3.

STRUCTURAL STEEL

Chapter 3 STRUCTURAL STEEL

3.1. MATERIALS Figure 3.1 shows, in term of diagram (stressstrain), the behaviour of various materials in the process of loading and unloading. A A A

(a) A

O A (b) A O

B (c) A A

B (d) O B (e) A

B O

A (f)

Fig. 3.1. Models of behaviour diagrams Figure 3.1a shows a typical linear elastic behaviour. Loading and unloading follow the same straight line O A O. The elastic deformation disappears just after unloading. The diagram in figure 3.1b is a non-linear elastic behaviour. The elastic deformation disappears just after unloading, but the loading and unloading line is no longer straight, even it remains the same for both processes. Figure 3.1c shows a viscous behaviour. Loading follows a curve (O A), while unloading goes on a different path (A B O). The plastic deformation disappears in time (B O). The

57

3. STRUCTURAL STEEL diagram in figure 3.1d is a typical elasto-plastic behaviour. Loading follows a path (O A) which is different from the unloading one (A B). Unloading goes on a straight line, the elastic deformation is removed, but the plastic deformation is kept. Figure 3.1e shows a bilinear elasto-plastic behaviour. Loading (O A A) and unloading (A B) follow different straight lines. The elastic deformation is removed, but the plastic deformation is kept. Structural steel is generally modelled as bilinear elasto-plastic symmetrical material, having a large yielding plateau (Fig. 3.1f).

3.3. STEEL MAKING Steel making is a hearth-process (vatr, cuptor), based on the refining principle (afinare). The molten blast-furnace iron is saturated with carbon, about 4% by weight and cast iron (font) is obtained. By heating, this molten metal (the melt temperature of steel is superior to that of iron) and, by introducing oxygen (Fig. 3.10), carbon in excess is reduced in the refining process and furnace iron is transformed in steel. In most of the steel-making procedures, the primary reaction is the combination of carbon and oxygen to form a gas. If oxygen in excess is not removed (by adding ferrosilicon, aluminium, etc.) the gaseous product FeO continues to evolve during solidification. This oxide (FeO) is very dangerous, because it makes steel fragile. In the old Romanian codes there are three qualities: not killed steel poorly deoxidized (n); killed steel deoxidized (k); strongly killed steel strongly deoxidized (with aluminium or silicon) (kf).

Killed steels (deoxidized steels) are characterised by a relatively high degree of uniformity in composition and properties. Low alloy steels are always killed. Oxygen lance Burned gases Burner Gas or liquid fuel

Molten furnace iron Fig. 3.10. Simplified scheme of the steel making process

58

3. STRUCTURAL STEEL Silicon (Si) increases the strength of steel and favours the formation of a fine grain structure. Aluminium (Al) is a good deoxidiser. Sulphur (S) and phosphorus (P), impurities that result in the steelmaking process, must be limited in structural steel at about 0,05% each, since they unfavourably affect steel fragility. The following nomenclature is used by the metallurgist: Ferrite or -Fe Cementite Pearlite The bcc form of iron in which up to 0,02%C by weight may be dissolved. Iron carbide Fe3C (which contains about 6,67%C). The laminar mixture of ferrite and cementite described earlier. The overall carbon content of the mixture is 0,8% by weight. The fcc form of iron which exists at high temperatures and which can contain up to approximately 2%C by weight. Alloys containing less than 2% carbon by weight. Alloys containing more than 2% carbon by weight.

Austenite or -Fe Steel Cast Iron

Steel used in structures such as bridges, buildings and ships, usually contains between 0,1% and 0,25% carbon by weight. [16]

3.2. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE More than 70 elements in the Mendeleyev Periodic System are metals. Metals form, together with their alloys, a large multitude of substances, having very diverse properties. In spite of this diversity, the energy spectrum of electrons in metals represents the common characteristic that allows all metals to be described from a single standpoint. Metals and their alloys possess a crystalline structure formed by a crystalline lattice (Fig. 3.2), where the atoms are placed in the knots of the lattice.

