University of Newcastle upon Tyne School of Civil Engineering and Geosciences

DESIGN AND MODELLING OF ELECTROOSMOTIC DEWATERING

by

Chi Kit, MOK

Submitted in accordancewith the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

August 2006 NEWCASTLE UNIVERSITY

205 36465 3 -

LIBRARY

-------------------------------2 -'t> L-c32--7(:

The candidate confirms that the work submitted is his own and that appropriate credit has been given where reference has been made to the work of others. This copy has been supplied on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement.

To my parents

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Prof. Colin Jonesand Dr. First and foremostI would like to thank my supervisors, frequentdiscussions Stephanie Glendinning,for their help, support,attentiveness, and to my work over the durationof my PhD. I am also grateful for recommendations their thoroughreadingof this manuscript.

I would like to thank Chris Hunt, Fred Beadle,Geoffrey Shim andAddy Kho for their technicaladviceand supportin the soil laboratory.

I would like to thank my bestfriends, Cat Mok, Keith Leung, Andy Leung, EdwardLee, Eric Cheung,Henry Cheung,Wing Wong, Anthony Chow, Monica Lai, Ken Li, Tomoko Yago, TanakaKumi, Vinny Yiu, ParkerTsang,Danny Ng, Mak Ting Kai, SunnyYam, Michael Wan andJosephine Chan,for making my time so enjoyable, taking careof me and supportingme during a very difficult period of my life.

Last, I would like to give a specialthank to my parentsand my sistersfor their inspiration,encouragement duration financial the of my whole supportover and education.

Without whom this thesismight neverhavebeencompleted. ,

-, :

ABSTRACT
Many previousstudieshavedemonstrated that electroosmoticdewateringis an effective techniqueto dewatersewagesludge. However,the technologyhasnot yet been thereare severaltechnological successfullyappliedin industry. This is because barriersto the commercialexploitation of the technologythat are yet to be resolved. One of thesebarriersis a scientifically robustdesignmethodology. This aim of this study is to establisha qualitative and quantitativeunderstanding model of dewateringof sewagesludgeand from this producea robust design electroosmotic methodology. This study is divided into threeparts:

The first part evaluates the feasibility of electroosmoticdewateringunderconstant voltagefor rangeof sludgetypes. A numberof experiments with four different sewage to examinethe dewateringefficiency in termsof rate of sludgeswere undertaken dewatering,final solid concentrationand energyconsumption. The resultsshowed that electroosmotic dewateringof sludgeis both feasibleandpotentially economic. It is also shownthat the useof the Helmholtz-Smolucowskiflow eqPation, togetherwith the assumptions of no electrochemical reactionand a constantelectroosmotic is not sound. permeability,to predict the dewateringprocess

The secondpart of this thesispresents an integratingframework for electroosmotic dewateringunderconstantvoltageand constantcurrent,foundedon the mathematics of by laboratoryexperimentation. The simple electricalcircuits and demonstrated derived equationsand experimentalresultsshowedthat electroosmoticflow rate decreases dewatering time when with constantvoltageand is constantwhen with dewateringwith constantcurrent. Having a linear relationshipbetweenflow and time, electroosmoticdewateringwith constantcurrentnot only enhances the sludge dewateringefficiency, but also hasthe advantage of simplifying designprocedures.

The third part exploresin further detail eachof the designparameters of electroosmotic dewateringunderconstantcurrent,including samplethickness,current,time over which constantcurrent could be maintained,power supply,pressure andtype of electrodes. A including designequations detaileddesignmethodology, to predict final solid content for eachparameter is andtreatmenttime, designrequirements and designprocedures,
presented.

LIST OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgments 4-: 1

Abstract
List of Contents List of Tables List of Figures

II
IV x xi

List of Symbols

xv

Chapter 1

Introduction

1 1 3 4

1.1 Background 1.2 Aim and objectives 1.3 Structureof the thesis

Chapter2

LiteratureReview

6
6 7 7 8 8 91 9 10 10 11 11 13
IV

2.1 Introduction 2.2 Objectivesof dewatering 2.3 Sludge-liquidphase 2.4 Conventionaldewateringtechniques 2.4.1 2.4.2 2.4.3 2.4.4, Vacuumfiltration Belt filter press Centrifuge Disadvantages of conventionaldewateringtechniques

2.5 Conductionphenomena 2.5.1 Coupledflows

2.6 ElectrokineticPhenomena ., 2.6.1 ,. Double Layer

2.6.2 2.6.3

Zeta potential Electroosmosis

15 17 17 18 19 20 21 22 22 23 23 24 25 25 26 27 29 29 30 31 31 32 32 32 32 34 35

2.6.3.1 Helmholtz-Smoluchowski theory 2.6.3.2 Electroosmoticflow and permeability 2.6.4 2.6.5 2.6.6 Electrochemical reactions Assumptionsof electrokineticanalysis Electrokineticapplications

2.6.6.1 Electrokineticremediation 2.6.6.2 Electrokineticsedimentation 2.6.6.3 Electrokineticdewatering 2.7 Electroosmoticdewateringof sludge 2.7.1 2.7.2 2.7.3 Electroosmoticdewateringprocess Features of electroosmoticdewatering Efficiency of electroosmoticdewatering Efficiency in term of dewateringrate Efficiency in term of energyconsumption

2.7.3.1 2.7.3.2

2.8 Improvementof electroosmoticdewatering 2.8.1 2.8.2 Combinedfield dewatering for restartingdewatering Electrochemical strategies

2.8.2.1 Fuel cell effect 2.8.2.2 Forcedpolarity reversal 2.8.2.3 , High overvoltageelectrodes 2.8.2.4 Maintaining a high zetapotential -2.8.2.5 Depolarizationof the anodicreaction 2.8.3 Electrokineticgeosynthetic(EKG) Conductivecarbonpolymer

2.8.3.1

2.9 Historical review of electroosmoticdewateringof sludge

V

2.10 ChapterSummary

39

Chapter 3

Feasibility Assessmentof Electroosmotic Dewatering of Sludges

41

3.1 Introduction 3.2 Experimental programme 3.2.1 Sludge samples

41 41 42 42 42 42 42 43 44 44 45 45 46 47 47 48

3.2.1.1 Humicsludge 3.2.1.2 Humicsludge with sawdust 3.2.1.3 Lagoon A andB sewage sludge 3.2.2 3.2.3 3.2.4 3.2.5 Electroosmotic cell Powersupply Materialfor theelectrodes Experimental testing

3.3 Results anddiscussion 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3 3.3.4 Dewatering efficiency Electriccurrent andresistance Corrosion Voltage gradient

Chapter 3.4 summary .

Chapter 4

Integrating Framework for the Design of Dewatering of Sludge Electroosmotic -

63

4.1 Introduction for electroosmotic dewatering 4.2 Existingequation for electroosmotic dewatering 4.3 Derivingnewequations 4.3.1 Assumptions dewatering of electroosmotic
vi

63 64 66 66

4.3.2 4.3.3 4.3.4

Modelling the dewateringsystemas an electric circuit dewateringwith constantvoltage Electroosmotic dewateringwith constantcurrent Electroosmotic Electroosmoticflow rate underconstantcurrent

68 69 73 75

4.3.4.1 4.3.4.2

Testingfor determiningelectroosmoticpermeability 76 77 77 77 77

4.4 Experimentalprogramme 4.4.1 4.4.2 4.4.3 Sludgesample Experimentalapparatus Experimentalseries1- Electroosmoticdewatering with constantvoltage 4.4.4 Experimentalseries2- Electroosmoticdewatering with constantcurrent 4.4.5 Experimentalseries3- Electroosmoticdewatering with stepped current 4.4.6 Control

79

79

80 80 80

4.5 Resultsand discussion 4.5.1 Experimentalseries1- Electroosmoticdewatering with constantvoltage 4.5.2 Experimentalseries1- Electroosmoticdewatering with constantcurrent - 4.5.3 Experimentalseries1- Electroosmoticdewatering current with stepped 4.5.4 4.5.5 External and internal voltagegradients dewatering Efficiency of electroosmotic

85

86

90, 91 92

4.6 Chaptersummary

Vil

Chapter 5

Design Parametersfor Electroosmotic Dewatering Constant Current Using Sludge of

95

5.1 Introduction 5.2 Derivingtreatment timein termsof initial and final solidconcentrations for dewatering 5.3 Design current underconstant parameters 5.3.1 5.3.2 5.3.3 5.3.4 5.3.5 5.3.6 Sample thickness Appliedcurrent Timeoverwhichconstant current couldbemaintained Powersupply Pressure Typeof electrodes

95 96

99 99 102 104 105 107 107 108

5.4 Methodto increase thetimeoverwhichconstant current couldbemaintained 5.4.1 1 Theconcept dewatering current constant with of followedby 1/2 5.4.2 Producing results thedesign curvefrom experimental

109

110 112 112

5.5 Experimental programme 5.5.1 dewatering I- Electroosmotic Experimental series underdifferentconditions 5.5.2 2- Electroosmotic dewatering Experimental series I followedby 1/2 current with constant 5.6 Results anddiscussion 5.6.1 I- Electroosmotic dewatering Experimental series underdifferentconditions 5.6.1.1 Effectof applied pressure 5.6.1.2 Effectof sample thickness
Vill

113

114 114

114 115

5.6.1.3 Effect of different currents 5.6.1.4 Effect of different electrodematerials 5.6.2 Experimentalseries2- Electroosmoticdewatering with constantcurrentI followed by 1/2 5.6.3 Design requirements for eachparameter Samplethickness Current

115 117 118

134 134 134

5.6.3.1 5.6.3.2

5.6.3.3 Time over which constantcurrentcould be maintained134 5.6.3.4 Power supply 134 135 135 135 136

5.6.3.5 Pressure 5.6-3.6 Type of electrodes 5.6.4 Design procedures dewatering of electroosmotic

5.6.4.1 Design procedurefor calculatingthe required treatmenttime to obtain desiredfinal solid content 5.6.4.2 Design procedurefor calculatingthe final solid contentafter a particular treatmenttime 5.6.4.3 Designprocedurefor calculatingthe current to obtain a particularfinal solid contentwithin a particulartreatmenttime 5.7 Chaptersummary

138

140

142

Chapter 6

Conclusions and Recommendations

145 145 149

6.1 Conclusions 6.2 Recommendations

References APPENDIX
ix

151 161

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 2.2 3.1

Title Direct and coupledflow phenomena Energyconsumptiongiven by different authors Experimentalresults:Cumulativevolume of extractedwater, final solids and energyconsumptionafter 3 days

4.1 4.2

Factorsaffecting electroosmoticdewateringprocess Experimentalresults:Cumulativevolume of extractedwater, final solids and energyconsumptionafter 60 minutes.

5.1

The effect of changeof dimensionof sludgeon the electroosmotic flow rate

5.2 5.3

ExperimentalseriesI- Dewateringunderdifferent conditions Experimentalresults:Doubling the samplethicknessdoublesthe time to reachthe samesolid content

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7

Title Dewatering methods in relation to water distribution in the sludge Four types of direct flow through a soil mass and their equations Principle of Electrokinetics Models of the double layer Electroosmotic flow in rigid-straight capillaries Dewatering mechanism of sludge Schematic diagram of combined dewatering process of electroosmosis and expression

2.8 3.1 3.2 3.3 -

Electrokinetic geosynthetic Schematic diagram of the electroosmotic cell Cumulative volume of extracted water against time for humic sludge Cumulative volume of extracted water against time for humic sludge with sawdust

3.4

Cumulative volume of extracted water against time for sewage sludge A

3.5

Cumulative volume of extracted water against time for sewage sludge B

3.6. 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11

Current against time for humic sludge Current against time for humic sludge with sawdust Current against time for sewage sludge A. Current against time for sewage sludge B Resistance against time for humic sludge Resistance against time for humic sludge with sawdust

xi

Figure 3.12 3.13 4.1 4.2

Title Resistance againsttime for sewagesludgeA Resistance againsttime for sewagesludgeB dewatering Typical experimentalresult of electroosmotic Schematicclosedcircuits of electroosmoticdewateringprocesswith constantvoltageandconstantcurrent

4.3

The relationshipbetweencumulativevolume andtime when a sludgeis dewatered with constantvoltage

4.4

The relationshipbetweencumulativevolume andtime when a sludgeis dewatered with constantcurrent

4.5 4.6

Procedureof determiningelectroosmotic permeability The resultsof experimentalseries1- Electroosmoticdewatering with constantvoltage

4.7

The resultsof experimentalseries1- Electroosmoticdewatering with constantvoltage

4.8

(a) Electric field strengthproducedby power supply.(b) Opposing due to E-field due to surfacechargeof the dielectric. (c) Resistance in E-field causes a reduction reaction electrochemical

4.9

Four stagesof the experimentalresultswith electroosmotic dewateringwith constantcurrent,.

4.10

The resultsof experimentalseries2- Electroosmoticdewatering with constantcurrent

4.11

The resultsof experimentalseries2- Electroosmoticdewatering with constantcurrent

4.12

The resultsof experimentalseries3 Electroosmoticdewatering with steppedcurrent: 1, ,II ,

x1i

igure 5.1

Title Total treatment time of dewatering sludge with thickness of L

andL 12
5.2 5.3 Typical experimental results of dewatering under constant current Increase the time to maintain constant current, tb, by using higher

maximum voltageoutput of the power supper,V,. 5.4 Longer time to maintainconstantcurrent is obtainedby selectingthe material with low rate of electrochemical reactionat electrodes. 5.5 (a) The graphsof cumulativevolume againsttime. (b) The graphsof voltageagainsttime. (c) The cumulativevolume-timecurve of dewateringwith a constantcurrent I followed by a constant currentI/2.
5.6 The experimental results for investigating the effect of applied

(samplethickness= 15mm;current= 2A) pressure 5.7 The experimentalresultsfor investigatingthe effect of applied (samplethickness= 30mm; current= 2A) pressure 5.8 The experimental resultsfor investigatingthe effect of sample thickness(pressure = 50kPa;current = 2A) 5.9 The experimentalresultsfor investigatingthe effect of sample thickness(pressure = 75kPa;current = 2A) 5.10 The experimentalresultsfor investigatingthe effect of different currents-The graphof overall flow rate againsttime 5.11 The experimental resultsfor investigatingthe effect of different currents(pressure = 25kPa;samplethickness 30mm) 5.12 The experimentalresultsfor investigatingthe effect of different currents(pressure = 75kPa; samplethickness= 30mm)

xill

Figure 5.13

Title The experimentalresultsfor investigatingthe effect of different 30mm) 75kPa*, (pressure thickness sample = = currents

5.14

The experimentalresultsfor investigatingthe effect of different electrodematerials

5.15

The experimentalresultsfor investigatingthe effect of different againsttime electrodematerials- The graphof resistance

5.16

Experimentalresultsof electroosmoticdewateringwith IA and 2A The graphof voltageagainsttime

5.17

Experimentalresultsof electroosmoticdewateringwith IA and 2A The graphof cumulative volume againsttime

5.18

The resultsof experimentalseries2- The graphof voltage against time

5.19

The resultsof experimentalseries2 -The graphof cumulative volume againsttime

5.20 5.21 5.22 5.23

Flow chart for the prediction of requiredtreatmenttime Flow chart for the prediction of final solid content Flow chart for the prediction of requiredcurrent betweendesignparameters Relationships

x1v

LIST OF SYMBOLS

Symbol A C D D E I 1(0 10
JD

Explanation Cross-sectional area Capacitance of a capacitor Dielectric constant Diameterof sludgesample Energyconsumptionper unit weight of extractedwater Electrical flow rate/ Current Currentwith function of time Initial current Chemicalflow rate Total massof the sludgein the cell Weight of extractedwater from sludge Charge Electroosmoticflow rate Constantresistance Initial resistance due to electrochemical Variableresistance reactions Initial solid concentrationof the sludge Final solid concentrationof the sludge Volumeof the sludgein the cell Voltage , -, -1

M M. Q Qe
RD

Ro Rv SDI SD2 v v WO vc
YD

Voltagefrom the power supply with function of time Potentialdifferenceacrossthe capacitorC Potentialdifferenceneededto generate the electroosmoticflow

xv

Symbol
Ymax

Explanation Maximum voltageoutput of the power supper Initial voltaoe rp Volumeof collectedwater Single capillary of area Chemicalgradient Electrical gradient(voltagegradient current gradient) Hydraulic gradient Thermal gradient Hydraulic conductivity Thermal conductivity Mass of chemically boundwater Mass of dry solid Porosity The quantity of water movedin unit time througha single capillary of areaby electroosmosis

VO VO 1 a ic i,
ih

it
kh

kt MC MS n q,,

qt t
tb

Heat flow rate Processing time Time over which constantcurrentcould be maintained Electroosmoticvelocity of water flow throughthe soil Headdifference Distancebetweenelectrodes Electric potential difference Voltageprovidedby the power supply Zeta potential Dielectric constantof pore fluid

Ve AH AL V 14
,JV,,, rnal

xvi

Symbol JU Ue P Ps

Explanation Viscosity Electrical conductivity Resistivity Density of the sludge

CHAPTER1

INTRODUCTION

MBACKGROUND Thetreatment inevitablyinvolves thecreation sludge andthe of sewage of sewage issues disposal is oneof themostproblematical affecting wastewater of this sludge in in thedeveloped idea the To the treatment of problem, scale of world. providean theUK a medium of say treatment equivalent sizesewage workswith a population 137 liquid 100,000 tonnes 50,000 per or tonnes year, per produces approximately of day.

form land, it to The traditional outlets for sewage a to agricultural on sludgewere spread been has for to deposit However, landfill incineration. the route cheapest to cake or it. Until into liquid dig a lagoonon the site of the sewage the sludge and pump works deposit legal it sludgeproducedat a sewage to permanently very recently was still imported do legal it to but to in lagoon any sludge so with was not works a at the works, Directive by EU Landfill the This stopped recent only the works. practicewas it is now illegal to createnew permanentunlicenced (Council Directive 1999/31/EC); into have been There lagoons new to any existing ones. also sludge or put more sludge , land imposed by 'safe to the sludge sludge agricultural spreading on restrictionsplaced for be increasingly Thus, emphasis more will creating sludge cake placed on matrix'.
deposit to landfill or incineration.

In order to createa sludgecake,water must be removedandthe solids content increased. This can be carried out by belt or filter presses. The problem with any of thesedevices
P.'

is that the waterthat can be extractedfrom the sludgeby hydraulic meansis limited. is bound in This is because to the sludgeparticlesor flocs. the water way which of According to Smollen and Kafaar (1994), water existsin the following physical states:

1.

Free: water not associated with solid particles Interstitial, capillary: mechanicallybound water which is trappedin the flocs

Vicinal: physically bound multiple layers,held tightly to the particle surfaceby hydrogenbonding

4.

Chemically bound:water of hydration.

Existing dewateringtechnologybasedon mechanical can only removefree compression and interstitial water. Therefore,oncea cakehasbeenformed,howeverbad the quality, there are few ways of dewateringit further. This is a particular problem for activatedsludge,which containsa large amountof vicinal andchemically bound water, which can supportbacterialand other pathogens. Currentlyonly thermal methodscan removeinterstitial and vicinal waters,involving high capital andoperatingcosts.

For sludgedisposalto landfill or incineration,the amountof water associated with the of water represents sludgeis critical to the economicsof the solution; transportation fuel, incineration in and requiresa greaterenergyinput to wastedenergy consumed initiate the process. Due to the high water contentof sludge,it is both economically feasible decrease to technologically the watercontentin order to reduce and attractive transportand disposalcosts(Raatset a], 2001)., Thereforethereis an increasing demandfor a more effective meansof dewateringsewage sludge.

Most sludgematerialshavea slight electric chargerelativeto water; hence,when subjectedto an electric field, the solid particlesare attracted to one electrodewhile the
P.2

water migratesthroughthe capillary matrix towardsthe oppositeelectrode(Orsatet al., 1999). The transportof water throughporousmediaunderthe influence of an electric field is called asElectroosmosis, one of a group of ElectrokineticPhenomena. Electroosmoticflow within thesematerialsis inducedby the migration of ions andis independent of the hydraulic conductivity of sludge,which is very low. Therefore, electroosmoticdewateringis an efficient methodto dewaterwithin fine-grainedlow (HeathandDemirel, 1984; Kondoh permeabilitysludgematerials. Many researchers et al., 1990;Yoshidaand Yukawa,1988;Golla et al., 1992;Yoshida,1993;Gazbaret al., 1994;Smollen and Kafaar, 1994;Chenet al., 1996;BanerjeeandLaw, 1998; Bartonet al., 1999;Gingerich et al., 1999;Orsatet al., 1999;Hansenet al., 2001; Larue et al. 2001; Zhou et al., 2001; Raatset al., 2002;YuanandWeng,2002) have shown that electroosmoticdewateringof sludgeis more efficient than conventionalhydraulically driven methods,suchasbelt and filter presses. The degreeof dewateringcan be by the combinationof an electric field andpressure. enhanced

The positive effect of electroosmoticdewateringof sludgehasbeenknown for several years. However,the technologyhasnot yet beensuccessfully appliedin industry. It is because there are severaltechnologicalbarriersto the commercialexploitation of the technologythat are yet to be resolved. One of thesebarriersis a scientifically robust designmethodology.

