciation ofnewly built or reconstructed buildings ofthesecondary special vocational educational institutions andschools. Also, duetothelack offunds public utilities arenotpaid intime andfully, school equipment isnotrepaired andteaching aids arenotbought. These factors decrease thequality oftheeducational process. Moreover, recently alarge number ofneweducational establishments have been opened, which require additional funds to maintain. This makes the situation even worse. The government faces serious difficulties in trying to simultaneously solve theproblems ofcapital construction, equipping newly opened educational establishments, raising thesalary ofteachers andcovering everyday costs. Itisexpected that after 2009 thesituation will improve, when thecapital construction andreconstruction ofbuildings will beaccomplished inaccordance with theadopted programs. Additional budget funds will beallocated with theaimofimproving themaintenance ofeducational institutions. Yet, in the present it is important to create a better methodological basis for a new system of financing educational establishments. Currently the budgeting system works according totheincremental principle which takes asitsstarting point theprevious years allocation, theresult ofwhich isaninefficient distribution offunds between educational establishments. All general schools obtained the status of a legal body following the Presidents 26th February 2007 decree[1] relating totheintroduction oftheTreasury system inthecountry andwith thepurpose ofrationally using budgetary funds. From nowongeneral schools arefinancially autonomous units inthesystem ofbudgetary financing. Inthepast thefinancing ofgeneral schools wascarried outthrough thelocal (rayon) departments oftheeducation system, andassuch there were noincentives forschools tocarefully usetheir budget andextra-budgetary funds. Nowfinancial autonomy allows general schools toeffectively usetheir budgetary provisions, andtoindependently budget andimplement these budgets. Atthesame time this opportunity entails achallengeforschools tocarry outtheseparate function ofaccounting which requires skilled workers ineach school. Currently schools have amajor problem with recruiting skilled accountants. This calls forprofessional training aspart oftheintroduction ofthis Treasury system. About 65% oftotal expenses intheeducational sector arecovered from local budgets, 22% from regional budgets andjust 13% from thecentral budget. Since the education sector is mainly funded from decentralized local budgets, which
Box 3.7. System ofbudget financing Theeducation sector isfinanced from thepublic budget, divided into three levels: central budget, regional budget andlocal budget. Higher education, educational establishments andacademic lyceums under higher educational establishments aswell asregional institutions providing teacher training arefinanced from thecentral budget. Vocational colleges andacademic lyceums which arenotunder higher educational establishments arefinanced from theregional budgets. Local administration bodies mainly finance thecurrent costs ofpre-schools, specialized andgeneral schools, while thebiggest share ofexpenses oncapital investment iscovered from regional budgets. Each local administration estimates itsannual budgets onthebasis ofrevenues andprojected expenditures. Central government subsidizes thelocal budget deficit, usually bychanging thepercentage oflocal taxes orintheform oftransfers from thecentral budget. Regional andlocal administrative bodies responsible forpublic education calculate thenumber ofchildren expected toenrol inpre-schools, primary andsecondary general, andvocational educational establishments forthenext year. Also they estimate thecost ofservices tobeprovided. They forecast local taxrevenues andanypotential budget deficit. Local branches oftheMinistry ofFinance consolidate these local budgets andsubmit them totheMinistry ofFinance (MoF), including anyrequired allocations from thecentral budget. Regions andlocalities prepare their draft budgets during theperiod July-August andsubmit totheMinistry ofPublic Education, which ataround thesame time prepares amacroeconomic forecast forthenext financial year andconsolidates alltheexpenditures, including theexpenditures oftheregions andlocalities. These documents areusually submitted totheMoFinmidSeptember. Atthebeginning ofOctober theMinistry prepares a draft of theNational Budget andsubmits ittotheCabinet ofMinisters forapproval. TheCabinet ofMinisters considers thebudget draft andintroduces amendments within amonth period, andafter this thefinal draft ofthebudget issubmitted totheParliament. Parliamentary committees consider thesubmitted budget drafts andsubmit them toParliament forapproval. TheNational Budget isapproved bytheParliament inNovember-December each year.
inturn depend onlocal taxcollection, there isaproblem related tothedisproportion oflocal financing. Itsignificantly affects thequality ofeducation across different localities andregions. Theresponsibility ofthelocal administration forthefinancing andmanagement ofpre-school educational establishments andprimary schools canbelimited bytheinadequate finance allocations. Extra-budgetary financing oftheeducation sector. Since gaining independence, the government of Uzbekistan has undertaken some measures to diversify thesources offinancing education. Onetype wasforeducational establishments toattract additional funds such asfees paid byparents, donations from citizens, local communities andother sponsors, aswell asincome received from renting outunused buildings, equipment, aswell asproviding extracurri cu lar training courses. Alluniversities charge tuition fees forthose students whose entrance test re sults were insufficient toreceive astate grant. During 20002004 theaverage amount ofreve nue foreducation raised from such sources was2% ofGDPannually Theministries administering theeducation sector established extra-budgetary funds forofficial contributions. Initially they were allowed tousesuch funds toimprove the material and technical base of the institutions, implement IT projects and encourage personnel by providing bonuses. Prior to 2003 the system of extra-budgetary financing wasnotstrictly controlled, except fortheuseofthefunds. Various ministries could attract anduseextra-budgetary funds without detailed re136 National Human Development Report
porting about their usage andmanagement. Starting from 2004 allgovernmental agencies, including theministries coordinating theeducation sector, were toreport totheMoFonthesources anduseofextra-budgetary funds. Theextra-budgetary funds should beused strictly inaccordance with theprogram: tofurther improve theinfrastructure andfacilities, encourage thestaff andcover thecosts ofpublic utilities. They are to submit quarterly reports to the MoF with the aim of informing them about theusage andmanagement ofextra-budgetary funds. When cases ofnon-targeted allocation offunds arerevealed, funds areimmediately shifted tothecentral budget. Schools were also allowed tobeengaged insome types ofactivities toearn additional income. Byextrapolating such trends itispossible that such activities could contribute upto3billion soum ayear (in2005 prices) tothegeneral secondary education system. Different regions follow different instructions onhowtousetheadditional income received byschools. Many schools have theright tousethemoney attheir owndiscretion. Estimation oftrends andproblems inthesystem ofeducation financing. There areanumber ofproblems related tothetransition period andtheimpact ofeconomic difficulties, andtheconsequent dramatic drop inresources allocated totheeducation sphere, especially before 2000: ## Before 1999 public expenditures oncapital investment into theeducation sector hadsharply declined; ## upuntil 2001 thetotal real public expenditure foreducation hadbeen declining (duetotheimproved situation over thelast 5years theprevious level hasbeen achieved); ## the share of the budget allocated to pay the salaries of teachers and technical personnel grew considerably andremains high asapercentage ofthetotal attheexpense ofother current expenses. Yet, salary levels ineducation arestill lowifcompared toother sectors; ## expenses related tothecreation ofteaching aids andthepurchase ofrequired materials decreased even further; ## operating expenses dropped significantly, including thebudget tobuyrequired materials, aswell asrunning costs; ## expenses related tothetraining ofpersonnel andteachers declined. Major problems related tobudget expenditures oneducation faced bythecountry arecurrently: a) inefficient useofavailable resources (forexample teacher-pupil ratios, thesmall butgrowing ratio ofpupils perclass, thelowlevel ofthereal teachers load, surplus technical personnel whodonotparticipate intheteaching process, andtheextensive useofout-of-date infrastructure andequipment; b) increased regional disparities infinancing andinaccess toeducation which affects needy families inrural areas; c) reduced quality ofeducational services, especially ingeneral secondary education; d) discrepancy between thesetofeducational outputs andtheneeds ofamarket economy; e) growth ofoverheads covered byparents tosupport theinadequate funding. Since theshare ofGDPallocated foreducation issohigh, investing more isaremote possibility.
Atthesame time, thanks tomeasures undertaken bythegovernment inrecent years, expenditures intheeducation sector have grown during thelast 5year period both inreal andinnominal terms. Thegovernment continues toexecute itsresponsibilities related totheeducational sector, which isclearly seen from thehigh level ofinvestment inthis sector. Yet, theneed forconstant real increases inthecurrent costs intheeducation sector creates serious problems forthelong-term financial stability oftheeducation sector. Theobvious option istoachieve higher efficiency intheuseoftheallocated funds. On-going pressure ontheoperational financing ofsecondary education will lead toanincrease intuition fees paid byparents with theaimofsupporting their basic activities. However such contributions will increase thegapbetween thewelloff and needy families. Also, it will make access to higher education for children from needy families more difficult. Theeducation policy related tothedistribution ofbudget funds should bereconsidered with theaimofbalancing outtheneeds ofvarious expenditure categories. Secondary education hasalways hadashortage offunds, which results inthedeterioration of school buildings, theinadequate provision ofteaching materials andaconstant lack ofbasic laboratory andITequipment. Though this sub-sector receives thebiggest budget allocations compared to thewhole education sector, percapita funding isstill thelowest. Oneoftheways tosettle this problem istointroduce percapita funding, based onthefunds available inthecentral budget. Reporting inthesystem ofeducation does notprovide sufficient information inorder todetermine howefficiently theavailable funds areused andhowefficient various sectors are. Thesystem ofeducation financing does notprovide sufficient resources tocover theadditional costs oflarge-scale educational programs aimed attherenovation ofequipment andpurchase ofnewequipment forprimary andsecondary schools. Such issues, along with the future of the School Development Fund after 2009, need tobecarefully considered andresolved. Astable system isrequired tofinance theoperational costs aswell ascosts related totherenovation ofequipment, andthis system should betested before 2009 inorder toensure asmooth transition from School Development Fund financing totheoperational system offinancing. 3.3.3. Overview ofexternal assistance totheeducation sector ofUzbekistan Complementing thestate budget andprivate investment, development assistance byinternational donors andfinancial institutions plays animportant role infinancing theeducation sector ofUzbekistan. Intheperiod January 2000 July 2007 alone, 122 assistance projects were implemented with allocations totalling over $1billion. More than 90% ofexternal assistance wasprovided asloans andcredits, and9% asgrants. Most oftheassistance wasprovided bymultilateral donors (952 million USDor91.2%) andthen 87.0million USD(8.4%) wasprovided bybilateral donors and4.1 million USD(0.4%) byinternational NGOs. Examining therole ofdevelopment assistance from theperspective oftheoverarching nationalized MDGs shows that 26.8% (or280.6million USD) ofthetotal loans, credits andgrants were targeted atachieving MDG2Improving thequality ofeducation inprimary andsecondary schools. This isamuch larger proportion than foranyoftheother MDGs.
Chart 3.2. External Assistance to the Education Sector by Types of Funding for 20002007 (in USD)
Grants9%
Loans and Credits91%
Chart 3.3. External Assistance by Donor Types in 20002007 (in USD)

International NGOs0,4% (USD 4,083,504)
Multilateral Partners91,2% (USD 951,974,396)
Bilateral Partners8,4% (USD 87,000,504)
Table 3.27. Structure of development assistance from the perspective of the overarching nationalized MDGs
Nationalized Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) Beyond MDGs MDG2Achieve universal primary education MDG8Uzbekistan andglobal partnership fordevelopment MDG1Improve living standards andreduce malnutrition MDG7Ensure environmental sustainability MDG3Promote Gender Equality andEmpower Women MDG6Combat HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis andother diseases Total Amount (inUSD) 749,261,494 279,953,000 8,988,300 5,007,332 957,065 74,312 50,000 1,043,061,503 % 71.748% 26.808% 0.861% 0.479% 0.092% 0.007% 0.005% 100%
Theassistance wasdivided upamongst thesubsectors ofeducation asfollows: 73% was directed to secondary schooling, 10.7% to policy and planning, 10.4% forvocational, technical andmanagerial education andtraining, 4.2% forhigher education, 1.4% forpre-school andprimary schooling, and0.3% forinformal education (including literacy andadult basic education).
Table 3.28. Distribution of development assistance by educational subsectors

Subsectors oftheEducation Sector Sector policy andplanning pre-school andprimary schooling Secondary schooling Higher education Vocational, technical andmanagerial education andtraining Informal education (includes literacy andadult basic education) Total Amount (inUSD) 111,214,000 15,033,000 764,772,300 43,738,551 106,499,443 3,034,209 % 10.65% 1.44% 73.23% 4.19% 10.20% 0.29% 100%
Over 20donor organizations provided assistance forthedevelopment oftheeducation sector during 20002007. (Annex 2) Theleading agency incommitting funds into thesector istheJapanese Bank forInternational Cooperation (61.6%). Thesecond biggest partner istheAsian Development Bank (25.3%), third theGovernment ofJapan (3.2%), andfourth istheGovernment ofIndia (2.1%). Other leading contributors were UNICEF (1.6%), KFW, theECTEMPUS Program andJICA (theshare ofeach ofthese donors exceeds 1%).
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Chapter 4. ANEDUCATION SYSTEM FORABETTER FUTURE