Body-centred cubic Face-centred cubic crystal (bcc) crystal (fcc) Fig. 3.2. Types of crystalline lattice of steel 59

3. STRUCTURAL STEEL

Fig. 3.2.bis The iron-carbon phase diagram [17] The crystal structure of a metal is not strictly periodical in each given instant of time, because of oscillating motion of some quasi-free valence electrons (Paulus model) in the lattice. The polarization of the surrounding atoms occurs in the electric field of these electrons. Atoms become dipoles (i.e. a system with two electric charges +q, q) and the interaction of dipoles creates the metallic bond, expressed by attraction forces between sufficiently distant atoms in the lattice. The greater the number of valence electrons is, the greater the strength of the metallic bond is. When molten metal solidifies, the crystallization process begins around some centres of crystallization (Fig. 3.3). Every centre grows up and so, when the solidifying process comes to the end, a lot of crystallites called grains appear.

beginning

advanced

close to final

Fig. 3.3. Scheme of the crystallization process

60

3. STRUCTURAL STEEL The crystal structure of iron, as a theoretic pure metal, consists of ferrite grains (Fe). Iron is a mild and very plastic material (fy = 120 N/mm2; fu = 250 330 N/mm2, u = 50%), with a non-linear diagram (Fig. 3.4). high alloy steel low alloy steel pearlite ferrite E fu P fy e fp arctg E y 0,2% Fig. 3.4. Behaviour diagrams Carbon steel is an iron-carbon alloy, with a carbon percentage limited at 0,15 0,25%. Remarks concerning the chemical composition: 1. Each percentage of 0,1% increases the ultimate stress (fu) by 80 90 N/mm2 and the yield stress (fy) by 40 50 N/mm2. 2. The carbon percentage must be limited at 0,25%, since a percentage superior to that dramatically diminishes the strain at rupture u (= r) and unfavourably affects weldability. 3. The carbon steel grade (0,15% < %C < 0,25%) called mild steel, which is a very largely used structural steel, is characterised by the following: the crystalline structure is composed of ferrite-pearlite grains; the ferrite grains give a very good plasticity u (= r) 25%; the pearlite grains (pearlite = a mechanical mixture of six parts of ferrite and one part of cementite Fe3C), containing an average percentage of 0,90%C, give a good resistance; iron Fe ~18% ~30% ~50% Y U non-alloy steel F (failure)

61

3. STRUCTURAL STEEL the behaviour is perfectly linear elastic up to the limit of proportionality fp (point P on diagrams) and it is defined by the linear law of Hooke = E ( 3.1 ) pearlite grains restrain the tendency of ferrite grains to deform plastically; the behaviour is still elastic in the range P E on diagrams up to the elastic limit (point P) but it is no longer linear; in the elastic range, the form of the lattice is modified under loading but the distances between atoms remain in the limit of the full active metallic bond and thus, after unloading, the lattice regains its initial form (Fig. 3.5); a a a 2a P a + 1a P

Fig. 3.5. Elastic deformation of the crystalline structure at point Y, mild steel undergoes yielding i.e. a large elongation horizontal plateau, without any increase of the stress; plastic deformation is a shear irreversible one (Fig. 3.6); a complete tensile test puts in evidence these phenomena (Fig. 3.7);

Fig. 3.6. Shear deformation of the crystalline structure

62

3. STRUCTURAL STEEL

A0 d0 L0 Au F Lu = L0 + L
Fig. 3.7. Tensile test of a standard specimen A0 = initial cross-section area of the specimen; d0 = initial diameter of the cross-section of the specimen; L0 = initial distance between gauge points; Au = minimum (ultimate) cross-section area of the specimen after failure; Lu = final distance between gauge points;

r = u =

Lu L 0 L 100 = 100% L0 L0

( 3.2 )

after yielding, a new internal equilibrium is to be made up in a typical strain hardening (line Y U) i.e. for a deformation 2 > 1 a force F2 > F1 is necessary;

at point U, the diagram falls away and stops at the elongation value u (= r), called the ultimate elongation at rupture, which corresponds to the specimen breaking;

4. The diagram outlines the typical qualities of a structural steel:

Plasticity = property to keep a total or partial plastic deformation; Ductility = plastic quality appreciated by the ratio
ultimate ; plastic

Tenacity = property to keep large deformation before failure, under great

forces;

