Lecture No.

9
MEASUREMENT OF FLUID FLOW
9.1 General types of flow meters
Obstruction meter. Fluid meters that belong to this type indicate a flow
by a change in pressure.
Full bore meter (Venturi meter, orifice meter, flow nozzle)
Insertion meter (Pitot tube)
Variable area meter. An area meter is one in which the pressure drop is
constant and the reading is dependent upon a variable flow area.
Rotameter
Others: Magnetic field, vortex shedding, turbine meter etc.
9.2 Venturi meter
Venturi meter is a full-bore obstruction meter with converging and diverging
sections. It consists of a tube with a constricted throat which causes the
increase of fluid velocity at the expense of pressure. The throat is followed
by a gradually diverging section where the velocity is decreased with an
increase in pressure and slight friction losses. A schematic of Venturi meter
is shown in Figure 9.1.
Figure 9.1. Schematic of a Venturi meter
71
Velocity at the throat (u
2
):
( )
c v v
2 c
4 4
2 P g YC YC
u 2g H
1 1

(9.1)
Mass flow rate (m
&) and velocity in the main line (u
1
):
1 1 1 2 2 2
m u A u A
&
(9.2)
For incompressible fluid flow:
2 2
1 2 2
1
A
u u v
A

(9.3)
where:
C
v
is the Venturi coefficient;
=
2
1
diameter of throat D
diameter of main line D

;
-P is the pressure drop, P
1
P
2
;
is the density of the fluid;
H is the differential head, (
P
H

);
Y is a correction factor.
Important notes:
If < 0.25, then
4
1 1 .
Values of C
v
:
C
v
= 0.98 for a well-designed orifice
C
v
0.98 for D
1
= 2 to 8 inches
C
v
0.99 for D
1
> 8 inches
C
v
= 0.984 for Herschel type with Re > 200,000
72
Values of Y:
For incompressible fluids (i.e., liquids): Y = 1
For compressible fluids (i.e., gases):
( )
( )
1
4 2
1
1
2
2
1
4 2 2
1 1
P
1 1
P
P
Y
P
P P
1 1 1
P P

1
_
1


1
,
_ 1
]

1
,
_ _
1


1
, ,
1
]
(9.4)
where:
p
v
C
.
C

See also Equation 10-21 and Figure 10-16 of Perrys ChE Handbook
(7
th
ed.)
The permanent pressure loss across Venturi meter is dependent on
and the discharge cone angle () in the diverging section:
= 5 7
o
10 to 15% of -P
> 15
o
10 to 30% of -P
Disadvantage: expensive compared to the other head meters.
9.3 Orifice meter
A sharp- or square-edged orifice is a clean-cut square-edged hole with
straight walls perpendicular to the flat upstream face of a thin plate faced
crosswise of a channel.The stream issuing from such an orifice attains its
minimum cross section (vena contracta) at a distance downstream of the
orifice which varies with .
73
Figure 9.2. Schematic of a sharp-edged orifice
Velocity at the orifice:
( )
c o o
2 c
4 4
2 P g YC YC
u 2g H
1 1

(9.5)
where: C
o
is the orifice discharge coefficient
Y is a correction factor.
Other parameters are as defined in Section 9.2.
Important notes:
Values of C
o
= f(Re, ):
2.5
0.21 8
o 0.75
C 0.5959 0.0312 0.184 91.71
Re

+ + (9.6)
Equation 9.6 has been plotted to give Figure 9.3 below (or Figure
10-20 of Perrys ChE Handbook, 7
th
ed.)
74
Figure 9.3. Coefficient of discharge for square-edged circular (Figure
10-20 of Perrys ChE Handbook, 7
th
ed.)
Values of Y:
For compressible fluid (i.e., gases):
4
2
1
0.41 0.35 P
Y 1 1
P