4.1. Identifying future demands foreducation As in many other countries during the transition period, Uzbekistan faced serious problems in the field of education during the initial years of independence. Itwasnecessary forthecountry toundertake Herculean efforts nottolose thepositive achievements oftheprevious period, andatthesame time toescape thenegative aspects ofthepast heritage andthedifficulties related tothetransition period. In1996, Uzbekistan wasthefirst ofthecountries oftheCIStobegin institutional reforms intheeducational sector. These were based onthenewconcept oflifelong learning, ontheclose connection between education andthelabour market inorder tomeet itsdemands through creating afundamentally newsystem ofsecondary special vocational training, aswell askeeping thesystem ofa12year general free primary andsecondary education. During 19972006, Uzbekistan annually spent an average of 910% of its GDP and 2339% ofthestate budget expenditures onitseducational system. Asaresult of the reforms thecountry hadthefollowing by2007: Thesystem ofafree 9year general school education wasgetting stronger. Ithasprovided education for100% ofschool agechildren. Inthis sector there are9,800schools and5,707,000pupils taught inthem. 451,000teachers work inthesystem. Between 1997 and2006 81newschools were built, 670schools were refurbished, and968schools were extensively repaired. Over 117schools for39,600pupils were newly built, refurbished andrepaired between 2004 and2006 with theimplementation oftheProgram forBasic Education Development. During 20072009, 185newschools for68,000students will beconstructed, 1,639 schools for563,000students will berenovated, andcapital repairs will bemade in 2,371 schools andongoing maintenance will becarried outin1,229schools. 6,200 schools will be provided with computer equipment, 4,800 schools with sports equip ment, and56.3million textbooks andlearning materials forbasic schools will be published; The system of a free three-year general secondary special vocational education. Inthis category there are1,052well-equipped vocational colleges andacademic lyceums for624,200students with 1,075,000children taught inthem and67,330teachers and 8231training officers employed. During 20072009, 591newvocational colleges and60academic lyceums for380,000students will beconstructed. In2009 theprogram forupgrading thefacilities ofgeneral secondary special vocational training will becompleted;
Note that UNESCO hasmade thedecision tostudy andshare thepositive experience ofreforms inthesystem ofprofessional training inUzbekistan.
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The system of higher education which includes 64 higher educational institutions, ofwhich 20 areuniversities. Higher educational institutions annually accept anaverage of64,000people onacompetitive basis. There were 286,000students taught during the20062007 academic year. 23,400teachers work inhigher educational institutions ofwhich 30% ofthem have candidate degrees and6.5% aredoctors ofsciences; Thesystem ofpostgraduate education including masters programs andcandidate anddoctoral postgraduate studies. Thetotal number ofstudents inthepostgraduate sub-sector totalled 2,200 in2006; Annual increases innumbers atalllevels ofeducation that maintains thecountrys high level ofliteracy andeducation ofthepopulation; Themature system ofpreparation oftextbooks andmanuals forschools, secondary special vocational educational institutions, andalso theprinting industry forpublishing textbooks andmanuals; Themature industrial base formanufacturing andproviding educational institutions with furniture, labequipment anddifferent kinds ofequipment forvocational training. Atthesame time, Uzbekistan hashadtorespond toreal challenges concerning thefurther implementation ofreforms intheeducation sector.
Box 4.1. Evaluation ofreforms intheeducational sector byPakHvan, Professor ofSeoul Polytechnic College TheNational model ofpre-professional training inUzbekistan hasbeen recognized intheworld community, and it deserves comprehensive study. The National Programme for Personnel Training covers allstages ofcontinuing education, anditapplies theprinciple ofadvanced educational systemslifelong learning. However, the global significance of the program, inouropinion, isthat itwill beamajor factor inaquality market insocial andeconomic development oftheRepublic inthenewcentury.
Source: Anewtimeandstudying inanewway. National Educational Model: Decade ofaspirations andachievements. Pravda Vostoka, 29th May, 2007.
4.1.1. TheEconomys Demands onEducation Ashasbeen mentioned intheprevious sections oftheReport, Uzbekistans economic reforms radically reshaped therequirements forthelevel andquality ofthepopulations education. Atpresent, itisquite obvious that theeconomic structural transformation taking pla ce calls for both well-educated and qualified personnel and for people whohave been trained towork inmodern industrial enterprises tobeavailable inthelabour market. However, in the near future it will not be sufficient for Uzbekistan to develop inthealgorithm ofcatching updevelopment butshould develop asacountry capable ofrising toahigher level ofadded value inthefields ofinnovation andscientific andtechnical achievements. Theeconomy that isgoing tobeaknowledge based economy requires oftheeducation sector:
a) well educated engineers andresearchers whoareconstantly being trained, and whocan: make innovative scientific andtechnical discoveries; beopen tofurther self-development, togain knowledge andintroduce newthings; b) highly skilled managers whocanmanage production development according tothecurrent requirements; c) highly skilled workers whocanoperate state oftheartequipment andusemodern technologies. Toperform these tasks, itisnecessary forreform andtheeducation sector tofocus onthefollowing: 1) Significant improvement ofknowledge inthenatural sciences taught at schools and secondary special vocational educational institutions: mathe ma tics, physics, chemistry, andbiology. Toachieve these objectives, itisnecessary: ## toestablish asystem forretraining andcontinually upgrading theprofessional skills ofschool teachers inthespecified knowledge areas; ## todevelop asystem within which thebest teachers ofthecountry areable toshare their experiences inteaching these subjects; ## to establish the system for working in groups according to the interests inthespecified subjects andtodevelop relevant additional manuals tobeused bythemost gifted students inextracurricular education; 2) Establishment of a system of applied training in the natural sciences at all educational levels tomake education more relevant tothetraining of specialists inline with the requirements oftheeconomy andcurrent scientific andtechnical trends. According toonepoll only 14.2% ofschool graduates want tostudy inengineering departments, although itisnowcritically important toprepare specialists inthese areas sothat thecountry will beable tomake technological breakthroughs inthefuture. Textbooks onmathematics, physics, chemistry andbiology should bereviewed again inorder toensure that they provide both theoretical andapplied education through thesystem oftasks andexamples related tothereal needs oftheeconomy andeveryday life. 3) Theselection system andprovision ofspecial education forthemost gifted andtalented youth inthefield ofthenatural sciences. Theacademic lyceums specializing inthenatural sciences have been established toachieve this objective. They arelocated inthecities that have good schools teaching these subjects, andgifted students areenrolled inthem onacompetitive basis irrespective oftheir place ofresidence. Competition isprovided intheform ofwritten tests. Winners andprize-winners ofregional andnational school Olympiads onnatural science subjects should begiven automatic places. These students must beprovided with free accommodation andstipends. Themost qualified teachers, including leading scientists from higher educational institutions, must teach inthese lyceums. Itisnecessary toestablish asystem that gives incentives toteachers, including those related totheir students achievements. 4) Increasing the number of specialized vocational colleges established by large indust rial enterprises andcompanies (automobile manufacturing, oil, gas, chemical, petro che mi cal andoil-and-gasindustry, electric power, metallurgy, air craft construction, etc.) to train specialists inline with their ownneeds. Special programs andtextbooks forthese colleges also need tobedeveloped, asshould a combiNational Human Development Report 143
nation oftraining andpaid internships atthese industrial enterprises. There should also becompulsory employment ofgraduates intherelevant industries. 5) Establishing a system of full time pre-professional education and instruction bycorrespondence inhigher educational institutions during thelast year oftraining in engineering for the students on probation in large industrial enterprises. There isaneed toestablish asystem offull time pre-professional education and instruction by correspondence in higher educational institutions for practitioners who have worked at the industrial enterprise no less than five years anddemonstrated ability inengineering. 6) Expanding thepractice ofestablishing branches ofleading foreign higher educational institutions inthecountry, especially intheareas ofthenatural sciences andengineering subjects. 7) Areconstruction ofthesystem ofdesign anddevelopmental bureaus (KBandOKB) under thelarge industrial enterprises, involving themost gifted andtalented students from higher educational institutions intheir activities. There isaneed toexempt from taxation thefunds oftheindustrial enterprises allocated toestablishing KBandOKBandfunding their activities. 8) Establishing the system of continuing education and upgrading professional skills forworking citizens. Although there aresome institutes forupgrading profes sional skills, the integral system which would ensure the upgrading of professional skills ofemployees atalllevels, ateach enterprise, irrespective ofpositions held andtype ofownership oftheenterprise, isnotyetinplace. Toachieve these objectives, itisnecessary toliberalize theprocess ofestablishing private business schools, different centres fortraining andretraining, inorder toestablish anaccessible andcompetitive educational system. There isaneed fortax privileges forestablished business schools andcentres forspecialists training and retraining that should depend onquantitative andqualitative performance indicators. 9) Toestablish afundamentally newsystem ofacademic research. Theactivities related toacademic research andteaching should bedistinguished interms of payment. It isrecommended toinvolve asmany students, undergraduates, post graduates and doctoral students inacademic research. Theincome earned by people engaged in academic research should beexempted from allkinds of taxes. 10) Tomake information, educational andscientific resources easily available toallstudents. Toachieve this objective, itisnecessary toexpand andconsiderably improve theteaching offoreign languages. Thepriority focus must beontheforeign languages such asEnglish andRussian that areused inaconsiderable body ofeducational, scientific andtechnical literature. Thelibraries must begiven theopportunities topurchase themost important educational andscientific literature, including theresources available intheInternet that require payment. 4.1.2. Societys andCitizens Demands onEducation Society desperately needs well educated andharmoniously developed people. InUzbekistan free education isprovided andiscompulsory forall, anditiscreating thefoundation forreaching high levels ofliteracy anddeveloping allmembers ofsociety. Although basic secondary andvocational training iseasily available forall, themost important objective forsociety should betoprovide forthepopulation unlimited access toeducation:
1) This is an opportunity for poor people to escape their poverty. Although in the country there is a law on compulsory secondary and vocational education, it is difficult for poor families, and especially for families with many children, tosend their children toschool because they have tobuythem textbooks andother educational accessories, school uniforms andshoes, andprovide them with sportswear andspecial clothes forvocational training. Since 1996 thegovernment hascontinued implementing programs forproviding children from poor families with school uniforms andshoes. First grade students are given free school educational accessories and school bags. Moreover, there areprograms forborrowing textbooks from school libraries onarental basis. However, similar programs forchildren whostudy invocational colleges andacademic lyceums arenotyetinplace. Poor families face serious difficulties ifthey want their children tobetrained invocational colleges orlyceums that arelocated inother places sothat they have tolive away from home. Inthis situation itisnecessary topayadditional transportation andmeal costs since itisalways much more expensive toeatoutthan toeatwithin afamily. To solve the problems of needy families who live far away from vocational educational institutions (schools, colleges and lyceums) it is recommended todothefollowing: ## from 2009, togradually provide allschools, vocational colleges andlyceums with school buses totransport children from home toeducational institutions and back after thelarge scale expenditures forimproving thefacilities of educational institutions arecompleted; ## toincrease thenumber ofvocational colleges inrural areas; ## tointroduce asystem offree meal coupons forchildren from needy families who live instudent hostels during their training invocational colleges andlyceums. If canteens andsnack bars aregiven some taxexemption such funds could be utilized toachieve this objective; ## toprovide forallstudents free access tocomputer services atschools, voca tional colleges andlyceums; ## tointroduce asystem ofsponsors stipends forsuccessful children from needy families tobuytextbooks, learning materials andsportswear; ## toestablish asystem forgiving students ofvocational colleges andlyceums anopportunity to work as paid interns inrelevant enterprises during thesummer vacation, with themoney allocated for these students wages given exemption from alltaxes, including social security and income taxes. Tosolve theproblem ofneedy families, whose children areenrolled in higher educational institutions: ## tointroduce coupons forstudents from needy families toprovide them with free meals instudent canteens. Provided student canteens aregiven some tax exemption, their savings could beutilized toachieve this objective. Students Committees would beresponsible forgiving these coupons tostudents; ## toestablish asystem forgiving university students anopportunity towork aspaid interns inrelevant enterprises during thesummer vacation with themoney allocated forthese students wages given exemption from alltaxes, including social security andincome taxes; ## toincrease thenumber ofeducational grants given byenterprises andother sponsors tothemost gifted students whostudy onafeepaying basis. To intro
duce asystem ofbenefits andsocial andmoral incentives forthese enter prises andnon-governmental organizations; ## to involve more students in paid scientific researches conducted by higher educational institutions andinresearch projects; ## toestablish asystem forcreating part-time jobs forstudents from needy fami lies within higher educational institutions such asinlibraries andother support work. 2) Itisanopportunity forgirls toovercome gender inequality. InUzbekistan there isnolegal orpublic discrimination against admitting girls toeducational institutions. However, quite often parents donotassist them, andsometimes they do notletgirls study inhigher educational institutions because girls getmarried earlier than boys ofthesame ageaccording tothelocal customs andmentality. Very often they getmarried attheagewhen they canenter orstudy inahigher educational institution. Ifagirl isadmitted toaneducational institution onafeepaying basis, it is frequently anobstacle toherstudy asparents prefer tospend themoney for training their sons whowill stay with them rather than fortheir daughters whowill leave anyway because they will marry into other families. Some parents donotwish toletagirl study farfrom home because they areafraid ofthedifficulties which shemight encounter living inahostel. There aremany families inwhich theparents think that thedestiny ofawoman istolook after herfamily andchildren, therefore compulsory secondary education isenough forhertoraise children andmanage ahousehold. Toovercome these common obstacles itisnecessary: ## tocarry outalarge-scale educational campaign aimed atpromoting girls opportunities forcontinuing education. Itispertinent todevelop aspecial program increasing opportunities forgirls toreceive ahigher education within public organizations such asKamolot; ## toallocate special additional government grants forgirls tobeenrolled in higher educational institutions ifthey have relatively high scores but are not high enough forbeing admitted onascholarship basis. Between 510% of the overall number of grants allocated to higher educational institutions should beused inthis way; ## toallow enrolment ofgirls inhigher educational institutions onafeepaying basis ifthey dont have thenecessary score tobeadmitted onascholarship basis butthey have over 40% inthetest; ## to draw up a flexible academic and examination schedule for young women whostudy inhigher educational institutions andbring upchildren under twoyears oldortoprovide them with academic leave with automatic resumption ofstudies upon their written request. 3) Itisanopportunity forpreschool agechildren toprepare forschool and to prepare for formal group education. Thenumber ofchildrens preschool institutions hasfallen significantly inthecountry. Inmany cases this wascaused bylowattendance, high payment forenrolment, thus creating anincentive for mothers tolook after their children athome. However, preschool education isvery important, especially inpreparation forschool. Theproblem canbesolved ifsmall preschool institutions areestablished forchildren of56years oldonly, where they areprepared forfull schooling during thefirst half oftheday. This approach will considerably reduce thegovernments expenses forchildren andwill raise thelev146 National Human Development Report
el ofattendance ofsuch educational institutions. This will also solve theproblem ofhowtoprepare allchildren forschool education. 4) Itisanopportunity forworking citizens toimprove their qualifications and to be retrained. Toachieve this objective itisrecommended: ## that alllarge enterprises must payfortraining their workers. Itisrecommended that they allocate 25% oftheir expenditures forthis andindoing sotake advantage oftaxexemptions; ## to liberalize the process of establishing and accrediting private business schools andcentres forupgrading theprofessional skill ofworkers, including higher educational institutions, vocational colleges andacademic lyceums; Along with the objective of providing unlimited access to education, there isamore pressing issue forsociety atthemomentthequality ofeducation. Ananalytical survey carried outbyIzhtimoyi Fikr in200632 showed that 57.1% ofschool graduates thought that theknowledge gained atschool wasinsufficient forbeing admitted tohigher educational institutions. 60.9% oftheyoung people interviewed said that they would definitely hire tutors totrain them fortheuniversity entrance examinations, andanother 18.6% ofschool graduates thought they would bevery likely toseek such support. Itmeans that almost 80% ofgraduates who have decided to enter universities after finishing schools actually think that theschool knowledge isnotsufficient forthem tocontinue their education. Another public-opinion poll33 shows that only half of the people interviewed inBukhara, Kashkadarya andSamarkand oblasts aresatisfied with their educational institutions. These indicators arelower than inother oblasts, andtheindicators in Syrdarya oblast (28.3%) and Tashkent (23.1%) are the lowest ones in the country. Only 49.4% oftheinterviewed people think that thelevel ofeducation hasincreased during theyears ofindependence Over 19% ofthepopulation thinks that thecountrys level ofeducation haseven decreased since independence. About 80% of the interviewed school graduates think that bribery takes place inuniversities, with 54.4% believing that thephenomenon iswidespread. Consequently, thestudents donothave themotivation tobewell-educated since they canstill getgood scores without knowing thesubjects. Toradically change thesituation related tothequality ofeducation itisnecessary: 1) To accelerate the process of increasing teachers salaries at all levels of the edu ca tional sector sothat theprestige oftheprofession ishigh, andthepeople who have chosen teaching astheir profession should meet certain requirements. The growth rates ofaverage teachers salaries atalllevels oftheeducation sector must exceed thegrowth rates ofwages throughout thecountry toreduce the existing gap. 2) Toestablish asystem ofincentives toinvolve leading practitioners in teaching, especially in the areas ofeconomics (economy, finance, accounting etc.), management (orga ni zation and production management, marketing etc.), law and engineering. This will ensure considerable improvements inthequality of education andwill make itmore relevant to the needs ofpractical life. 3) To establish a system for sharing best practice at all levels of the education sector, meaning towidely disseminate andpromote thebest experience. To
32 TheSurvey Graduate-2006 33 TheSurvey Uzbekistan: 13 years ofIndependence
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establish regional level joint methodological bodies, involving volunteers and overseen bythelocal universities, toeffectively share best practice related to the subjects taught atschools andsecondary special vocational educational institutions. 4) Toexpand thesocial incentives andrecognition ofteachers work. To produce feature films and documentaries which heighten the recognition of teachers professional activities andtheir contribution tosociety. There isaneed to organize local, regional andnational competitions toidentify thebest teachers in each subject. Itisrecommended towiden thepractice ofrewarding thebest teachers with titles such asHonoured Teacher andNational Teacher. 5) Totake drastic measures against corruption inhigher educational institutions involving both law enforcement bodies and the public including organizations like Kamolot, Students Councils andwomens non-government organizations. 6) Toreview curricula andtraining programs sothat thenumber ofacademic subjects andexaminations ineach academic term areconsiderab ly redu ced. Currently students areoverloaded andthis negatively affects their ability to gain a deep knowledge in their chosen specialization. There should not be more than four academic subjects each term. There isaneed toincrease the number of optional subjects offered subject toenough students being enrolled in these courses. 7) Raise theprestige level ofquality education, with prizes onoffer such asgiving thebest students anopportunity foremployment inthemost prestigious organizations andcompanies inthecountry. 4.2. Meeting theFuture Demands forEducation 4.2.1. Balanced management structure It is critically important to improve educational management in order to implement reforms intheeducation sector. Aswasmentioned intheprevious sections, in Uzbekistan the education sector is under the management of two ministries andonespecialized Centre. Intheregions there arelocal andregional departments that areresponsible forschool education management, andthere arealso regional departments formanaging secondary special vocational training. Tofurther improve theeducation management system inthelight ofinternational experience, inouropinion itisnecessary tobalance outcentralized anddecentralized management of the education sector. It is recommended to gradually bring about changes in the system of educational management, including thefollowing: ## Merging theMinistry ofPublic Education andtheMinistry forHigher andSecondary Special Education into oneMinistry ofEducation. ## This newMinistry ofEducation should beresponsible forpre-professional education and in-service training ofteachers, recruitment andcertification, development and approval ofschool curricula andtextbooks, andalso for curricula and textbooks forsecondary special vocational educational institutions. ## This Ministry ofEducation should also beresponsible forissues related to students enrolment inhigher educational institutions onafeebasis.
## This Ministry ofEducation should beresponsible forissues related to the accreditation of private educational institutions, primarily business schools andalso private preschool institutions, schools and higher educational institutions. ## Providing more opportunities fordeveloping private educational institutions, ifthey meet therequirements established bytheMinistry ofEducation. ## School Parental andTrustee Councils must beempowered tomore actively participate in decision making particularly in how to spend funds and also tooffer incentives toteachers andstudents. ## University Scientific Councils must bemore significantly empowered in the areas of deve lop ment andapproval oftraining programs andplans, development and use of text books and learning materials. ## University Trustee Councils must be empowered to more actively participate indecision making particularly inhowtospend funds, forexample tooffer incentives toteachers andtogive additional grants tostudents from needy families. 4.2.2. Developing Training Programs fortheFuture Training programs arevery important forthequality ofeducation. Inorder toimprove them, it is necessary: ## to ensure the continuity and compatibility of the curriculums of training programs foralleducational levelsfrom preschool educational institutions totraining inpostgraduate courses; ## todevelop andintroduce training programs forpreschool education for56year oldchildren whoattend childrens preschool educational institutions onaparttime basis (during thefirst half oftheday); ## to make changes in the current school training programs through increasing thenumber ofstudents studying thenatural sciences; ## toensure thecompatibility oftheClassifier ofprofessional training areas with secondary special, vocational andhigher education andtheNational Classifier ofoccupations ofworkers andemployees. Tomake changes inthetraining programs for vocational colleges inline with themodified Classifier ofprofessional training areas; ## toensure better consistency between thetraining programs atalleducational levels with therequirements ofreal life. Training ofthetrainees from vocational colleges anduniversities attherelevant enterprises must beprovided onacompulsory andfeepaying basis; ## toensure theintegration ofbasic andfurther education intraining programs to better perform academic andeducational tasks. Toapprove theareas, types and forms ofadditional education based atsecondary schools, vocational colleges, lyceums andhigher educational institutions; ## to reconsider university training programs in terms of radically reducing the number ofsubjects that arestudied during oneterm. Toensure in-depth study and practical training ofthesubjects included intraining programs. ## to include in university training programs the compulsory involvement of students intheresearch andinnovation carried outbyuniversities ; ## toregularly update andimprove thecontent oftraining programs andteaching material regarding modern achievements inscience andtechnology.
4.2.3. Education Financing Must BeaRational Combination ofPublic andPrivate Education isofgreat importance forsociety, therefore itisimperative tomake aclear decision that the state should incur the majority of operational expenses. There isnodoubt that Uzbekistans basic secondary andsecondary special vocational training must befinanced bythegovernment. Family expenses forthese kinds ofeducation canbelimited toitems such asbuying textbooks andlearning materials, clothes, andtransport, andthey canspend money topayforadditional educational services (such asindividual orgroup tutoring) buteven then combined together these place aheavy burden onmany families with lowandeven average incomes. At the same time, after strengthening the countrys economy and completing the programs for establishing modern facilities in schools, vocational colleges and academic lyceums, more money should beavailable, therefore itwill beimportant toconsider thefollowing issues related tothegovernment financing ofeducation: ## compulsory preschool education forchildren of56years during thefirst half ofthedaytoprepare them forschooling; ## allocating additional grants forgirls tobeenrolled inhigher educational institutions, ifthey donothave scores high enough forbeing admitted onthegrant basis (this allocation should make up510% ofthetotal number ofgrants allocated toeach higher educational institution); ## substantial increase ofteachers salaries tomotivate them intheir work; ## increasing thefunds allocated tothemaintenance ofthefacilities ofeducational institutions. Atthesame time, itisnecessary toestablish newprinciples ofeducation financingnamely: ## budgetary funds must beallocated toalllevels ofeducation onapercapita basis; ## financial bodies must directly allocate financial resources toeducational institutions, toavoid financing through educational management departments; ## putinplace thetreasury principle ofaccounting andcontrol over spending funds allocated toeducational institutions; ## using savings made from reducing thenumber ofsubjects taught inhigher educational institutions toincrease teachers salaries, andthenumber ofacademic hours intheclassroom must bereduced. At the same time as increasing the amount of societys resources allocated toeducation, itisnecessary toinvest theadditional resources ofprivate individuals andcompanies. Itishigh time toliberalize theprocess ofestablishing private business schools, centres for training and retraining personnel, private kindergartens, schools andhigher educational institutions. TheEducation Management Bodies must exercise strict control over private educational institutions toensure that they come uptostandard. There isnoother alternative than toestablish aprogressive system ofeducation that isable tomeet thecurrent demands. Itmust besaid that agreat deal hasalready been done inthecountry. Itisdifficult tofind another country having gone through the difficult process of transition that has managed to allocate as much funds to the reform and upgrading of its educational facilities. This is the initia150 National Human Development Report
tive ofthePresident andeach annually approved state budget is clearly focused onthepriority ofeducation. Anyone who takes the opportunity to travel throughout the country would bepleasantly surprised athowmany modern buildings nowhouse thenewtypes of educational institutionsvocational colleges and academic lyceums. They now decorate many residential areas of the country, not only providing children with basic education butalso vocational education. Uzbekistan isthefirst country tohave started improving school buildings andfacilities. There wasalotofcatching uptodobecause formany decades there hadbeen little construction and renovation of school buildings, or provision of new state of the art educational equipment. However, the country aspires to implement allthese things injust five years. Itisapleasure toseechildrens eyes, when they happily sitdown atnewschool desks, usemodern learning materials andequipment, andthey understand that thecountry greatly values their education. However, much more should be done. And this Report, which has analyzed thecountrys achievements anddifficulties indeveloping education, together with thenewgoals andchallenges, isasmall contribution tothefuture development ofeducation.
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Annex 1
Major regulatory and legal acts governing the education system in Uzbekistan
1. Constitution of the Republic of Uzbekistan. 2. Law of the Republic of Uzbekistan On Education and On the National Program of Personnel Training. 3. Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Uzbekistan # 5, dated 05.01.1998 On the Elaboration and Introduction of National Educational Standards for the System of Continuous Education. 4. Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of The Republic of Uzbekistan # 77, dated 24.02.1998 On the organization and management of academic lyceums and vocational colleges. 5. Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Uzbekistan # 204, dated 13.05.1998 On measures aimed at organizing secondary special vocational education in the Republic of Uzbekistan. 6. Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Uzbekistan # 400, dated 4.10.2001 On measures aimed at improving the system of teacher training for secondary special vocational education. 7. Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Uzbekistan # 400, dated 16.10.2000 On approval of National Educational Standards for secondary special vocational education. 8. Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Uzbekistan # 341, dated 16.8.2001 On creation of a new generation of textbooks and teaching materials for the system of secondary special vocational education. 9. Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Uzbekistan # 253, dated 12.06.2001 On measures aimed at improving the structure of secondary special vocational education. 10. Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Uzbekistan # 338, dated 14.08.2001 On measures aimed at further development of the infrastructure and facilities of academic lyceums and vocational colleges. 11. Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Uzbekistan # 473, dated 29.10.2003 On additional measures ensuring the gradual transition to general secondary and secondary special vocational education. 12. Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Uzbekistan # 200, dated 06.06.2002 On measures aimed at further developing computerization and introducing information and communication technologies. 13. Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Uzbekistan # 342, dated 27.07.2006 On perfection of the activity of the Center of Secondary Special and Vocational Education under the Ministry of Higher and Secondary Special Education of the Republic of Uzbekistan.
14. Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Uzbekistan #PP-381, dated 20.06.2006 On organization of information and library facilities in the Republic of Uzbekistan. 15. Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Uzbekistan #PP-427, dated 27.07.2006 On measures aimed at further education of graduates of general schools at academic lyceums and vocational colleges. 16. Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Uzbekistan # 25, dated 16.02.2006 On further improvement of the system of teaching training. 17. Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Uzbekistan #PP-325, dated 17.04.2006 On measures aimed at accelerating the development of the service sector in the Republic of Uzbekistan. 18. Regulation on extracurricular establishments (Annex # 2 to the Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Uzbekistan # 59, dated 18.02.1995). 19. Regulation on pre-school education (Annex # 1 to the Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Uzbekistan # 59, dated 18.02.1995). 20. Regulation on childrens homes (Annex # 3 to the Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Uzbekistan # 59, dated 18.02.1995). 21. Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Uzbekistan # 109, dated 11.03.1998 On the creation of a Department supervising the quality of personnel training, certification of teachers and educational establishments under the National Test Center. 22. Decree of the President of the Republic of Uzbekistan # -362, dated 31.05.2006 On additional measures aimed at improving the system of textbook provision for general schools. 23. Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Uzbekistan # 548, dated 22.11.2004 On the program of publication of textbooks and teaching materials for general schools in 20052009. 24. Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Uzbekistan # 187, dated 04.05.1998 On measures aimed at implementing the project Improvement of the system of textbook and training aids publication for general schools. 25. Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Uzbekistan # 104, dated 31.05.2006 On measures aimed at implementing the project Construction of and equipping general schools of the Republic of Uzbekistan partly funded by the Islam Development Bank. 26. Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Uzbekistan # 493, dated 21.10.2004 On the program of providing general schools with furniture, modern school facilities and lab equipment, computers and sports equipment for 20052009. 27. Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Uzbekistan # 352, dated 19.07.1999 On additional measures aimed at efficient usage of general school premises. 28. Order of free supply of a set of stationery to 1st form pupils (Annex # 1 to the Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Uzbekistan # 409, dated 20.08.1997). 29. Order of supplying pupils of primary schools from needy families with a set of winter clothes (Annex # 2 to the Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Uzbekistan # 409, dated 20.08.1997).
30. Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Uzbekistan # 409, dated 20.08.1997 On additional measures to improve the living conditions of teachers and schoolchildren. 31. Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Uzbekistan # 321, dated 09.07.2004 On measures to implement the National Program of School Education Development for 20042009. 32. Regulation on the formation and use of financial funds of the extra-budgetary School Education Fund (Annex # 3 to the Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Uzbekistan # 263, dated 07.06.2004). 33. Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Uzbekistan # 263, dated 07.06.2004 On measures to organize the extra-budgetary School Education Fund. 34. Decree of the President of the Republic of Uzbekistan # P-3431, dated 21.05.2004 On the National Program of School Education Development for 2004-2009. 35. Decree of the President of the Republic of Uzbekistan # -1910, dated 19.02.2004 On Measures to prepare the Program of School Education Development for 20042008. 36. Regulation on the Organization of Continued Study for Graduates of 9th forms in 10-11th Forms at Educational Establishments Providing General Secondary Education (Annex #2 to the Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Uzbekistan # 473, dated 29.10.2003). 37. Regulation on General Education in the Republic of Uzbekistan (Annex #1 to the Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Uzbekistan # 203, dated 13.05.1998). 38. Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Uzbekistan # 203, dated 13.05.1998 On Organization of General Secondary Education in the Republic of Uzbekistan. 39. Regulation on High Schools (Annex #2 to the Resolution of the Cabinet of Minister of the Republic of Uzbekistan # 440, dated 21.11.1995). 40. Regulation on General School in the Republic of Uzbekistan (Annex #1 to the Resolution of the Cabinet of Minister of the Republic of Uzbekistan # 440, dated 21.11.1995). 41. Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Uzbekistan # 440, dated 21.11.1995 On Approval of regulatory documents on educational establishments. 42. Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Uzbekistan # 20, dated 10.02.2006 On approval of the Regulation on the recruitment of teaching staff in the Higher Educational Institutions on a competitive basis
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Appendix 2
List of donors supporting educational sector
1. Asian Development Bank, ADB Address: 1, A. Khadjaeva str., Tashkent, 700027, Uzbekistan Telephone: +998 (71) 1401920/21/22/23/24/25 Fax: +998 (71) 1401976 Email: adburm@adb.org Web site: http://www.adb.org/urm 2. ACTEDAgency for Technical Cooperation and Development Address: 10-a, Ilyos Fazilov str., Tashkent, Uzbekistan Telephone: +998 (71) 1376226, 1348438 Fax: +998 (71) 1348438, 1355129 Email: tashkent@acted.org 3. United States Agency for International Development (USAID) Address: 3, Moyqorghon str., 5th Block, Tashkent 700093, Uzbekistan Telephone: +998 (71) 1206309, 1205450 (ext. 2130) Fax: +998 (71) 1206309 4. KfW (Kreditanstalt fur Wiederaufbau) Address: KfW Bankengruppe, Palmengartenstrasse 5-9, 60325 Frankfurt, Germany Telephone: +49 (69) 74310 Web site: www.kfw.de 5. British Council Address: University of World Languages Building, 11, Mirobod str., Tashkent, 700031, Uzbekistan Telephone: +998 (71) 1400660/61/62/63 Fax: +998 (71) 1400667 Email: bc-tashkent@britishcouncil.uz 6. World Bank, WB Address: 15th floor, International Business Center, 107B, Amir Temur str., Tashkent, 700084, Uzbekistan Telephone: +998 (71) 1385950/1/3/4/5/6/7/8/9 Fax: +998 (71) 1385952 Web site: http://www.worldbank.org.uz 7. GTZ (Gesellshaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit) Address: 15, Shota Rustavelly str., Tashkent, Uzbekistan Telephone: +998 (71) 1400489/90 Email: li@gtzmain.uz
More detailed information on donors and their projects is available on www.devaid.uz site, Donors' profiles' section.
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8. United Nations Childrens Fund, UNICEF Address: 43, Suleymanova str., Tashkent, Uzbekistan Telephone: +998 (71) 1339512, 1339735 Email: tashkent@unicef.org 9. Institute of Asian Culture and Development Address: 3, V. Fetisov str., Tashkent, 700105, Uzbekistan Telephone: +998 (71) 1919544 Email: iacd@chollian.net Web site: http://www.iacd.or.kr/ 10. Institute for international cooperation of the German adult education association Address: 44, General Karimov st., Tashkent, Uzbekistan Telephone: +998 (71) 1205536 Fax: +998 (71) 1522108 Email: info@iizdvv.uz Web site: http://www.iiz-dvv.de/ 11. Islamic Development Bank, IDB Address: P. Box. 5925, Jeddah 21432 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Telephone: (9662) 6361400 Fax: (9662) 6366871 Email: idbarchives@isdb.org Web site: http://www.isdb.org/ 12. Korean International Cooperation Agency, KOICA Address: 7, Afrosiab St., Tashkent, Uzbekistan Telephone: +998 (71) 1526378 Fax: +998 (71) 1206484 Email: dhkim@koica.go.kr Web site: http://www.koica.go.kr 13. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, UNESCO Address: 95, Amir Temur str., Tashkent, Uzbekistan Telephone: +998 (71) 1207116 Fax: +998 (71) 1321382 Email: tashkent@unesco.org; b.lane@unesco.org 14. Government of Germany (Embassy of Germany) Address: 15, Sharaf Rashidov str., Tashkent, 700017, Uzbekistan Telephone: +998 (71) 1208440, 1815406/07 (after hours) Fax: +998 (71) 1206693, 1208450 Email: info@taschkent.diplo.de 15. Government of India (Embassy of India) Address: 5/16, Kara-Bulak (Vakhshskaya) str., Tashkent, Uzbekistan Telephone: +998 (71) 1400997/98/83 Fax: +998 (71) 1400999 Email: indiaemb@buzton.com , indhoc@buzton.com Web site: http://www.indembassy.uz 17. Government of France (Embassy of France) Address: 25, Akhunbabaev str., Tashkent, 700047, Uzbekistan Telephone: +998 (71) 1335157, 1335382 Email: visa.tachkent-amba@diplomatie.gouv.fr
18. Government of Japan (Embassy of Japan) Address: 1/28, Sadyk Azimov str., Tashkent, 700047, Uzbekistan Telephone: +998 (71) 1208060, 1208061/2/3 Fax: +998 (71) 1208075/7 Email: info@embjapan.buzton.com, jpembuz@embjapan.buzton.com 16. Government of USA (Embassy of USA) Address: 3, Moyqorghon str., 5th Block, Tashkent, 700093, Uzbekistan Telephone: +998 (71) 1205450 Consular section: 1402215, 1402216 (only on Tuesday and Thursday) Fax: +998 (71) 1206335 Email: info@usembassy.uz 19. TEMPUS Address: 11th floor, International Business Centre, 107B, Amir Temur str., Tashkent, 100084, Uzbekistan Telephone: +998 (71) 1391264, 1391853 Fax: +998 (71) 1385899 Web site: http://www.tempus.europahouse.uz 20. Technical Assistance to CIS, TACIS (The Program of European Commission) Address: 4, Taras Shevchenko str., Tashkent, 700029, Uzbekistan Telephone: +998 (71) 1394018, 1391158, 1391533 Fax: +998 (71) 1206588/84 Email: ncu@tacis.uz 21. United Nations Development Programme, UNDP Address: 4, Taras Shevchenko str., Tashkent, 100029, Uzbekistan Telephone: +998 (71) 1206167 Fax: +998 (71) 1203485 Email: registry.uz@undp.org 22. Turkish International Cooperation Agency, TICA Address: 7, Mirakilov str., Tashkent, Uzbekistan Telephone: +998 (71) 1525457 Fax: +998 (71) 1525951 Email: tashkent@tika.gov.tr Web site: http://www.tika.gov.tr 23. Science and Technology Center in Ukraine, STCU Address: 70, Gulomov str., Tashkent, 700047, Uzbekistan Telephone: +998 (71) 1206028 Fax: +998 (71) 1206027 Email: regina.sattarova@stcu.int Web site: http://www.stcu.int/ 24. Japanese Agency for International Cooperation, JICA Address: 5th floor, International Business Center, 107-B Amir Timur str., Tashkent, 700084, Uzbekistan Telephone: +998 (71) 1207966/67, 1385916/17/18/19 Fax: +998 (71) 1207968 25. Japan Bank for International Cooperation, JBIC Address: 4-1, Ohtemachi 1-Chome, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100-8144, Japan Telephone: (8-13) 5218-3718
Annex 3
Statistical Tables
Table 1. Human development index