1.2 AIM AND OBJECTIVES, is to establish Theaim of this research a qualitative andquantitative understanding dewatering design modelof electroosmotic of sewage sludge system.. Theobjectives, the feasibilityof electroosmotic dewatering areto: (1) evaluate of this research under for range dewatering typesanddetermine constant voltage of sludge theelectroosmotic (2) efficiencyin termsof dewatering rate,energy consumption andfinal solidcontent;
P.3

for framework integrating the designof electrokineticallyenhanced presentan dewateringof sludge,which is more accurate than the existing designequation (Helmholtz-Smoluchowski flow equation)for practical use,and demonstrate its applicability through an experimentalprogramme;(3) explore in further detail eachof the parameters that constitutethe designframework and; (4) presenta detailed design methodology.

1.3 STRUCTURE OF THE THESIS

ChapterI introducesthe backgroundof electroosmotic dewatering,states the aim and objectivesof the researchand gives a brief summaryof the contentsof the thesis.

Chapter2 summarises the literature review on electroosmoticdewatering. It includes objectivesof dewatering,sludge-liquidphase,conventionaldewateringtechniques,the conceptand theory of electrokineticphenomena relating to sludge,electrochemical reactions,detailsof electroosmoticdewateringand brief descriptionsof previous studies on electroosmoticdewatering.

Chapter3 evaluates the feasibility of electroosmoticdewateringunderconstantvoltage for rangeof sludgetypes. A numberof experimentsto examinethe efficiency of the dewateringprocessin terms of dewateringrate,energyconsumptionand final solid detailed discussion A with of the experimentalresults is also contentarepresented. provided.

Chapter 4 presents an integrating framework for the design of electrokinetically enhanced dewatering of sludge and demonstrates its applicability through an experimental programme. The experiments include electroosmotic dewatering of

sludge with constant voltage and constant current. ' The experimental results are
PA

discussed. and presented

Chapter5 derivesdesignequationsto estimatetreatmenttime and final solid that constitute concentration of sludge,exploresin further detail eachof the parameters the designframework and presents a more detaileddesignmethodology. The experimentaltesting and resultscovering the investigationof the effect of applied pressure, samplethickness,different currentsand different electrodematerialsare given andthen followed by a detaileddiscussion.

Chapter6 presents a summaryandthe conclusionsof the research. Recommendations for further research objectivesis discussed. are given. The fulfilment of the research

5 P.

CHAPTER2

LITERATURE

REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION Dewatering is a process to remove of sludge waterbeforedisposal. Dueto the

physical andchemicalpropertiesof the sludge,removal of water cannotbe easily carriedout by mechanicalcompression alone. Disposalof sludgehasbecomea problem facing the whole of the industrializedworld. Increasingenvironmentaland economicpressures meanthat thereis a demandfor more effective meansof dewatering of thesematerialsthan the traditional mechanicalmeans.

The first successful to civil engineering application of electrokineticphenomena in 1939for the dewateringandstabilization of by Casagrande processes was undertaken 1952). Sincethen,the research railway cuttings at Salzgitter,Germany(Casagrande, hasbeenextendedto geoenvironmental on electroosmosis engineeringapplicationssuch asthe dewateringof sludge. It hasbeenfound that electroosmosis can be appliedto removewater from sludgeand a variety of other fine particulatematerialsefficiently.

This chaptersummarises a literaturereview on electroosmoticdewatering. Included are detailsrelating to: the objectivesof dewatering,sludge-liquidphase;conventional dewateringtechniques; the conceptand theory of electrokineticphenomena relating to reactions;detailsof electroosmoticdewateringand brief sludge;electrochemical descriptionsof previousstudieson electroosmoticdewatering.

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2.2 OBJECTIVES OF DEWATERING

Sludgescan be identified as the wasteproductsfrom a rangeof industrial processes treatment,water purification residues suchas agricultural andanimal wastes,sewage and dredgedmaterials. A commoncharacteristicof different typesof sludgeis the very high water content,with only 1-5% solids on a massbasis(Raatset al., 2002). The objectivesof dewateringinclude: (1) recoveryof the product for salein as dry a form as is practicableor as the marketrequires;(2) recoveryof water for recycling; (3) the transformationof the wasteinto forms that are easilyhandledand can be safely disposedof, for environmentally-acceptable landfills and different recreationaluses, suchasfootball pitchesand golf courses(Lockhart, 1992).

2.3 SLUDGE-LIQUID PHASE

According to Smollen and Kafaar (1994), all sludges consist of a combination of a solid phase with a certain quantity of water. There are different physical fon-ns of water in

sludge and these different forms play an important role in determining the ease or difficulty of phase separation. sludge are: The descriptions of different physical forms of water in

1. 2. 3.

Free: water not associated with solid particles; Interstitial, capillary: mechanicallyboundwater which is trappedin the flocs; Vicinal: physically bound multiple layersof water molecules,held tightly to a particle surfaceby hydrogenbonding;

boUndor water of hydration. 4. ' --Chemically

Conventionaldewateringtechniques,suchas vacuumfilter, belt filter pressand based are on mechanicalpressure, centrifuge,which are effective in removing the free water. Electroosmoticdewatering,which is basedon electroosmosis, can be
P. 7

Stern layer

Diffusion layer

10 Sludge -i particle

6D
(D

00

Q
Bulksolution

CD
Water removal methods

(D
mecnanicai aewatering Electrodewatering Thermal drying

Water distribution

(D Chemically bound (D Capillary

(D Vicinal (D Free

Figure 2.1

Dewateringmethodsin relation to water distribution in the sludge (After Zhou et al., 2001)

applied to remove free, vicinal and capillary water. achieved by thermal drying.

Dry solid sludge particles can be

The dewatering methods in relation to a sludge-liquid

phase are shown in Figure 2.1.

2.4 CONVENTIONAL DEWATERING TECHNIQUES In order to lower the cost of transportationand disposal,sludgeis bestdried out to be before disposal. Dewatering liquid can achievedvia as possible removeasmuch , forces. based dewatering ' techniques on application of mechanical someconventional filter belt filters, presses and centrifuges: suchasvacuum

2.4.1 VACUUM FILTRATION Vacuumfilters are widely usedto dewaterlow solids slurries,whereinthe solid is by in slurry separated a porousfilter cloth rotatedthroughthe slurry, a constituent on the with vacuumapplied to the inner surfaceto causethe solids to accumulate surfaceas a.cake.
P.8

The processconsistsof a rotary drum filter, vacuumpump, filtrate tank and scraper blade. In the vacuumfiltration process, the slurry is drawn to the surfaceof the drum, liquid holding is filter the to the a material, solids and allowing covered with which enterthe drum. The liquid is pulled by the vacuumflow to a filtrate tank. A vacuum is appliedto the drum asthe drum rotates,drawing air throughthe solids on the drum face and further reducingtheir moisturecontent. Justprior to discharge, a blast of compressed air is usedto pushthe solids awayfrom the drum surface,thereby allowing the scraperbladeto operateeffectively without tearingthe filter material on the drum surface.

2.4.2 BELT FILTER PRESS They Belt filter presses dewater to consist of two sludges. are commonly used sewage the sludge. Drainageis achievedby endlessfilter cloths belts, which encapsulate causingthe belts to move closertogethertherebyapplying mechanicalpressureto the sludge. This is doneby passingthe belts over a numberof closely spaced rollers.

There are three distinct phases in the process:(1) Pre-conditioning,(2) Preliminary dewatering. In the pre-conditioningphase,the sludgeis drainageand (3) Secondary by flocculants. is The' it ' into adding conditioned pumped a mixerwhere into drainage is the then'discharged preliminary zone wherethe pre-conditionedsludge free water is drainedby gravity through'aporousbelt. ' The sludgethen passes to the' is it betweenthe belts with increasing dewatering where compressed phase secondary high pressure.

2.4.3 CENTRIFUGE
Centrifuge dewatering processesuse centrifugal force to promote solid/liquid separation.

The slurry is fed into a rotating basketassemblyand accelerated. Solids are pulled out
P. 9

of the slurry by centrifugal force and are collected on the basketwall.

The separated

liquid flows out of the basketand is collectedin the centrifugehousing,before being discharged.

2.4.4 DISADVANTAGES OF CONVENTIONAL DEWATERING TECHNIQUES

The major disadvantage of the conventional hydraulically driven dewatering techniques is that the dewatering rate depends on the pore diameter in the sludge, i. e. on its hydraulic permeability. During mechanical dewatering, the layer of sludge near the Blocking of the

filter medium is compressed, thus reducing the porosity in that layer.

filter medium occurs and consequently the dewatering rate gradually decreaseswith time (Yoshida, 1993). As a result, conventional dewatering techniques are not efficient

methods to dewater sludges with low hydraulic permeabilities.

2.5 CONDUCTION PHENOMENA

Severaltypesof flows may exist within sludgesystems. The typesof flow can be into 4 groups,identified as hydraulic, electrical,chemicaland thermal flows. categorised Providedthe flow processdoesnot changethe stateof the sludge,eachflow rate or flux driving force (Mitchell, 1991). Theequations is linearly relatedto its corresponding for hydraulic, thermal,electrical andchemical flows are governedrespectivelyby Darcy's Law, Fourier's Law, Ohm's Law and Fick's Law. The four types of flow and in their governingflow equationsare shownin Figure 2.2. In the equationspresented Figure 2.2, qh,q,, I andJDarethe water,heat,electrical andchemicalflow rates. The hydraulic, D kh, k,, the thermal andelectrical conductivities and are and a,, coefficients the diffusion coefficient. The driving forcesfor flow are given respectivelyby the hydraulic, then-nal, electrical andchemicalgradients,ih, i,, i, and i,

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q1,= kl, 11,

(Dai-cy's Law)

---------I (T,,

i"

(Ohm's Law)

Ii

T,

>f

I,

"1

q,
L ax

k, i,

(Foui-jer's Law)

J[)

D i,.

(Fick's Law)

Figure 2.2

Four types of direct flow through a soil mass and their equations (After Mitchell, 1991)

2.5.1 COUPLED FLOWS In most cases,there are simultaneous flows of different types, even when one type of driving force is actinc, (Mitchell, 1991). For example, when water containing

chemicals flows under a conventional hydraulic gradient, there is an associated flow of chernicals with the hydraulic flow. given in Table 2.1. The types of coupled flows that can occur are

2.6 FITEXTROKINE'ric

PlIE'NOMENA

Electrokinctic phenomena were first observed by Rcuss in 1809. Water was observed to move thl-OLIgh capillary pores towards the cathode when a dii -cct current (DC) I potential difference was applied to a clay water mlXtUre. When the electric potential was removed, Ole 1'1()w Ofwltcl- i'll"necilately stopped.
RII

Table 2.1 Direct andcoupledflow phenomena (After Mitchell, 1991) Gradient Flow Hydraulic Temperature head Hydraulic Chemical Fluid conduction: Darcy's law Thermal Isothen-nal Heat heattransfer conduction: Fourier's law Electric Streaming Current current Thermo-electri city: conduction: Seebeck effect Thermal diffusion Streaming Ion current I of electrolyte: Soreteffect I Electrophoresis Fick's law I I Diffusion: Ohm's law membrane potentials Diffusion and Peltier effect Dufour effect Thermo-osmosis Electro-osmosis osmosis Electrical concentration Chemical

There are five principal electrokineticphenomena associated with porousmedia. They Ion Migration, StreamingPotentialand Migration Electrophoresis, are:Electroosmosis, Potential. The first threeof thesephenomena areconcerned with transport , developed upon applicationof an electrical field acrossa particulatemass. mechanisms The remainingtwo areconcerned with the generationof electrical potential due to the movementof chargi'andchargedparticlesrespectively.

Most sludgematerialshavea slight electric chargerelative to'water (Orsatet al., 1999) -' and sludgeparticlesarenegatively charged(Smollenand Kafaar, 1994). To balance this charge,a row of cationsfrom the solution line up along the sludgeparticle surface.
P.12

SludgeParticle V

SludgeParticle -)

SludgeParticle _

/ SludgeParticle

NIM KM

Anode

Km KNI 1 Km +
19 -0

Water Velocity Profile

m Cathode

(D
nPa-rticle (:; ) 0 k7j Sludge

Sludge Particle

:V

SludgeParticle

Figure 2.3

Principle of Electrokinetics

The combinedsystemof the surfacechargeon the particle and the corresponding counterion chargein the solution is known asa doublelayer. Under the influence of an electric field, the rows of cationson the sludgeparticle surfaces start migrating towardsthe cathodeby electrical attraction. The movementof this boundarylayer of cationsdragsthe bulk water within the sludgewith it. The transportof water from the

anodeto the cathodeis called Electroosmosis. Within the bulk water of the sludge,the individual cationsalso move towardsthe cathodeand the anionsmove towards the anode. This ion movementis calledElectromigration. Moreover,the charged particlesand colloids in solid-liquid mixture underelectric potential gradient are This to the charged electrode. migration of chargedparticles is oppositely attracted The Electrophoresis. principal electrokineticprocesses are shownin Figure 2.3. called

2.6.1 DOUBLE LAYER Electroosmoticdewateringis basedon electrically inducedflow, which is possible because of the doublelayer at the sludge-liquidinterface. ', Double layer of the presence theory is an important conceptfor understanding the principle of electrokinetic
phenomena.
P.13

,-

Due to the negativechargeof sludgeparticles,the cationsin solution are attractedto the particle surfaceby electrostaticattractionin order to balancethe surfacecharge,when the sludgeparticlesare in contactwith electrolytic solution. The combinedsystemof the surfacechargeon the particle andthe corresponding counterionchargein the solution is known as doublelayer. The modelof a double layer was first put forward in the 1850'sby Helmholtz (1879). In the model of Helmholtz, the negativecharge potential is linearly dissipatedfrom the surfaceto the cationsbalancingthe surface charge(Helmholtz, 1879). However,the model doesnot accountfor the diffusion factor.

The distribution of the adsorbed liquid is throughout the phaseand cations not uniform the concentrationof the adsorbed cationsnearthe surfaceof the particle is much higher. Gouy (1910) and, independently, Chapman(1913) developed theoriesof diffuse double layer in which the changein concentration of the counterions neara chargedsurface follows a Boltzmann distribution. In the model of the diffusive layer of Gouy-Chapman, the negativechargepotential is exponentiallydecreased with the distanceinto the bulk solution. The Boltzmanndistribution assumes that activity is model is valid for the bulk equalto the molar concentration. The Gouy-Chapman of ions of oppositecharge,but not valid near a charged solutionswith low concentration ions high of of oppositechargeare present.,, concentrations surfacewhere

diffuse double layer model. Hecombined Stem (1924) modified the Gouy-Chapman the modelsof Helmholtz and Gouy-Chapman. According to the Stemmodel, the double layer consistsof a fixed part and a diffused part. In the fixed double layer whereis high concentrationof counterions, the Stem model follows the Helmholtz approach. With low concentrations of counterions, the Stem model follows the Gouy-Chapman model. The boundarybetweenthe fixed and diffuse double layersis
P.14

2(1) : )
Plane Potential (p t 9 xf= Potential 9 I (P%. (&Cc Potential (p (P Wf=

(PS

oL

(p L

Dff-w

L (Ps
4

... 9L

7F

(p DO-

00.

Distancex (a) Fixed double layer by Helmholtz

Distancex (b) Diffuse double layer by Gouy-Chapman

Distancex (c) Fixed and diffuse double layer by Stern

Figure 2.4

Models of the double layer (After Weber and Stahl, 2002)

called the Stem layer and the potential differencebetweenthe Stem layer and the interior of the liquid is called the Stempotential. Models of the doublelayer theories are shown in Figure 2.4.

The thicknessof the diffuse doublelayer is an important parameter in determiningthe on the extent of interactionbetweenchargedcolloidal particles,and depends solutions,the thicknessof the concentrationof ions in the solution. In concentrated diffused double layer is small (< 1nm) whereasin very dilute solutions,the diffuse, double layer can assume much a larger value
(_102 _ 103

nm) (Vijh, 1999).

2.6.2 ZETA POTENTIAL When a particle moveswithin a liquid underthe effect of an appliedelectric field, a is formed shear of aroundthe particle. The electrical potential difference plane betweenthe plane of shearand the bulk solution is called the zetapoten'tial(), as
P.15

be location The 2.4. the in Figure quantitatively cannot of zeta potential exact shown determinedby existing theories(Shang,1997c). In a first approximation,the planeof is to the layer, Stem lies in the equal as often considered the zeta potential and shear Stem potential (Weberand Stahl, 2002). Shang(1997c)investigatedthe relationship betweenthe electroosmoticpermeabilityandthe zetapotential. In thesestudies,the distance be is to the at x=0.6nm, potential electrical computedzetapotential assumed x=0.5nm. comparedwith the location of the Stem potential at distance

flow. The zetapotential is an important factor affecting electroosmotic

According to

the Helmholtz-Smoluchowshi theory (seeSection2.6.3.1),the electroosmoticflow is large For to zetapotential, the water the a with proportional a sludge zetapotential. removalrate tendsto be larger (Chenet al., 1996).

The zetapotential is affectedby the ion concentration, the pH value of the fluid andthe is high, is the ion too reduced If zeta potential sludgeconductivity. the concentration The 1992). (Lockhart, decreases flow addition of that the so rate electroosmotic variousionic solutionscan modify the magnitudeof the zetapotential thus modifying the electroosmoticflow (Oratet al., 1999). Rabieet al. (1994) showedthat changes by the electrodereactionaffect the rate of water removal by changingthe in pH caused (1994) dewatering Gazbar during al. et the process. electroosmotic zetapotential the zeta potential showedthat the increaseof the sludgeelectricalconductivity reduces The the the of sludge. electrochemical reactionsoccurring phase solid the of surface at in Section discussed during the dewateringprocess, the are which affect zetapotential, 2.6.4.

P.16

/////// --------------------------------

Wall of Capillary /////// Y---*:

Immobile Liquid

--------------

Anode (+ve) w
Velocity Distribution --------------------v--------

Cathode MobilePartof Double Layer (-ve)

FreeWater

--------------

//77////////////7T Figure 2.5

2.6.3 ELECTROOSMOSIS

Electroosmoticflow in rigid-straightcapillaries

Electroosmosis, is interest in this thesis, the main which is the phenomenon of principal mechanism of water transportthrougha fine-grainedporousmediaunderthe influence (1952) explainedthe mechanismof of a direct current (DC) electric field. Casagrande electroosmoticflow of water in rigid and straightcapillaries(seeFigure 2.5) as follows:

"At the solid-liquid interfaceoppositechargesare oriented in sucha mannerthat either negativeor positive ions are adsorbedon the wall of the capillary while ions of opposite chargeremainin the liquidforming an adjacentand parallel layer If such a capillary

is placed into an electricfield, the ions containedin the inner layer,whichforms part of the liquid phase,will movetowardsthe electrodeof oppositesign and drag along the by this moving boundaryfilm. free water enclosed

2.6.3.1IIELMIIOLTZ-SMOL UCIIO WSKI THE ORY Helmholtz (1879)first provided a mathematical model for the analysisof basedon observations electroosmosis, of a single, capillary. He statedthat the rate of water flowing throughthe capillary is controlledby an electrical force causingthe
P.17

is by friction between the water andthe wall of countered which movementof water, thecapillary. Later, Smoluchowski(1921) produceda modified versionof the (H-S) theory dealswith Helmholtz model. The Helmholtz-Smoluchowski electroosmotic/electrophoretic velocity of a fluid of certain viscosity and dielectric constantthrough a surface-charged porousmedium of zetapotential,, under an electric gradient. According to the H-S theory,the electroosmoticvelocity can be derived basedon the balanceof the electrical and frictional forcesbetweenwater and the wall of the capillary and is asfollows:

ve

AV AL

Equation 2.1

wherev, is the electroosmoticvelocity, is the zetapotential, e is the dielectric constantof pore fluid, p is-theviscosity, AV is the electric potential and AL is the lengthof the capillary betweenthe electrodes.

2.6.3.2ELECTROOSMOTIC FLOWAND PERMEABILITY The quantity of water movedin unit time through a single capillary of area,a, by
electroosmosis, q., is:

q.

AV p AL

Equation2.2

Consideringa prism of saturated porousmedium mass(soil / sludge)with a basearea,A, in contactwith the electrodesand length,L, insteadof a capillary, the electroosmotic

flow, Q,, becomes:

nej AV A AL ,u
P.18

Equation2.3

wheren is the porosity (dimensionless).

The electroosmoticflow of water througha porousmedium, Q, (cm3/S), can be in the form of Darcy's equationfor water flow: expressed

Qe= k, iA

Equation2.4

where k, =Ln
lu

and is the coefficient of electroosmoticpermeability

(cm2/Vs

AV and is the electrical potential gradient(V/cm), A is the cross-sectional area AL

(cm 2) is dielectric constant (dimensionless). ,D

In order to generate a substantiallevel of electroosmoticflow, the electric field strength hasto be strongenoughto electrolyzewater. Grundl andMichalski (1995) statedthat (1V/cm) or less are sufficient to generate electric field strengthsof JOOV/m electroosmoticflow.