_ +


,
(9.7)
See also Figure 10-16 of Perrys ChE Handbook (7
th
ed.)
9.4 Pitot tube
A pitot tube is an insertion meter that measures local velocity (i.e., velocity at
a point). Applications include finding the velocity of a moving craft such as a
boat or an airplane. A similar device, called Pitot static tube shown in Figure
9.4, is used to measure the velocity at different radial positions in a pipe.
75
A
B
Figure 9.4. Pitot tube with sidewall static tap (Fig. 10-5 Perrys ChE
Handbook, 7
th
ed.)
Velocity at A (i.e., where the tip is located), u
o
:
o c
u C 2g H (9.8)
where:
C is the correction coefficient
Important notes:
Values of C:
C = 1 t 0.01 for simple Pitot tubes
C = 0.98 to 1 for Pitot static tubes
For gases at velocities > 200 ft s
-1
:
1
B A
o c
B B
P P
u C 2g 1
1 P

1
_
1


1

,
1
]
(9.9)
Generally, for compressible fluids:
( )
c A B
o
2
4
o
B
g P P
u
Ma 2
1 Ma ...
4 24

_
+ + +

,
(9.10)
For Equations 9.9 and 9.10, P
A
and P
B
are impact and static pressures,
respectively.
76
If the Pitot static tube is inserted at the middle of a tube or pipe, the
velocity measured is maximum (u
o
= u
max
). To determine the average
velocity in the tube or pipe, we use Figure 9.5.
Figure 9.5. Velocity ratio versus Reynolds number for smooth circular
pipes (Figure 10-7 of Perrys ChE Handbook, 7
th
ed.)
9.5 Rotameter
The rotameter (Figure 9.6) consists of a solid float or plummet that is free to
move inside a gradually tapered vertical glass tube. The fluid flows upward
and the flow rate is indicated by the equilibrium position reached by the float
which can be read from the adjacent scale usually etched on the glass tube.
Balance of forces at equilibrium (i.e., steady-state):
( )
D G B f f f f f
c c c
g g g
F F F V V V
g g g

(9.11)
where:
F
D
drag force resulting from form and skin friction for flow around
the float
F
B
buoyant force acting so as to raise the float
F
G
gravity force acting downward on a float
V
f
volume of the float
77

f
density of the float
density of the fluid

Figure 9.6. Schematic representation of a rotameter
Energy balance between 1 and 2 (see Figure 9.6)
2 2
2 1 2 1
c
P P u u
F 0
2g

+ + (9.12)
where:
F summation of drag or friction losses
Continuity equation
1 1 2 2
m uS u S
&
(9.13)
Combining equations 9.12 and 9.13
2
2 1
1 c 2
2
S P
u 1 2g F
S

_ _
+

, ,
(9.14)
1 1 c 2
1
2
2
P
u C 2g
S
1
S

(9.15)
78
1
F
B
F
D
F
G
2
2
1
Flow
Drag force (F
D
)
( ) ( )
2
D f f f f
F P S P C S (9.16)
where:
-P
f
pressure drop acting on the top of the float
2
f
C fraction of the maximum pressure drop (-P) that is not
recovered
Combining equations 9.11, 9.15 and 9.16
( )
f f
1 R
2
1
f 2
2
2V g
u C
S
S 1
S

,
(9.17)
where:
1
R
f
C
C
C

rotameter coefficient
f 1 2
S S S (rotameter tapers gradually)
( )
( )
f f
2
1 R
f 1 2
2gV
S
u C
S S S

+
(9.18)
Mass flow rate
( )
f f
R 2
f
2gV
m C S
S

&
(9.19)
Important notes:
Proper design of rotameter float will make C
R
constant over wide range
of Re.
For a constant-density fluid in a single rotameter, the terms within the
square root symbol of equation 9.18 are practically constant and
independent of flow rate; hence,
79
'
1 R 2
u C S (9.20)
The preceding equation shows that the velocity is equal to a constant
multiplied by the minimum cross section for flow (S
2
).
Disadvantage: expensive in large installations.
9.6 Notches and Weirs
Notch An opening in the side of the tank or reservoir which extends
above the surface of the fluid. It is used to measure discharge
flow rate.
Weir A notch on a lager scale, usually found in rivers. It maybe
sharp-crested but may also have a substantial depth in the
direction of flow. It can be used to measure flow rate or raise
water levels.
The General Weir Equation
With reference to Figure 9.7,
Velocity through the strip: u 2gh (9.21)
Discharge through the strip: Q Au b h 2gh
Q H
0 0
Q b 2gh h