Life expectancy at birth (years) Adult literacy rate (%) Mean years of schooling (years) Literacy index Schooling index Educational attainment Real GDP per capita ($ PPP)* Life expectancy index Index of achieved level of education GDP index Human development index (HDI) Gender-related development index The gender empowerment measure (GEM) HDI rank 2000 70.8 99.17 11.4 0.992 0.76 2.74 2422.0 0.763 0.913 0.532 0.736 0.733 0.382 2001 2002 2003 2004 71.3 71.2 71.6 71.2 99.18 99.19 99.20 99.31 11.5 11.6 11.6 11.7 0.992 0.992 0.992 0.993 0.77 0.77 0.77 0.77 2.74 2.74 2.76 2.75 2460.0 2573.6 2704.9 2954.3 0.772 0.770 0.777 0.770 0.913 0.913 0.917 0.917 0.535 0.542 0.550 0.565 0.740 0.742 0.748 0.751 0.736 0.738 0.744 0.746 0.378 0.380 0.411 0.440 2 101 107 2005 71.8 99.36 11.7 0.994 0.78 2.75 3227.2 0.780 0.917 0.580 0.759 0.747 0.500
* From 1995 to 2000actualized informationby purchasing power parity of national currency in current prices (Human development in Kazakhstan, Almata 2001, page 92); for 2001Report on Human Development for 2003, page 238; for 20022005our calculations. 2 Human Development Report, 2004.
Table 2. Humanitarian development