The electroosmoticpermeability,k,, depends mainly on,the pore areaand is independent of the size of the individual pores,whereashydraulic penneabilityis very strongly 1949). The electroosmotic influencedby the actualpore size (Casagrande, the applicationof an electric field not permeabilityis not a constant. This is because flow, but electroosmotic also the associated electrochemical only generates reactions. Over time, thesereactionsdirectly changethe zetapotential,andinspectionof the H-S in a changein electroosmoticpenneability. result equationwill

2.6.4 ELECTROCHEMICAL

REACTIONS

When applying a potential gradientacrossa sludge,current andelectroosmotic: flow

P.19

electrochemical of the currentcauses reactionsat the two occur. The passage identified aselectrolysis. Due to electrolysis,the water is decomposed and electrodes, at the electrodes. The electrolysisreactionsare: gases are generated

Anode:

2H20

4W + 02 (g) + 4e-

Equation 2.5

Cathode:

4H20 + 4e'

->

2H2 (g) + 40H'

Equation 2.6

02 in During the electrokineticprocess, the Of the electrolysisreactions evolution result due is H2 to generation The the the anode the at at anodeand at pH reduced cathode. water becomesacidic near of H+ and raisedat the cathodedueto 01T. Consequently, from flow bulk the anode the anodeand basicnearthe cathode. Because the water of
to the cathode and the high ionic mobility of H+ (nearly twice that of OH"), the resulting acid front generated at the anode migrates through the sludge (Grundl and Michalski, 1995). These reactions result in a number of effects, such as changes in pH and zeta

potential, generation of gasesand increase in electric resistance. Changes in pH give rise to concentration gradients in the bulk of the sludge causing a change in zeta flow in in turn the electroosmotic which result reduced electrodes, potential values near (Vijh, 1995). The gasesgenerated at the electrodes, which are non-conductive and

difficult to be dissipated, increase the electric resistance. 'As a result, the dewatering is reduced. efficiency

2.6.5ASSUMPTIONS OF ELECTROKINETIC ANALYSIS

As a result of electrochemical reactions,variationsin electroosmotic permeability, 'order depends field, In be the to zetapotential and electric on can expected. which simplify the analysisof electrokineticprocess,however,the electroosmoticpermeability is assumed to be a constantand the effects of electrochemical reactionsare ignoredin
P.20

Casagrande (1949) that the electroosmotic models. suggested most mathematical to be a constant(k, =5x 10-5cm permeabilitycan be assumed per sec.for I volt per cm) for most practical applications. In the analysisof electroosmoticwater flow through soil, Esrig (1968) madethe following assumptions:

1. 2.

The structure of the soil is uniform and the material is fully saturated; The physical-chemical properties of the soil mass are uniform throughout and constant with time;

I 4.

Electrophoresis of the fine-grained particles does not occur There is a proportionality between the electroosmotic velocity of water flow through the soil, v,,, and the voltage gradient (electric field), A VIAL. The proportionality factor is called the electroosmotic permeability, k,, which is assumedto be a property of the soil and to be with time; -constant

5. 6. 7. 8.

All applied voltage is useful in producing water transport; The electric field throughout the soil mass is not altered with passageof time; No reactions (such as electrolysis) occur at the electrodes; Fluid flows due to an electric field and those due to a hydraulic gradient may be flow. find total the to superimposed

The aboveassumptions arenot necessarily correctin practical applications. This is the Helmholtz-Smoluchowski flow equationtogetherwith these the the of use reasonwhy cannotpredict the electroosmoticdewateringprocessaccurately. Amore assumptions designframework will be exploredin this research accurate project.

2.6.6 ELECTROKINETIC APPLICATIONS, first demonstrated SinceCasagrande in 1939,a numberof the useof electroosmosis studieshaveshownthat electrokinteictechniques are useful for different applicationsof
P. 21

civil engineering. Electrokineticapplicationscan be divided into 3 categories, identified as:

1.
2. 3.

ElectrokineticRemediation
Electrokinetic Sedimentation Electrokinetic Dewatering

2.6.6.1ELECTROKINETIC REMEDIATION Electrokineticremediationis a novel techniqueto removemetal, inorganic and organic contaminants electrically in low permeabilitysoils (ShapiroandProbstein,1993; Lagemanet al., 1989;Bowman andMattson, 1994;Acar andAlshawabkeh,1996; Schultz, 1997;Alshawabkehet al., 1999;Ho et al., 1999). Electrokineticremediation useselectrochemical to desorbandthen remove metal and and electrokineticprocesses polar organics. With the applicationof a direct voltageacrossthe soil, the charged species are mobilized, causingions andwater to move toward the electrodes. Metal ions, ammoniumions andpositively chargedorganiccompounds are attractedtoward the cathodewhereasanions,suchaschloride, cyanide,fluoride, nitrate and negatively chargedorganiccompoundsmove towardsthe anode. The rate and direction of the depend its ionic on charge,and the magnitudeof the species movementof both inorganicand organic, are electroosmoticflow velocity. Non-ionic species, ' flow. the transported electroosmotic with along

2.6.6.2ELECTROKINETIC SEDIMENTATIONElectrokinetictechniques can be usedin wastewater treatmentplantsfor the purposeof slurries. When electrodes clarification of aqueous are placedon the top and bottom of the slurry and the bottom electrodeis madepositive (anode),negativelycharged is known as particleswill be attractedtoward the bottom. This phenomenon
P. 22

electrophoresis. A numberof experimentalstudieshaveshownthat electrokinetic increase techniques the free settling velocity and final solid concentration, reducethe time, and are more effective that coefficient of sedimentation and overall sedimentation chemicalcoagulation(Shang1997a,1997b). The applicationof electrokineticsfor
treating slurries is called electrokinetic sedimentation.

2.6.6.3ELECTROKINETIC DEWATERING When a direct voltageis appliedto a fine grainedsoil, the positively chargedfree water of the doublelayer is attractedtowardsthe cathodeanddragsthe bulk soil water towardsthe cathodeaswell. If thereis no water replacedat the closedanode,negative

in soil strength,which porewaterpressure will be developed, resulting in an increase makeselectrokinetictechniquesuitablefor the improvementand stabilization of soil (Casagrande, 1949;Johnston,1978;Morris et al., 1985;Lo et al., 1994). Moreover, the water flow within the fine-grainedsoil inducedby electroosmosis is independent of the hydraulic conductivity of soil. Electrokinetic dewateringcan be applied to (Nicholls andHerbst, 1967;Esrig, 1968;Wan and accelerate the consolidationprocess Mitchell, 1976;Shang,1998;Mohamedelhassan and Shang,2002) andthe dewatering processfor sludge(previousstudieson electroosmoticdewateringof sludgeare reviewedin Section2.9).

2.7 ELECTROOSMOTIC DEWATERING OF SLUDGE

Elcctroosmoticdewatefingis a novel techniqueto dewatersludge. The techniqueis is the trappedbetweenfine solid particlesand -cannot be water when attractive most further removedefficiently by the applicationof pressure or vacuum(Vijh and Novak, 1997). This is because electroosmoticflow is basedon the surfaceand colloid of particlesin suspension, characteristics and is independent of pore size,in' contrastto conventionalhydraulic flow that falls off dramaticallywith pore size (Lockhait,, 1992).
P.23

As a result,the low hydraulic conductivity of sludgeand the resultantblocking of filter 4-P

medium do not significantly affect the dewatering rate when applying electroosmotic dewatering. Therefore, electroosmotic dewatering is an efficient method to dewater

low permeability sludges having hydraulic conductivity values less than IX 10-6Cm/S, compared to conventional dewatering methods (Mitchell, 1991). Usuallyitis

combinedwith mechanicalmethodsto improve the rate and efficiency of dewatering.

2.7.1 ELECTROOSMOTIC DEWATERING PROCESS According to Barton et al. (1999),electroosmoticdewateringinvolves both electrophoreticand electroosmotic and theseeffectshavea major influence phenomena on both the rate and extentof dewatering. Electroosmoticdewateringis thought to comprisethe following steps:

1.

During the initial stages free dewatering, to move in the the are still particles of fluid suspension. Sincethe particlesare usually negativelycharged,they will be repelledby the cathodewherethe filter medium is located,thus delaying onsetof cakeformation at the cathodeandreducingclogging of the filter medium, hence leadingto enhanced water flow.

2.

When the cakehasfonned, the particlesare locked in position and henceunableto is Under these transported thoughthe porous circumstances, water move.. Electrochemical the reactions mediumby electroosmosis., and electrolysis at occur due to the passage electrodes of current. 0

3.- Eventually water will cease to flow within the cake,andthe electrical resistance will rise leadingto ohmic heating.,,

In principle, the achievement of completewater removal within the sludgeis not possible. , When a liquid stagein the sludgeis no longer continuousas a result of
P.24

1.

dewatering,the sludgedoesnot conductelectricity and then electroosmosis ceases (Yoshida,1993).

2.7.2 FEATURES OF ELECTROOSMOTIC DEWATERING dewateringas Yoshida(1993) hasidentified the main featuresof electroosmotic follows:

1.

blocking blocked The filter mediumis not damaged the of and effect so much and on clewatering rate is very small.

2.

The rate of dewateringand its efficiency are easilycontrolled by regulating the voltageappliedto the sludgeand electric currentpassingthrough the sludge.

3.

to Effective dewateringcan be achievedin sludgeswhich arenot amenable

mechanical dewatering processes.

Electroosmoticdewateringcan be easily combinedwith mechanicalmethods, leadingto additionalimprovementin the rate andefficiency of dewatering. 5. in Corrosionof the electrodes can occur, resulting electrolysis of as a result subsequent contaminationof the sludge. 6. When the electric conductivity of the sludgeis very large,electric power efficiency low, is heat. When low because the a becomes very conductivity generationof of drive flow. Therefore; is to the application of large the -required voltage very is by dewatering the electrical propertiesof the sludge. restricted electroosmotic

2.7.3 EFFICIENCY OFELECTROOSMOTIC

DEWATERING

;,,

-,

The main advantagesof electroosmotic dewatering include a high rate of dewatering and low energy consumption, compared to conventional dewatering methods. An

assessmentof the efficiency of electroosmotic dewatering can be expressed in terms of the dewatering rate and energy consumption.
P.25

2.7.3.1EFFICIENCY IN TERMS OF DEWATERING RATE A high dewateringefficiency can be achievedwith sludgeswhich cannotbe treated theory (Section2.6.3.1), mechanically. According to the Helmholtz-Smoluchowski the electroosmoticflow rate is a function of the strengthof the electric field and the zeta potential.

An increase in water removal is obtainedby increasingthe electric field strengthandthe zetapotential. Increasingthe electric field strengthcan be achievedby increasingthe power output from the power supply. However,a high voltagegradientimplies a high current,which can result in high ratesof electrolysisreaction. The electrolysisof in pH nearelectrodes. water generates changes gasesat electrodes andcauses Difficulty in the dissipationof thesegases in high local electrical resistance. can result Changes in pH near the electrodes give rise to concentrationgradientsin the bulk of the in zetapotentialsnearthe electrodes. Both difficulties in the sludge,causingchanges dissipationof gases dewatering in loss in of efficiency. result and changes pH However,a high zetapotential can be maintainedby the addition of variousionic solutionsto control the pH of the fluid.

Someresearchers that dewateringefficiency is relatedto the particle size of the suggest sludge. Chenet al. (1996) conducteda seriesof experimentsto investigatethe dewatering sludgeswith different particle sizes. They electroosmotic efficiency of found that dewateringof sludgeswith small particle sizesto be most effective. Raats et al. (2002) analyzedthe contribution of electroosmoticdewateringat different volume fractionsof solids, and found that electroosmosis could contributesignificantly to the dewateringof materialswith small particle suspensions.

P. 26

2.7.3.2EFFICIENCY IN TERMS OF ENERGY CONSUMPTION Electroosmoticdewateringprocess may be usedas a precursorto further then-nal dewateringprocesses. Thermal drying is achievedby heatingthe sludgewith hot air. However,thermal separation processes suchasevaporationreleasea significant volume OfC02 and needa lot of energy(1kg of water needsapproximately1.2kWh to be
evaporated). Therefore, researchersand engineers try to remove as much liquid as

possibleby economicalmeansbeforeusing a thermal dewateringprocess. It is because further drying decreases the volume of the sludge,helping to minimize the environmentalimpact and the cost for thermaldrying.

dewateringis Compared to thermal drying, the energyconsumptionfor electroosmotic less,and from an environmentalpoint of view, electroosmoticdewateringof sludgeis beneficialin reducingthe energyneeded for completeevaporationof the remaining dewateringof water (Raatset al. 2002). The energyconsumptionfor electroosmotic different materialsgiven by different authorsis shownin Table2.2. The energy consumptionfor electroosmoticdewateringcan be calculatedbasedon the following equation:

f VIdt M,,

Equation2.7

whereE is the energyconsumptionper unit weight of extractedwater (kWh/kg of time (t), extractedwater), V is the voltage(V), I is the current (A), t is the processing andM,, is the weight of extractedwater from sludge(kg).

Waterremoval increases at higher electrical voltage,and from Equation2.7 it is seen that energyconsumptionis directly relatedto the current, voltageandtime. Therefore,
P. 27

Table 2.2

Energyconsumptiongiven by different authors(Gazbaret al, 1994; Larue et al., 2001; Zhou et al., 2001; Golla et al., 1992;Banerjeeand Law, 1998) EnergyConsumption

Author

Material

(kWh/kg of extracted water)

Yukawa* Von Schwerin* US Bureauof Mine Deleuil* Elmthermm Zhou et al. Larue et al.

Clays (bentoniteandkaolin) Peat Calcium phosphate Clay (kaolinite) Slaughterhouse sludge Wasteactivatedsludge Highly conductivesilica suspension Domesticanaerobicallydigested

0.05-0.1 0.045 0.021 0.56 0.02-0.1 0.013- 0.119 0.105-0.33

Gazbaret al. sludge Banerjeeand Law Banerjeeand Law Golla et al. Composted sludge wastewater Organichumuswith peat Pharmaceutical sludge

0.05-0.2

0.66 0.33 0.25

# References cited by Gazbaret al. (1994) * The energyconsumptiongiven by different authorsis variable., These differencesare attributedto the natureof the material,to its initial concentrationand, especiallyto its final concentration. ** For comparison,I kg of water needsapproximately1.2kWhto be evaporated.

P.28

a higher potential gradientwould result in higher powerconsumption. During dewatering,electric resistance increases electroosmotic with time due to electrochemical of the bulk materialbeing treated reactions. The electric resistance rise of the convertselectrical energyinto thermalenergy,resulting in a temperature high Therefore, Stahl, 2002). filter (Weber electric resistance and suspension cake or implies high energywaste.

2.8 IMPROVEMENT OF ELECTROOSMOTIC DEWATERING

Electroosmoticdewateringhasbeenshownto be an efficient techniqueto dewater sludge,comparedto conventionaldewateringtechniques. However,the dewatering In due to order to minimize this time reactions. rate decreases electrochemical with arepossible. problem, a numberof procedures

2.8.1 COMBINED FIELD DEWATERING During mechanicaldewatering,a layer of sludgein closeproximity to the filter medium is developed, resulting in reductionof porosity in that layer, as shownin Figure 2.6a. This leadsto blocking of the filter medium and consequently the dewateringrate During dewatering, (Yoshida, 1993). decreases time electroosmotic with gradually by blocking the thus of the are repelled cathode, reducing negativelychargedparticles filter medium (Barton et al., 1999). Moreover, due to electroosmoticflow from anode to cathode,the layer is dry at the top of the bed (in the vicinity of the anode)and wet at the bottom of the bed (in the vicinity of the cathode),asshownin Figure 2.6b. Drying of the anoderegion resultsin an increasein electric resistance.

To maintain electroosmoticdewateringefficiency, it is preferablethat the strengthof electric field is as uniform as possibleeverywherein the sludgeduring the dewatering process(Yoshida,1993). Sinceelectroosmoticdewateringand mechanicaldewatering
P.29

Fluid pressure

Electric field I&

0 0 0 C700 0 0 C)&O 04 00

Particle Movement of liquid I

(;I PCX,Z) C3

Gcp
0a 0-

Water Filter . medium

Dewatering (a) MechanicalPressure

(b) ElectroosmoticDewatering

Figure 2.6

Dewateringmechanismof sludge(After Yoshida,1993)

are complementary, a combinationof thesedewateringoperationscan provide a more dewatering improvement leading dewatered bed, the to efficiency. of uniform Combinedfield dewateringis defined as a combinationof appliedexternalpressure and from dewatering to a sludgeor a comparablematrix of remove water electroosmotic A diagram 1997). Novak, (Vijh in of schematic trapped and water colloidal suspension combinedfield dewateringis shownin Figure 2.7.

2.8.2 ELECTROCHEMICAL STRATEGIES FOR RESTARTING DEWATERING in pH nearthe electrodescaused dewateringprocess, During the electroosmotic changes by the electrochemical reactionsaffectsthe rate of water removal by changingthe zeta When 1994). drops increasing (Rabie the to et a], zeta potential zero with potential in dischargeof water the pore water,the'electroosmotic of electrolytes concentration ceases 1949). Vijh (1995) hasconsidered (Casagrande, theeffectsof electrochemical 5 strategies to restorethe dewateringprocessand increasethe reactionand suggested energeticefficiency of the dewatering process:

P.30

Pressure F-I

Pressure

Dry

Dry

Wet Wet 0 Dry

E*

Wet Lj Dr

0
Liquid Electro-osmosis Liquid Expression Liquid E(ectro-osmosis + Expression

Figure 2.7 I

Schematic diagram of combined dewatering process of electroosmosils and expression (After Yoshida, 1993)

I. 2. 3. 4.

Fuel cell effects Forced polarity reversal High overvoltage electrodes 11 Maintaining high zeta potential Z:, C Depolaiization of the anode reaction

2.8.2.1 FUEL CELL EFFECT When the DC power is InterrUpted and the electrodes are short-circuited, a transient current, resulting from "discharge of an electrochemical ccil", flows with an opposite direction to that during DC voltage application. 1 1: -During short-circuiting, the --

the electrolysis reactions occurrino when the DC power is on are reversed, causino I elimination of the zeta potential gradient and the restoration of' tile value ofthe zeta that the potential near the anode to a high valLieapproaching ofelectrolysis. at start I

2.8.2.2 FORCED POLARITY REVERSAL

The above fuel cell effect can he obtained more dramatically voltage polarity. by reversin" tile DC

When the normal polarity for clevvatering is restored, a high zeta I

13.31

of potentialnearthe anodeshouldbe present,thus causingthe re-commencement dewatering. electroosmotic

2.8.2.3HIGH OVERVOLTAGE ELECTRODES The ratesof electrodereactionsat the anodeandcathodecould be minimized by using highly polarizable,non-catalyticelectrodematerialsapplying high voltage gradients. This resultsin delayingthe diminution of zetapotential at the anodeand the cessation of dewatering. For cathodes, metalssuchasZn, Sn, Pb, In, Cd, Hg are suitable to non-noble metals, minimize the rate of the hydrogenevolution reaction. For anodes, alloys, carbides,and silicides can be usedto minimize the oxygenevolution reaction.

2.8.2.4MAINTAINING A HIGH ZETA POTENTIAL

Cessation of be avoided by adding a small volume of concentrated could -dewatering

NaOH (or KOH) solution to maintain a high pH and high value of zeta potential near the anode.

2.8.2.5DEPOLARIZATATION OF THE ANODIC REACTION During the electroosmoticdewateringprocess, the depletionof OH' nearthe anode could be stoppedby depolarizingthe electrolysisreactionat the anodeby another competing,parallel reactionsuchas:

Fe2+

-)
4'

Fe3++ e',- ,
C12

Equation 2.8 Equation 2.9

2CI--

+ 2e'

2.8.3 ELECTROKINETIC

GEOSYNTHETIC (EKG)

The applicationof electrokinetictechniques needsan electrically conductivematerialto form the electrodes. Materials usedfor electrodesmust be asconductiveas possibleto
P.32

and the energyconsumption. In the past, the minimize the electricalresistance usedwere formed from steel. The main problem of using steel majority of electrodes forms due Recently, is to of reactions. new corrosion electrochemical aselectrodes (EKGs) have been basedon the useof electrically conductivegeosynthetics electrodes developed, which havethe capability of overcomingcorrosion.

The conceptof EKG is basedon combining two established technologies, is EKG a new platform technologywith and geosynthetics. electrokinetics civil and environmentalengineering,waste applicationsin agriculturalengineering, identified Case" has been "Show It as a seabed engineering. processingand Council (EPSRC). technologyby Engineeringand PhysicalScienceResearch

EKGs are electrically conductive geosynthetics which have enhanced performance over filtration, drainage, separation, non-conductive geosynthetics. In addition to providing 0 reinforcement and acting as membranes, EKGs can be enhanced by electrokinetic techniques for the transport of water and chemical species within fine grained low permeability substrates, which are otherwise difficult or impractical to deal with by low hydraulic conductivity of the soils. due to the conventional methods

EKGs can be of the samebasicform ascommercially availablefilter, drainage, -, separator and reinforcementmaterials,but offer sufficient electrical conduction to allow the applicationof electrokinetictechniques. An exampleof an EKG is illustrated in Figure 2.8. "It consistsof a metallic conductivecore, madeof stainless steel wire, coatedwith conductivecarbonpolymer. - The outer layer of carbonpolymer helps to protectthe steelfrom corroding and actsas a conductoritself.

