UPPSALA UNIVERSITY

REPROCESSING OF REFLECTION SEISMIC DATA FROM THE SKNE AREA, SOUTHERN SWEDEN

By WEDISSA ABDELRAHMAN

Chairperson of the Supervisory Committee: Professor Chris Juhlin Professor Mats Pettersson

Table of Contents

Introduction.. Background........ Important problems.. Goals of the project... Review of seismic reflection method........... Seismic data acquisition........... Seismic information ........... Noise.......... Filtering.......... Deconvolution............ Velocity and static correction......... Migration............ Interpretation......... Data acquisition details........... Data processing.......... Pre-stack operations...................... Bandpass filters... FK_Filter.............. Deconvolution......... Stacked sections. Line 206.. Line 208.. Line 212.. Migrate sections. Line 208.. Line 206.......................... Line 212.. Processing parameters... Comparison with previous processing... 3-D view... Migrated section 3-D plots ... Interpretation ... Discuss the results.......... Conclusions ........... References..........

3 3 3 4 5 5 7 7 9 11 16 19 28 30 33 33 34 36 38 42 42 43 44 45 46 47 49 50 55 59 61 63 64 65 66

Acknowledgments

The author wishes to express sincere appreciation to Prof. Christopher Juhlin for his assistance in the preparation of this thesis. In addition, special thanks to Dr. Mats Pettersson for his assistance and helpful idea, special thanks to Hesam Kazemeini and Niklas Juhojuntti whose familiarity with the needs and ideas was helpful during the programming phase of this undertaking. Thanks also to the members of the Geophysics PhD students for their discussion and valuable input.

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Introduction

Seismic reflection surveying is a powerful method to explore the structures of the Earths crust and describe it is layers. It is also used extensively in the oil industry. Offshore seismic profiles were acquired in southern Sweden (Skane area) for petroleum exploration purposes, but no productive fields were discovered in that area. The seismic reflection data were collected and processed in the 1970s. The purpose of this thesis is to reprocess some of the seismic profiles from the 1970s with new processing programs to improve the results and compare it with the previous results. Offshore lines 208, 206, 212 have been selected in this project because they cross each other and are close to a borehole with sonic data. The borehole lies close to lines 208 and 212 as seen from the Skane area map. Also this report can be used to introduce the reader to fundamentals of seismic data processing. The processing was done using Claritas software by applying standard processing steps to produce migrated stacked sections for every line as a final product.

i. Background : The seismic reflection method is an important method to probe beneath the surface of the earth, usually the main target is to search for economic deposits of oil and gas located in depth between 100 m up to 5 km, however, this method has great benefits in engineering and scientific studies. Seismic exploration methods can be divided into data acquisition, data processing and data interpretation, this project concentrates on the data processing part.

ii.

Important problems : The aim of this project is to work with seismic data from the 1970s and reprocess it again with a new processing program (Claritas) and get better results. Problems from the previous processing face were: Reduce the random and coherent noise (multiples). Get better resolution by using velocity analysis and stacking. Correcting the seismic image event location by using migration methods.

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iii. Goals of the project are to redo the data processing part and compare it with previous results.

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Review of seismic reflection methods

1. SEISMIC DATA ACQUISITION

Seismic acquisitions is to generate of seismic waves and detect them after passing through or reflect from the target region (of the earth), the most effective way of seismic acquisition is the reflection of seismic waves. This is done by generating hundreds to tens of thousand of seismic source events (shots) at different locations of the seismic area. These seismic waves travel and reflect from different interfaces and are detected by different sensors (geophones and hydrophones) which transform them to electrical voltage that can be stored in different media types.[6]

FIG. 1: Seismic acquisition where the source of the seismic waves is dynamite shot. Each receiver that records data of one shot (seismic source) is called a trace, several receivers detect the same shot and record it depending upon their position relative to the source (called offsets).

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Seismic acquisition has these components: Seismic shots sources: there are two main types of seismic shots Seismic source on land

FIG. 2: Land Seismic acquisition.

Impact: Sledge hammer, Drop weight, Accelerated weight Impulsive: Dynamite, detonating cord, Airgun, Shotgun, Borehole sparker Vibrator: Vibroseis Vibrator plate, Rayleigh wave generator

Seismic source in water

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FIG. 3: marine Seismic acquisition [5].