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3. STRUCTURAL STEEL

5. The Prandtl model is usually accepted for the stressstrain diagram () in order to simplify calculation (Fig. 3.8). real

fy

Prandtl

Fig. 3.8. The Prandtl model for steel behaviour Low alloy structural steel is steel alloyed with manganese, which has the

quality to increase the ultimate stress and the yield stress, without an important diminution of plasticity. The percentage of Mn is limited for structural steel to 1,71,8%, because it favours fragility.
Remarks

1. A percentage of 0,220,25%C increases the yield stress from fy 120 N/mm2 (of iron) to fy 235 N/mm2 and it diminishes the strain at rupture u from about 50% to about 25%. 2. A percentage of 0,200,22%C together with a percentage of 1,31,5Mn increase the yield stress of a high strength low alloy steel to fy = 360400 N/mm2 and they diminish the strain at rupture u to the limit allowed for structural steel, i.e. 1520%. 3. Generally, an increase of steel strength is associated with decrease of ductility. 4. Quite recently, the Luxemburg steel manufacturer ARBED succeeded in producing a structural steel that increases the values of the yielding limit fy. It is a new technology, called QST (Quenching and Self Tempering): after the last rolling pass, an intense water cooling is applied to the whole surface of the shape, so that the skin is quenched (Fig. 3.9);

64

3. STRUCTURAL STEEL

water Entry QST Bank 1600F 871C

Fig. 3.9. The idea of the QST process

Quenching

Self Tempering 1100F 593C

cooling is interrupted before the core is affected by quenching and the outer layers are tempered by the flow of heat from the core to the surface, during the temperature homogenization phase.

Due to its metallurgical principle, without increasing the percentage of alloying elements, it results: a high yield strength (fy 500 N/mm2) without a decrease of u strain; an excellent weldability. For some necessities, as well as for high strength bolts, high alloy steels are produced with great ultimate (tensile) strength (fu = 8001000 N/mm2) and high yield stress (f0,2 = 640900 N/mm2) but with a poor ductility.

3.4. ROLLING PROCESS INFLUENCE

Most of the products for steel construction are obtained by hot rolling process. Basically, the hot rolling process consists of passing, in several steps, of a steel bar through a certain space determined by two shaped rolling cylinders which rotate in contrary directions (Fig. 3.11) realizing both the advance of the bar and the changing of its shape from one step to another (Fig. 3.12).

65

3. STRUCTURAL STEEL

t1

t 2 < t1

Fig. 3.11. Simplified scheme of the hot-rolling process

1st step

2nd step

3rd step

final step

Fig. 3.12. Simplified scheme of the steps to realise a hot-rolled product

The temperature and the timing of the process are controlled. Every passing between rolling cylinders produces the self-strain hardening (H) of steel (grains are broken and pressed) and every period between two passings allows the tendency (R) of re-crystallization (grains tend to return to their initial form). Finally, a much more compact structure with fine grains is obtained and, as a result, both the yield stress and the ultimate strength increase (Fig. 3.13). T 10001200C H1 (hardening) R1(re-crystallization) 1st step

Hi Ri Hfinal Rfinal 600800C Gfinal Ginitial

i step

th

hardening

G (magnitude of grains)

Fig. 3.13. Simplified scheme of grains evolution during hot-rolling

66

3. STRUCTURAL STEEL

It is important to note that the increase in strength depends on the thickness of the material, i.e. the less the thickness is the greater the yield stress and the ultimate strength are. The rolling process is very important in increasing both the ultimate and the yield strengths. Two steels with the same chemical composition have different strengths, depending on the metallurgical process.

3.5. RESISTANCE AGAINST BRITTLE FRACTURE

Under some circumstances, the plastic qualities of a structural steel can be unfavourably affected. That is especially the case of: dynamic loading; low temperature.

Under such circumstances, plastic deformations do not develop and brittle fractures occur. A brittle fracture is characterised by a sharp unexpected fracture, without previous plastic deformation. The tendency to brittle fracture, called toughness, is appreciated by a pendulum test (Fig. 3.14). A special hammer breaks a typical specimen under a mechanical work L equal to: L = G(h1 h2) ( 3.3 ) where G is the weight of the hammer which drops from the height h1 and, after producing the rupture of the specimen, rises to the height h2. The mechanical work L (3.3), measured in Joules, characterizes the resistance to brittle fracture. Codes require a minimum value of 27J in order to provide a good behaviour. 55 10 2 45 Charpy specimen (V notch) h2 h1 10

Fig. 3.14. Simplified scheme of the toughness test

67

3. STRUCTURAL STEEL

Toughness is strongly unfavourably influenced by low temperatures (Fig. 3.15).