P.33

Ca lCondLICtlVe carbon polymer

EKG
Figure 2.8 II Electrokinetic geosynthetic

EKGs have been the subject of research at Newcastle University for a number of years. A range of EKG applications have been identified, including soil consolidation, reinforced soil, soil improvement, waste treatment, sports turf management and sludge dewatering (Jones et al., 1996; Jones and Pugh, 200 1; Hamir, 1997; Hamir et al., 200 1; I -Puah, 2000; Puah et al., 2000). Z 1 1:

2.8.3.1 CONDUCTIVE

CARBON POLYMER

Conductive carbon polymer is produced by the addition ofcondUCtiVCC11-1)011 black powder to conventional polymers. Conductive carbon black Powder is I high Structure

(long carbon chains) very fine particulate powder I'Orrned1'romthe controlled burning of' hydrocarbons (Wright and Woodham, 1989). As the concentration ot'carbon black powder added to the polymer base increases so the electrical conductivity Increases until the polymer becomes conductive. In these composites it Is the carbon [iller which H carbon black IS LISCLI IS the hiler then a

conducts electricity and not the polymer.

301Yv by be to produce I minimurn loading ot'between 20'Y(, weight Will I-CLILUred suitable conductive polymer (Jones et al., 1996).
P.34

When usingcarbonasthe electrodes, carbonoxidisesto liberatecarbonmonoxide and dioxide at the anode,as illustrated in the following reactions:

C+ 2H20

-)

C02 + 4H+ + 4e'

Equation 2.10

C+ H20

CO + 2H+ + 2e-->

Equation 2.11

2.9 HISTORICAL REVIEW OF ELECTROOSMOTIC DEWATERING OF SLUDGE

Many studieson electroosmoticdewateringof sludgehavebeenreportedin the literature. A numberof theseare detailedbelow:

Barton et al. (1999) demonstrated filtration that at benchscaleconventionalpressure by the applicationof an electric field and provedits potential to could be enhanced improve dewateringof difficult materialssuchas sewage sludgecakes. They producedsludgecakeswith solids contentsof 35-46wt% using electrokinetically dewatering,comparedwith 24-30wt%using pressure filtration alone. enhanced

BanedeeandLaw (1998) investigatedelectroosmoticdewateringat both constant voltage andcurrentof two biomassmaterials,organichumuswith peatand composted wastewater sludge. Their investigationshowedthat electroosinoticdewateringof biomassis feasibleboth technically and economically. They also found that the flow linearly with the applied rate of water out of the sludgeat constantvoltageincreased in the constantcurrent dewatering electric field and that the electrical energyexpended mode was a quadraticfunction of time.

Chen et a]. (1996)studiedelectroosmoticclewatering of vegetable sludgeand mine

P.35

Electroosmoticand combined). tailings and comparedthe dewateringmethods(Pressure, Their resultsshowedthat a combinedfield dewateringtechniqueis more effective than dewateringandpressure dewateringfor vegetable electroosmotic wastesludge. For dewateringis aseffective ascombined field mine tailing suspensions, electroosmotic doesnot give significant enhancement dewateringwhereasapplicationof pressure on dewatering.

Gazbaret al. (1994) constructed a laboratorycell which superimposed a mechanical adjustableto 686kPato the electroosmoticdrainage. Their experiments pressure showedthat the electroosmoticdrainagein the thickening phaseenableddomestic (up to 50.9%) when comparedto that of sludgeto reachvery high solids concentration cakesobtainedwithout applying of an electrical field underthe samepressure(392kPa).

Gingerichet,al. (1999) examinedthe dewateringof anaerobicallyand aerobically digestedmunicipal wastewater solids with applied direct pressure and constantvoltage direct current simultaneously. They showedthat final cakesolids could be increased to Their results asmuch as50% with the applicationof 60V DC to wastewater sludge. 0 indicatedthat dewateringis enhanced throughthe applicationof direct pressure coupled with direct current electricity.

Golla et al. (1992) developedan ElectroAcoustic Dewateringpress,applying a combinationof mechanicalpressure, electrical current andultrasonics. The presscan removeup to 50% water from filtered sludgecake at a fraction of the cost incurred in thermaldrying devices.

Hansenet al. (2001) showedthe applicationof electroosmosis for the drying of four materials., They were chalk sludge,iron hydroxide sludgefrom wastewater cleaning,
P.36

depositedfly ashfrom coal combustionand sludgefrom an enzymeproduction rich in from 40 to 79% biomass. In the electroosmoticexperiments, chalk was dewatered solids content,iron hydroxide sludgefrom 2.7 to 19% solids content,fly ash from 75 to 82% solids contentand biomassfrom 3 to 33% solids content.

HeathandDemirel (1984) investigatedpressurized electroosmoticdewateringof field They the that combination of electric and suspensions. reported ultra-fine coal by dewatering increased dewatering to the pressurealone. rate compared pressure They also found that electroosmosis could be improved by modifying the zeta potential ions, by the of suspensions chemical additions potential-determining of coal using polyelectrolytesand surfactants.

(1990)reportedthe successful 11iraoka commercialization of a combined and -Kondoh field dewateringprocessinvolving the combinationof electric field and pressure. By dehydrator,the incorporatingan electric field as an additional driving force to a pressure be 50-60% 75-85% to to could of activated sludge reduced as compared content water alone. The efficiency of the electroosmotic processwas achievedwith pressure ensuredby the addition of electrolytesand by the useof speciallydesignedlow cost durablecarbonelectrodes.

influence on the electroosmoticdewatering Larue et al. (2001) studiedthe pressurization efficiency. They found that increasingthe current intensity achievedthe maximum cakedryness(in term of cakesolid wt%) at minimal specific energyconsumption(in termsof kWh/kg of water removed). Their experimentalresultsshowedthat solids contentreached30wt% at IA against22wt% at 0.2A and the energyconsumptionper kg of water for solids contentswas lower for a current intensity of IA than for a current intensity of 0.5A.
P.37

Orsatet al. (1999) studiedthe effectsof combinedfield dewateringby the simultaneous and their individual effectson water applicationof an electrical field and pressure removedmore removal. They found that the combinationof electric field andpressure or electric field alone. water than either pressure

Raatset al. (2002) developeda full-scale electrokineticdewateringequipmentbasedon belt thickening and a belt press,which producedthe a combinationof a gravity-driven final dry solids contentof drinking water sludgefrom 17 to 24% by applying an electric potential differenceof 30V acrossthe sludgebed, resultingin an additional volume reductionof 15-30%. Without the electrokineticfacility the maximum capacity was but with electroosmoticdewateringcould be increasedto 4m3/h. limited to 2.0-2.5m3/h, Smollen and Kafaar (1994) studiedsludgedewateringusing a scalemodel filter-belt in combinationwith electroosmosis. They found that blinding of the filter media, which is recognised as a major drawbackof filtration processes, was markedly reducedby electroosmosis. They also showedthat dewateringof anaerobicallydigestedsludges requiredmore energythan that of activatedsludges.

Yoshidaet al. (1991) studiedcombinedfield dewateringinvolving electroosmotic dewateringand expression with bentonitesuspensions, under a pre-consolidated both the dewateringrate of 98.IkPa. Combinedfield dewateringenhanced pressure and final dewatered volume,comparedto the individual processes. The energy consumptionfor the combinedfield dewateringprocesswas lessthan for electroosmotic dewateringalone.

Yoshida(1993) found that the dewateringrate of bentonitesludgeby vacuum filtration (80kPa)could be enhanced pressure electroosmoticallyunderthe condition of constant dewatering'. voltageof IOV. He also showedthat, in the caseof electroosmotic
P.38

combinedwith vacuumdewatering,both the dewateringrate and final dewatered volume were greaterthan thosein the caseof electroosmoticdewateringonly. His that electroosmoticdewateringwas not influenced experimentalresultsalso suggested by the vacuum so much by the blocking of the filter medium which was caused filtration pressure.

YuanandWeng(2002) investigatedthe effectsof processing time and potential gradient (potentialdifferencedivided by samplethickness)on water removal by the electrokineticprocessand the resultsshowedthat increasingeither the potential gradient time would enhance the sludgedewateringefficiency. or the processing

Zhou et al. (2001) proposedthe dewateringof sludgeusing a horizontal electric field in

order to facilitate the dissipation of gasesproduced at the electrodes and to keep the

anodesoakedin water during the dewateringprocess.

2.10 CHAPTER SUMMARY

The aim of dewateringis to removeas much water aspossiblefrom sludgebefore disposal. Due to the propertiesof sludge,removal of water cannoteasily be carried out by conventionaldewateringtechniques, which are usually basedon the application of mechanicalforce.

Electroosmosis, is the, which is one of a numberof electrokineticphenomena, movementof water underthe influence of a direct current electric field. According to

the Helmholtz-Smoluchowski theory,electroosmoticflow is a function of voltage gradientand zetapotential and is independent of pore size. Therefore,the electroosmoticdewateringrate is significant when dewateringlow hydraulic permeabilitysludge. Moreover,electroosmoticdewateringcan be a low energy
P.39

dewatering during However, the process. reactions occur approach. electrochemical Gases at the electrodes and the pH changesnearthe electrodes. are generated Electrolysisresultsin reduceddewateringefficiency by changingthe zetapotential, improved by dewatering be is by The the efficiency can using affected which pH. strategies and electrokineticgeosynthetics combinedfield dewatering,electrochemical aselectrodes.

In order to simplify the analysisof electrokineticprocesses, e.g. someassumptions, be etc., may made. electroosmotic permeability, no electrochemical reaction, constant

In this chapter,conventionaldewatcringmeanshavebeenintroduced. The concept, to dewateringhavebeenbriefly discussed. theory and applicationof electroosmosis dewateringhavealsobeendiscussed. Someof the previousstudiesinto electroosmotic It is concludedthat electroosmoticdewateringis an efficient methodto dewatersludge.

PAO

CHAPTER 3

FEASIBILITY

ASSESSMENT OF ELECTROOSMOTIC

DEWATERING OF SLUDGES

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Everydaywastewater treatmentplantsproduct a largequantity of sludgewhich hasto be transported and disposedof. However,the disposalof sludgeis extremely Dewatering due high the to the sludge. reducesthe water of water content expensive filter being Belt transported. the the of water weight of sludge, and reduces content but disposal, before dewater this methodcan only to sludge are currently used presses achieveproduct solids of 15-20wt%. The implication is that every tonneof dry solids disposal 6 In to tonnes costs,a new technology, order reduce of water. over can contain is higher content product, required. a solids can achieve which

The removalof water within a soil massby meansof an appliedelectrical potential it is for dewatering is soil and process of a recognised gradient,electroosmosis, the postulatedthat electroosmoticdewateringof sludgecan also be appliedto enhance the dewateringrate for the purposeof wastewater treatment. This chapterevaluates feasibility of electroosmoticdewateringof sludgesunderconstantvoltagethough an
experimental programme.

3.2 EXPERIMENTAL

PROGRAMME

A numberof experimentswith different sludgesampleswere conducted using an electroosmoticcell to determinethe electroosmoticdewateringefficiency in termsof dewateringrate, energyconsumptionand final solid content.
P. 41

3.2.1 SLUDGE SAMPLES

Four sludge samples,identified as, humic sludge, humic sludge with sawdust, lagoon sewagesludge A and lagoon sewagesludge B were used in the experiment. The All 24.0%, 9.1% 16.0%, 15.7% initial and respectively. solid contents were average 3. had density 1.07Mg/m the same of sludgesamples

3.2.1.1HUMIC SLUDGE The source of the humic sludge was Esholt sewagetreatment works near Bradford, West Yorkshire. This sludgewas primary settledand then secondaryfiltered on large filter beds. The sludge was treatedby a belt presswith the aid of a small amount of polyelectrolyteflocculant for sludgeconditioning.

3.2.1.2HUMIC SLUDGE WITH SAWDUST The hurnic sludgewith sawdustwas the ex-belt presshumic sludgeat Esholt mixed by The in 40-50% the addition volume. proportion of approximately wood waste with of wood wastewas carriedout mainly to improve the mechanicalhandling of the sludge. With the sludge/woodwastemixtures,the addition of characteristics the shearstrengthby increasingthe internal angleof friction and wood wasteincreases also reducesthe overall moisturecontent(Lamont-Black and Glendinning,2004).

3.2.1.3LAGOON SEWAGESLUDGESAAND B lagoonsat Rock Farm and Sewage sludgesA and B were collectedfrom abandoned Minnworth respectively. SewagesludgeA had a higher proportion of water compared with sewagesludgeB, thereforea higher void ratio (proportion of pore space).

3.2.2 ELECTROOSMOTIC CELL The electroosmoticcell was designedso that combinedelectrokineticand pressure
P. 42

filtration dewateringconditionson samples of sewagesludgecould be studied. A schematic of the electroosmoticcell is shownin Figure 3.1. The designwas based on the systemoriginally introducedby Banerjeeand Vitayasupakom(1984) and was later modified by Hamir (1997). It consistedof a Perspexcylinder with a fixed plate andan internal movablepiston. A small openingin the top of the cell facilitated the escape of water. Porousdisc electrodes were locatedat the top of the piston aswell as between the flangesof the cylinder. Lubricant was appliedat the internal wall of the cylinder to reducethe friction due to the movementof the piston. The movementof the piston to the disc was controlled by compressed air. Conductingwires were connected electrodes via openingsat the top and bottom of the cell. A thin pieceof permeable the sludgefrom the effluent fluid in order to cotton fabric was insertedto separate minimize the loss of sludgesampleduring filtration.

To eliminatethe effect of gravity flow and ensurewater was solely removedfrom the the anodewas locatedat the bottom of the cell and the sludgeby electroosornsis, from the bottom cathodeat the top. In this way, electroosmoticflow was generated towardsthe top. The cathodewas opento allow drainageandthe water retained in a measuringcylinder. The anodewas closedso that negativepore water pressurewas togetherwith consolidation. As the materialdewaters, the volume of sludge generated decreased. In order to avoid separation betweenthe cathodeand the top surfaceof the sludgedue to settlement,a pressure was appliedto the sludgevia the piston which was kept moving upwardsand the sludgewas alwaysin contactwith the electrodes.

3.2.3 POWER SUPPLY An externalpower supply was usedto provide a potential differenceacrossthe sludge sample. The maximum voltageoutput of the power supply was 30V. , The maximum current was 2A, varying dependingon the resistance of the sludgesample. If the
P. 43

Out

Disc Electrodes

;ton

Figure 3.1

Schematicdiagramof the electroosmotic cell

increase if the resistance the of the sludge voltage would currentremainedconstant, 30V, increased. When the the current would the maximum of voltage reached sample decrease.

3.2.4 MATERIAL FOR THE ELECTRODES Copperdisks were usedasthe electrodes. The disks were madeof copperplate lmm thick. Holes of 5mm diameterwere punchedaroundthe disk to permit drainageand the dissipationof gas.

3.2.5 EXPERIMENTAL TESTING Initially, the electroosmoticcell was filled with 2234gof sludge,equating 5OkPa A height 130mm. to was of constant pressure approximately a sample of applied to the piston. At the sametime, an externalpower supply provided a constant to producea voltagegradientof 1V/cm. voltageof 13V acrossthe disc electrodes
During each test, the current and volume of extracted water were recorded manually every 5 minutes for the first 30 minutes and at intervals of 15 minutes, 30 minutes, 45
P. 44 '

hours The 60 thereafter. power supply was even several minutesand minutesand switchedoff after 72 hours.

A control setupwith applieda constantpressure and without electricity was of 5OkPa final the to the solid contentof the treatedsludge. with compare results used

3.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 3.3.1DEWATERINGEFFICIENCY

Figures3.2 to 3.5 show the graphsof cumulative volume of extractedwater againsttime for humic sludge,humic sludgewith sawdust,sewagesludgeA and sewagesludgeB for be from It time, that, the all at any water removal results respectively. can seen in direct the than that the voltage was more a current application of with sludgesamples ithoutvoltage). The resultsalso show that the cumulativevolume of (%; control decreasingly with time. In other words, the flow rate extractedwater increased Voltage due increased This decreased to time. was was electrical resistance. with drawnby the electrical resistance of the sludge,leadingto lessvoltageavailableto produceelectroosmoticflow. At later stagewhen electroosmosis was about to cease,

from dominant the cell, the of extracting water of was mechanism application pressure later it from Therefore, be that, the than that at can seen results of electricity. rather with time but at a very stage,the cumulative volume of extractedwater still increased slow rate.

During the electroosmoticdewateringtest, it was observed that, due to large friction betweenthe piston andthe internal wall of the cylinder, sticking piston generated appliedto the sludge,resultingnon-smooth,:; occurredand causedunsteady pressure cumulativevolume-timecurve and stepped resistance-time curvesasshown in Figure 3.2 andFigures3.12 and 3.13 respectively.,,Moreover,it can be noticedfrom Figure
45 P.

3.4 and 3.5 that there was delay in dewateringfor control. This was because the dewateringrate basedon applicationof pressure was very low for sewagesludgesA and B that the time for extractedwater filling up the void at the top of the cell fully was relatively long.

The total volume of extractedwater,final solids and energyconsumptionfor eachtest in Table3.1 for eachexperiment. The results show that a after 3 daysare summarized higher final solid contentcould be obtainedand the dewateringrate of sludgecould be by the applicationof voltage,comparedto the resultswithout the application enhanced of a voltage (Control). The energyconsumptionfor electroosmoticdewateringvaried with different sludgesamples rangingbetween0.087 and 0.18IkWh/kg of extracted the water, water. Comparedto 1.2kWh/kgrequiredby thermal drying to evaporate is lessenergyconsumingand more economic. The overall electroosmoticdeNatering conclusionis that electroosmoticdewateringof sludgeis feasibleand potentially economic.

3.3.2 ELECTRIC CURRENT AND RESISTANCE The electric current reading was found to be maximal at the start of the tests and to decrease with time, as observedin Figures 3.6 to 3.9. Under a constant voltage, the reduction of current was attributedto the increasedelectrical resistance. Figures 3.10 to 3.13 show the variation of electricalresistance with respectto time for eachtest. An increasein electrical resistancewith time was assumedto be due to electrochemical reactionsand desiccationat the anode. During the electroosmoticdewateringprocess, the water was decomposed and gaseswere generatedat the electrodes,oxygen at the anodeand hydrogen at the cathode. Both gaseswere non-conductiveand difficult to increased. On the other hand, water remove from the sludge. - As a result, resistance flowed electroosmoticallythrough the sludge from anodeto cathode. Therefore, the
P. 46

in leading desiccation dropped the to and a rise the rapidly, anode water content near
electrical resistance of the sludge.

3.3.3 CORROSION brown. fresh Before the test started,the colour of the copperplate electrodes was reddish After the electroosmoticdewateringprocess,a thin yellowish-greendepositwas found The the the occurrenceof such a the at anode. electrode surface of copper on known ascorrosion,was attributedto simple or complex electrochemical phenomenon, in for increase Corrosion the an also a reason was sludgemass. reactionswithin due deposit formation to the The the was probably corrosion of electrical resistance. deposit No the taking was seenon corrosion copperanode. placeat oxidation reaction the surfaceof the cathode. This confirms that corrosionis more likely to occur in are requiredto reducethis phenomenon. anodeelectrodesand that pfeventivemeasures

3.3.4 VOLTAGE GRADIENT Under a constantvoltagesupply,the voltagefrom the power supply was the sum of due by drawn flow to drawn to and voltage resistance electroosmotic generate voltage it is 3.3.2, in Section desiccation. From the seen results and reactions electrochemical increased that the electrical resistance rapidly asthe treatmenttime becamelonger. Therefore,the voltageavailableto generate electroosmoticflow becameless. Once the resistance reacheda critical value at which the flow rate with application of in flow (both to the the as shown are parallel of control curves was equal rate electricity Figure 3.5 at later stage),electroosmoticflow ceased virtually.

As the voltage drawn for electroosmotic flow decreaseswith time under a constant

supply'applied to the voltagesupply,it is arguedthat a constantvoltage from the pover I When' -e4uivalent is to the to sludge. sludge not a'Constant volt agegradientapplied
47 P.

designingan electroosmtoic dewateringsystemunderconstantvoltage,the Helmholtz-Smoluchowski equation(seeSection2.6.3.1)is usually applied with the assumptions of no electrochemical reactionand constantelectroosmoticflow rate to simplify the analysisprocess. However,this simplified designcannotpredict the dewateringprocessaccuratelyasin practicethe voltagegradientto generate flow decreases to develop a more electroosmotic with time. Therefore,it is necessary framework for the designof electroosmoticsludgedewatering. accurate

3.4 CHAPTER SUMMARY

In order to lower the cost of transportationand disposalof sludge,it is desirableto reducethe water contentasmuch aseconomicallypossible. Dewateringbasedsolely is not efficient. Recently,it hasbeenfound that on the applicationof compression is an efficient technique. combiningelectroosmoticdewaterin-g with compression

This chapterevaluates the feasibility of electroosmoticdewateringof sludgeand examinesits efficiency through a numberof experiments. The experimentalresults show that higher final solid contentscould be obtainedand the dewateringrate of by the applicationof electricity, comparedto the application sludgecould be enhanced of compression alone. The energyconsumptionfor electroosmoticdewateringof sludgewas found to be economic,comparedto thermal drying. It is concludedthat electroosmoticdewateringof sludgeis both feasibleandpotentially economic.