2. SEISMIC INFORMATION: After the source generates the seismic wave, the receiver records the seismic trace (also called seismogram) which contains the following recorded signals. Reflections Refractions Interface waves Multiples Noise.

3. NOISE:

There are two types of noise, random noise which comes from the background, and coherent noise which generally comes from the seismic source itself effect, like multiples.

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Multiples: there are two main kinds of multiples; long path multiples and short path multiples (immediately arriving after the primary so it increases the length of the impulse).

Ghost reflection: A ghost is a short-path multiple, or a spurious reflection that occurs when seismic energy reverberates in the shallow subsurface, such as at the base of the weathering layer.

FIG. 4: Ghost and multiple.

Near surface multiple

long-path multiple

FIG. 5: Different multiple types and their effect on the source signature.

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FIG. 6: Semblance can been used to suppress multiples. Multiples can be removed with deconvolution. Easily identified with an autocorrelation Removed using cross-correlation of the autocorrelation with the waveform.

4. Filtering. a. Seismic frequencies used in oil and gas industry: The oil industry uses techniques which inject very high energy air pressure into water which transmit seismic waves to the crust beneath the sea. The resulting waves can then be studied to show geological structures often associated with petroleum deposits. Pneumatic air-guns are the most common energy source for marine geophysical surveys. These seismic surveys are usually conducted by towing an array of air-guns just below the surface behind a ship. Sound pulses from these surveys are often detectable in the water tens or even hundreds of kilometers from the source. During seismic surveys, a predominantly low frequency (10 - 300 Hz), high intensity (215-250 dB) sound pulse is emitted every few seconds by the array of guns with the air pressure depending on the size of the array.

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b.

Digital filter specifications: Digital filters can be specified in terms of those components, desired attenuation, and permitted deviations from the desired value in their frequency response (passband, transition band, stopband, ripples, and cutoff frequency).

FIG. 7: Digital filter properties.

Passband The band of frequency components that are allowed to pass Stopband The band of frequency components that are attenuated to the top of the first sidelobe of the filter's frequency response. Passband ripple The maximum amount by which attenuation in the passband may deviate from nominal gain Stopband attenuation The minimum amount by which frequency components in the stopband are attenuated. Transition band It lies between passband and stopband where the filter's shape may be unspecified.

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5. DECONVOLUTION: At the instant when a shot is fired the source signature propagates through the earth, this seismic wavelet (source signature) contains a wide frequency band and it is traveling from each layer to other layers and reflecting at layer boundaries. The reflections (primary waves) are received at sensors (geophone or hydrophone) and recorded (traces). However, the received signals contain different kinds of noise (random noise and multiples). To find and suppress the multiples we can use deconvolution.

FIG. 8: Define the crosscorrelation operation in seismic data. a. If we know the source signature ( source pulse) Then cross-correlating it with the recorded waveform gets us back (closer) to the reflectivity function b. If we dont know the source pulse Then autocorrelation of the waveform gives us something similar to the input plus multiples. Cross-correlating the autocorrelation with the waveform then provides a better approximation to the reflectivity function. [4] I. Deconvolution types. a. Spiking deconvolution (also called whitening filter). Attempts to compress reflections in time to reduce the source wavelet to a spike to resolve sharp reflections, the best filter to achieve this is a Wiener filter.

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b. Predictive deconvolution. The arrival times of primary reflections are used to predict the arrival times of multiples which are then removed. [4] Prediction distance

( ) effect.

Assume the wavelet is W and reflectivity series is R, the convolution product of W with R is Y(t) = w(t) * r(t) (1) Where y (t) is output of convolution of wavelet w (t) and reflectivity series r(t) , ( t ) refer to time domain.

Transfer equation (1) from time domain to (z) domain.

Y ( z ) = W ( z ). R ( z )
where W has minimum phase.

(2)

Spike deconvolution filter G(z) is inverse of minimum delay wavelet W(z).[3] Q( z ) = G ( z ).Y ( z ) = R( z ) (3) Predictive deconvolution filter (with gap distance = ) has header value h Where the header value is define as first () value of W(z). There for predictive deconvolution is related to spike deconvolution by equation. g ( z ) = h ( z ).G ( z ) (4) The out put of prediction deconvolution with predictive distance

( ) is.