140

Mechanical work (J)

120 100

80

60

27J Transition temperature Temperature (C) Fig. 3.15. Variation of the mechanical work L with temperature
20 0
9 11 -9 -7 -5 -3 -1 1 3 5 7 17 19 21 -2 -2 -2

40

below which toughness decays to an unacceptable value.

3.6. INFLUENCES OF TEMPERATURE ON THE PROPERTIES OF STEEL

(EN 1993-1-2 [18]). It is to notice that: up to T = 100C there are no significant changes; for T > 200C fu (u) and fy (c) decrease dramatically while u increases; Youngs modulus (E) also decreases; as a result, the resistance of steel structures to fire is an important problem and special measures are necessary; for T < 0C fu (u) and fy (c) increase but, as it was showed before, the fragility of steel increases.

-1

Codes define the transition temperature (T) (Fig. 3.15) as the temperature

Mechanical properties (E, fy (c), fu (u), u) vary with temperature (Fig.3.16)

-1

-1

-1

-1

13

15

23

68

25

27

29

3. STRUCTURAL STEEL

1.000

0.800

k fy, =
0.600

fy, fy

k E, =
0.400

E E p, p

k p, =
0.200

0.000 20 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100

(C)
1200

Fig. 3.16. Variation of some mechanical properties of steel with temperature

3.7. FATIGUE BEHAVIOUR

Fatigue tests show the lowering of mechanical strength after a cycle of stress having an oscillating intensity in time (Fig. 3.17). In EN 1990 [10], fatigue (1.3.1.1) is defined as the process of initiation and propagation of cracks through a structural part due
to action of fluctuating stress.

constant

max

alternate max min min min min max max time

Fig. 3.17. Types of loading cycles

In the elastic range, the variation of fatigue strength, 0, depends on (Fig. 3.18): the type of loading cycle (Fig. 3.17);

69

3. STRUCTURAL STEEL

the designed details. O

n (number of cycles) 106 3 106 Fig. 3.18. Whler diagram 6 106

In modern codes, the fatigue verification is defined with regard to (Fig.3.19): the range of stresses: = max min, where compression is (); the designed details. where: R = fatigue strength; Mf = 1,25,..., 1,35 partial safety factor. (log()) parent metal butt weld R Mf ( 3.4 )

n n (log(n)) 10 10 10 10 10 Fig. 3.19. n diagrams depending on the designed details EN 1993-1-9 [15] defines two methods for fatigue assessment:
4 5 6 7 8

damage tolerant method or safe life method.

(metoda degradrilor acceptabile) (metoda duratei sigure de via)

70

3. STRUCTURAL STEEL The damage tolerant method should provide an acceptable reliability that a structure will perform satisfactorily for its design life, provided that a prescribed inspection and maintenance regime for detecting and correcting fatigue damage is implemented throughout the design life of the structure. The safe life method should provide an acceptable level of reliability that a structure will perform satisfactorily for its design life without the need for regular in-service inspection for fatigue damage. The safe life method should be applied in cases where local formation of cracks in one component could rapidly lead to failure of the structural element or structure. The general form of the system of check equations recommended by EN 1993-1-9

[15] chapter 8 is as follows:

(1) Nominal, modified nominal or geometric stress ranges due to frequent loads 1 Qk (see EN 1990) should not exceed for direct stress ranges 1,5 f y

1,5 f y / 3 for shear stress ranges

(2) It should be verified that under fatigue loading Ff E , 2 1,0 C / Mf

(8.1)

and

(8.2)

Ff E , 2 C / Mf

1,0

(3) Unless otherwise stated , in the case of combined stress ranges E,2 and E,2 it should be verified that:

Ff E , 2 / C Mf

Ff E , 2 + C / Mf

1,0

(8.3)