Scientists and technicians (per 10.000 people) Enrolment in education (% age 722) Enrolment in tertiary education (per 1.000 people) as % of constant population Including women Daily newspapers (copies per 100 people) Television sets (per 1.000 people) Radio sets (per 1.000 people) 2000 11.2 76.0 7.4 0.7 0.3 7 50 53 2001 10.9 76.7 8.2 0.8 0.3 8 39 43 2002 11.3 77.3 9.1 0.9 0.4 9 34 39 2003 10.9 77.3 9.9 1.0 0.4 8 33 39 2004 10.7 76.5 10.1 1.0 0.4 8 33 39 2005 11.0 76.5 10.6 1.1 0.4 10 34 37
158
Table 3. Profile of human distress

Unemployment rate (%) Injures from road accidents (per 100.000 people): died 8.6 injured 47.2 Sulphur and nitrogen emissions (NO2 and SO2 16.7 per capita, kg) Reported crimes (per 10.000 people) 29.9 including: intentional murder and attempted murder 0.4 intentional grievous bodily injury 0.3 Intentional homicides by men (per 100.000 3.0 people) Reported rapes (per 100.000 people) 1.7 2000 0.4 2001 0.4 8.6 47.1 14.3 29.7 0.4 0.4 2.8 1.9 2002 0.4 8.2 45.1 14.0 30.4 0.4 0.5 3.4 1.9 2003 0.3 7.9 44.4 13.1 31.2 0.4 0.4 3.0 2.1 2004 0.4 7.8 44.1 12.4 30.5 0.4 0.5 2.6 1.8 2005 0.3 8.1 45.1 12.3 30.4 0.3 0.5 2.9 1.6
Table 4. Human development financing

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Total expenditure on education (as % of GDP) 10.3 9.6 9.0 8.8 8.8 9.0 Total expenditure on health (as % of GDP) 4.0 4.4 4.2 3.9 3.8 3.7 Real GDP per capita ($PPP) 2422.0 2460.0 2573.6 2704.9 2954.3 3227.2 State expenditure on education (as % of GDP) 6.7 6.8 6.7 6.3 * State expenditure on health (as % of GDP) 2.5 2.5 2.4 2.3 * * confidential information
Table 5. Malefemale gaps (females as percentage of males)

Life expectancy Population Schooling Secondary school enrolment Secondary school graduates Full-time enrolment in tertiary education Tertiary school graduates Labor force Unemployment 2000 107.0 100.7 95.7 93.6 94.0 95.3 64.2 78.9 2.1 2001 106.8 100.6 95.7 87.9 85.7 94.3 55.3 78.7 1.8 2002 106.7 100.5 95.8 87.7 82.5 93.9 59.5 78.6 2.0 2003 106.3 100.3 95.8 86.1 93.2 93.1 66.8 78.6 1.7 2004 106.4 100.3 95.8 90.3 90.3 92.9 68.6 92.9 1.7 2005 106.5 100.2 95.8 91.7 90.8 93.0 70.5 91.6 1.5
159
Table 6. Status of women

Life expectancy at birth Average age at first marriage (years) Maternal mortality rate (per 100.000 live birth) Secondary school enrolment (as % of total) Secondary school graduates (as % of women in total secondary school graduates) Full-time enrolment in tertiary education (as % of total) Women in labor force (as % of total) 2000 73.2 21.4 33.1 48.3 48.4 38.9 44.0 2001 73.6 21.5 34.1 46.8 46.2 39.6 44.0 2002 73.5 21.6 32.0 46.7 45.2 39.7 44.0 2003 73.8 21.8 32.2 47.1 48.3 38.8 44.0 2004 73.6 22.1 30.2 47.0 47.5 40.5 48.2 2005 74.1 22.2 29.2 47.8 47.6 40.4 47.8
Table 7. Urban/rural demographic indicators

2000 Population (millions) at the end of the year total urban rural Annual population growth rate (%) total urban rural Average family size total urban rural Contraceptive prevalence rate (%) Population elder working age (%) total urban rural Life expectancy at age 6064 total urban rural women total urban rural men total urban rural 24.8 9.2 15.6 1.3 0.7 1.7 5.4 4.6 6.0 58.5 7.3 9.0 6.3 17.3 17.2 17.3 18.3 18.7 18.0 16.0 15.3 16.5 2001 25.1 9.3 15.8 1.2 0.7 1.5 5.4 4.6 5.9 55.0 7.2 9.0 6.2 17.6 17.5 17.6 18.6 19.0 18.3 16.3 15.6 16.8 2002 25.4 9.3 16.1 1.2 0.6 1.6 5.1 4.4 5.8 56.4 7.2 8.9 6.2 17.1 17.0 17.3 18.3 18.6 18.0 15.9 15.1 16.5 2003 25.7 9.4 16.3 1.1 0.4 1.5 5.1 4.3 5.7 60.0 7.1 8.9 6.1 17.2 17.3 17.2 18.3 19.0 17.8 16.0 15.3 16.5 2004 26.0 9.4 16.6 1.2 0.6 1.6 5.1 4.5 5.6 61.8 7.0 8.8 6.0 17.1 17.3 17.2 18.4 18.8 18.0 15.9 15.2 16.5 2005 26.3 9.5 16.8 1.1 0.6 1.4 5.1 4.4 5.6 58.3 7.0 8.8 6.0 17.2 17.3 17.2 18.4 18.9 18.0 15.9 15.3 16.4
160
Table 8. Urbanization
2000 Urban population at the end of the year (as % of total) 37.2 2001 37.0 2002 36.7 2003 36.5 2004 36.3 2005 36.1 0.5 8.1 22.5 20.7 57.3
Annual growth rate of urban population (% 1.1 0.9 0.8 0.6 0.6 for 5 year period) Population in cities of more than 1 million as % of: total population 8.6 8.5 8.4 8.3 8.2 urban population 23.2 23.0 22.9 22.8 22.6 Population of biggest cites (cites of more than 100000 and over) as percentage of: total population 20.1 21.2 21.0 20.9 20.9 urban population 54.0 57.4 57.3 57.3 57.7
Table 9. Medicine and health care