Q ( z ) = g ( z ).Y ( z ) = h ( z ).G ( z ).W ( z ).R ( z ) = h ( z ).R ( z ) (5)

Equation (4) states that for reflective series. When

( ) = 1, the output of predictive deconvolution is the

( ) > 1, the output of equation (5) is the convolution of the reflectivity series with the wavelet truncated to lag ( ) . Peacock and Treitel (1969) stated that
predictive deconvolution is in effect the choosing of T to control the resolution. Therefore by choosing T (prediction lag) the output of deconvolution will give us the desirable result without oscillations. The figure below illustrates this. [11]

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FIG. 9: The effect of different gap distance (lag) in the predictive deconvolution result. c. Multitrace deconvolution. Surface-consistent deconvolution. We can specify the main benefits of this kind of deconvolution by these three factors. Noise reduction: By using redundancy of multichannel data the noise is suppressed (as effect of stacking) and provides better statistics. Surface consistency: Channel deconvolution tries to balance the frequency spectra of seismic traces which improves the similarity of the wavelets, but it has the drawback of shifting the wavelet while it tries to enhance the similarity. However by using surface-consistent deconvolution, spectral balancing is obtained without changing the surface consistence model. [15] Amplitude extraction: After applying deconvolution the energy of seismic traces is less. Reductions in amplitude by 90% are not uncommon for spiking deconvolution [15]. Usually, trace balancing is done after deconvolution to compensate the loss in the trace amplitudes. However, this rebalancing can easily destroy the relative amplitude; by using surface-consistent deconvolution this effect is reduced.

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Deconvolution main goals are: 1. Remove the effect of the wavelet from seismogram (it compresses the wavelet by increasing the resolution of seismic data). 2. Produce wavelets with simple (minimal) phase characteristics (ideal phase is zero).

FIG. 10: The different between minimum phase and zero phase wavelet.

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FIG. 11: Deconvolved section (right) has crisp, fine detail appearance compared to the section without deconvolution (left) which is blurred. After applying the deconvolution, these effects can be distinguished: i. ii. The seismic image details are compressed and sharp (the spectral whiting). Also the trace lines have continuous shape due to effect of phase similarity in the frequency domain.

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6. VELOCITY & STATIC CORRECTION The main goal for this section is to improve the signal to noise quality for seismic data and to do this we can take advantage of the large number of receivers for every source shot so we have redundancy of received seismic wave data. There are large number of velocity functions for the exploration seismologist to consider; interval, apparent, average, root mean square (RMS), instantaneous, phase, group, normal move out (NMO), stacking & migration velocity. We want the velocity that yields best stack. The main important velocities are: i. Normal move out velocity. ii. Interval velocity. iii. RMS velocity. iv. Stacking velocity. Stacking velocity defines the best stacking of traces in a CMP gather and is related to the normal move out velocity, which is related to the root mean square velocity. However, from it, the average and interval velocities can be derived, where interval velocity is the velocity between two reflectors, it effected by, among other factors. i. Pore pressure and confining pressure. ii. Pore shape. iii. Pore fluid saturation. iv. Temperature. It is possible to know the velocity of the medium if you know the distance and the time a seismic wave takes to cross the medium. However, we dont really know the distance, but we know the offset and can use it to solve the problem.

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OFFSET. It is the distance between the source and receiver position.

Common Mid Point (CMP). Traces in shot gathers correspond to reflections at different points on a reflection surface. The traces from different shot gathers can be sorted so that all traces in a gather correspond to reflections from one subsurface point fro a given reflector. When these are grouped together to this presumed point it is called a common mid point.

Common depth point (CDP). When there are horizontal earth layers the common depth point is the same as the CMP but located in horizontal layers. The common depth point for flat interfaces is located between the source and the receiver.

FIG. 12: The difference between CMP and CDP.

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FIG. 13: Concept of CMP and NMO correction.

Normal Move Out. Assuming the traces in a CMP gather are sorted by offset, the normal move out is the difference in two way time at a given offset and the two ways time at zero offset. This time difference is called NMO. [2]

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i.

NMO stretching: it is the result of the NMO correction frequency distortion and occurs especially for shallow events at large offset.