The experimentalresultsalso show that electrical resistance increased and current decreased with time during the dewateringprocesswith a constantapplied voltage. Increased resistance, which was mainly causedby electrochemical reactionsand desiccation,affectedthe voltagedrawn to generate electroosmoticflow so that the electroosmoticflow rate decreased with time. Therefore,the voltagegradient applied
P.48

flow is not constantand decreases to the sludgeto generate the electroosmotic with time eventhougha constantvoltagefrom a power supply is applied to the sludge.

As the electroosmotic flow rate varied with time, the useof the flow equationtogetherwith the assumptions Helmholtz-Smoluchowski of no electrochemical reactionand a constantelectroosmoticpermeabilityto predict the design dewateringprocessis not accurate. Developmentof a more accurate framework for electroosmoticdewateringof sludgeis thereforenecessary and is the subjectof next chapter.

P. 49

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CHAPTER4

INTEGRATING FRAMEWORK FOR THE DESIGN OF ELECTROOSMOTIC DEWATERING OF SLUDGE

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Electroosmoticdewateringhasbeenshownto be an effective methodof dewatering sludge. However,this methodhasnot beencommonly usedin practice. This is because the effectiveness of the electroosmoticdewateringprocessis affectedby the variation of the treatmentvariablesand thereis no designequationwhich enablesone to predict the dewateringprocessaccurately.

flow rate decreased In Chapter3, it was shownthat electroosmotic and electric increased with time due to electrochemical resistance reactionswhen dewateringwith flow equation constantvoltage. Therefore,the useof the Helmholtz-Smoluchowski togetherwith the assumptions of no electrochemical reactionand a constant electroosmoticpermeability is not applicablefor the designof an electroosmotic dewateringsystemwith constantvoltage.

In order to predict the dewateringprocessaccurately,development of a more accurate designframework is required. This chapterpresents an'integratingframework for the designof electrokineticallyenhanced its dewateringof sludgeand demonstrates applicability through an experimentalprogramme.

P.63 I

4.2. EXISTING EQUATION FOR ELECTROOSMOTIC DEWATERING

fine-grainedsoils, the electro-potentialdeveloped When a current is appliedto saturated betweenthe electrodescauses water to flow from the anodeto the cathodethrough the theory is the earliest and soil massby electroosmosis.The Helmholtz-Smoluchowski most widely used(Mitchell 1991)to describethis phenomena.

flow of water through a fine-grainedmaterial can be It statesthat the electroosmotic written as:

kiA

Equation4.1

where Q, is the electroosmoticflow rate, i, is the potential gradientAWAL (where V is A is the cross-sectional areaand k-,is the coefficient of voltageandL is distance), electroosmoticpenneability.

This is very similar in form to Darcy's equationfor hydraulic flow through a soil:

Qh

khihA

Equation4.2

where Qhis the water flow rate,ih is the hydraulic gradientAH/AL (whereH is hydraulic head),A is the cross-sectional areaand khis the hydraulic permeability of the soil.

P.64

Cumulative Volume A

.01 lop

0 Figure 4.1

Time

Typical experimental result of electroosmotic dewatering

There is a fundamentaldifferencein the two permeabilities,k, andkh;whereask-,is independent is very strongly influenced by the of the size of the individual poresand k-h 1949). pore size (Casagrande

In order to simplify the analysisof the electroosmoticdewateringprocess, the to be a constantin most mathematicalmodels, electroosmotic permeability is assumed as mentionedin Section2.6.5. Using the equationfor electroosmoticflow (Equation 4.1), if the electroosmoticpermeabilityis assumed to be a constant,then the graph for the cumulativevolume of extractedwater should be linear and proportional to the appliedvoltagewhen the cross-sectional areaand the voltagegradientare maintainedat a constant.

However,in reality, the electroosmotic permeability decreases with increasingtreatment time and the electroosmoticflow rate slows down due to electrochemical reaction and desiccationat the anode(positive electrode)causingan increasein resistance.Figure 4.1 showsa typical graphof cumulativevolume of collectedwater againsttime plotted from experimentaldata for a sampleof constantcross-sectional areawith a constant potential gradient. The slopesof OA andOB representthe flow rate calculatedat times

P.65

A and B after the start of treatment. The coefficient of electroosmoticpermeability decreases with time (i.e. gradientOA > gradient with time asthe flow rate decreases OB). Therefore,the assumption that electroosmoticpermeabilityis constantfor design cannotbe valid because a constantflow rate cannotbe obtainedin practice. The factors in dewateringprocess,resulting from a changeof resistance affecting the electroosmotic in Table 4.1 anddemonstrate that many factors a closedcircuit arebriefly summarised haveto be considered during the designprocess. Therefore,further refinementof the Helmholtz-Smoluchowski equationwith coefficientsto accountfor eachof thesefactors to producea designframework is fraught with difficulty.

4.3 DERIVING NEW EQUATIONS FOR ELECTROOSMOTIC

DEWATERING The equationspresented hereinare basedupon modelling the entire dewateringsystem to producean integrating as an electric circuit and using the supportingmathematics framework for design.

4.3.1 ASSUMPTIONS OF ELECTROOSMOTIC DEWATERING The model of electroosmoticdewateringis basedon the following assumptions:

1.

The sludgeis homogeneous and fully saturated; There is no movementof particlesby electrophoreticmigration;

3. , 4.

The water in the sludgemoveselectroosmoticallyin the one-dimensional direction betweenelectrodes;

The electroosmoticpermeability,k,, is constantwith time; No electrochemical reactionsoccur during electroosmoticdewatering; Darcy's law and Ohm's law are applicableduring electroosmotic dewatering.
P.66

Table 4.1

Factorsaffecting electroosmoticdewateringprocess
Factors Description When soil electrical conductivity increases, the efficiency decreasesas currents bypass the pore medium.

Soil electric conductivity

Pore fluid electric conductivity

Efficiency increases as pore fluid electrical conductivity increases.

Moisture content

Efficiency depends on moisture content. The electrokinetic process will eventually shut down when no water is supplied continuously at the anode.

Conducting minerals

If electrical conductivity of the solids is high, the efficiency will decrease.

Electric field density

Increasing electric field density increases the electroosmotic flow rate.

Current density

High current will generate more acid and increase the transport rate of ions but is expensive in terms of current used.

pH

During electrokinetic process, pH is low at the anode due to H' generated by electrolysis and the pH is high at the cathode due to 01-17. The efficiency is significantly dependent on the pH value. When treated sludge reaches a steady state at the end of the process, it is acidic. Low pH will affect the zeta potential from negative to positive so that the electroosmotic flow may reverse.

Zeta potential

The electroosmotic flow rate increases with a

higher zetapotential (more negative). It is affectedby pH. Ionic strength If ionic strengthof pore water is too strong,it will reducethe zetapotential so that electroosmoticflow rate -decreases.

P.67

(t)

(b) Electroosmoticdewatering with constantvoltage

(a) Electroosmoticdewatering with constantcurrent

Figure 4.2

Schematicclosedcircuits of electroosmoticdewateringprocesswith constantvoltage andconstantcurrent

4.3.2 MODELLING THE DEWATERING SYSTEM AS AN ELECTRIC CIRCUIT In the electroosmoticdewateringsystemshownin Figure 3.1, two conductingelectrode In layer the of sludge. source are placed around acrossa voltage platesconnected physics,this would be regardedas an electric circuit connectinga capacitor. A by an insulating layer called a capacitorconsistsof two conductingplatesseparated in a circuit acrossa voltage source,the dielectric. When a capacitoris connected voltageforceselectronsonto the surfaceof one plate and pulls electronsoff the surface In in difference between the caseof the the a potential plates. of other plate resulting electroosmoticdewatering,the sludgeactsasthe insulating layer separatingtwo conductingelectrodes.Using this analogy,electroosmoticdewateringmay be regarded as the processof charginga capacitor. ,,

An electroosmoticdewateringsystemcan be considered ashaving three elementsin (RD)(seeFigure series,a power supply (Vo), a capacitor(C) and a constantresistance
4.2). RD on its own represents the process of dewatering sludge with constant k-,and

P.68

The difference acrossthe effect. potential reaction without any electrochemical RD(VD)is the potential differenceneededto generate the constantresistance C (Vc) difference flow. The the across capacitor varies with potential electroosmotic time and represents the variation in k, with time brought aboutby electrochemical to effects. At time = 0, the potential differenceacrossthe capacitorC (Vc) is assumed be zero and to increasewith time. When time tendsto infinity, the potential difference to be VOand the potential differenceacrossthe acrossthe capacitorC (Vc) is assumed RD(VD)is zero. At that time, currentwill cease to flow. That means constantresistance thereis no voltage acrossthe dewateringdevice at time = ooprovidedthat electroosmoticflow hasceased.

There aretwo potential optionsfor the control of electroosmoticdewatering:constant voltagewith variablecuftent or constantcurrent with variablevoltage. Both approaches further herein. will be discussed

4.3.3 ELECTROOSMOTIC DEWATERING WITH CONSTANT VOLTAGE in serieswith a constantresistance RDto a In Figure 4.2a, a capacitorC is connected power supply of constantvoltage VO. In this case,voltagesacrossRD(VD)and C (Vc), andcurrent (1) are function of time.

The capacitance C of a capacitoris defined asthe charge(Q) storedper unit voltage (V) is defined as appliedacrossit. Mathematically,capacitance

C=QIV

Equation4.3

P.69

CurrentI is defined asthe movementof charge(Q) per unit time (t). Mathematically, currentis defined as

I=Qlt

Equation4.4

When the power supply is switchedon, the initial current 10is independent of C whose potential differenceis zero. Thus,

10 = Vo

IRD

Equation4.5

Because the currentI decreases with time, the potential differenceacrossRDcan be written as

VD=

I(t)RD

Equation4.6

The potential differenceacrossC is

VC=QIC

Equation4.7

and

dVc I(t) _ dt -C

Equation4.8

At any instant,the voltage from the power supply Vo is the sumof VDand Vc. Thus,

P.70

VO - VD + VC

Equation4.9

and
dVO dt = dVD dt +. dVc dt Equation 4.10

Substitutingfrom Equation4.6 andEquation4.8,

0=

RD

(t) W(t) +I dt c

Equation4.11

differential equation, By first order non-homogenous

df (x) + bf (x) +c0 dx

Equation4.12

-bx

-bx

(x) =Be

a+Cea

b[

Equation4.13

where

j(x) =B

at

X=O

Therefore,

Vo

RD

Equation4.14

Substituting from Equation 4.5, the current I is

P.71

I(t) = loe

-1 RpC

Equation4.15

SubstitutingEquation4.15 into Equation4.6, the potential differenceacrossRDis

VD

RDIoe

RjC

-1

Equation 4.16

SubstitutingEquation4.16 into Equation4.9, the potential differenceacrossthe capacitorC is

-1

V,,(1-

eD'

Equation 4.17

RDrepresents the processof dewateringsludgewith constantk, and without difference (YD) is The RD the potential across voltage electrochemical reactioneffect. AV appliedto the sludge. It can be seenfrom the Equation4.16 that the voltage across RD(VD)is a function of time and decreases the constantresistance exponentially. Therefore,the potential gradient(AWAL) is also a function of time and decreases is by: by The given electroosmosis volume of collected water cumulative exponentially.

fL Vol(t)= k, A-V(-t)dt 0

Equation 4.18

SubstitutingEquation4.16 into Equation4.18,

Vol(t)

keARD'Of JDcdt L, 0
P.72

Equation4.19

Cumulative Volume A

Time

Figure 4.3

The relationshipbetweencumulativevolume and time when a sludgeis dewatered with constantvoltage

AV Vol(t) =k (1-e L
ea v0

-1 RDC

Equation4.20

flow rate decreases Equation4.20 showsthat the electroosmotic with time even through to be a constant. According to the coefficient of electroosmoticpermeabilityis assumed Equation4.20, the relationshipbetweenthe cumulativevolume and time is represented
in Figure 4.3. Based on the analogy of charging a capacitor with constant voltage, a

decrease in the electroosmoticflow rate with time can be explainedby Equation 4.20 hen a constantelectroosmoticpermeabilityis still assumed.This cannotbe explained w. by Helmholtz-Smoluchowski equation(Equation4.1).

4.3.4 ELECTROOSMOTIC DEWATERING WITH CONSTANT CURRENT The condition of constantcurrentis now examined. It is modelledby the circuit shown in Figure 4.2b. In order to retain constantcurrent,the voltage from the power supply hasto increase.In this case,the variation in the voltagefrom the power supply is a function of time whereasthe potential differenceacrossRD(VD)is kept constantas
% VD

IRD

Equation4.21
P.73

When the power supply is switchedon, the initial voltage VOis independent of the capacitorC. Thus,

VO

'RD

Equation4.22

At any instant,the voltagefrom the power supply V(t) is the sum of the voltage across
RD (VD)

and the voltageacrossC (VC). Thus,

WD V=v

+VC

Equation4.23

dV (t) dVO dVc(t) + = dt dt dt

Equation4.24

During the electroosmoticdewateringprocess, the voltageacrossC (Vc) varies with time and VDis a constant. Thus,

dV (t) dVc(t) = dt dt

Equation4.25

Therefore,the changeof voltagefrom the power supply per unit time is equal to the changeof voltageacrossCI(Vc) per unit time.

SubstitutingEquation4.21 into Equation4.18, the cumulative volume of collected is water by electroosmosis

Vol(t)

k ea AIR 4D f dt L 0
P.74

Equation4.26

Cumulative Volume

flowrate, Q, ctroosmotic

Time

Figure 4.4

The relationshipbetweencumulative volume and time when a sludgeis dewatered with constantcurrent

SubstitutingEquation4.22 into Equation4.26,

Vol

(t)

= w-

k AIRDt

Equation 4.27

Equation4.27 showsthat the electroosmoticflow is linear with respectto time and proportional to the current when a sludgeis electroosmoticallydewatered with constant current. According to Equation4.27, the relationshipbetweenthe cumulative volume by Figure 4.4. and time is represented

4.3.4.1ELECTROOSMOTIC FLOW RATE UNDER CONSTANT CURRENT The slopeof the graphof cumulativevolume of collectedwater againsttime is the electroosmoticflow rate, Q, in m3/sec, which can be expressed as

Qe kiARO

Equation4.28

P.75

wherek, is the electroosmotic permeability(m2/s-A-fl), i, is the current gradientAVAL (A/m) whereI is the current (A) andL is the distancebetweentwo electrodes(m), A is 2) (Q). (m the cross-sectional area andROis the initial resistance

According to Ohm's law, initial voltageis the product of current and initial resistance (i.e. VO= IRO). Therefore,the electroosmoticflow rate, Q, can be rewritten into the form of Helmholtz-Smoluchowski equationas

k, iA

Equation 4.29

where k, is the electroosmotic permeability(m2/Vs)and i, is the voltagegradient AVO/AL(V/m) where VO= IRO and is the initial voltage(V).

Both Equations4.28 and4.29 can be usedto calculatethe electroosmoticflow rate for a dewateringsystemunderconstantcurrent. The electroosmotic permeability,k,, can be /Vs. Both units areequivalent. in units of either m2/s-A-92 or m2

4.3.4.2 TESTING FOR DETERMINING ELECTROOSMOTIC PERMEABILITY 'k,, can be determinedby conductinga test using Electroosmoticpermeability, electroosmoticcell. Before the test starts,the cross-sectional areaof the electroosmotic cell, A, and thicknessof sludge,L, are measured.During the test, a constantcurrent,I, is maintainedso that IIL is the current gradient,i,, andthe cumulative volume of extractedwater is measured with time. The readingof resistance at the start of the test RO. After the completionof the test,a linear graphof the is initial resistance, curnulative volume of extractedwater againsttime is plotted and the slopeof the graph

P.76

By Q,, i, Q,. ROand flow the the substituting values of rate, represents electroosmotic A into Equation4.28, the electroosmotic permeability,k,, can be calculated. Figure 4.5 illustratesthe procedureof determiningelectroosmoticpermeability.

4.4 EXPERIMENTAL

PROGRAMME

derived in Section4.3, In order to demonstrate the applicability of the designequations between investigate the the to relationship conducted a seriesof experimentswas dewatered time under sludge was when cumulativevolumesof extractedwater with The overall efficiency of current conditions. constantvoltageand constant final dewatering based dewatering the solid content on rate, of sludge electroosmotic and power consumptionwas also examined.

4.4.1 SLUDGE SAMPLE According to the experimental results shown in Table 3.1, highest total volume by lowest obtained electroosmotic energy consumption were water and extracted dewateringof hurnic sludge. Humic sludge was therefore selectedto be used in the ID described in Section 3.2.1.1. details The the sludge are of experiment.

4.4.2 EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS 3.2.4. in 3.2.2 detailed Sections A sameexperimentalapparatus to to that used was

4.4.3 EXPERIMENTAL SERIES I- ELECTROOSMOTIC DEWATERING WITH CONSTANT VOLTAGE Initially, the electroosmoticcell was filled with 5OOg of sludge,equatingapproximately to a sampleheight of 30mm. A pressure of 25kPawas appliedto the piston. At the sametime, an externalpower supply provided a constantvoltageof IOV acrossthe disc
P.77

STEP ID=

Diameterof sludgesample

Cross-sectional area of sludge, A

;rD2 /4

IL

= Distancebetweenelectrode

Measurethe reading of initial voltage VO at time =0 from voltmeter

Current gradient, i, =I/L

Measurethe readingof constant currentI from ammeter

Initial resistance,Ro = Vo /I

STEP 2

Cum. Volume

Measurethe cumulative volume of extracted ' water with time and plot the graphof the cumulative volume of extractedagainsttime

Elcctroosmotic flow rate,Q,

Time

STEP 3
Substitutecross-sectional areaof RO, sludge,A, initial resistance, current gradient,i, and flow rate, Q,,into electro'osmotic Equation4.28 Figure 4.5

k, iA Ro

Procedure of determiningelectroosmoticpermeability

P.78

electrodes.Experimentswere conductedfor a total duration of 60 minutes,with readingstaken of the current andcumulative volume of extractedwater at 60 second intervals for the first 30 minutes,and subsequently, at 5 minute intervals. After the completion of eachtest,the solid contentof the remainingsludgewas measured.The constantvoltageof 15V. experimentswere repeated using an increased

4.4.4 EXPERIMENTAL SERIES 2- ELECTROOSMOTIC DEWATERING WITH CONSTANT CURRENT Using the samequantity of sludgeas seriesone, a further seriesof experimentswas to 25kPa,50kPaand 75kPawhile keeping the conductedvarying the appliedpressure duration 2A. The 1A the conducted over same constant were current at and experiments andintervals, but the readingswere taken for the cumulative volume of extractedwater and voltageuntil the voltagereacheda maximum of 30V, when the readingsof current were taken. After the completionof eachtest, the solid contentof the remaining sludge by weight. was measured

4.4.5 EXPERIMENTAL SERIES 3- ELECTROOSMOTIC DEWATERING WITH STEPPED CURRENT The samequantity of sludgeto that testedin seriesone and two was used. A pressure of 25kPawas appliedto the piston. The duration of the experimentwas 60 minutes. ,

During the experiment,the current was kept at IA for the first 20 minutes,subsequently at 2A for the next 20 minutes,and at IA for the last 20 minutes. The readingsof the voltageand cumulative volume of extractedwater were takenevery minute. After the by completionof the test, the solid contentof the remainingsludgewas measured weight.

P.79

4.4.6 CONTROL All the experimentswere repeated using identical experimentalconditions but without the applicationof electricity.

4.5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4.5.1EXPERIMENTAL SERIESI- ELECTROOSMOTICDEWATERING WITH CONSTANTVOLTAGE from experimental Figures 4.6 and4.7 showtheresults 1. Figure4.6 illustrates series thatthecumulative overtime,but at an ever volumeof extracted waterincreased decreasing by Equation 4.20. Figure4.7illustrates thatcurrent rate,aspredicted decreased by exponentially with time,whilethe voltage remained constant, aspredicted Equation 4.15.

During the dewateringprocesswith constantvoltage,it is postulatedthat the electric fild producedby the chargeson the conductingplatescreatesan end-to-endalignment of moleculardipoleswithin the dielectric (sludge). The resulting positive and negative surfacechargeson the dielectric causea reduction in the electric field within the dielectric. Furthermore,during the electrochemicalreaction, is increased, resistance causinga reductionin electric field strengthas well. Therefore,the resulting electric field strengthin the dewateringsystemis lessthan the voltagegradientprovided by the power supply (AVIOL). When dewateringwith constantvoltage,the flow rate decreases with time. The reasonis that the resulting electric field strengthdecreases with time, as illustrated in Figure 4.8. Basedon the analogyof charginga capacitorunder a constant voltage,the variation of the current and the cumulative volume of extractedwater would be expectedto decayexponentiallywith time whereasthe electroosmoticpermeability

P.80

hypothesis, have The this be supported to a constant. experimentalresults was assumed as the graphsillustrate.