2000 Death of circulatory diseases (as % of all cases) total 52.6 urban 54.8 rural 50.8 Death from malignant tumor (as % of all cases) total 7.1 urban 8.8 rural 5.6 Registered alcohol consumption 1.3 (liters per capita) Population per doctor 305 Number of hospital beds per 10.000 people 55.9 Number of hospital beds for pregnant 40.5 women per 10.000 women State expenditures on health (as of total state expenditures) State expenditures on health ( as % of GDP) Total expenditures on health (as % of GDP) 8.7 2.5 4.0 2001 53.4 54.9 52.1 7.1 8.7 5.7 1.4 309 55.8 39.6 9.6 2.5 4.4 2002 54.8 56.1 53.8 6.9 8.6 5.5 1.4 314 57.8 38.1 9.4 2.4 4.2 2003 54.7 55.8 53.8 7.0 8.6 5.7 1.2 318 57.4 35.7 9.6 2.3 3.9 2004 54.6 54.9 54.4 7.3 8.9 6.0 1.1 334 54.9 32.0 3.8 2005 56.3 56.5 56.1 7.0 8.3 5.9 1.0 344 54.1 30.9 3.7
161
Table 10. Education profile

Enrolment of 722 years old (%) Average years of schooling: women men Secondary school graduates (%) Secondary schools graduates (% of total school age population) Secondary specialized school graduates (as % of school graduates, vocational and specialized school students) 19-years still n full-time education (%) University equivalent full-time enrolment (%) University equivalent full-time graduates (as % of graduate age population) State expenditures on education (as % of GDP) State expenditures on education (as of total state expenditures) State expenditures on tertiary education (as % of expenditures on education) 2000 76.0 11.4 11.1 11.6 114.8 93.7 41.4 23.4 91.2 7.0 6.7 23.2 7.0 2001 76.7 11.5 11.2 11.7 113.9 102.5 42.9 19.0 89.4 7.7 6.8 25.5 6.8 2002 77.3 11.6 11.3 11.8 121.0 -* -* 18.2 84.0 8.4 6.7 26.0 6.7 2003 77.3 11.6 11.3 11.8 107.9 71.1 43.3 18.5 78.5 9.2 6.3 26.2 6.5 2004 76.5 11.7 11.5 11.9 117.9 86.7 37.1 16.8** 91.4 10.5 2005 76.5 11.7 11.5 12.0 104.2 83.8 36.6 17.4** 90.5 11.2 -
* Incommensurable information as a result of displacement in the stages of education, ridded with the reform of education. ** The number of 19-years old students in secondary school
162
Table 11. Employment

2000 Labor force (as % of total population) total urban rural Engaged (as % of total population): in agriculture and forestry total urban rural in industry total urban rural in services total urban rural Future labor force replacement ratio (%) total urban rural Percentage of employees unionized Weekly working hours (per person in manufacturing) 36.6 17.0 19.6 2001 36.7 16.4 20.3 2002 37.1 16.6 20.5 2003 37.6 16.8 20.8 2004 38.5 16.9 21.6 2005 39.1 16.8 22.3
34.4 1.5 32.9 12.7 10.7 2.0 30.4 18.5 11.9 206 166 233 100 40
33.5 1.2 32.3 12.7 10.2 2.5 30.7 18.5 12.2 197 159 222 100 40
32.6 1.1 31.5 12.7 10.2 2.5 31.3 18.7 12.6 188 152 211 100 40
31.9 1.2 30.7 12.8 10.3 2.5 31.8 18.9 12.9 180 146 201 100 40
30.7 1.2 29.5 13.0 10.1 2.9 32.3 18.8 13.4 169 138 189 100 40
29.1 1.3 27.8 13.2 9.6 3.6 32.9 18.9 14.0 162 133 181 100 40
Table 12. Unemployment

2000 2001 Unemployed, having official status (thousand people) total 35.4 37.5 urban 14.0 11.5 rural 21.4 26.0 Unemployment rate, (%) total 0.4 0.4 urban 0.3 0.3 rural 0.4 0.5 Regional unemployment disparity (the bottom 5.7 5.7 25% of all regions compared to the top 25%) Ratio between the number of unemployed 2.4 and secondary and higher schools graduates women 3.1 men 1.7 Incidence of long-term unemployed (as % of total) 612 month 8.2 More than 12 months 3.1 1.8 2.8 1.1 12.3 1.6 2002 34.8 11.9 22.9 0.4 0.3 0.4 5.2 4.0 6.8 2.5 11.4 3.0 2003 32.2 9.5 22.7 0.3 0.2 0.4 7.5 2.0 2.4 1.8 5.7 2.9 2004 34.9 9.3 25.6 0.4 0.2 0.5 8.7 1.9 2.1 1.6 7.7 2.4 2005 27.7 8.1 19.6 0.3 0.2 0.3 7.4 1.2 1.4 1.0 13.7 3.5 163
Table 13. National incomes accounts

2000 Total GDP (bln. soums) Agricultural production (as % of GDP) Industry (as % of GDP) Services (as % of GDP) Private consumption (as % of GDP) Public consumption (as % of GDP) Gross domestic investments (as % of GDP) Gross domestic savings (as % of GDP) Tax revenues (as % of GDP) Government spending (as % of GDP) Exports (as % of GDP) Imports (as % of GDP)
3255.6
2001
4925.3
2002 30.1 14.5 37.7 60.2 18.0 21.2 21.8 22.5 25.8 31.6 31.0
2003 28.4 15.8 37.2 55.6 17.4 20.8 27.0 22.1 24.1 36.9 30.7
2004 26.4 17.5 37.0 51.9 16.2 24.5 31.9 40.4 33.0
2005 26.3 21.1 37.0 48.4 15.9 28.0 35.7 37.9 30.2
7450.2 9844.0 12261.0 15923.4
30.1 14.2 37.0 61.9 18.7 19.6 19.4 23.3 29.0 26.5 26.7
30.0 14.1 38.0 61.5 18.5 21.1 20.0 21.0 26.7 30.8 31.9
Table 14. Natural resources balance sheet

2000 Population density (people per sq. km, at the end oftheyear) Cultivated land (as % of land area) Forested and wooded land (as % of land area) Irrigated land (as 5 of arable area) 55.5 9.1 3.1 81.6 2001 56.2 9.1 3.1 81.6 2002 56.9 9.1 5.1 81.6 2003 57.5 9.1 6.1 81.6 2004 58.2 9.1 6.1 81.5 2005 58.8 9.1 6.1 81.4
Table 15. Trends of economic performance

GDP annual growth rate (%) GDP per capita annul growth (%) Tax revenues (as % of GDP) Direct taxes (as % of total taxes) Budget deficit (as % of GDP) Exports (as % of GDP) 2000 3.8 2.4 23.3 33.4 0.7 26.5 2001 4.2 2.9 21.0 34.9 0.3 30.8 2002 4.0 2.7 22.5 30.1 0.2 31.6 2003 4.2 3.0 22.1 28.4 0.4 36.9 2004 7.4 6.2 40.4 2005 7.0 5.7 37.9
Table 16. Communications profile

Television sets (per 1.000 people) Daily newspapers (copies per 100 people) Book titled published (per 100.000 people) Private cars (per 100 people) Telephones (per 100 people), units Telephones (per 100 rural dwellers), units Parcels, letters (per 100 people) Long distance calls per capita) Letters mailed (per capita) 2000 50 7 4.2 3.9 6.5 1.7 0.3 5.2 0.4 2001 39 8 4.3 4.0 6.5 1.6 0.4 5.7 0.4 2002 34 9 3.8 4.0 6.5 1.6 0.2 6.5 0.4 2003 33 8 3.5 4.0 6.6 1.6 0.2 6.9 0.5 2004 33 8 3.7 6.0 6.6 1.6 0.2 7.1 0.6 2005 34 10 3.6 6.0 6.7 1.6 0.2 8.9 0.6
164
Table 17. Rural-urban gaps

total Life expectancy at birth (years) 70.8 Mean years of schooling 11.4 Literacy rate 99.2 Literacy index 0.992 Education level 2.74 Gross first, second and third level enrolment ratio 76.0 Education attainment index 0.913 Real GDP per capita (PPP$) 2422.0 Life expectancy index 0.763 2000 2001 urban rural total urban rural 70.2 71.2 71.3 70.7 71.7 11.8 11.0 11.5 11.8 11.2 99.7 98.8 99.2 99.7 98.8 0.997 0.988 0.992 0.997 0.988 2.82 2.70 2.74 2.83 2.70 82.5 72.7 76.0 83.4 72.2 0.940 0.901 0.913 0.943 0.899 - 2460.0 0.753 0.770 0.772 0.762 0.778 2002 2003 urban rural total urban rural 70.5 71.7 71.6 71.1 71.9 12.0 11.2 11.6 12.0 11.3 99.7 98.8 99.2 99.7 98.8 0.997 0.988 0.992 0.997 0.988 2.83 2.70 2.76 2.79 2.73 83.8 72.2 77.3 80.0 75.3 0.944 0.899 0.917 0.931 0.909 - 2704.9 0.758 0.778 0.777 0.768 0.782 2004 2005 urban rural total urban rural 70.7 71.6 71.8 71.1 72.2 12.1 11.5 11.7 12.2 11.5 99.4 99.3 99.4 99.5 99.3 0.994 0.993 0.994 0.995 0.993 2.90 2.68 2.75 2.92 2.68 91.1 69.4 76.5 94.2 68.0 0.967 0.893 0.917 0.973 0.893 - 3227.2 0.762 0.777 0.780 0.768 0.787
total Life expectancy at birth (years) 71.2 Mean years of schooling 11.6 Literacy rate 99.2 Literacy index 0.992 Education level 2.74 Gross first, second and third level enrolment ratio 76.0 Education attainment index 0.913 Real GDP per capita (PPP$) 2573.6 Life expectancy index 0.770
total Life expectancy at birth (years) 71.2 Mean years of schooling 11.7 Literacy rate 99.3 Literacy index 0.993 Education level 2.75 Gross first, second and third level enrolment ratio 76.5 Education attainment index 0.917 Real GDP per capita (PPP$) 2954.3 Life expectancy index 0.770
165
Table 18. Rural-urban gaps (100=parity between urban rural areas)