FIG. 14: Signal with period T (a) is stretched to signal with period T0 (b) ii. MUTE: stretch of the waveform at large offset will cause damage to reduce it we can mute the stretch zone. Depending upon signal to noise ratio it may be preferable to mute more than stretch. On the other hand, if the signal to noise ratio is poor it is preferable to stretch more than mute to collect any events in the stack.

7. MIGRATION. There are two basic tasks to be done: (1) make data from a model, and (2) make models from data. The latter is often called migration. Migration is a wave equation based process to remove the distortion from reflection records by moving events to their correct locations. Migration is an important step in seismic data processing and when applied before the stacking step this process is called Prestack migration. There are different methods of seismic migration that are discussed geophysics literature, four common methods are

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I. Diffraction-Migration (Kirchhoff-Migration). Energy is summed along diffraction hyperbolas. II. F-K migration. Correction for slopes in the F-K domain. III. Downward continuation. Operation that corrects for the propagation of the wave fronts (E.g. phase shift migration). IV. Wave-equation migration (FD-Migration). Correction for the travel time by solving the wave equation [4].

I. Diffraction-Migration (Kirchhoff-Migration). In early 1970 John Claerbout derived migration as a finite difference solution of the approximate wave equation, after that Schneider derived Kirchhoff wave-equation migration to show that the diffraction sum method can be an exact solution to the wave equation if scaling and filtering were include in this method based on the Kirchhoff integral solution in optics. Kirchhoff migration has some major advantages over other methods, one of them is flexibility.

a. Kirchhoff time migration : The diffraction shape of time migration comes from the equation.

T 2 (h ) = T02 + 4h

V 2 (T0 )

Where T0 = the two way time at zero offset. h = the distance between input and migrated trace (migrated offset). V = velocity define at T0 . From, this equation the estimated dip (time migration) will appear to be much less than actual dip of the reflector.

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b. Kirchhoff depth migration. This method uses wave front modeling and depends on the eikonal equation to compute travel time.

1 t t t + = 2 + x y z Vx , y , z
Where ( t ) is time , (x , y , z) are distances in 3-D coordinate and V is velocity of the wave . There are some methods related to Kirchhoff migration, these methods came about due to the necessity to improve computer programs and computation speed.

II. F-K direct Fourier transformation migration : This method uses Fourier transformation to transform the seismic data from, distance and time to (frequency, wavenumber) where it can be use for the migration process. The discrete Fourier transformation equations are:

where (m, n) for (time, distance) sample and transform to (p, q) for (frequency, wavenumber), M and N are number of samples. a. Direct Fourier transformation migration : This migration method has these proprieties.

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Fast method. Ideal when the velocities are constant. Will migrate correctly up to 90 degrees.

This is equivalent to limiting the extent of the summation hyperbola to a dip related to the maximum desired geological dip (including diffractions). The dip on the hyperbola is related to the geological dip [9] by tan () = sin () b. Fourier transformation has two main side effects (aliasing and wrap around).

Nyquist theorem. Sampling frequency must be greater than twice the maximum frequency of the signal or there must be at least two samples per period for the highest frequency in the signal.

Fs > 2F
Aliasing.

where Fs is sampling frequency and F is the signal frequency.

Aliasing is a high frequency problem, for increasingly steep dips the lowest frequency at which aliasing can occur decreases, another way of putting this is that for any given frequency there is dip such that lesser dips will not be aliased but greater dips will be aliased.

Wrap around effect of aliasing. If the maximum frequency is more than Nyquist frequency the frequency above the Nyquist rate will appear to be reflected back (wrap around).

Noise suppression. Ground roll and air blasts may also appear in seismic data with dips that exceed 45 and high frequencies that that are aliased, all these events need a special kind of F-K filter to attenuate these signals.

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FIG. 15: F-K filter used to remove the aliasing (a) shaded triangle defines the noise region (b) the seismic data after suppression of the noise. The relation between dip-limited Kirchhoff migration and F-K migration. Dip- limited migrations are used in practice for two purposes, to reduce the computation cost (for Kirchhoff migration) by reducing the migration operators (hyperbolas); and, on the other hand, to control the dip that can limit the noise suppression in seismic reflection data in both Kirchhoff and FK migration methods. The dip limit migration causes a dip limit filter effect in the migration region, there is some difference between FK migration and Kirchhoff migration, the FK migration dip limit filter can more exactly remove the energy above the defined limit, while the Kirchhoff migration dip limit filter operates by limiting the aperture of migration operators such that noise is suppressed by using smaller operators (hyperbolas), see figure below.