P.81

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P.84

CumulativeVolume

Time

Figure 4.9

Four stages of the experimentalresultswith electroosmoticclewatering with constantcurrent

4.5.2 EXPERIMENTAL SERIES 2- ELECTROOSMOTIC DEWATERING WITH CONSTANT CURRENT Theseexperiments were conductedmaintaininga constantcurrent,the results of which are shownin Figures4.10 and4.11. They show graphsof the relationshipbetween cumulativevolume of extractedwater and time. It can be seenthat the experimental into 4 distinct stages.With referenceto Figure 4.9, stageA is a resultscan be separated 0 period when no water is extractedfrom the sampleand may be regardedas the time neededfor the extractedwater to fill up the void at the top of the cell, andthe tube to the collecting vessel.

During stageB, the cumulative volumeof extractedwater hasa linear relationship with time asconstantcurrent is maintained. This relationshipremainsuntil the voltage the maximum voltageoutput of the power supply, which, in this experiment, reaches was 30V. Equation4.27 showsthis relationshipclearly.

P.85

During stageC, the power supplycannotmaintain constantcurrent,as the resistance of the sludgeis too high. As a result,the rate of the water extractiondecreases as the current is dropped. Under theseconditions,the dewateringprocessis similar to electroosmoticdewateringunderconstantvoltagewhen the cumulative volume of extractedwater againsttime is governedby Equation4.20. ThroughoutstageC, the is too high, at which point the current is decreasing with time until the resistance haseffectively stopped. By stageD, the cumulative electroosmoticdewateringprocess
further is being is no water extracted. of extracted water constant, and volume

4.5.3 EXPERIMENTAL SERIES 3- ELECTROOSMOTIC DEWATERING WITH STEPPED CURRENT The resultsof experimentalseries3 are shownin Figure 4.12. It can be seenthat a linear relationshipbetweencumulativevolume of extractedwater andtime was underconstantcurrent. The resultsalso showthat obtainedwhen sludgewas dewatered the electroosmoticflow increased with increasein current. For the first 20 minutes,the current was kept at I.A. No water was collectedfrom the samplefor the first 6 minutes. This period was regardedasthe time neededfor the extractedwater to fill up the void at in Section4.5.2. the top of the cell and the tube to the collecting vessel,asdiscussed For the time from 6 to 20 minutes,28ml of extractedwater was collected. Subsequently, 81ml of extractedwater was collectedin the next 20 minuteswhen 2A of current was maintained. For the last 20 minutes,the current was kept at IA againand 40ml of extractedwater was collected.

P.86

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Using the Equation4.28, the valuesof electroosmoticpermeability,k,, for different

periods were calculated. They were 5.74 x 10'9m2/Vsfor the first 20 minutes, 5.81 x 10-9m2Ns for the next 20 minutes and 5.74 x 10'9m2Ns for the last 20 minutes.

The resultsshow that the electroosmotic permeability,k,, was nearly a constantduring the dewateringprocess. Moreover,the valueof electroosmoticpermeability was not affectedby the changeof current intensity. Thesefindings imply that the value of to be a constantfor the design of an electroosmoticpermeabilitycan be assumed electroosmoticdewateringprocessunderconstantcurrent using the designequations derived in Section4.3.

4.5.4 EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL VOLTAGE GRADIENTS In the electroosmoticdewateringsystem,the externalvoltagegradientshould be defined the internal voltage asthe voltagegradientprovidedby the power supply, whereas the gradientis the resulting electric field strengthwhich is usedto generate is defined as gradient electroosmoticflow. Mathematically,the internal voltage 0

AVinternnt

AL

Vc IRv =AVeremal AL

Equation 4.30

where

is the voltageprovidedby the power supply, VCis the potential

due to resistance Ivariable electrochemical reactions,andA is the distancebetweenelectrodes.

differenceacrossthe capacitor,I is the current,Rv is the

It is indicatedfrom Equation4.25 that the changeof voltagefrom the power supply per unit time is equal to the changeof voltageacrossthe capacitorC (Vc) per unit time during the dewateringprocesswith constantcurrent. Consideringthat electrochemical

P.90

dewatering,the changeof voltage from the reactionsexist during the electroosmotic power supply can be rewritten as

dV,,,,,,,,, (t) dVc(t) dIRv(t) + = dt dt dt

Equation 4.31

Equation4.31 showsthat the loss of electric field strengthdue to the surfacechargeof the dielectric (Figure 4.8b) and electrochemical reactions(Figure 4.8c) can be by the power supply. Therefore,no matterhow much the electrochemical compensated reactionschangethe resistance of the dewateringsystem,the resulting electric field strength(internal voltagegradient)is alwayskept constantwhen demateringwith constantcurrent. In other words, dewateringwith constantcurrent is the way to maintain a constantinternal voltagegradientto generate a constantelectroosmoticflow by increasingthe externalvoltagegradient.

The advantages of dcwateringby maintainingconstantcurrent over constantvoltageare (1) a constantelectroosmoticflow rate is provided; (2) the voltagedrawn by resistance due to the effect of electrochemical by power supply so that reactionsis compensated electrochemical reactionscan be ignored in the design;and (3) using a linear relationshipbetweenflow and time simplifies the designprocess. As a result, in order to simplify the designprocess,electroosmoticdewateringof sludgeshould be achieved by maintaining constantcurrent,insteadof constantvoltage.

4.5.5 EFFICIENCY OF ELECTROOSMOTIC DEWATERING The efficiency of electroosmoticdewateringwas assessed, basedon the dewateringrate, final solid contentandpower consumptionachievedby eachexperiment. The cumulative volume of extractedwater and final solids after 60 minutesare summarized
P.91

in Table 4.2 for eachexperiment. The resultsshow that increasingthe voltage improved the efficiency of the dewateringprocess. At a pressure of 25kPa,with a constant 65ml 92ml to 15V, of water at total as compared was extracted of of water a voltageof IOV and no water extractedat OV. The final solid contentobtainedat 15V was 20.2%, as comparedto 16.1%with no voltage.

At constantcurrent and pressure, a higher current resultedin more water being extracted. Applying 75kPaand maintaining2A producedthe greatestquantity of extractedwater (235ml), resulting in a final solid contentof 29.2%.

The energyconsumptionfor electroosmoticdewateringvaried with the applied pressure, voltage andcurrentrangingbetween0.085 and0.323kWh/kg of extractedwater. lkg of to be evaporated using heat alone. Comparedto water requiresapproximately-1.2kWh thermal drying, energyconsumptionfor electroosmoticdewateringis less. At the same a higher appliedvoltageandcurrentresultedin higher energyconsumption. pressure, high applied voltageandcurrent increasethe'rateof electrochemical This was because thus leadingto energyloss. the electrical resistance, reaction,which increases

4.6 CHAPTER SUMMARY

The Helmholtz-Smoluchowski theory is the earliestand most widely usedto calculate the electroosmoticflow. However,electroosmoticflow rate decreases with time dueto flow Helmholtz-Smoluchowski that the the equation electrochemical so use of reactions togetherwith the assumptions reactionand a constant of no electrochemical electroosmoticpermeabilitycannotpredict the dewateringprocessunderconstant voltage accurately.

P.92

This chaptersetsout the frameworkfor sucha designmethodology,founded on the by laboratory mathematics of simple electricalcircuits and demonstrated with time experimentation.It concludesthat the electroosmoticflow rate decreases when a sludgeis electroosmoticallydewatered with constantvoltagewhereasthe electroosmoticflow rate is constantwith respectto time when a sludgeis dewatered with constantcurrent.

Both electroosmoticdewateringunderconstantvoltageand constantcurrent were found to be effective and potentially economicto dewatersludge,in accordance with the finding shownin Chapter3. The advantages of dewateringby maintaining constant current over constantvoltage are: (1) a constantelectroosmoticflow rate is provided; (2) due to the effect of electrochemical the voltagedrawn by resistance reactionsis by power supply so that electrochemical compensated reactionscan be ignored in the design;and (3) using a linear relationshipbetweenflow and time simplifies the design that electroosmoticdewateringof sludgeshouldbe process.Thus it is recommended achievedby maintaining constantcurrent,insteadof constantvoltage.

P.93

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CHAPTER5

DESIGN PARAMETERS FOR ELECTROOSMOTIC DEWATERING OF SLUDGE USING CONSTANT CURRENT

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Electroosmoticdewateringwith constantvoltageandconstantcurrent were found to be effective and economicto dewatersludgein Chapter3 and Chapter4 respectively. havebeenderived in Chapter4, founded on The designequationsfor both approaches by laboratory the mathematics of simple electrical circuits and demonstrated dewatering It that of sludgewith constant electroosmotic experimentation. concludes the sludgedewateringefficiency,but also had the advantage current not only enhanced for dewatering design those of electroosmotic over required simplifying procedures of the electroosmoticdewateringwith sludgeusing constantvoltage. This is because constantcurrent can producea constantelectroosmoticflow rate (linear relationship betweenflow andtime) whereaselectroosmoticdewateringwith constantvoltage For flow the time treatment. that varies of rate with producesan electroosmotic that electroosmotic purposeof simplifying the designprocess,it is suggested dewateringof sludgeshouldbe achievedby maintainingconstantcurrent, insteadof constantvoltage.

Previously,electroosmoticdewateringis achievedby maintainingconstantvoltage. Electroosmoticdewateringof sludgeunderconstantcurrent is a new techniqueand the designconceptof dewateringunderconstantcurrent aredifferent from constant voltage. , This chapterderivesdesignequationsto calculatethe final solid concentrationof sludgeand treatmenttime, exploresin further detail eachof the
P. 95

that constitutethe designframework,investigatesthe effects of the design parameters parameters and presents a more detaileddesign on the dewateringprocess
methodology.

5.2 DERIVING TREATMENT TIME IN TERMS OF INITIAL AND FINAL SOLID CONCENTRATIONS
Dewateringof sludgeis the process the solids contentof sludge,thereby, that increases for example,reducingthe volume of water being transportedwith the sludge,or reducingthe volume of water to be driven off during incineration,dependingon the final disposaloption. In the designof an electroosmoticdewateringsystem,it should be possibleto estimatethe treatmenttime requiredto increase the solid content of the to high final solid concentration. sludgefrom a low initial solid concentration Moreover,thereis needfor engineers to designan efficient dewateringsystemwhich can achievea particular final solid concentration of sludgewithin a particular treatment time. Therefore,treatmenttime is one of the most important factorsto be considered in the dewateringsystemand it is necessary to derive the treatmenttime of the electroosmoticdewateringsystemin termsof initial and final solid concentrations. In the electroosmoticcell as described in Section3.2.2, the volume of the sludgein the cell, V, is the product of the cross-sectional areaof the cell and the thicknessof the sludge:

V=AL

Equation5.1

whereA is the cross-sectional areaof the sludgeand L is the thicknessof the sludge.

The densityof the sludgeis expressed as:

P. 96

Equation5.2

wherep, is the densityof the sludge,M is the total massof the sludgein the cell and V is the volume of the sludgein the cell.

SubstitutingEquation5.1 into Equation5.2, the total massof the sludgeis

M= pAL

Equation5.3

Before the treatment,the solid concentration of sludgeis

m-' SDI = m

Equation5.4

dry is initial SDI is the the the and of concentration of sludge mass where solid In, solid.

is After the electroosmoticdewateringprocess,the solid concentration

SD2 =

ms m -Vol

Equation5.5

whereSD2is the final solid concentration of the sludgeand Vol is the volume of water collectedto reachthe solid concentrationfrom SDI to SD2.

SubstitutingEquation5.4 into Equation5.5, therefore

P. 97

SD2 =Mx m- Vol

SDI

Equation 5.6

Rearranging,

Vol =

(SD2-SD, )M SD2

Equation5.7

By substitutingEquation4.27 into Equation5.7, the requiredtreatmenttime to obtain from SDI to SD2is the desiredsolid concentration

keIRO

Pe

Equation5.8

By rewriting the Equation 5.8, the final solid concentrationafter a particular treatment time is

SD2

SDI k. IR,, pj

Equation5.9

From Equation 5.8 andEquation5.9, it can be seenthat increasingthe treatmenttime increases final solid concentration, in Section2.3, asexpected. As discussed electropsmoticdewateringcan be appliedto removefree, vicinal and capillary water, but not the chemically bound water. Therefore,the upperlimit of SD2(SD2, is "pp'r)
ms-,

SDZupper -

MS + mc

Equation5.10

wherem, is the massof chemically bound water.

P.98

5.3 DESIGN PARAMETERS FOR DEWATERING UNDER

CONSTANT CURRENT
From Equations5.8 and 5.9, the requiredtreatmenttime and the final solid concentrationare a function of samplethicknessand current. Due to increasein resistance with time and the limit of maximum voltageoutput from the power supply, both Equation 5.8 andEquation5.9 arenot applicablewhen the current cannot be kept constant. Therefore,the time over which constantcurrentcould be maintainedis an important designparameter that shouldbe considered very carefully in the design process. When an electroosmoticsludgetreatmentsystemis usedin practice, it will be usedin conjunctionwith a conventionalsystem,suchasbelt pressor filter press. including The dewateringprocesswill be a function of an additional set of parameters The basis theoretical type and supply, and of electrodes. power appliedpressure herein. designrequirements for eachof thesedesignparameters will be discussed

5.3.1 SAMPLE THICKNESS From Equation 5.8, it is clearly seenthat the treatmenttime is directly proportional to the squareof the samplethickness:

tc'cL2

Equation 5.11

Therefore,the time requiredto obtain the desiredfinal solid concentrationis longer the requiredtime would be when the thicknessof the sludgeis increased. Conversely, requires by decreasing For the thickness. shortened example,an electroosmoticcell time Tj to reducethe water contentof samplesludgewith thicknessof L by applying a constantcurrent I from x%d.s. to 2x%d.s.. However,if the thicknessof sludge is half of original thickness,the requiredtime to obtain desiredsolid concentrationfrom I to half of its original treatmenttime (i. e. T2 x%d. s. to 2x%d.s., T2,will be decreased
P.99

T, / 2).

The calculations are shown as below:

The rcquired timc if thickncss =L is

2) L P, T, =(2x-x)r ) ) 2x keIRO

T1

p, L 2keIRO

Equation5.12

When the thicknessof sludgebecomes half of its original thickness,the initial is proportional to thickness half of its value asresistance also becomes resistance accordingto the standard resistance equation,i.e.

L R=p A

Equation5.13

wherep is the resistivity, L is the conductorlength andA is the conductor cross-sectional area.

Therefore,the requiredtime if thickness=L/2 is

(L/2) P, T2 =(2x-x)r )kj(RO12) 2x

2) Equation 5.14

T2 =, ,

P, L

4k, IRO

Equation 5.15

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Total Treatment= T, Figure 5.1

II

Total Treatment= Tj /2+ Tj /2= Tj

Total treatmenttime of dewateringsludgewith thicknessof L and L/2

SubstitutingEquation 5.14 into Equation 5.15,

T2=TI/2

Equation5.16

It seems that decreasing the thicknessof sludgesavesthe treatmenttime. However,it is not true. This is because, for treating the sameamountof sludge,the dewatering treatmentwith half of original sludgethicknesshas to be run twice so that the total treatmenttime will be the sameasthe treatmenttime with the original sludgethickness. This is illustrated in Figure 5.1. Therefore,the thicknessof sludgedoesaffect the treatmenttime when applying the conceptof dewateringwith constantcurrent. '

On the other hand,from Equation4.28, it is seenthat the electroosmoticflow rate, Q', is dependent area,A, and the current gradienti,, which is equal on the cross-sectional to ALIAL,whereI is current andL is samplethickness. It would appearthat the electroosmoticflow rate, Q,9is also a function of cross-sectional area,A, and sample thickness,L. However,this is not the casewhen applying the conceptof dewatering

both cross-sectional with constantcurrent because area,A, and samplethickness,L, are eliminatedafter substitutingEquation 5.13 into Equation4.28:

k. IA PL Qf = x LA

Equation5.17

P.101

Rearranging,

kIp

Equation5.18

Therefore,the electroosmoticflow rate underconstantcurrent is a function of electroosmoticpermeability,k, appliedcurrent,I, and initial resistivity,p. Itis

independent area,A, and sample of the dimensionof the sludge(cross-sectional thickness,L). The dimensionsof the sludgeaffect its initial resistance only. Table

5.1 illustrateshow the changeof the dimensionsof sludgeaffectsthe electroosmotic (constantvoltageand constantcurrent). flow rate undertwo dewateringapproaches Sludgewith the samevolume of 1m resistivity of IfIrn and electroosmotic , but different dimensionsis electroosmoticallydewatered permeabilityof 5x 10-9m2/Vs with constantvoltageof 1V and constantvoltageof IA. It can be seenthat the
3

electroosmoticflow rate underconstantvoltagevarieswith the dimensionsof the sludge(cross-sectional area,A, and samplethickness,L), whereasthe electroosmotic flow rate underconstantcurrent doesnot. This is the main differencebetweenthe two dewateringapproaches. Therefore,when designingan electroosmoticdewatering systemunderconstantcurrent,there is no needto considerthe effect of the dimensions of the sludgeon the electroosmoticflow rate.

5.3.2APPLIED CURRENT From Equation 5.8, it can be seenthat treatmenttime is inversely proportional to the current:

t oc -

Equation5.19

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Table 5.1

The effect of changeof dimensionof sludgeon the electroosmoticflow rate Resistanceof Electroosmotic flow rate 1V voltage of constant under Electroosmotic flow rate under constant current of IA Qc = k, iARO

Dimensions

sludge

L (Ro =p A

(Q, =

Ro =IX L= lm A= Im 2

92

Q, = 5xlO-9 x XIMI/S Q, =5x 10-9 m'ls

=5XIO-'

XlXlXIM3 I

/S

Ro = 192

=5xlO'? n'ls

Ro =lx

2QQ, 0.5 =5XIO-9X! 2

XO.5m3ls

/S Qe = 5XIO-9 xI xO. 5x4M3 2 5x 10-9 m'ls

Ro = 4L2 L=2m A=0.5m

Q, = 1.25x 10-9M31S

rS Ro =lx L=0.5m A=2M2

0.5 2

Q, = 5XIO-9 x1 x2m3ls 0.5 Q, = 2X1078 m3/S,

=5XIO-9x 0.5

X2xO. 25M3

/S

Ro = 0.25L2

5x 10-9 m'ls

Therefore,the time requiredto obtain a desiredfinal solids concentration Nyould be shorterwhen the appliedcurrentis increased. Moreover,Equation4.27 showsthat the cumulative volume of extractedwater is linear with respectto time and proportionalto the appliedcurrent and Equation 5.18 showsthat the electroosmotic flow rate is directly proportional to current. Current maybe definedasthe rate of movementof charge. 'In the caseof electroosmosis, the movementof chargeis,

effectively, the movementof the cationsbound to the solid particle surfaceunder the influenceof the electric field. The movementof this layer of cationsdragsthe bulk
P.103

pore water with it so that the flow velocity depends on the rate of movementof charge (current). Therefore,highercurrent resultsin more water being extractedand higher electroosmoticflow rate.

In the designof an electroosmoic dewateringsystem,it is necessary to choosean appropriatecurrentto dewatersludgefor achievinga particular final solid concentrationwithin a particulartreatmenttime. By rewriting Equation5.8, the current requiredto obtain the desiredsolid concentration within a particular treatment

time is

Ale ketRo

Equation5.20

From Equation5.8, it can be seenthat final solid concentrationis increased by increasingthe current in a particular treatmenttime.

5.3.3 TIME OVER WHICH CONSTANT CURRENT COULD BE MAINTAINED In Chapter4, it is statedthat the experimentalresultswith electioosmoticdewatering into 4 district stages. During stages A and B, with constantcurrent can be separated the cumulative volume of extractedwater has a linear relationshipwith time as constantcurrent is maintained. StageC startswhen the power supply cannot maintain constantcurrent asthe resistance of the sludgeis too high. As a result, the current drops and the rate of the water extractiondecreases until stageD at which the electroosmoticdewateringprocesshaseffectively stoppedand no further water is beingextracted. The time from the start of1dewatering treatmentto the end of stageB, which is defined asthe length of time over which constantcurrent could be
P.104

Cumulative t Volume

Dewateringunder constantcurrent Constant electroosmotic \ flow rate

Dewateringunder constantvoltage

Electroosmotic flow rate varies with time

01

tb

Time

Figure 5.2

Typical experimentalresultsof dewateringunderconstantcurrent

maintained, tb, is illustrated in Figure 5.2.

During the period of constantcurrent,tj, the linear relationshipbetweenelectroosmotic flow and time holds true. Therefore,the designequationsderived in Section 5.2 (Equations5.8 and 5.9) are only valid within this period. In order to estimatethe requiredtreatmenttime to obtain the desiredsolid concentrationof sludgeby using Equation5.8, it is necessary to ensurethat the estimatedtreatmenttime is less than the time over which constantcurrent could be maintained,tb, otherwisethe estimated treatmenttime is not accurate and lessthan the actualrequiredtreatmenttime to obtain the desiredsolid concentration. Similarly for calculatingthe final solid concentration to of sludgeafter a particular treatmenttime by using Equation5.9, it is necessary ensurethat the particular treatmenttime is lessthan tb, otherwise,the estimatedfinal is not accurateand lessthan the actual value. solid concentration

5.3.4 POWER SUPPLY The resistance of the electroosmoticdewateringsystemis a minimum when the dewateringtreatmentstarts'(i.e. RO= V011). During the dewateringprocess,the voltage from the power supply needsto be increased with time of treatmentin order to
P.105

Resistance

V.,

/1

V".,

I/I

R. Time

tbi

tb2

Figure 5.3

Increasein the time over which constantcurrent could be maintained,tb, by using higher maximum voltageoutput of the power supply, V,,,,,,

due increases time to electrochemical with constant current as resistance maintain the maximum reactionand desiccationat the anode. When the voltagereaches / Resistance V. V 1, the the > at which point voltageoutput of power supply, .. a.,, currentcannotbe kept constantandwill decrease. Figure 5.3 showsthe relationship betweenresistance and time.