Population Population growth rate Life expectancy Average family size Labor force Population elder than working age Death from circulatory diseases Death from malignant tumors Life expectancy at age of 6064 Employed as total employed Unemployment rate Provision of services to household: water supply sewage service 2000 168.1 242.9 101.4 130.4 115.6 117.4 67.6 46.5 100.6 115.5 131.5 73.7 8.9 2001 169.7 214.3 101.4 128.3 123.8 118.2 68.4 47.3 100.6 123.5 183.7 76.9 8.4 2002 171.3 266.7 101.7 131.8 123.5 119.4 63.7 42.6 101.8 123.3 155.0 78.3 8.1 2003 173.1 375.0 101.1 132.6 123.5 120.0 70.6 48.9 99.4 123.3 192.0 89.1 9.0 2004 174.8 266.7 101.3 124.4 127.8 120.1 72.1 49.5 99.4 127.5 215.3 89.5 9.1 2005 176.4 233.3 101.5 127.3 132.6 120.7 70.6 50.9 99.4 132.4 182.5 89.9 9.4
The data on the basis of the average level of urban area with an index of 100. The lower s the figure, the higher the distortion, the closer the figure s to 100, the lower is the distortion. Figures exceeding 100 indicates that the average level in rural areas than the average level in urban areas.
Table 19. GDP per capita by regions (Real GDP per capita)
2000 2001 2460.0 1493.2 1237.4 1781.0 2233.7 2666.6 1655.6 3537.5 1768.7 2509.2 1968.0 2076.2 1830.2 2477.2 2140.2 1567.0 2273.0 2755.2 3601.4 2002 2573.6 1490.6 1214.5 1799.8 2333.5 2645.5 1805.0 4177.2 1835.9 2320.7 2044.8 2158.2 1902.9 2485.7 2114.4 1598.7 2312.9 2820.9 3545.4 2003 2704.9 1635.5 1443.4 1849.0 2513.4 2828.2 2177.2 4743.9 1849.0 2449.3 2073.1 2259.9 1838.3 2534.7 2046.4 1627.5 2238.5 2884.2 3895.4 2004 2954.3 1746.2 1479.8 2035.4 2625.0 2996.4 2211.1 5204.7 1854.0 2610.9 2120.4 2352.9 1825.6 2664.7 2072.2 1644.2 2307.5 3160.8 4192.7 2005 3227.2 1972.2 1772.1 2191.7 3185.9 3550.7 2553.3 7185.3 2127.2 3066.5 2530.7 2937.4 2014.2 3102.0 2524.2 1817.3 2630.7 3915.4 4670.8
Real GDP per capita ($ PPP) Republic of Uzbekistan** Nothern Uzbekistan Republic of Karakalpakstan Khorezm Central Uzbekistan Bukhara Djizzak Navoi Samarkand Syrdarya Southern Uzbekistan Kashkadarya Surkhandarya Eastern Uzbekistan Andijan Namangan Fergana Tashkent Tashkent-city
2422.0 1627.6 1324.8 1969.1 2206.4 2666.6 1552.5 3419.9 1799.5 2412.3 1872.2 1981.2 1736.6 2487.4 2019.9 1625.2 2557.6 2724.8 3393.2
166
2000
2001 1.00 0.607 0.503 0.724 0.908 1.084 0.673 1.438 0.719 1.020 0.800 0.844 0.744 1.007 0.870 0.637 0.924 1.120 1.464 196543 119304 98931 142308 178385 213067 132263 282691 141282 200465 157184 165907 146284 197833 170944 125235 181690 220180 287802
2002 1.00 0.578 0.471 0.698 0.905 1.026 0.700 1.620 0.712 0.900 0.793 0.837 0.738 0.964 0.820 0.620 0.897 1.094 1.375 293699 169808 138325 205083 265823 301326 205685 475653 208987 264218 232946 245793 216884 283100 240715 182044 263513 321304 403896
2003 1.00 0.613 0.541 0.693 0.942 1.060 0.816 1.778 0.693 0.918 0.777 0.847 0.689 0.950 0.767 0.610 0.839 1.081 1.460 383592 235030 207391 265744 361339 406669 312926 682023 265678 352079 297892 324720 264322 364242 294335 233891 321694 414710 559944
2004 1.00 0.616 0.522 0.718 0.926 1.057 0.780 1.836 0.654 0.921 0.748 0.830 0.644 0.940 0.731 0.580 0.814 1.115 1.479 472312 290745 246629 339333 437552 499423 368273 308944 435187 353109 392038 304315 444159 345168 273907 384694 526514 698717
2005 1.00 0.611 0.549 0.679 0.987 1.100 0.791 2.226 0.659 0.950 0.784 0.910 0.624 0.961 0.782 0.563 0.815 1.213 1.447 606325 370448 332572 411685 598403 667127 479423 399487 575875 475073 552026 378467 582478 473959 341636 494105 735698 877234
Real GDP per capita ($ PPP), as % of average 1.00 Republic of Uzbekistan** 0.672 Nothern Uzbekistan 0.547 Republic of Karakalpakstan 0.813 Khorezm 0.911 Central Uzbekistan 1.101 Bukhara 0.641 Djizzak 1.412 Navoi 0.743 Samarkand 0.996 Syrdarya 0.773 Southern Uzbekistan 0.818 Kashkadarya 0.717 Surkhandarya 1.027 Eastern Uzbekistan 0.834 Andijan 0.671 Namangan 1.056 Fergana 1.125 Tashkent 1.401 Tashkent-city Real GDP per capita by regions 131562 Republic of Uzbekistan** 88373 Nothern Uzbekistan 72021 Republic of Karakalpakstan 106923 Khorezm 119905 Central Uzbekistan 144863 Bukhara 84267 Djizzak 185752 Navoi 97740 Samarkand 131068 Syrdarya 101694 Southern Uzbekistan 107577 Kashkadarya 94353 Surkhandarya 135136 Eastern Uzbekistan 109764 Andijan 88218 Namangan 138969 Fergana 148046 Tashkent 184364 Tashkent-city
867095 1349946
167
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004 1.00 0.616 0.522 0.718 0.926 1.057 0.780 1.836 0.654 0.921 0.748 0.830 0.644 0.940 0.731 0.580 0.814 1.115 1.479
2005 1.00 0.611 0.549 0.679 0.987 1.100 0.791 2.226 0.659 0.950 0.784 0.910 0.624 0.961 0.782 0.563 0.815 1.213 1.447
Regional GDP per capita as per cent of average country GDP per capita 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 Republic of Uzbekistan** 0.672 0.607 0.578 0.613 Nothern Uzbekistan 0.547 0.503 0.471 0.541 Republic of Karakalpakstan 0.813 0.724 0.698 0.693 Khorezm 0.911 0.908 0.905 0.942 Central Uzbekistan 1.101 1.084 1.026 1.060 Bukhara 0.641 0.673 0.700 0.816 Djizzak 1.412 1.438 1.620 1.778 Navoi 0.743 0.719 0.712 0.693 Samarkand 0.996 1.020 0.900 0.918 Syrdarya 0.773 0.800 0.793 0.777 Southern Uzbekistan 0.818 0.844 0.837 0.847 Kashkadarya 0.717 0.744 0.738 0.689 Surkhandarya 1.027 1.007 0.964 0.950 Eastern Uzbekistan 0.834 0.870 0.820 0.767 Andijan 0.671 0.637 0.620 0.610 Namangan 1.056 0.924 0.897 0.839 Fergana 1.125 1.120 1.094 1.081 Tashkent 1.401 1.464 1.375 1.460 Tashkent-city
* Provisional Data ** Including not distributed data by regions: Uzbek energy; Foreign commerce; Branches, rendering state services in a joint character; Taxes for import, including NDC; Subsidies for products.
ADDENDUM TO MAN TABLES Demography and employment Table 20. Human development index by regions
2002 71.2 68.2 71.3 72.8 73.6 73.1 71.0 71.9 71.2 73.6 69.3 70.2 72.0 71.4 69.6 Life expectancy 2003 2004 2005 71.6 71.2 71.8 69.3 69.2 68.9 71.5 71.3 71.9 72.7 73.4 73.6 74.3 74.4 74.6 74.0 74.2 74.2 71.8 71.2 71.4 71.8 72.0 72.4 71.9 71.8 71.8 73.4 73.5 73.6 69.5 69.4 69.1 70.5 70.5 70.1 72.1 72.1 72.5 71.3 72.4 72.6 70.1 69.7 69.9 2002 0.770 0.720 0.772 0.797 0.810 0.802 0.767 0.782 0.770 0.810 0.738 0.753 0.783 0.773 0.743 Life expectancy index 2003 2004 2005 0.777 0.770 0.780 0.738 0.737 0.730 0.775 0.772 0.782 0.795 0.807 0.810 0.822 0.823 0.827 0.817 0.820 0.820 0.780 0.770 0.773 0.780 0.783 0.790 0.782 0.780 0.780 0.807 0.808 0.810 0.742 0.740 0.735 0.758 0.758 0.752 0.785 0.785 0.792 0.772 0.790 0.793 0.752 0.745 0.748
Republic of Uzbekistan Republic of Karakalpakstan Andijan Bukhara Djizzak Kashkadarya Navoi Namangan Samarkand Surkhandarya Syrdarya Tashkent Fergana Khorezm Tashkent-city
168
End of table 20.

2000 GDP index Republic of Uzbekistan Republic of Karakalpakstan Andijan Bukhara Djizzak Kashkadarya Navoi Namangan Samarkand Surkhandarya Syrdarya Tashkent Fergana Khorezm Tashkent-city Educational level Republic of Uzbekistan Republic of Karakalpakstan Andijan Bukhara Djizzak Kashkadarya Navoi Namangan Samarkand Surkhandarya Syrdarya Tashkent Fergana Khorezm Tashkent-city HDI Republic of Uzbekistan Republic of Karakalpakstan Andijan Bukhara Djizzak Kashkadarya Navoi Namangan Samarkand Surkhandarya Syrdarya Tashkent Fergana Khorezm Tashkent-city 2001 2002 0.542 0.417 0.509 0.547 0.429 0.513 0.623 0.463 0.486 0.492 0.525 0.557 0.524 0.482 0.596 2.74 2.73 2.74 2.72 2.72 2.74 2.78 2.73 2.74 2.74 2.68 2.68 2.77 2.74 2.92 0.742 0.682 0.731 0.750 0.715 0.743 0.772 0.718 0.723 0.738 0.719 0.734 0.743 0.723 0.771 2003 0.550 0.445 0.504 0.558 0.514 0.520 0.644 0.466 0.487 0.486 0.533 0.561 0.519 0.487 0.611 2.76 2.73 2.75 2.73 2.72 2.75 2.79 2.75 2.75 2.75 2.69 2.68 2.78 2.76 2.96 0.748 0.698 0.732 0.754 0.748 0.751 0.785 0.721 0.729 0.737 0.724 0.737 0.744 0.726 0.752 2004 0.565 0.450 0.506 0.568 0.517 0.527 0.659 0.467 0.487 0.485 0.545 0.576 0.524 0.503 0.623 2.75 2.71 2.75 2.72 2.70 2.74 2.79 2.75 2.74 2.75 2.68 2.68 2.77 2.76 2.96 0.751 0.697 0.732 0.761 0.747 0.753 0.786 0.722 0.729 0.737 0.726 0.742 0.744 0.738 0.785 2005 0.580 0.480 0.539 0.596 0.541 0.564 0.713 0.484 0.510 0.501 0.571 0.612 0.546 0.515 0.641 2.75 2.73 2.74 2.71 2.72 2.73 2.79 2.74 2.74 2.74 2.68 2.68 2.77 2.76 2.98 0.759 0.707 0.745 0.771 0.758 0.765 0.756 0.729 0.734 0.741 0.733 0.752 0.753 0.743 0.794 169
0.532 0.535 0.431 0.420 0.502 0.511 0.548 0.548 0.541 0.547 0.482 0.506 0.532 .0.595 0.465 0.459 0.482 0.480 0.477 0.485 0.531 0.538 0.551 0.553 0.541 0.522 0.497 0.481 0.588 0.598 2.74 2.73 2.74 2.74 2.75 2.75 2.77 2.73 2.75 2.72 2.68 2.68 2.76 2.75 2.86 0.736 0.690 0.727 0.748 0.755 0.733 0.737 0.715 0.720 0.725 0.716 0.732 0.744 0.724 0.763 2.74 2.74 2.74 2.72 2.72 2.74 2.76 2.74 2.75 2.74 2.69 2.68 2.76 2.75 2.89 0.740 0.684 0.732 0.750 0.754 0.740 0.761 0.718 0.722 0.736 0.724 0.733 0.741 0.723 0.769
Table 21. Population density and rural population % by regions

2001 Population density, people/km Republic of Uzbekistan Republic of Karakalpakstan Andijan Bukhara Djizzak Kashkadarya Navoi Namangan Samarkand Surkhandarya Syrdarya Tashkent Fergana Khorezm Rural population, % of total Republic of Uzbekistan Republic of Karakalpakstan Andijan Bukhara Djizzak Kashkadarya Navoi Namangan Samarkand Surkhandarya Syrdarya Tashkent Fergana Khorezm
2
2002 56.2 9.3 536.5 36.2 47.7 78.9 7.2 268.7 164.2 89.8 153.7 292.3 409.2 224.9 63.0 51.1 70.0 69.5 70.0 74.9 59.9 62.5 73.5 80.4 68.2 60.1 71.2 76.8
2003 56.9 9.3 544.2 36.7 48.3 80.3 7.2 272.9 166.5 91.5 155.3 293.8 414.6 228.4 63.3 51.0 70.1 69.8 70.2 75.1 60.1 62.5 73.8 80.5 68.5 60.3 71.4 77.1
2004 57.5 9.4 551.2 37.1 48.9 81.8 7.3 275.3 168.7 92.9 156.3 294.8 419.6 231.6 63.5 51.3 70.2 70.0 70.1 75.2 60.2 62.5 74.1 80.6 68.6 60.5 71.6 77.4
2005 58.2 9.4 559.2 37.5 49.5 83.3 7.3 281.0 171.2 94.5 157.2 296.2 425.8 235.3 63.7 51.3 70.4 70.3 70.0 75.2 60.3 62.7 74.3 80.7 68.7 60.6 71.8 77.6
2006 58.8 9.5 567.1 38.0 49.8 84.7 7.3 285.1 173.6 96.0 158.3 297.5 431.5 238.7 63.9 51.4 70.5 70.5 70.1 75.3 60.5 62.8 74.5 80.8 68.8 60.7 71.9 77.8
55.5 9.2 529.2 35.8 47.0 77.5 7.2 264.8 161.8 88.3 152.0 291.1 404.4 221.3 62.8 51.6 70.0 69.2 69.9 74.7 59.7 62.5 73.2 80.3 68.0 59.9 71.1 76.5
Table 22. Able bodies population aged 15 and older by 01.01.2004 (thousand people)
total female total female total female Population aged 15 and older 17738.0 8984.8 8753.2 6827.6 3487.8 3339.8 10910.4 5497.0 5413.4 Literacy rate (percentage of literate population to population aged 15 and older, difference from 100%) 0.64 0.83 0.44 0.55 0.60 0.49 0.69 0.97 0.42 Literacy index 0.994 0.996 0.996 0.995 0.994 0.995 0.993 0.990 0.996 Total male Urban male Rural male
170
Table 23. Average family size*

total urban 5.4 4.6 6.3 5.9 5.6 5.2 5.3 4.7 6.2 5.1 5.7 5.3 4.7 4.2 5.9 6.1 5.6 4.6 6.2 5.2 5.3 4.4 4.6 3.4 5.4 4.4 5.9 5.7 4.0 4.0 2000 rural 6.0 6.7 5.9 5.6 6.8 5.9 5.3 5.9 6.3 6.5 5.8 5.9 5.9 6.0 2002 rural 5.8 6.2 5.8 5.2 6.5 5.9 5.0 5.7 5.8 6.0 5.8 5.7 5.5 5.9 total urban 5.4 4.6 6.1 5.9 5.7 5.4 5.1 4.5 6.0 5.4 5.6 4.8 4.5 4.0 5.9 6.1 5.4 4.5 6.2 5.9 5.4 4.5 4.8 3.8 5.4 4.5 5.9 5.0 4.1 4.1 2001 rural 5.9 6.3 5.8 5.3 6.3 5.9 4.9 5.7 5.9 6.3 6.0 5.9 5.9 6.3 2003 rural 5.7 6.1 5.7 5.3 6.2 5.5 5.1 5.5 5.4 6.0 5.9 6.0 5.8 5.5 -
total urban 5.1 4.4 5.9 5.6 5.6 5.1 4.7 3.9 6.0 5.1 5.7 5.1 4.6 4.1 5.7 5.8 5.0 3.5 5.9 5.7 5.5 4.9 4.7 3.7 5.2 4.5 5.5 4.5 3.8 3.8
total urban 5.1 4.3 5.8 5.6 5.3 4.5 5.0 4.5 5.9 5.3 5.4 5.0 4.4 3.7 5.6 5.6 4.9 4.0 5.8 5.0 5.3 4.3 5.0 4.0 5.2 4.2 5.3 4.7 3.7 3.7
171
* Household surveys data
total urban 5.1 4.5 5.4 5.3 5.7 5.3 4.9 4.1 6.2 5.7 5.5 5.1 4.6 3.9 5.7 6.0 5.0 4.1 5.7 5.5 4.8 4.1 4.8 3.9 5.1 4.1 5.3 4.7 4.0 4.0
2004 rural 5.6 5.5 5.8 5.4 6.5 5.7 5.1 5.5 5.5 5.7 5.1 5.7 5.6 5.5 -
total urban 5.1 4.4 5.5 5.2 5.8 5.6 5.2 4.4 6.0 4.9 5.3 5.2 4.6 4.0 5.3 4.9 5.1 4.1 5.7 4.8 4.6 4.2 5.2 4.4 5.0 4.3 5.5 5.4 3.6 3.6
2005 rural 5.6 5.9 5.8 5.5 6.5 5.3 5.0 5.5 5.6 6.0 4.9 6.0 5.4 5.6 -
Table 24. Life expectancy at birth (years)