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FIG. 16: angular aperture and hyperbola dip (operator) relationship. Relationship between the recorded dip & migrated dip can be defined from the migration equation (3) by looking to the following diagram, we can get this equation.

tan ( ) = sin ( ).

FIG. 17: Relation between migration dip ( ) and recorded dip ( ).

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III. Downward Continuation Migration.

FIG. 18: Downward continuation migration. The depth z takes the following values (0, 250, 500, and 1250) m. a. Wave equation solution. Before using the wave equation derivation, it is assumed that. o The density is constant. o Velocity ( v ) is varied in depth & time direction. o P(x, z, and t) is pressure amplitude defined at the point (x, z, and t) which is 2-D model varying in time. o When [z (surface)] = 0 it means zero offset. o When [t (surface)] = 0 it means the interval velocities are independent of direction (the desired depth migration).

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The wave equation is expressed by

2 p 2 p 1 2 p + = x 2 z 2 v 2 t 2

(1)

The same wave equation is represented in Fourier transformed domain with

w2 k +k = 2 v
2 x 2 z

(2)

Where k represents the wave number and w is angular velocity. Downward propagation using first derivative. The equation is simplified in the first downward step in direction of z, the first order solution in z direction is specified by:

z p z + p( z ) 2 p( z + z ) p( z ) = = z z z

(3)

The solutions for this equation depend on the type of approximation and solution desired. There are different kinds of approximations that can be made: Taylor series expansions. Rational equation approximations. Continued fraction expansions. The approximations produce error in the final solution, this error is related to truncated coefficients in the solution equation.

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b. Phase shift methods:

If we take

P = kP with the solution P( z ) = e kz where P is pressure in the z

frequency domain.

P( z + z ) = e k ( z + z ) = P( z )e kz

(4)

The time section p(x, t) may be propagated to next depth layer ( z + z ) by multiplying every point on in the Fourier transform domain of p(x, t) by the complex phase shift. The equation :

P w w v 2 k x2 v 4 k x4 v 6 k x6 =i i + ...... 2 4 6 z v v 2w 8w 16w
which uses the continued fraction expansion assumes the approximation with a 90 0 phase shift [1]; this equation is sorted to two major parts. The first part is referred to as the thin lens ( i

w ), which contains a v

linear phase shift which means a linear time shift and causes linear energy propagation in z direction. The other part is referred to as the diffraction part which results in time migration (the diffraction collapsed back to the apex of the diffraction).

c. Finite difference migration. We can divide the finite difference prestack migration into a two step process First, by following the wave propagation, the source (known source geometry) and second the receivers (the recorded seismic data) are downward continued to all depths in the Earth. By solving the parabolic wave equation it is convenient to rearrange it, to split it into three parts as in the diagram below and concentrate it in the third part (diffraction part) to get the seismic reflection position from it. [8]

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Where p = pressure amplitude.

8. INTERPRETATION:

Interpretation is based on picking primary reflections and discarding the rest of image volume, therefore interpretation focuses on travel time and amplitude information to get the results from seismic image. [2] Interpretation can be classified into to two main parts: 1. Structural interpretation: based on travel times that are related to geological layer boundaries. Time slices: these are produced by picking reflections at the same time interval; it is useful for contouring (horizontal contouring of the reflection image) and also enhancing the resolution (S/N ratio). 3 D visualization: represents each sample in seismic data by a 3D object called a voxel. It is the extension of the 2 D pixel by coloring the pixel with amplitudes to associate with it. This kind of interpretation can combine different kinds of data, such as image volumes, velocity volume, amplitude volume and amplitude variation with offset (AVO).

Usually structural interpretation follows these procedures: I. Seismic events are identified for each layer within the image volume and then the part with good continuity and signal to noise ratio is used as a seed. II. Where seed points fail, control points are picked along grids of selected inlines and crosslines [2]. III. Time to depth conversion is done by using interval velocities.