In the designprocess,it is necessary to choosea suitablepower supply suchthat the maximum voltageoutput can'bemaintainedat a sufficiently high level to provide a constantcurrent for the treatmenttime. The time over which constantcurrent could
be maintained, tb, increases with the maximum voltage output, V,,,,,. However, the resistance during the electroosmotic dewatering process is a function of time and rises at an ever increasing rate so that increasing the maximum voltage output from the power supply, Vj,,, -;produces progressively less improvement in the time that the current remain'sconstant.'' It can be seen from Figure 5.3 that constant current cannot be maintained for very long (42 tj) by increasing the maximum voltage output of the

increases V,,,, the time. to power supply from V,,, resistance sharply with once ] 2 a;; ix, Therefore, an increasingly high power consumption'will be required to achieve a longer tb, which may be uneconomical.
P.106

5.3.5 PRESSURE When a pressure is appliedto the sludge,the stressis carriedby the water in the pores within the pore water causes as well asthe solid grains. The increasein pressure drainage. The rate of drainagedepends on the hydraulic permeabilityof the sludge. However,due to the relatively low hydraulic permeabilityof sludge,slow seepage is not significant unless occursand the volume of extractedwater by appliedpressure is appliedand eventhen is limited due to the way in which water is very high pressure bound to the sludgeparticles. Besides,from Equation4.27, it can be seenthat the of pressure. electroosmoticflow is independent

by the application In practice,the electroosmoticdewateringprocesscan be enhanced producesa significant overall improvementin of pressure andincreasingthe pressure the volume of water obtained(Table4.2). This is attributedto a reduction in air the electrical resistance. A low rate of voids within the sludgesamplewhich decreases increasein resistance during the electroosmoticdewateringprocessresultsin a longer time over which the dewateringprocessremainsin constantcurrent dewatering. It of high resistance. also preventsthe dewateringprocessfrom wasting energybecause

5.3.6 TYPE OF ELECTROIDES, I, The principle criterion in the selection, of electrodesis that they must be sufficiently electrically conductive.. Besidesthat, the rate of electrochemical reactiontaking place in the selectionof electrodematerial. at the electrodes also hasto be considered is because the surfaceelectrical resistivity of the electrodeincreases when electrochemical reactionoccursand high surfaceelectrical resistivity results in a_ shortertime over which constantcurrent could be maintained. Therefore,an electrodematerialwith a low rate of electrochemical reactionshouldbe selectedin the electroosmoticdewateringprocessas thi'snot only providesa longer time over which
P.107

_This

ElectrodeA with high

Resistance

ElectrodeB with low rate of electrochemical reaction

rateof electrochemical

Vma; 11

R0
tbI tb2

Time

Figure 5.4

Longer time over which constantcurrent could be maintainedis obtainedby selectingthe material with low rate of electrochemical reactionat electrodes.

constantcurrent could be maintained,but also saveselectrical energydue to high increases 5.4 Figure the that shows resistance more slowly using surfaceresistance. an electrodewith low electrochemical reactionrate, comparedto the electrodewith high electrochemical reactionrate. Therefore,the time over which constantcurrent by using the electrodes with low rate of could be maintained,tb, can be increased electrochemical reaction.

5.4 METHOD TO INCREASE THE TIME OVER WHICH CONSTANT CURRENT COULD BE MAINTAINED .-

In the electroosmoticdewateringprocess, the cumulative volume of water extracted has a linear relationshipwith time when a constantcurrentis maintained., Therefore, it is simple to predict the solid contentwith time using the designequationsderived in Section5.2., ' increases during the process As resistance due to electrochemical

to maintain the constant reactions,the voltage from the power supply hasto increase current accordingto Ohm's law.. When the resistance of the sludgeis too high, constantcurrent cannotbe maintainedby the power supply and the relationship betweencumulative volume of extractedwater and time is no longer linear. As a
P.108

5.2 Section derived in design the are not always applicable. result, equations Therefore,the time over which constantcurrentcould be maintained,tb, is a key dewateringwith constantcurrent and for the designof electroosmotic parameter governsthe validity of the designequations. As mentionedin Section5.3, the length of time over which constantcurrentcould be maintained,tb, is limited by the maximum voltageoutput of the power supply, V,.. Using a power supply with high maximum

the time over which constantcurrent could be maintained, voltage output can increase tb. However,it is uneconomical. In this section,anothermethodto increasethe time
over which constant current could be maintained, tb, without increasing the maximum

voltage output of the power supply, V,,,,,,is discussed.

5.4.1 THE CONCEPT OF DEWATERING WITH CONSTANT CURRENT I FOLLOWED BY I/2 The methodpresented in Figure 5.5 is basedon varying the applied constantcurrent value to ensurethat the designequationsare applicableduring the dewateringprocess. At the beginningof the dewateringprocess,a constantcurrent I is applied and the initial voltageis Vo. During dewateringwith a constantcurrent I, the relationship betweencumulativevolume of extractedwater and time is linear as the curve of OA shown in Figure 5.5 c. In order to maintain constantcurrent I, the voltage from the increases due to electrochemical time as power supply increases resistance with the maximum voltageoutput of the power reactions. At point A, the voltagereaches supply, V,,,,,,. At this moment,the appliedconstantcurrent is varied from Ito 1/ 2. According to Ohm's law, therefore,the voltagefrom the power supply is decreased to l 2 at point X, as shownin Figure 5.5 b. From pointA!, the sludgeis, V,,,, ., electroosmoticallydewatered with a constantcurrent 1/ 2. , As the current gradient decreases, but remainsconstantwith time. the electroosmoticflow rate decreases Therefore,the relationshipbetweencumulative volume of extractedwater and time
P.109

XB in Figure 5.5c, linear the shown until the voltage reaches of still remains as curve V be B. Based the time this constant current could over which concept, on .....at point

design be from be increased to that tj t3-t2+tl the tb, so equations can can maintained, final for longer Moreover, the treatment the time. and solid content required valid a in long-termtreatmentcan be predicted. The limitation of a power supply that cannot maintain a constantcurrent for a long time can also be minimised.

5.4.2 PRODUCING THE DESIGN CURVE FROM EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS The curve of cumulativevolume of extractedwater againsttime for dewateringwith a constantcurrentI followed by a constantcurrentI/2 (Figure 5.5c) can be predicted from the experimentalresultsof dewateringwith constantcurrent I and1/ 2 (Figure 5.5a andFigure 5.5b). Figure 5.5a andFigure 5.5b show the forms of the graphsof basedon cumulative volume againsttime and voltageagainsttime respectively,
experimental data for dewatering with constant current I and 1/ 2. Thepredicted

curve consists of two linear parts. The first linear part represents initial dewatering with constant current I until the voltage reaches the maximum voltage output of the power supply, V,.. It is followed by the second linear part which represents As the same constant current Iis

secondary dewatering with constant current 1/ 2.

applied initially, the profile of the first part of the predicted curve, as the curve of OA shown in Figure 5.5c, is equal to that of the experimental curve OA as shown in Figure 5.5a. V., When the voltage reaches the maximum voltage output of the power supply, Atthemoment, the

is vaned from Ito 1/ 2. time= the ti, at applied current x,

voltage becomes V,,,,, xl2.

Then, the profile of the second part of the predicted curve

as the curve of XB shown in Figure 5.5c follows the experimental curve XB as shown in Figure 5.5a, starting from the time = t2 at which the voltage is V,. / 2.- This relationship holds true until the voltage reaches the maximum voltage output of the power supply, V,., at time = t3P.110

CumulativeVolume Current=I A Current 12 B

Time
tj t2 t3

(a)
Voltage

Cuffent =I Vmax ------------------- J-.. A ---------------

Cment B

1/2

V..,, /2 v0 V012 0

-----------------------

Time
tj t2 t3

CumulativeVolume

B
A

OA -current I NB - current 1/ 2

0 tj
(c) -

Time t3-t2+tl

Figure5.5,.,,

(a) The graphs of cumulative volume against time. (b) The graphs of voltage against time. (c) The cumulative volume-time curve of

dewatering with a constant current I followed by a constant current 1/ 2. P.111

In the designprocess,usingthe predictedcurve and the designequationsderived in Section5.2, the final solid contentin a long treatmentperiod can be predicted.

5.5 EXPERIMENTAL

PROGRAMME

in orderto investigate In this section, the wasconducted a number of experiments effectsof design on thedewatering process andthetime overwhich parameters thevalidity of themethodto anddemonstrate constant current couldbemaintained described in Section increase thetime overwhichconstant current couldbemaintained
5.4. A similar experimentalset-upand samesludgesamplewere usedto that detailed in Section3.2 and Section3.2.1.1 respectively. However,the procedures were different from thosein Chapters 3 and4. In this section,the experimentalprocedures will be discussed.

5.5.1 EXPERIMENTAL SERIES 1- ELECTROOSMOTIC DEWATERING UNDER DIFFERENT CONITIONS , A seriesof experimentswas conductedusing the electroosmotic cell with disc electrodes madefrom perforatedcopperplatesand carbonplates. Initially, the cells were filled with 5OOg of sludgeand 250g of sludge,equatingapproximatelyto a sampleheight of 30mm and l5mm respectively. The experiments were conducted to 25kPa,50kPaand 75kPawhile keepingthe current varying the appliedpressure constantat 1A and 2A with maximum voltageoutput of 30V. Experimentswere conductedfor a total durationof 60 minutesfor the current at 2A and 120minutes for thecurrentatIA. Readingsof the voltageand cumulative volume of extractedwater

were taken at 60 secondintervalsfor the f irst 30 minutes,at 5 minute intervals for the next 30 minutesand at 15 minute intervalsfor the last 60 minutes. Readingsof, current were taken when the voltagereacheda maximum of 30V.- After the completionof eachtest, the solid contentof the remainingsludgewas measured. The
P.112

Table 5.2 Test I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9. 10 TestNo. 1-6 TestNo. 2-3,5 TestNo. I-3,7 TestNo. 1,10

ExperimentalseriesI- Dewateringunderdifferent conditions Electrode Copper Copper Copper Copper Copper Copper Copper Copper Copper Carbon -6 -9 Thickness 30mm 30mm 30mm 15mm 15mm 15mm 30mm 30mm 30mm 30mm Pressure 25kPa 50kPa 75kPa 25kPa 50kPa 75kPa 25kPa 50kPa 75kPa 25kPa Current 2A 2A 2A 2A 2A 2A IA IA IA 2A

To investigatethe effect of appliedpressure To investigatethe effect of samplethickness To investigatethe effect of different currents To investigatethe effect of different electrodematerials

in Table 5.2. details of the experimentsare summarized

5.5.2 EXPERIMENTAL SERIES 2- ELECTROOSMOTIC DEWATERING WITH CONSTANT CURRENT I FOLLOWED BY I/2 The experimentwas conductedusing the electroosmoticcell with copperdisc of 75kPawas electrodes. The cell was filled with 500g of sludge. A pressure appliedto the piston. Initially, a constantcurrent of 2A was appliedto the sludgeby a power supply with a maximum voltageoutput of 30V. When the voltage reached

appliedto the sludgeand maximum of 30V, a constantcurrentof IA was subsequently maintaineduntil the voltagereached30V again. During the experiment,readingsof
P.113

voltage and cumulativevolume of extractedwater were taken at 60 secondsintervals. After the completionof the test, the solid contentof the remainingsludgewas measured.

5.6 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

5.6.1 EXPERIMENTAL SERIES 1- ELECTROOSMOTIC DEWATERING UNDER DIFFERENT CONITIONS In this section,the effectsof designparameters (pressure, samplethickness,current dewateringprocessare discussedwith and electrodematerials)on the electroosmotic the experimentalresults.

S.6.1.1 EFFECT OF APPLIED PRESSURE The experimentalresultsfor investigatingthe effect of appliedpressure on the dewateringprocessare shownin Figure 5.6 andFigure 5.7. For 15mmthick sample, the times to maintainconstantcurrent,tb,for appliedpressures of 25kPa,50kPa and 75kPawere 20mins,24mins and 22minsrespectively. For a 30mm thick sample,the times over which constantcurrentcould be maintained,tb,with appliedpressures of 25kPa,5OkPa 40mins respectively. The results and75kPawere 20mins,45mins and. from 25kPato showedthe substantialincreasein tb when varying the appliedpressure 50kPa. This may be attributedto the higher pressure the sludgeparticles compressing and removing air voids within the sludgesamples, resulting in a lower rate of increase inresistance. However,comparedwith 50kPa,the time over which'constantcurrent could be maintained,tb, was shortened to 75kPa. when the pressure was increased This was thoughtto be because induceda higher hydraulic gradient the higher pressure that caused the water to be extractedmore rapidly. As a result, this decreased the moisturecontentof the samplemore rapidly, causingan increasein resistance. Even due to the reductionof air volume by applying thoughthe resistance was decreased
P.114

high pressure, the effect of reducingwater contentwas more a significant, resulting in resultedin an overall increasein resistance. Overall, an increasein pressure improvementin the volumeof water obtainedand was a benefit to the dewatering process.

5.6.1.2EFFECT OF SAMPLE THICKNESS investigatingthe effect of samplethicknesson the The resultsof the experiments dewateringprocessare shownin Figure 5.8 andFigure 5.9. From the results in Table 5.3, it may be seenthat doubling the samplethicknessdoublesthe time to reachthe samesolid contentaspredictedin Equation 5.16. It may also be seenthat less power is consumed to obtain samesolid contentin the sludgewhen the sludgeis 15mm thick, comparedto the sludgewith a thicknessof 30mm. The power consumptionshownin Table 2 was measured in kWh/kg of extractedwater. On the other hand,as shownin Figure 5.8 andFigure 5.9, the electroosmoticflow rate (slopeof the graphs)in stageB was almostthe samefor both samplethicknesses when dewateringwith constant the argumentthat electroosmoticflow rate is current andpressure. This substantiates not affectedby the thicknessof the samplewhen current is kept constantas predicted by Equation5.18.

S.6.1.3EFFECT OF DIFFERENT CURRENTS The resultsof the experiments investigatingthe effect of different current valueson the dewateringprocessare shownin Figure 5.10 to Figure 5.13. Itcanbe seenfromthe resultsthat a linear relationshipbetweencumulative volume of extractedwater and time was obtainedwhen sludgewas dewateredunderconstantcurrent. The resultsin , Figure 5.10 show that the overall flow rate (electroosmotic+ hydraulic) increased substantiallywith increasein the current from IA to 2A. Moreover,an increasein the

P.115

Table 5.3

Experimentalresults:Doubling the samplethicknessdoublesthe time to reachthe samesolid content Treatment Volume of collected water 92ml 47ml 136ml 68.5ml 113ml 55ml 161ml 80ml Solid content 19.6% 19.7% 22.0% 22.0% 20.7% 20.5% 23.6% 23.5% Power consumption 0.148 kWh/kg 0.124 kWh/kg 0.149 kWh/kg 0.119 kWh/kg 0.125 kWh/kg 0.109 kWh/kg 0.134 kWh/m3 0.109 kWh/kg

Thickness Pressure Time 30mm 15mm 30mm 15mm, 30mm 15mm. 30mm 15mm 50kPa 50kPa 5OkPa 50kPa 75kPa 75kPa 75kPa 75kPa 20min 10min 30min 15min 20min 10min 30min 15min

flow in improvement from 75kPa 25kPa to overall current showed an at same pressure improvement Comparing the the of the current and pressure, of effect rate. dewateringefficiency by increasingcurrent is more than that by increasingpressure. is the main dewateringsystem,electroosmosis Therefore,in the electroosmotic is hydraulic flow due to transport secondary. pressure and of water mechanism

Furthermore,the times to maintain constantcurrent at different currentsand pressures of 25kPa,the times to , are shownin Figure 5.11 to 5.13. , For appliedpressure maintain constant,tb,for appliedcurrent of IA and 2A were 55mins and 20mins For appliedpressure the times to maintain constant,tb, for of 5OkPa, respectively.-1 appliedcurrent of 1A and 2A were 98mins and45mins respectively. For applied for appliedcurrent of IA pressure of 75kPa,the times to maintain constantcurrent,1b, and 2A were 93minsand 40mins respectively. The resultsshow that the higher current resultedin a shortertime over which constantcurrent could be maintained.
P.116

This is thought to be because the higher current resultsin higher solid content more reactiontaking place,both increasingthe resistance rapidly and more electrochemical more rapidly with time.

5.6.1.4EFFECT OF DIFFERENT ELECTRODE MATERIALS investigatingthe effect of different electrodematerials The resultsof the experiments on the dewateringprocessare shownin Figure 5.14 and Figure 5.15. The results increased slowly with time when using carbonelectrodes show that the resistance increased the resistance more rapidly with time when using copperelectrodes. whereas This is because carbonelectrodes require4e' for the oxidation of eachcarbon atom and reaction with copperelectrodes require 2e. Therefore,the rate of electrochemical is slower than that with copperelectrodes. The electrochemical carbonelectrodes reactionequationsare shownbelow:

Oxidation taking placeat the anode:

Cu +

H20

->

CuO + 2H++ 2e'

(for copperanode)

C+ 2H20

C02 + 4E1+ + 4e'

(for carbon anode)

From the results,the time over which constantcurrentcould be maintainedusing to 32mins using carbonelectrodes. This copperelectrodeswas 20mins,ascompared the electrical was due to rapid rate of electrochemical reaction,which increased resistance. This resultedin.wastingelectricalenergyfor high electrical resistance. Therefore,using carbonelectrodes is more economicin power consumptionthan using copperelectrodes.

P.117

5.6.2 EXPERIMENTAL SERIES 2- ELECTROOSMOTIC DEWATERING WITH CONSTANT CURRENT I FOLLOWED BY I/2 dewateringwith constant2A followed by IA are shown The resultsof electroosmotic in Figures5.18 and 5.19, which arethe graphsof voltage againsttime and cumulative volume of extractedwater againsttime respectively. From the results,it can be seen that therewere two linear partsin the graphshownin Figure 5.19. The first linear part represents electroosmoticdewateringwith 2A. The secondpart represents dewateringwith 1A. The time over which constantcurrent of 2A could be maintainedwas 40mins. At that time, the voltagereachedthe maximum voltage in voltage output of 30V. Then, the currentvalue was varied to 1A, resulting decrease to 15V. The current of IA was maintainedfor 26mins following the current of 2A. Therefore,the total time over which constantcurrentcould be maintainedwas 66mins. Comparedwith dewateringwith 2A alone,dewateringwith 2A followed by IA had longer time over which constantcurrentcould be maintainedso that the dewatering 5.2 for longer derived in Section by design be the a equation processcould governed time.

The curve of dewateringwith 2A followed by IA was predictedby the experimental resultsof dewateringwith 1A and2A. Referring to the resultsin experimentalseries

1, the graphsof voltage againsttime and cumulative volume againsttime for dewateringwith IA and 2A are shownin Figure 5.16 and Figure 5.17 respectively. The figures show that the times to maintainconstantcurrent for IA and 2A were 93mins and40n-fts. Initially, the predictedcurve would follow the resultsof dewateringwith 2A until the time = 40mins at which the voltagewas 30V. Therefore, the curve of OA asshown in Figure 5.16 and Figure 5.17 is the first linear part of the predictedcurve. For dewateringwith IA, the time at which the voltagewas 15V was 65mins. Therefore,the secondpart of the predictedcurve would follow the resultsof
P.118

dewateringwith IA from the time at which the voltagewas 65mins,until the voltage reached30V againat time = 93mins. The secondpart of the predictedcurve is shown as the curve of XB in Figure 5.16 andFigure 5.17. The combinationof the curve of OA andAT is the predictedcurve asshownin Figure 5.18 and Figure 5.19. Thetotal time to maintainconstantcurrentof the predictedcurve was 68mins. Comparingthe predictedcurve with the experimentalresults,both curveswere almostthe same. It is demonstrated that the experimental resultscomply with the conceptof the methodto increasethe time over which constantcurrent could be maintaineddescribedin Section 5.4.

P.119

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5.6.3 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR EACH PARAMETER dewateringsystemunderconstantcurrent, the design For designingan electroosmotic below. for eachparameter are discussed requirements

5.6.3.1SAMPLE THICKNESS The samplethicknessdoesnot affect the electroosmoticflow rate and treatmenttime. It affectsthe initial resistance of the sludgeonly. Therefore,in the designof the be kept asthin as dewatering the thickness should sample electroosmotic system, low enoughprovided that the power supply can possiblein order to keepthe resistance maintain constantcurrent.

5.6.3.2 CURRENT According-to Grundl and Michalski (1996), a voltage gradient of 1V/cm is sufficient to produce electroosmotic flow. Based on the concept of dewatering under constant

current, the basic requirement of current gradient should not be less than RO x IV/cm.