2000 Total both sexes women men Urban population both sexes women men Rural population both sexes women men 70.8 73.2 68.4 70.2 73.5 66.8 71.2 72.9 69.6 2001 71.3 73.6 68.9 70.7 74.0 67.3 71.7 73.3 70.1 2002 71.2 73.5 68.9 70.5 73.6 67.3 71.7 73.3 70.2 2003 71.6 73.8 69.4 71.1 74.3 67.9 71.9 73.4 70.5 2004 71.2 73.6 69.2 70.7 74.0 67.6 71.6 73.3 70.2 2005 71.8 74.1 69.6 71.1 74.3 67.9 72.2 73.8 70.7
172
Table 25. Birth and mortality rates by regions

Number of life births per 1,000 people total urban rural Republic of Uzbekistan 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Republic of Karakalpakstan 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Andijan 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Bukhara 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Djizzak 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Kashkadarya 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 21.3 20.4 21.0 19.8 20.8 20.3 24.0 21.7 21.8 20.6 22.4 20.6 19.9 19.6 20.3 18.7 20.0 20.1 20.0 20.2 20.1 18.8 19.4 19.8 24.3 23.5 23.4 21.8 22.7 22.9 26.3 24.2 23.9 23.5 22.7 22.2 17.7 17.1 17.4 16.5 17.7 17.3 22.1 19.5 19.4 18.4 21.4 19.9 19.5 19.4 18.5 16.8 17.6 18.0 15.9 15.5 15.6 15.8 15.1 14.7 18.9 18.3 17.7 17.5 18.9 20.0 21.3 19.8 19.3 19.3 19.0 16.6 23.5 22.4 23.1 21.7 22.6 22.1 25.8 23.8 24.1 22.8 23.5 21.3 20.1 19.8 21.0 19.5 21.1 21.0 21.8 22.3 22.0 20.2 21.2 22.0 26.7 25.8 25.8 23.6 24.4 24.2 28.0 25.7 25.4 24.9 24.0 24.0 Number of deaths per 1,000 people total urban rural 5.5 5.3 5.4 5.3 5.0 5.4 5.6 5.9 5.9 5.6 5.2 5.8 5.2 5.0 5.2 5.2 4.9 5.2 4.7 4.5 4.6 4.6 4.5 4.5 4.4 4.3 4.4 4.2 4.0 4.2 4.4 4.4 4.4 4.1 4.0 4.1 6.6 6.4 6.6 6.4 6.1 6.6 5.7 6.0 6.0 5.6 5.2 5.9 6.3 6.1 6.3 5.9 6.2 7.4 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.1 4.9 4.2 4.2 4.3 4.0 3.8 4.2 4.6 4.5 4.6 4.4 4.2 4.3 4.8 4.6 4.7 4.7 4.4 4.7 5.5 5.7 5.9 5.5 5.2 5.7 4.8 4.5 4.7 4.8 4.3 4.2 4.5 4.3 4.3 4.3 4.2 4.4 4.4 4.4 4.4 4.3 4.1 4.3 4.3 4.4 4.3 4.0 3.9 4.1
173
Number of life births per 1,000 people total urban rural Navoi 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Namangan 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Samarkand 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Surkhandarya 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Syrdarya 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Tashkent 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 19.4 19.1 19.5 18.9 20.0 19.9 21.0 20.6 21.4 20.0 20.6 20.2 22.7 22.5 22.9 21.4 22.0 21.8 25.5 22.8 24.4 22.5 22.1 21.9 22.0 21.4 22.8 20.5 21.2 21.2 18.5 18.0 18.7 17.9 19.7 18.7 16.8 16.4 17.2 17.0 18.4 18.1 20.6 23.7 23.1 20.2 18.2 18.0 16.6 15.8 16.6 15.3 17.0 16.9 19.3 17.9 18.0 17.6 18.1 18.5 19.0 19.2 20.5 18.5 20.0 21.5 16.2 15.4 16.1 15.2 17.3 16.6 21.1 20.9 21.0 20.2 21.2 21.1 21.2 18.8 20.4 19.8 22.0 21.5 25.0 25.0 25.2 23.6 23.7 23.5 27.1 24.0 25.9 23.7 23.1 22.7 23.5 22.4 24.0 21.4 21.8 21.0 20.0 19.8 20.5 19.6 21.2 20.1
Number of deaths per 1,000 people total urban rural 5.3 5.1 5.3 5.0 4.9 5.3 5.1 4.7 4.9 5.0 4.7 4.9 5.3 5.0 5.1 4.9 4.7 5.0 4.6 4.3 4.3 4.3 4.0 4.3 5.4 5.3 5.3 5.2 5.0 5.5 6.4 6.3 6.5 6.4 6.2 6.8 6.0 5.5 5.9 5.6 5.5 5.9 5.5 5.3 5.5 5.4 4.6 4.8 6.2 6.1 6.2 5.8 5.6 6.0 4.7 4.5 4.6 4.5 4.4 4.4 7.0 6.9 6.7 7.0 6.5 7.3 8.0 7.7 7.8 7.7 7.5 8.1 4.9 4.8 4.8 4.6 4.5 4.9 4.8 4.4 4.5 4.7 4.7 4.9 4.9 4.6 4.8 4.6 4.4 4.6 4.6 4.3 4.2 4.3 3.9 4.3 4.7 4.6 4.7 4.4 4.2 4.7 5.4 5.3 5.6 5.5 5.3 5.9
174
Number of life births per 1,000 people total urban rural Fergana 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Khorezm 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Tashkent-city 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 19.7 18.8 20.0 18.8 21.1 19.7 24.0 22.3 22.5 20.8 22.5 21.7 14.5 14.0 14.7 14.5 16.0 15.6 17.3 15.8 16.9 15.7 18.3 17.1 19.9 18.1 18.5 17.4 18.9 19.3 14.5 14.0 14.7 14.5 16.0 15.6 20.8 20.0 21.3 20.0 22.3 20.8 25.3 23.6 23.7 21.9 23.5 22.4 -
Number of deaths per 1,000 people total urban rural 5.3 5.0 5.2 5.2 4.8 5.2 5.2 4.9 4.9 5.0 4.6 4.6 8.5 8.2 8.6 8.3 8.0 8.6 6.4 6.1 6.3 6.2 5.7 6.3 6.3 6.0 6.4 5.9 5.5 5.6 8.5 8.2 8.6 8.3 8.0 8.6 4.9 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.5 4.8 4.8 4.5 4.4 4.7 4.3 4.3 -
175
Table 26. Unemployment rate by regions*

total urban 0.4 0.3 1.7 1.9 0.3 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.3 0.2 1.0 0.6 0.5 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.5 0.7 0.3 0.3 2000 rural 0.4 1.5 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.3 1.6 0.6 0.5 0.2 0.5 0.1 0.3 0.4 2002 rural 0.4 1.4 0.4 0.2 0.4 0.3 0.8 0.4 0.6 0.2 0.5 0.1 0.3 1.0 total urban 0.4 0.3 1.7 1.6 0.3 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.7 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.8 0.2 0.3 0.3 2001 rural 0.5 1.7 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.7 0.4 0.6 0.2 0.8 0.1 0.4 1.1 2003 rural 0.4 1.0 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.1 0.2 1.7 -
total urban 0.4 0.3 1.5 1.5 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 1.0 0.9 0.2 0.2
total urban 0.3 0.2 1.1 1.2 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 1.3 0.2 0.2 0.2
176
* Officially registered unemployment
total urban 0.4 0.2 1.0 0.7 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.9 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 1.6 0.8 0.2 0.2
2004 rural 0.5 1.4 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.4 1.2 0.4 0.5 0.2 0.5 0.1 0.1 1.9 -
total urban 0.3 0.2 1.0 1.2 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.6 0.3 0.4 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.9 0.2 0.2 0.2
2005 rural 0.3 0.9 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.8 0.6 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.1 1.2 -
Table 27. Ratio of employed in urban and rural areas (as % of total employed)
total urban 100.0 46.4 100.0 55.0 100.0 39.1 100.0 41.5 100.0 38.3 100.0 26.6 100.0 55.2 100.0 42.2 100.0 38.5 100.0 28.5 100.0 39.0 100.0 48.1 100.0 38.4 100.0 31.7 100.0 100.0 2000 rural 53.6 45.0 60.9 58.5 61.6 73.4 44.8 57.8 61.5 71.5 61.0 51.9 61.6 68.3 total urban 100.0 44.7 100.0 52.1 100.0 34.5 100.0 38.2 100.0 38.0 100.0 27.7 100.0 50.3 100.0 41.5 100.0 37.0 100.0 28.1 100.0 38.4 100.0 47.7 100.0 36.0 100.0 27.7 100.0 100.0 2001 rural 55.3 47.9 65.5 61.8 62.0 72.3 49.7 58.5 63.0 71.9 61.6 52.3 64.0 72.3 -
177
total urban 100.0 44.8 100.0 51.8 100.0 35.0 100.0 37.1 100.0 39.0 100.0 30.0 100.0 47.9 100.0 43.0 100.0 36.7 100.0 28.4 100.0 36.6 100.0 49.5 100.0 33.5 100.0 28.4 100.0 100.0
2002 rural 55.2 48.2 65.0 62.9 61.0 70.0 52.1 57.0 63.3 71.6 63.4 50.5 66.5 71.6 2004 rural 56.0 48.2 66.3 66.4 61.0 70.0 52.1 57.1 64.1 72.9 63.9 50.6 68.2 73.0 -
total urban 100.0 44.5 100.0 51.8 100.0 35.0 100.0 35.5 100.0 39.1 100.0 30.0 100.0 44.7 100.0 43.0 100.0 36.7 100.0 28.4 100.0 35.6 100.0 49.5 100.0 33.5 100.0 27.4 100.0 100.0
2003 rural 55.5 48.2 65.0 64.5 60.9 70.0 55.3 57.0 63.3 71.6 64.4 50.5 66.5 72.6 2005 rural 57.0 47.5 67.2 67.2 57.8 70.0 57.5 56.3 67.7 73.0 65.2 51.1 69.7 73.9 -
total urban 100.0 44.0 100.0 51.8 100.0 33.7 100.0 33.6 100.0 39.0 100.0 30.0 100.0 47.9 100.0 42.9 100.0 35.9 100.0 27.1 100.0 36.1 100.0 49.4 100.0 31.8 100.0 27.0 100.0 100.0
total urban 100.0 43.0 100.0 52.5 100.0 32.8 100.0 32.8 100.0 42.2 100.0 30.0 100.0 42.5 100.0 43.7 100.0 32.3 100.0 27.0 100.0 34.8 100.0 48.9 100.0 30.3 100.0 26.1 100.0 100.0
178
II. ECONOMY Table 28. Composition of GDP, %

GDP total: Value added industry agriculture construction services trade transport and communications other branches Net taxes, including import taxes Ratio between foreign trade turnover and GDP exports imports 2000 100.0 87.5 14.2 30.1 6.0 37.0 10.8 7.7 18.7 12.5 45.4 24.0 21.4 2001 100.0 88.1 14.1 30.0 5.8 38.0 11.7 7.5 19.0 11.9 57.0 29.9 27.1 2002 100.0 87.4 14.5 30.1 4.9 37.7 11.0 8.2 18.7 12.6 59.3 31.2 28.1 2003 100.0 86.3 15.8 28.4 4.7 37.2 10.1 9.4 17.9 13.7 66.2 36.9 29.3 2004 100.0 85.9 17.5 26.4 4.8 37.0 9.6 10.2 17.4 14.1 72.7 40.7 32.0 2005 100.0 89.4 21.1 26.3 4.8 37.0 8.8 10.6 17.8 10.6 69.6 39.6 30.0
Table 29. Share of medium and small entrepreneurship in gross regional product, 2003 (as % of GDP)
Including Total* Small & medium
enterprises Individual business
* Dekhan farms included
38.2 45.1 35.8 40.7 58.3 34.9 18.5 45.2 49.9 42.8 59.8 32.3 40.8 47.1 46.4
21.5 32.0 12.3 21.9 37.1 20.3 9.2 20.4 22.3 21.3 40.2 15.6 22.8 24.8 30.7
8.9 5.4 11.7 8.0 8.5 7.0 4.1 12.1 12.3 7.8 6.3 7.1 9.2 9.0 15.7
179
Table 30. Employed at small, medium and micro enterprises by sectors in 2003
Thousand people 1375.6 140.7 856.0 71.5 11.6 102.4 As % of total 100.0 10.2 62.2 5.2 0.8 7.4 As % to 2004 112.8 101.4 116.0 111.4 112.6 102.2
Total industry agriculture construction transportation trade and public catering
Table 31. New private sector and informal sector

2000 Share of the population engaged in a new private sector as % of total employment Share of the population engaged in an informal sector as % of total employment Share of informal sector in GDP (%) 47.8 41.3 34.9 2001 49.8 44.5 33.9 2002 51.4 46.2 33.1 2003 53.7 48.6 31.4 2004 57.2 51.9 30.1 2005 61.0 55.5 30.2
Table 32. Investments by sectors and sources, %

Total for production purposes industry agriculture and forestry for non-production purposes Financed by state budget 2000 100.0 57.5 29.7 5.7 42.5 29.2 2001 100.0 63.1 38.9 5.5 36.9 21.5 2002 100.0 59.5 32.9 6.7 40.5 23.9 2003 100.0 63.6 29.0 5.0 36.4 16.4 2004 100.0 66.0 29.0 4.3 34.0 14.4 2005 100.0 68.2 32.6 4.4 31.8 12.2
180
Table 33. Social and cultural amenities in operation

total urban 17.3 0.1 0.7 0.4 8.3 0.5 0.2 2000 rural 17.2 0.3 7.8 0.2 2002 rural 17.7 0.1 0.2 16.6 0.4 2004 rural 17.3 12.1 0.4 total urban 26.9 1.6 0.8 0.4 13.5 0.4 2001 rural 25.3 0.4 13.1 2003 rural 20.4 0.2 15.1 2005 rural 104.5 0.3 13.0 -
Comprehensive schools (thousand seats) Pre-school establish ments (thousand seats) Hospitals (thousand beds) Policlinics (thousand visits in shifts) Clubs and cultural buildings (thousand seats)
total urban Comprehensive schools (thousand seats) Pre-school establish ments (thousand seats) Hospitals (thousand beds) Policlinics (thousand visits in shifts) Clubs and cultural buildings (thousand seats) 19.3 0.1 0.3 16.8 0.4 1.6 0.1 0.2 -
total urban 22.4 0.2 16.1 2.0 1.0
Comprehensive schools (thousand seats) Pre-school establish ments (thousand seats) Hospitals (thousand beds) Policlinics (thousand visits in shifts) Clubs and cultural buildings (thousand seats)
total urban 19.9 2.6 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 12.6 0.5 0.4 -
total urban 128.7 24.2 0.9 0.6 13.5 0.5 -
III. Education Table 34. Pre-school enrolment (as % of all pre-school aged children)
Total Urban Rural 2000 18.2 35.3 10.6 2001 19.4 36.0 12.0 2002 19.9 35.5 12.9 2003 19.2 35.3 12.1 2004 19.3 35.7 12.1 2005 19.0 35.0 12.0
Table 35. Enrolment in specialized secondary and higher schools