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FIG. 19: 3-D plot including surface patch of seeds with inlines & crosslines. 2. Stratigraphic interpretation: based on seismic amplitude to enhance subtle features associated with depositional environment and sedimentology. [2]

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Data acquisition details

Data Data shot Recording Instruments Recording Filters

Description April May 1979 DSS v , DFS v High cut filter and slop 128 Hz 72 db/oct Low cut filter and slop 8 Hz 18 db/oct

Digital tap format Record length / Sample rate Energy Source Distance Center Source-Center nearest group Shot point interval Cable length Type of cable Cable Depth Hydrophones in section

SEGY C 3 seconds at a 2 ms sample rate 2000 ps or CU.IN . Airgun 200 m

50 m 1200 m , 24 sections Prakla HSSN 8 10 m 64 hydrophones in sections

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Reflection seismic surveys were located in southern Sweden in the Baltic Sea, the survey was carried out by the marine survey company GECO ALPHA, the main remarks in the acquisition logs was the ship noise. Offshore reflection profiles recorded in 1979 for lines 206, 208, 212 from Skane area.

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FIG. 20: Map of the Skane area.

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Data processing

To produce interpretable seismic images of the Earths subsurface, numerous signal processing operations must be applied to seismic data to remove or suppress different kinds of noise from it and enhance the main useful information (primary reflections) that exists in it. These processing operations are varied with respect to location within the survey area, source receiver offset and time in the processing trace. I will categorize the seismic data process to two main sections, pre-stack processing and post-stack processing. Each one has two methods to suppress random and coherent noise by using different kinds of filters. First pre-stack operations. Geometrical corrections are important to do at the beginning of the processing sequence. SPHDIV is the processor use to do this mission. Purpose to use it To balance the effect of source wave geometric spreading by amplifying the amplitude of deep events. When to use it Pitfall The first process after data reading. Increases the amplitude values of everything, including the noise with depth.

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The following filter (types and gain) processors have been used in this project. 1. Bandpass filters. Purpose to use it When to use it Pitfall Attenuates noise outside the reflection frequency band Before stack, but can be applied after stack Part of reflection useful signals may be filtered out

The figure 21 below shows the effect of varied bandpass bandwidth on the 206 line, different passband (5-20, 20-30, 30-40, 40-50, 50-60, 60-70, 70-80, 80-90 Hz) have been applied to the same shot (record number 30) .

FIG. 21: Bandpass filter from line 206. Three types of bandpass filters and one random noise filter have been used in project.

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I. Butterworth filter: it has the same effect for the entire trace length. II. FDFILT filter: parameters vary with trace time. III. FXDECON: post stack filter used to attenuate the random noise after stacking, the image become less wormy than when a trace mix is used.

FIG. 22: 206 line shot gathers before Butterworth and FDFILT.

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FIG. 23: Same shot gathers after Butterworth and FDFILT filters. 2. FK_FILT: This filter is used to suppress multiples (coherent noise). Purpose to use it Attenuate multiples based on dip (of parabola) in time domain When to use it Pitfall Before stack or after stack. Alters the data amplitude (it is a good way to let the data look as you want).

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FIG. 24: Shot gathers before applying FK_Filter.

FIG. 25: The data after FK_Filter.

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3. Deconvolution. Predictive convolution has also been used to suppress multiples. Purpose to use it It enhances the data resolution, compresses source wave shape (reflection lines become sharp) and it reduces the multiples (predictive deconvolution). When to use it Pitfall Before stack and NMO, but can be applied after stack Can reduce the amplitude of real reflections (primaries), also it may alter the amplitude and phase.

FIG. 26: The data before deconvolution.

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FIG. 27: Shot gathers after applying deconvolution (seismic details are compressed & events are more continuous).

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Second stack process: The goal from this step is to improve signal to noise ratio, the main advantage of increasing signal to noise ratio is to suppress coherent noise (multiples) and attenuate random noise. Usually velocity analysis is used to determine the velocity for normal move out corrections (NMO), however it can be use to attenuate multiples if this can be done in the semblance part of the velocity analysis. FIG. 28 below shows the velocity distribution for line (206). Purpose to use it When to use it Pitfall Provide us with estimation of Vrms , VNMO Before NMO correction. Human interactions require time to be done, assumes one dip and slow velocity changes.