H
1/ 2
0
Q 2g bh dh

(9.22)
Figure 9.7. Elemental strip of flow through a notch
80
Rectangular weir
Figure 9.8. Rectangular weir
b = B
1 3
H
2 2
theo
0
2
Q B 2g h dh B 2gH
3

(9.23)
3
2
actual d
2
Q C 2gH
3
(9.24)
V-notch weir
Figure 9.9. V-notch or triangular weir geometry
( ) b 2 H h tan
2

(9.25)
( )
1
H
2
theo
0
Q 2 2gtan H h h dh
2

81
H
3 5
2 2
theo
0
2
Q 2 2gtan Hh h
2 5

1 _

1
,
]
5
2
theo
8
Q 2gtan H
15 2

(9.26)
5
2
actual d
8
Q C 2gtan H
15 2

(9.27)
QUESTIONS / PROBLEMS:
1. Explain how a Pitot tube measures the speed of a boat.
2. Explain the principle of variable area meters.
3. A Pitot tube is inserted into the center of an air duct 0.8 m in diameter.
A pressure gage attached to the Pitot tube reads -P = 9 N/m
2
. The
Pitot tube coefficient is 0.982. Calculate the mass flow rate of air, at a
temperature of 35
o
C and a pressure of 101 kPa.
4. A Venturi meter with an entrance diameter of 0.3m and a throat
diameter of 0.2m is used to measure the volume of gas flowing
through a pipe. The discharge coefficient of the meter is 0.96.
Assuming the specific weight of the gas to be constant at 19.62 N/m
3
,
calculate the volume flowing when the pressure difference between
the entrance and the throat is measured as 0.06 m on a water U-tube
manometer.
5. A Venturi meter is used for measuring flow of water along a pipe. The
diameter of the Venturi throat is two-fifths the diameter of the pipe.
The inlet and throat are connected by water-filled tubes to a mercury
U-tube manometer. The velocity of flow along the pipe is found to be
2.5 H
m/s, where H is the manometer reading in m of mercury.
Determine the loss of head between inlet and throat of the Venturi
when H is 0.49 m. The relative density of mercury is 13.6.
6. Brine (specific gravity 1.18) is flowing though a 80-mm pipe at a
maximum rate of 0.015 m
3
/s. In order to measure the flow rate, a
82
sharp-edged orifice, connected to simple U-tube manometer is to be
390 mm Hg. What size orifice should be installed?
7. A closed tank has a 0.025-m diameter orifice in one of its vertical
sides. The tank contains oil to a depth of 0.61 m above the centre of
the orifice and the pressure in the air space above the oil is maintained
at 13780 N/m
2
above atmospheric. Determine the discharge from the
orifice. The coefficient of discharge of the orifice is 0.61 and the
relative density of oil is 0.9.
8. A Venturi meter is fitted in a horizontal pipe of 0.15 m diameter to
measure the flow of water which may be anything up to 240 m
3
/h. The
pressure head at the inlet for this flow is 18 m above atmospheric and
the pressure head at the throat must not be less than 7 m below
atmospheric. Between the inlet and the throat there is an estimated
frictional loss of 10% of the difference in pressure head between these
points. Calculate the minimum allowable diameter for the throat.
9. Deduce an expression for the discharge of water over a right-angled
sharp edged V-notch, given that the coefficient of discharge is 0.61.
A rectangular tank 16 m by 6m has the same notch in one of its
short vertical sides. Determine the time taken for the head, measured
from the bottom of the notch, to fall from 15 cm to 7.5 cm.
10.Develop a formula for the discharge over a 90-degree V-notch weir in
terms of head above the bottom of the V.
A channel conveys 300 liters/sec of water. At the outlet end
there is a 90-degree V-notch weir for which the coefficient of discharge
is 0.58. At what distance above the bottom of the channel should the
weir be placed in order to make the depth in the channel 1.30 m? With
the weir in this position what is the depth of water in the channel when
the flow is 200 liters/sec?
83