Specialized secondary students (thousand) of which women (%) Number of students in higher schools (thousand) of which women (%) 2000 324.1 49.0 183.6 37.8 2001 446.1 47.1 207.2 38.7 2002 545.9 46.1 232.3 38.9 2003 684.0 46.3 254.4 38.8 2004 788.0 46.9 263.6 40.7 2005 890.7 47.6 278.7 40.9
181
IV. HEALTHCARE Table 36. Number of people per doctor, nurse and hospital bed
2000
doctor nurse bed doctor nurse
2001
bed
305 347 321 313 431 363 330 343 308 393 361 389 397 337 125
96 95 96 82 108 100 93 99 114 111 83 96 90 103 76
179 212 158 202 198 203 214 168 181 233 155 212 163 199 121 2002
309 350 326 303 437 376 332 354 312 400 365 398 407 342 124
95 93 97 83 107 98 91 100 114 108 85 98 89 103 77
179 211 162 208 201 198 209 170 185 207 153 214 166 196 121 2003
doctor
nurse
bed doctor
nurse
bed
314 353 331 300 463 389 333 359 317 417 391 409 407 348 125
96 93 99 83 110 98 90 99 118 108 84 101 86 102 77
173 171 162 213 204 179 190 151 190 211 151 215 167 183 116
318 357 330 281 463 390 335 365 319 420 404 411 409 343 133
96 96 99 81 109 97 90 96 118 106 85 102 85 102 79
174 167 164 215 205 179 191 151 190 213 155 220 170 184 117
182
2004
doctor nurse bed doctor nurse
2005
bed
334 392 366 290 474 432 338 399 333 451 420 438 424 358 131
98 98 105 83 111 99 93 98 118 107 86 104 90 105 77
182 169 167 216 209 190 191 155 192 224 157 222 211 198 118
344 406 380 290 511 449 341 411 343 483 437 462 436 358 133
97 98 104 83 108 99 90 98 118 106 84 102 87 105 78
185 168 172 213 212 194 192 157 196 230 159 224 219 202 118
183
Table 37. Mortality rate by selected causes of death and regions (per 100,000 people)
2000 Republic of Uzbekistan all causes of death from circulatory illnesses from malignant tumors from respiratory illnesses Republic of Karakalpakstan all causes of death from circulatory illnesses from malignant tumors from respiratory illnesses Andijan all causes of death from circulatory illnesses from malignant tumors from respiratory illnesses Bukhara all causes of death from circulatory illnesses from malignant tumors from respiratory illnesses Djizzak all causes of death from circulatory illnesses from malignant tumors from respiratory illnesses Kashkadarya all causes of death from circulatory illnesses from malignant tumors from respiratory illnesses Navoi all causes of death from circulatory illnesses from malignant tumors from respiratory illnesses Namangan all causes of death from circulatory illnesses from malignant tumors from respiratory illnesses Samarkand all causes of death 548.0 288.5 38.8 63.5 559.6 180.9 40.0 120.1 521.6 293.6 30.8 63.7 469.7 263.2 31.7 42.5 435.8 190.7 30.0 61.3 439.6 204.7 22.3 74.6 534.7 267.3 50.0 43.8 508.0 266.8 27.8 91.2 527.0 2001 528.9 282.3 37.4 55.1 586.0 191.8 44.4 107.5 495.5 276.9 27.1 61.6 454.6 257.5 30.5 38.6 434.1 190.7 29.6 57.9 443.0 212.6 21.4 69.5 510.7 254.3 49.8 38.9 474.0 256.4 25.8 63.6 499.7 2002 540.2 296.3 37.3 54.5 591.2 213.8 34.0 122.7 519.1 299.6 30.8 52.4 458.4 258.0 33.8 37.6 440.1 207.6 32.2 50.5 435.4 231.2 17.4 59.9 525.2 268.9 51.0 33.7 489.0 287.2 26.6 60.6 513.0 2003 529.7 289.7 37.2 49.0 557.0 188.9 39.6 114.9 517.1 246.9 34.2 42.1 463.2 261.6 32.4 42.9 423.2 204.9 30.6 46.9 411.8 225.0 20.6 43.0 499.9 261.6 46.7 32.9 497.6 300.8 28.0 56.6 489.9 2004 502.1 274.0 36.6 42.9 523.9 183.3 41.2 91.7 485.9 219.1 29.3 35.5 450.1 245.5 34.9 44.6 399.4 199.2 30.6 38.3 398.5 230.6 20.0 39.0 487.6 255.0 43.6 26.4 467.7 279.5 26.4 52.0 474.2 2005 535.3 301.3 37.4 43.6 584.4 239.6 38.9 93.1 516.3 233.6 34.6 39.2 451.2 259.9 37.3 43.5 423.5 214.3 34.0 39.0 413.6 244.4 18.7 37.1 531.4 296.9 46.0 24.7 487.5 287.1 30.4 52.9 499.6
184
from circulatory illnesses from malignant tumors from respiratory illnesses Surkhandarya all causes of death from circulatory illnesses from malignant tumors from respiratory illnesses Syrdarya all causes of death from circulatory illnesses from malignant tumors from respiratory illnesses Tashkent all causes of death from circulatory illnesses from malignant tumors from respiratory illnesses Fergana all causes of death from circulatory illnesses from malignant tumors from respiratory illnesses Khorezm all causes of death from circulatory illnesses from malignant tumors from respiratory illnesses Tashkent-city all causes of death from circulatory illnesses from malignant tumors from respiratory illnesses
2000 285.1 32.7 63.0 464.2 220.1 25.4 74.5 542.4 276.6 44.6 40.0 644.6 363.5 49.4 42.8 534.4 279.7 30.9 55.3 520.0 291.4 29.9 77.4 845.1 522.8 97.7 32.2
2001 280.5 28.8 53.5 443.8 219.8 27.5 60.5 530.7 276.5 35.3 36.2 625.6 358.8 48.7 35.5 504.2 274.9 31.4 43.0 488.6 286.9 28.6 69.1 819.6 495.3 94.1 35.3
2002 284.3 25.8 56.9 428.6 216.8 23.5 52.2 530.5 282.6 43.8 40.8 650.2 366.2 50.1 45.7 516.9 294.4 32.9 44.3 489.5 286.9 30.8 59.7 863.8 523.9 97.1 40.2
2003 263.3 27.8 50.4 434.4 234.7 23.3 50.4 519.4 286.6 36.4 38.7 641.4 379.3 48.3 37.7 519.7 306.8 29.6 43.8 497.8 296.4 27.7 46.7 832.9 492.7 95.8 40.0
2004 287.9 26.2 46.8 399.2 227.6 23.4 38.3 496.7 265.5 37.4 35.9 617.3 338.3 49.1 26.8 481.6 271.1 31.6 44.6 457.7 274.5 29.1 43.2 796.1 460.6 92.0 35.4
2005 306.9 25.0 43.3 431.5 253.4 27.0 39.3 547.9 304.2 38.5 35.5 677.8 372.2 48.1 40.1 520.3 309.5 30.9 37.3 461.4 289.5 30.6 44.7 859.9 520.3 92.0 39.1
185
Table 38. Infant mortality rate (number of children dying under age one, per 1,000 life births)
total urban 18.9 22.4 20.5 23.0 15.2 22.4 19.0 23.3 16.2 18.7 19.0 20.1 18.4 25.0 18.8 26.7 16.0 17.1 20.7 24.9 20.4 21.5 19.6 20.2 19.3 21.0 24.6 46.0 19.5 19.5 2000 rural 17.3 18.5 12.1 17.6 15.5 18.7 14.8 14.2 15.8 19.9 20.0 19.3 18.7 19.4 2002 rural 15.3 16.7 11.7 13.5 13.7 16.9 12.7 14.2 14.6 15.1 17.8 16.4 18.0 16.4 total urban 18.3 21.2 22.3 26.2 15.1 21.0 18.0 23.0 17.0 18.8 18.8 19.3 17.4 21.2 17.9 20.2 15.9 18.6 18.5 22.0 19.7 19.1 17.1 17.6 19.9 21.0 19.9 32.8 20.8 20.8 2001 rural 17.0 19.3 12.6 16.5 16.5 18.6 15.5 16.2 15.3 17.8 19.9 16.9 19.5 16.8 2003 rural 14.5 16.9 11.9 12.5 12.5 14.1 13.0 13.1 13.5 14.0 17.7 14.5 18.5 17.2 -
total urban 16.7 19.9 19.9 24.0 13.6 18.3 15.1 20.3 13.9 14.7 17.2 18.4 14.1 16.6 16.8 20.6 15.1 17.0 15.8 20.0 18.0 18.6 16.8 17.5 18.2 18.7 19.3 31.8 20.9 20.9
total urban 16.4 20.5 18.3 20.1 13.8 18.9 14.9 22.0 13.9 18.3 14.7 16.7 15.7 20.5 15.8 20.1 13.7 14.6 14.7 18.5 17.9 18.5 15.2 16.6 20.0 24.6 18.9 26.1 24.9 24.9
186
total urban 15.4 18.9 18.4 22.0 14.0 20.2 14.0 16.5 12.0 11.1 14.0 14.3 12.6 16.2 14.0 17.1 12.2 12.0 11.6 16.1 18.1 17.4 15.6 16.8 20.1 23.1 17.1 26.9 22.6 22.6
2004 rural 13.8 15.2 11.8 13.2 12.3 13.9 10.5 12.5 12.2 10.8 18.4 15.0 19.2 14.8 -
total urban 14.9 18.6 17.4 20.2 12.3 18.5 12.0 11.5 12.3 13.2 13.8 14.3 10.9 12.8 15.1 22.8 12.7 14.8 11.6 14.7 16.7 18.0 15.4 16.4 19.3 21.3 16.3 23.5 22.3 22.3
2005 rural 13.3 14.9 10.1 12.2 11.9 13.7 9.8 11.3 12.1 11.0 16.2 14.9 18.6 14.5 -
V. ECOLOGY Table 39. Amount harmful emissions into the atmosphere (thousand tons per year)
Tashkent Andijan Navoi Samarkand Almalyk Angren Bekabad Chirchik Kokand Fergana Margilan Nukus Urgench Bukhara Djizzak Karshi Namangan Termez Gulistan 2000 12.7 9.7 28.1 7.0 99.3 116.3 7.2 5.7 3.7 47.1 0.1 4.1 3.7 3.3 0.8 2.4 3.4 0.6 0.7 2001 10.9 8.7 27.9 6.6 98.8 91.7 13.0 5.2 3.8 44.1 0.1 4.4 6.8 3.1 0.8 2.2 4.5 1.0 0.6 2002 10.5 9.5 23.5 5.9 97.3 101.8 13.4 4.9 3.3 46.6 0.1 3.1 6.6 2.1 0.8 1.7 4.1 0.3 0.6 2003 11.6 8.9 24.2 5.5 99.3 93.1 9.1 4.1 3.4 41.5 0.1 2.8 6.1 1.8 0.7 5.7 4.0 1.6 0.6 2004 9.7 6.3 23.9 5.1 107.7 99.0 8.7 7.6 1.3 38.4 0.02 3.4 4.4 2.2 0.9 3.1 1.2 09 0.5 2005 9.5 10.1 28.1 3.8 113.8 91.7 6.8 3.8 1.1 30.6 0.02 1.3 4.3 1.4 0.4 24.0 1.1 0.4 0.7
187
THEMS OF THE NATIONAL HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORTS
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2005 2006
Social Policy and Social Development Economic Growth and Human Development Social Cohesion and Human Development The Role of the State in Economic, Social and Democratic Reforms in the Period of Transition to a Market Economy The Process of Human Development Over the Past Eight Years The Strengthening of Human Development Through Focusing on Small and Medium Business Development in the Country Decentralization and Human Development Health for All: a Key Goal for Uzbekistan in the New Millennium
188

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NATIONAL HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT TEAM

National Human Development Report

Fikret Akcura UNDP Resident Representative

National Human Development Report

National Human Development Report

National Human Development Report

National Human Development Report

Chapter 1 EDUCATION ASTHEBASIS OFHUMAN DEVELOPMENT

National Human Development Report

National Human Development Report

National Human Development Report

Source: 2006 World Development Indicators, pp.8890.

National Human Development Report

Source: Human Development Report 2006. pp.283286.

National Human Development Report

National Human Development Report

Table 1.4. Relationship between level ofeducation andeconomic development

9 Jack Mincer, Schooling, Earning, andExperience, 1974

National Human Development Report

Source: State Committee ofStatistics, Survey ofhouseholds

2005 2.1 1.1

Source: State Committee ofStatistics, Household Budget Survey

Bangladesh Sudan Congo Togo Zimbabwe Madagascar Swaziland Lesotho Kenya

Source: Human Development Report 2006

National Human Development Report

Source: State Committee ofStatistics, Household Budget Survey

Source: 2006 World Development Indicators, pp.9698.

National Human Development Report

Source:2006 World Development Indicators, pp.9698.

National Human Development Report

National Human Development Report

National Human Development Report

National Human Development Report

National Human Development Report

National Human Development Report

Table 3. Top20universities oftheworld

National Human Development Report

Source: State Committee ofStatistics oftheRepublic ofUzbekistan

National Human Development Report

National Human Development Report

National Human Development Report

National Human Development Report

National Human Development Report

Chapter 2 Human Development in Uzbekistan

Figure 2.1 GDP Growth rate in Uzbekistan

-11.1 1992 1996 2000 2003 2004 2005 2006

Figure 2.2. Inflation rate by CPI

10.28 1.58 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

Figure 2.3. Budget Deficit (Surplus)

0.4 1.0 2000 1.0 2001 0.8 2002 2003

Table 2.1. Growth in Real Disposable Household Incomes

National Human Development Report

1991 10.2 49.1 80.6

2000 12.9 52.5 69.4

2001 13.4 53.5 68.4

2002 13.8 54.5 67.7

2003 14.2 55.6 67.5

2004 14.7 56.6 67.7

2005 15.1 57.5 67.7

2006 15.5 58.3 67.7

Table 2.7. Employment structure in the informal sector

National Human Development Report

Figure 2.4. Structure of Capital Investment