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FIG. 28: Velocity analysis for line 206.

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The stack section after applying (NMO and stack) processors.

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Migration

From the theory part we know that migration moves reflections to their correct spatial position. This is clearly observed in these following sections.

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Processing parameters

Line 208
Processor Mute Spherical divergence Butterworth Filter Parameters Surgical mute is applied Velocity file produced by velocity analysis is used in it Low Cut off freq High Cut off freq Deconvolution 150 ms filter length Gap distance change with CDP (17 25) Design gate : Time Variant Filter First filter Second filter Third filter Forth filter Balance 0 900 ms , 900 3000 ms 5 10 80 140 10 15 70 110 10 15 50 100 10 15 50 90 Time 0 200 ms 5 10 Hz

90 150 Hz

Time 200 1000 ms Time 1000 2000 ms Time 2000 3000 ms

To scale individual traces by slowly varying individual scalar so that the average amplitude of the output trace is constant.

Normal Move Out

By using the velocity distribution file produced by velocity analysis, percentage stretch mute.

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Stack Post Stack Deconvolution

CDP Conventional Stack Max filter length 300 Gap length 25 ms

Fx_ Domain Complex Wiener Deconvolution

Width filter length: 70 traces Window length: 130 traces Time window is 100 ms

Migration

Phase Shift Migration Finite Difference Migration

Line 212 Processor Mute Spherical divergence Butterworth Filter Parameters Surgical mute is applied Velocity file produce by velocity analysis is used in it Low Cut off freq High Cut off freq Deconvolution 150 ms filter length 5 10 Hz

90 130 Hz

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Gap distance change with CDP (16 30) Design gate : Time Variant Filter First filter Second filter Third filter Forth filter Balance 0 900 ms , 900 3000 ms 5 10 80 130 10 18 70 100 15 20 60 70 15 25 50 60 Time 0 200 ms

Time 200 1000 ms Time 1000 2000 ms Time 2000 3000 ms

To scales individual traces by slowly varying individual scalar so that the average amplitude of the output trace is constant.

Normal Move Out

By using velocity distributions file produce by velocity analysis Percentage stretch mute.

Stack Post Stack Deconvolution

CDP Conventional Stack Max filter length 300 Gap length 25 ms

Fx_ Domain Complex Wiener Deconvolution

With filter length 70 traces Windows length 130 traces Time window is 100 ms

Migration

Phase Shift Migration Finite Difference Migration

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Line 206
Processor Mute Spherical divergence Butterworth Filter parameters Surgical mute is applied Velocity file produce by velocity analysis is used in it Low Cut off freq High Cut off freq Deconvolution 150 ms filter length Gap distance change with CDP (10 30) Design gate : Time Variant Filter First filter Second filter Third filter Forth filter Balance 0 900 ms , 900 3000 ms 5 10 80 140 10 15 80 110 13 18 70 90 14 20 60 80 Time 0 200 ms 0 10 Hz

90 140 Hz

Time 200 1000 ms Time 1000 2000 ms Time 2000 3000 ms

To scales individual traces by slowly varying individual scalar so that the average amplitude of the output trace is constant.

Normal Move Out

By using velocity distributions file produce by velocity analysis Percentage stretch mute.

Stack

CDP Conventional Stack

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Post Stack Deconvolution

Max filter length 300 Gap length 25 ms

Fx_ Domain Complex Wiener Deconvolution

With filter length 70 traces Windows length 130 traces Time window is 100 ms

Migration

Phase Shift Migration Finite Difference Migration

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Comparison with previous processing

The figure below shows stacked sections of line 208 which was produced in the 1970s, this stacked section has CDP range from 250 to 850, the new stacked section for the same line 208 is shown in Fig. 31, I worked on this and obtained better results for the following.

1.

Reduction of high frequency and low frequency noise. This noise has been reduced with FDFILT (time variant filter) and FXDECON filter.

2.

Improved the resolution by selecting better velocities for the primary reflection area. Seismic primary reflection details are enhanced, compressed, sharper, and have become more continuous by using velocity tools (Semblance, GVS, and CVS), trace balance and stack processes.

3.

Reduction of multiples. To reduce multiples, the deconvolution process and stacking are the major processes that have been used to do this, giving reasonable results, but the multiples arent totally removed.