S.6.3.3 TIME 0 VER WHICH CONSTANT CURRENT COULD BE MA INTA INED The durationof maintainingconstantcurrent governsthe validity of designequations derivedin Section5.2., Thereforeit shouldbe long enoughto make surethe design equationsare valid for the whole dewateringprocess. -.There are 3 ways to lengthentb. They are: (1) increasingthe maximum voltageoutput of the power supply; (2) applying high pressure on the sludge;(3) using electrodes with a low rate of electrochen-dcal reactionand (4) applying I followed by 1/2 -.,, ,! ,

5.6.3.4 POWER SUPPLY

The maximum voltageoutput of the power supply is relatedto the time over whichconstantcurrent could be maintained. , It shouldbe maintainedsufficiently high
P.134

to provide a constantcurrent for the treatmenttime and must not be lessthan the initial
voltage VO,which is equal to IRO.

5.6.3.5 PRESSURE

As the sludgedewaters, the volume of sludgedecreases. A minimum pressurethat is high enoughto compress betweenthe sludge and the the sludgeand avoid separation electrodesshouldbe applied.

5.6.3.6 TYPE OF ELECTRODES is that they must be sufficiently The basicrequirementof choosingelectrodes electrically conductive. Moreover,the reactivity of the electrodematerialsto electrolysisshould be low because a low rate of electrochemical reactionimplies a low rate of increasein resistanceduring the dewateringprocess.

5.6.4 DESIGN PROCEDURES OF ELECTROOSMOTIC DEWATERING The designequationshavebeenderived in Section5.2 and their relevantdesign including samplethickness,current,time over which constantcurrent parameters, havebeendiscussed in Section 5.3. could be maintained,power supply and pressure, help to understand All the designequationsandparameters the designprocedures. dewateringsystemvarieswith different needs. The way of designingan electroosmotic It involves either the prediction of (1) the requiredtreatmenttime to obtain the desired solid content;(2) the final solid contentafter a particular treatmenttime; or (3) the currentto obtain a particular final solid contentwithin a particulartreatment. For all theseaspects, thereis no needto considerthe effect of dimensionof sludge(sample thickness,L, and cross-sectional area,A)., This is because changeof the dimension of RO,as mentionedin Section5.3.1. Inthissection, sludgeaffectsthe initial resistance, for theseaspects the designprocedures are discussed.
P.135

5.6.4.1DESIGN PROCEDUREFOR CALCULATNG THE REQUIRED TREATMENT TIME TO OBTAIN DESIRED FINAL SOLID CONTENT In this case,the desiredfinal solid contentis given and the requiredtreatmentis higher The the current,the shorterthe the with current. unknown and varies treatmenttime will be. The designprocedurefor this case(refer to Figure 5.20) is as below:

1. 2. 3.

Measurethe initial solid content,SDI; Choosethe appropriate current,1; Choosethe appropriate type of electrodes and maximum voltage appliedpressure, output of the power supply,V..; Use the electroosmotic chosenin Steps2 and 3 to cell with the designparameters determinethe electroosmotic permeability,k,, the time over which constant RO; current could be maintained,tb; andthe initial resistance,

5.

Calculatethe requiredtreatmenttime, t, using Equation5.12 with the experimentalresultsin Step4; . Comparethe requiredtreatmenttime, t, with the time over which constantcurrent I could be maintained,tb. If the requiredtreatmenttime'is lessthan the time over
which constant current could be maintained (t < tb), the actual required treatment time of the electroosmotic dewatering system will be the required treatment

6.

is larger 5. If in Step time than the time over treatment the required calculated which constantcurrentcould be maintainedQ> tb), go back to Step2 with, applying a constantcurrent of 1/ 2 or go back to Step3 and increasethe appliedpressure maximum voltageoutput of the power supply, V ..... and/or. and/orchooseanothermaterialwith lower rate of electrochemical reaction asthe electrodesin order to increasethe time over which constantcurrent could be maintained,
tb.

P.136

Measurethe initial solid content,SDI

Choose current, I

Apply a constant current of 1/ 2 Chooseappliedpressure, type of electrodes and maximum voltageoutput of the power supply,V"""

or

Determineelectroosmoticpenneability,k,, time over which constantcurrent could be RO maintained,tb and initial resistance,

Calculaterequiredtreatmenttime, t (Equation5.12)

Increase tb by increasing the maximum voltage output of the power supply, V,,., and/
If t> tb

YES

applied pressure and/or

choosing another material with lower rate of electrochemical reaction as NO, the electrodes

Predictedtreatmenttime = Calculatedtreatmenttime, t

Figure 5.20

Flow chart for the prediction of requiredtreatmenttime

P.137

5.6.4.2DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR CALCULATING THE FINAL SOLID CONTENTAFTER A PARTICULAR TREATMENT TIME In this case,the treatmenttime is given and the final solid contentis unknown and varieswith the current. The higher the current,the higher final solid content will be. The designprocedurefor this case(refer to Figure 5.21) is as below:

1. 2. 3.

Measurethe initial solid content,SDI; Choosethe appropriate current,I; Choosethe appropriate type of electrodesand maximum voltage appliedpressure, ; output of the power supply, V .....

4.

Use the electroosmotic chosenin Steps2 and 3 to cell with the designparameters determinethe electroosmotic permeability,k,, the time over which constant RO; current could be maintained,tb andtheinitial resistance,

5.

Comparethe particulartreatmenttime, t, with the time over which constant tb. If the particular treatmenttime is lessthan the current could be maintained_, time over which constantcurrent could be maintained(t < tb), go to Step6. If the requiredtreatmenttime is larger than the time over which constantcurrent could be maintained(t > tb), go back to Step2 with applying a constantcurrent of 1/ 2 or go back to Step3 and increasethe maximum voltageoutput of the power and/orchooseanothermaterialwith lower supply, V,,., and/orappliedpressure in order to increasethe time over rate of electrochemical reactionasthe electrodes which constantcurrentcould be maintained,tb;

6.

Calculatethe final solid content,using Equation5.13 with the experimental resultsin Step4.

PAS

Measure the initial solid content, SDI

Choosecurrent,I Apply a constant current of 1/ 2 Chooseappliedpressure, type of electrodes andmaximum voltageoutput of the power supply,V.

or

Determineelectroosmoticpermeability,k,, time over which constantcurrentcould be RO maintained,tb and initial resistance,

Increase tb by increasing the maximum voltage output of the power supply, V,., andl, applied pressure and/or choosing another material with lower rate of electrochemical reaction as NO the electrodes

YES If t tb

Calculate final solid content, SD2 (Equation 5.13)

Predicted final solid content

Calculated final solid content, SD2

Figure 5.21

Flow chart for the prediction of final solid content P.139

5.6.4.3DESIGNPROCEDURE FOR CALCULATING THE CURRENT TO OBTAINA PARTICULAR FINAL SOLID CONTENT WITHINA PARTICULAR
TREATMENT TIME

In this case,the treatmenttime andthe final solid contentare given and the current is below: 5.22) is (refer Figure for design The to this as case procedure unknown.

1. 2. 3.

Measurethe initial solid content,SDI; Choosethe trial current,I; Choosethe appropriate type of electrodesand maximum voltage appliedpressure, output of the power supply,V.;

4.

(if 3 in 2 Steps design Use the electroosmotic the and chosen parameters cell with determine Step 5) in to the electroosmotic the current calculated redesign,use Ro; permeability,k, and the initial resistance,

5. 6.

Calculatethe current,usingEquation5.20 with the experimentalresults in Step4; Use the electroosmoticcell with the designparameters chosenin Step3 and the currentcalculatedin Step5 to determinethe time over which constantcurrent could be maintained,tb;

7.

Comparethe particular treatmenttime, t, with the time over which constant

is less If be treatment time than the tb. the particular current could maintained,

time over which constantcurrentcould be maintainedQ< Ot the current required for the dewateringprocesswill be the current calculatedin Step4. If the requiredtreatmenttime is largerthan the time over which constantcurrent could
be maintained (t > tb), go back to Step 3 and increase the maximum voltage output

,,,,and appliedpressure and chooseanothermaterial with of the power supply, V, in order to increasethe lower rate'of electrochemical reactiona'sthe electrodes
time over which constant current could be maintained, tb.

P.140

Measure the initial solid content, SDI

Choosetrial current,I

Chooseappliedpressure, type of electrodes and maximum voltageoutput of the power supply,V'.

Determineelectroosmotic permeability,k,, Ro and initial resistance,

Calculaterequiredcurrent,I (Equation5.20)

Deten-nine time over which constantcurrent could be maintained,tb Increase ij, by increasingthe YES If t> tb maximum voltage output of the'powersupply, V., and appliedpressureandchoosii anothermaterial with lower rate of electrochemical reactionasthe electrodes

NO

Predicted current

Calculated current, I

Figure 5.22

Flow chart for the prediction of requiredcurrent

P.141

5.7 CHAPTER SUMMARY

Electroosmotic dewatering of sludge under constant current is a new subject of from different dewatering under constant voltage. its design is and concept research This chapter derives the design equations to calculate the final solid content and treatment time and discussesthe theoretical basis for the design parameters, including sample thickness, cur-rent,time over which constant current could be maintained, power supply, pressure and type of electrode. The time over which constant current

could be maintained, tb, is a key parameter for the design of electroosmotic dewatering with constant current becausethe design equations are only valid within tb. The

concept of dewatering with current I followed by I/2 to increase the time over which constant current could be maintained is introduced. The design requirements of each

parameter and design procedures are also discussed in this chapter.

herein may be The conclusionsthat may be drawn from the work presented summarised asfollows:

1.

When applying the conceptof electroosmoticdewateringwith constantcurrent, the electroosmotic of sludgecross-sectional area,A, permeabilityis independent and samplethickness,L. This meansthat variation of cross-sectional areaand samplethicknessdoesnot affect the electroosmoticflow rate.

2.

The time requiredto obtain the desiredfinal solid concentrationis longer when the thicknessof the sludgeis increased. Lesspower is consumedto obtain the samesolid contentin the sludgewhen the samplethicknessof sludge is smaller, comparedto the sludgewith higher thickness. Therefore,designingan , electroosmoticdewateringsystemwith a small samplethicknesshas the advantage on economyof power consumption.

P.142

3.

The electroosmoticflow rate increases with increasein the current, L Therefore,in an electroosmoticdewateringsystem,higher current results in more water being extractedand savingtime to obtain the desiredfinal solid concentration.

4.

An increasein pressure resultedin improvementin the volume of water it increases the overall flow rate due to a high obtained. This is because hydraulic gradient. It also removesair voids resulting in a low rate of increase in resistance during the dewateringprocess. Therefore,it preventsthe dewateringprocessfrom wastingenergybecause of high resistance.

5.

The time over which constantcurrent could be maintained,tb, increases with the maximum voltageoutput, V.. Therefore,a constantelectroosmoticflow

rate can be kept for longer when using a power supply with high voltage output. It is helpful for the designof an electroosmoticdewateringprocessto havea long lasting constantelectroosmoticflow rate. 6. Using carbonelectrodes yields a longer time over which constantcurrent could be maintainedand is more economicin power consumptionthan using copper electrodes. Therefore,reducingthe reactivity of the conductingelements the overall efficiency of the processas well asits within the presswill enhance life expectancy. 7. Using the methodof dewateringwith currentI followed by 1/ 2 can increasetb. Therefore,the designequationscan be valid for a longer time. The design curve of dewateringwith currentI followed by 1/ 2 can be predictedby the experimentalresultsof dewateringwith I and 1/ 2.

From the experimentalresults,it is shownthat the designparameters affect eachother. Summarisingthe experimentalresults,Figure 5.23 showsthe relationshipsbetweenthe designparameters.
P.143

Legends: CParameter Design A . Design Parameter B When A increases, B decreases When A decreases, B increases Design B Parameter Whcn A increascs, B incrcascs Whcn A dccreascs, B dccrcases

For example:

increases Resistance due to high rate of electrochemical Electrode Reactivity reaction

Rapid increasein resistance resultsin a short time to maintain constant current ------C

Resistance

tb

Figure 5.23 - Relationshipsbetweendesignparameters ,

P.144

CHAPTER6

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 CONCLUSIONS
Every day,wastewatertreatmentplantsproduct a hugequantity of sludgewhich hasto be transported and disposedof. In order to lower the cost of transportationand

disposal,the sludgehasto be dried out asmuch as possiblebefore disposal. However, due to the physical and chemicalpropertiesof sludge,removal of water from sludge based dewatering by be techniques on cannot easily carried out conventional is disposal The thereforeextremelyexpensiveand of sludge mechanicalcompression. is becominga problem facing the whole of the industrializedworld.

Electroosmoticdewateringis a novel techniqueto dewatersludge. Eicctroosmosis, is is the movementof water under the the electrokinetic phenomena, which one of influence of a direct current electric field. According to the Helmholtz-Smoluchowski

theory,electroosmoticflow is a function of voltage gradientand zetapotential and is is dcwatcring The independent rate substantialwhen electroosmotic size. of pore dewateringlow hydraulic permeabilitysludge. Moreover,electroosmoticdewatering drying. low to thermal compared of when amount energy consumes a relatively However,electrochemicalreactionsoccur during the dcwateringprocess. Gasesare resulting in reduced generated at the electrodesand pH changes near the electrodes, dewateringefficiency by increasingelectrical resistance and changingzetapotential havereportedthat respectively. As shown in Chapter2, many researchers elcctroosmoticdewatcringof sludgeis more cfficicnt than conventionalhydraulically driven methodsand the dewateringratecan be enhanccd by the combinationof electric
P.145

field and pressure. The positive effect of electroosmoticdewateringof sludge hasbeen known for severalyears. However,this technologyhasnot yet beensuccessfully barriers is because to the This technological in industry. there are several applied be One to that technology of these this are yet resolved. commercialexploitation of barriersis a scientifically robust designmethodology.

In Chapter3, a numberof experimentswith different sludgesampleswere conductedby dewatering feasibility the to of of electroosmotic using the electroosmoticcell evaluate in dewatering dewatering terms determine of the efficiency electroosmotic sludgeand The final treated sludge. experimental content of solid and rate, energyconsumption be dewatering final higher could obtained and rate of content that solid a resultsshow by the applicationof electricity, comparedto the application sludgecould be enhanced for dewatering Moreover, the of consumption electroosmotic energy of compression. drying. It be found to thermal to compared concludesthat the economic, sludgewas is feasible. dewatering treatment sludge of wastewater applicationof electroosmotic increased The experimentalresultsalso show that electrical resistance and current decreased with time during the dewateringprocesswith constantvoltage. Increased desiccation, by caused al reactions and electrochemic which was mainly resistance, flow flow drawn that to the so electroosmotic generate electroosmotic voltage affected with time. Therefore,the voltage gradientappliedto the sludge to rate decreased is decreases flow the with time even thougha not constant and geneiate electroosmotic from is supply applied to the sludge. power voltage constant

As the electroosmoticflow rate varied with time underconstantvoltagesupply, using Helmholtz-Smoluchowskiequationwith the assumptions of no electrochemicalreaction and constantelectroosmoticpermeabilityto predict the dewatcringprocessis not valid. Developmentof a more robust designframework for elcctroosmoticdewateringof
P.146

for design framework Chapter 4, integrating In is the of therefore an sludge necessary. founded developed, dewatering sludge was on the of electrokineticallyenhanced laboratory demonstrated by and circuits simple electrical mathematics of experimentation. The derived equationsand experimentalresultsshowedthat dewatering decreases flow time with constantvoltage when with electroosmotic rate and is constantwhen dewateringwith constantcurrent. It concludesthat the sludge electroosmoticdewateingof sludgewith constantcurrent not only enhances dewateringefficiency,but also hasthe advantage over of simplifying designprocedures thoserequiredfor electroosmoticdewateringof sludgeusing constantvoltage. This is because the electroosmoticdewateringwith constantcurrentcan producea linear For design flow between the the time. of simplifying process, purpose and relationship it is suggested that dewateringof sludgeshould be achievedby maintaining constant current,insteadof constantvoltage. ,

Traditionally, electroosmoticdewateringis achievedby maintaining constantvoltage. Therefore,electroosmoticdewateringof sludgeunderconstantcurrent is a new subject for dewateringwith constantcurrent, for research. In Chapter5, the designparameters including samplethickness,appliedcurrent, time to maintainconstantcurrent, power discussed design type the and of electrodes, were equations and supply,appliedpressure for prediction of the final solid concentrationof sludgeandtreatmentwere derived. for eachparameterand designprocedureswere also Besides,the designrequirements discussed. ' It concludesthat the time to maintain constantcurrent,tb, is a key parameterfor the designof an electroosmoticdcwatcringsystemunderconstantcurrent. This is because the designequationsare only valid when constantcurrent is maintained. A methodto increasethe time to maintain constantcurrent,basedon the conceptof dewateringwith current I followed byl/ 2, was introduced. Anumbcrofcxpcrimcnts were conductedin order to investigatethe effects of designparameters on the
P.147

dewateringprocesswith constantcurrent and the time to maintain electroosmotic constantcurrent. The validity of the conceptof dewateringwith current I followed by 1/ 2 was demonstrated. The following conclusionshavebeendrawn from the work in Chapter5: presented

1.

When applying the conceptof electroosmoticdewateringwith constantcurrent, the electroosmoticpermeability is independent of sludgecross-sectional area,A, and samplethickness,L. This meansthat variation of cross-sectional areaand

samplethicknessdoesnot affect the electroosmoticflow rate. 2. The time requiredto obtain the desiredfinal solid concentrationis longer when the thicknessof the sludgeis increased. Less power is consumedto obtain the samesolid contentin the sludgewhen the samplethicknessof sludgeis smaller, comparedto the sludgewith higher thickness. Therefore,designingan electroosmoticdewateringsystemwith a small samplethicknesshas the on economyof power consumption. advantage 3. The electroosmoticflow rate increases with increasein the current,L Therefore,in an electroosmoticdewateringsystem,higher current results in more water being extractedand savingtime to obtain the desiredfinal solid concentration. 4. An increasein pressure resultedin improvementin the volume of water obtained. it increases This is because the overall flow rate due to a high hydraulic gradient. It also removesair voids resulting in a low rate of increasein resistance during the dewateringprocess. Therefore,it preventsthe dewateringprocessfrom wastingenergybecause of high resistance.
5. The time over which constant current could be maintained, tb, increases with -

,.

the maximum voltageoutput, V,,..

Therefore,a constantelectroosmoticflow

ratecan be kept for longer when using a power supply with high voltage output.
P.148

It is helpful for the designof an electroosmoticdewateringprocessto have a long lasting constantelectroosmoticflow rate. 6. Using carbonelectrodesis more economicin power consumptionthan using copperelectrodes. Therefore,reducingthe reactivity of the conducting the overall efficiency of the processas elementswithin the presswill enhance well asits life expectancy. 7. Using the methodof dewateringwith current I followed by 1/ 2 can increasetb. Therefore,it can prolong the time to maintain constantelectroosmoticflow rate. The designcurve of dewateringwith current I followed by 1/ 2 can be predicted by the experimentalresultsof dewateringwith I and 1/ 2.

in Section 1.2. Overall, this research the and objectives as stated aim achieved

6.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
There aremany issueswhich havenot beencoveredin this research. In order to for further improve the electroosmoticdewateringprocess,somerecommendations studiesare listed as follows:

1.

From the experimentalresults,it was observedthat the electrical resistance increased rapidly with time. , This was largely due to the occurrenceof electrochemical reactions. Experimentsshould be conductedto examinethe effectsof electrochemicalreactions,suchascorrosion,changein p1l and gas generation,during electroosmoticdewateringwith constantcurrent and then determinepreventivemeasures.

2.

As the maximum voltageoutput of the power supply was 30V and the maximum current which could be developedwas limited as 2A, the effect of dewateringat higher current could not be investigated. It is suggestcd that experimentsshould
P.149

be conductedto investigatethe effect of dewateringat higher current, using a higher voltage output power supply. The experimentalresultswould provide a good comparisonto the resultsobtainedin this research. 3. In this research, the experimentswere conductedat laboratoryscalewhere the dewatering underconstantcurrent was reported. of electroosmotic positive effect It is recommended that a full-scale belt filter presscombinedwith electroosmotic dewateringunderconstantcurrent shouldbe developed. 4. The main problem of using copperaselectrodesis corrosion due to Moreover, is hard be in belt too to copper used a press reactions. electrochemical (EKGs) should be applied machine. The conceptof electrokineticgeosynthetics filter to developelectrodes carbon cloth, which is suitable to be a conductive as has belt in full-scale the capability of overcoming and system press used a corrosion. 5. An increasingbody of evidencesuggests that reversalof electrodepolarity or increase during direction the efficiency of the electroosmosis can current however,polarity reversalwas not dewateringprocess. In this research, framework. is It design in that investigation of the the recommended considered be best the time to reverse carried and should out effect of polarity reversal electrodepolarity shouldbe analysedand predictedfor the purposeof design. 6. In this research, one-dimensional electroosmoticflow betweentwo parallel electrodeswas considered. However,in somecases(e.g. an in-situ electroosmoticdewateringsystemusing 'wick' drains), two-dimensional electroosmoticflow occurssubjectto a non-linear electric field. Therefore, the research should be extendedto solve the problem of two-dimensional electroosmoticflow. Because the flow is relatedto complex mathematical

formulations and boundaryconditions,it is suggested to solve it by using numericalmethods.

P.150

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P. 160

APPENDIX

Data of Experimental Testings

P. 161

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