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FIG. 36: Line 208 stacked section from 1970s (CDP from 700 to 850).

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FIG. 37: Line 208 stacked section from 1970s (CDP from 250 to 400).

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FIG. 38: Geological information (A), sonic log (B) and synthetic seismogram (C) made from borehole data.

FIG. 39: Line 208 and borehole.

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3-D view

3-D plots for the lines 208, 206, 212) for stacked sections and then after applying migration to view the correlations between seismic events in those lines. X and Y axes in the plot use the Swedish coordinate system RT90 with scale 1 unit = 5000 m And Z axes with scale 1 unit = 0.5 ms. The 3 -D images have been created by using MATLAB.

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FIG. 40: 3-D view of stacked data (lines 208, 206 and 212). Note the correlation of reflection events. .

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Migrated section 3-D plots

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FIG. 41: 3-D view after migration (finite difference migration).

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Interpretation

Form geological information borehole information has been extracted [14]. The geological interpretation is shown in Fig 42 below.

Fig. 42: Rough geological interpretation (related to borehole information).

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Results and Discussion

The first step in my data processing is usually surgical mute to remove the strong effect of the cable noise and swell noise, this kind of mute also allows me to keep the first primary reflection from the see bottom in the stacked image.

After that BP filters have been used successfully to remove and attenuate low and high frequency random noises.

To suppress the multiples deconvolution has been used to do this job with velocity analysis (semblance) and stacking, I didnt use an FK filter for this objective because it has the drawbacks (ex. apply it before stack and look at the result after stack). Also, when it is applied after stack it may change the amplitudes and the locations of the stacked image.

In the velocity analysis step, semblance and CVG (constant velocity gathers) produce correct NMO corrections for the stack step. CVS (constant velocity stack) is used to get the best velocity values for the primary reflections in the stacked image.

Migration part works fine when I apply finite difference migration or phase shift migration. However, Kirchhoff time migration produces poor results compared with other methods.

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Conclusions

This report provides the reader with background and information on the main steps needed to process seismic reflection data by using the Claritas program for this task. The three major seismic processing steps (deconvolution, stacking, migration and interpretation) are covered clearly in this report, real shot gathers are used to explain every process and applied to real seismic data to view it is effect on every processing step. By comparing the result with the previous result it is appears that the new processing results are more accurate, seismic primary reflections are well defined in the new results.

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References

1. Yilmaz, ,(1987), Seismic data processing , Society of exploration geophysicists, 1: 526. 2. Yilmaz, ,(2001), Seismic data analysis , Society of exploration geophysicists, 1: 2027. 3. Robinson, E.A. (1998), Model-driven predictive deconvolution , Society of exploration geophysicists, 63: 10. 4. Kruk, Jan van, (2005), Reflection seismic I, Institut fr Geophysik. ETH Zrich, 14 pp. 5. Schlumberger Limited, (2006), [http://www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com/]. 6. Kessinger, W., (2006), [http://walter.kessinger.com/index1.html]. 7. Bancroft, J., (1997), Practical understanding of pre and Poststack migrations, Society of exploration geophysicists, 1: 300-320. 8. Samuel , G., Etgen, J. ; Dellinger ,J. ; & Whitmore D., Seismic migration problems and solutions, 77 pp. 9. Bancroft, J. (1995), Aliasing in Prestack Migration, Society of exploration geophysicists, 7: 16. 10. Sicking, C.. (1982), Windowing and estimation variance in deconvolution, Society of exploration geophysicists, 47: 11. 11. Ulrych, T. & Matsuokas, T., (1991), The output of predictive deconvolution, Butsuri-Tansa (Geophysical Exploration), 7 pp. 12. Sheriff, E.G. and Geldart, L.P. (1995), Exploration Seismology, (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 592 pp. 13. Ravens, J. (2004), Glob Claritas seismic data processing system manual, GNS Science company New Zealand, 4: 800. 14. Alfhonzo, P. (2006), Reprocessing of reflection seismic data from Skne area southern of Sweden, Uppsala university, Department of Earth Sciences, 1: 60. 15. Levin, S. (1989), Surface-consistent deconvolution, Society of exploration geophysicists, 54: 10.

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