In the previous relations,

stresses should be calculated at the serviceability limit state

nominal stresses should be calculated at the site of potential fatigue initiation the design value of stress range to be used for the fatigue assessment should be the stress ranges Ff E,2 corresponding to NC = 2106 cycles the fatigue strength for nominal stress ranges is represented by a series of (log R) (log N) curves and (log R) (log N) curves (S-N-curves), which correspond to typical detail categories. Each detail category is designated by a number which represents, in N/mm2, the reference value C and C for the fatigue strength at 2 million cycles

Table 3.1 in EN 1993-1-9 [15]: Recommended values for partial factors for fatigue strength
Assessment method Damage tolerant Consequence of failure Low consequence High consequence 1,00 1,15

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3. STRUCTURAL STEEL

Safe life

1,15

1,35

The detail categories C and C are given in tables like in the example below:

Table Error! No text of specified style in document..2 in EN 1993-1-9 [15]: Welded built-up sections (extract)
Detail category Constructional detail Description Continuous longitudinal welds: 1) Automatic butt welds carried out from both sides. 125 2) Automatic fillet welds. Cover plate ends to be checked using detail 6) or 7) in Error! Reference source not found.. 3) Automatic fillet or butt weld carried out from both sides but containing stop/start positions. 112 4) Automatic butt welds made from one side only, with a continuous backing bar, but without stop/start positions. Requirements Details 1) and 2): No stop/start position is permitted except when the repair is performed by a specialist and inspection is carried out to verify the proper execution of the repair.

4) When this detail contains stop/start positions category 100 to be used.

The values for the reference values C and C are given in the following diagrams:
1000

Direct stress range R [N/mm]

1 160 140 125 112 100 90 80 71 63 56 50 45 40 36

1 100 m=3

1 Detail category C
m=5

2 Constant amplitude fatigue limit D

1,0E+08 1,0E+09

10 1,0E+04

1,0E+05

1,0E+06

1,0E+07

Endurance, number of cycles N

3 Cut-off limit L

Figure 7.1 in EN 1993-1-9 [15]: Fatigue strength curves for direct stress ranges

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3. STRUCTURAL STEEL
1000

Shear stress range R [N/mm]

1 m=5 100 100 80 1

1 Detail category C
10 1,0E+04 1,0E+05 1,0E+06 2 1,0E+07 1,0E+08 1,0E+09

Endurance, number of cycles N

Figure 7.2 in EN 1993-1-9 [15]: Fatigue strength curves for shear stress ranges

2 Cut-off limit L

In the plastic range the fatigue strength strongly depends on the magnitude of the plastic deformations. The phenomenon is called low cycle fatigue. The number n of critical cycles may be determined according to:

log(n) + 2,4 log( ) = 1,83

It results:
= 5% = 1% n = 20 n = 933

( 3.5 )

= 0,5% n = 4926 = 0,3% n = 16785

The following experimental values were obtained:

fracture at 650 cycles for = 1%; fracture at 16 cycles for = 2,5%.

The fatigue behaviour in the plastic range is a very important phenomenon for buildings in seismic zones.

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3. STRUCTURAL STEEL 3.8. CORROSION

In contact with atmosphere, structural steel corrodes. Rust FeO (iron-oxide) is formed, whose volume is twice grater than the corroded pattern material, and so the material deteriorates. Protection against corrosion is typical for steel structural members and may be realised: 1. by painting, containing:

one or more primer coatings; two or more coloured paint coatings.

Painting is the most common rust-preventing method. Here are some provisions about painting included in Annex F of the code EN 1090-2 [20], that covers execution of steel structures.
F.6 Coating methods
F.6.1 Painting
The surface condition of the component shall be checked immediately prior to painting to ensure that it complies with the required specifications, EN ISO 12944-4, EN ISO 8501 and EN ISO 8503-2 and the manufacturer's recommendations for the product about to be applied. Painting shall be undertaken in accordance with EN ISO 12944-7. If two or more coats are to be applied, a different colour shade shall be used for each coat. Structures with an expected life of the corrosion protection above 5 years with a C3 (and above) corrosivity category should have additional edge protection, by a stripe coat, extending across approximately 25 mm on both side of the edge and applied to a nominal thickness appropriate to the coating system. Work shall not proceed if: the ambient temperature is below that recommended in the manufacturer's recommendations for the product to be applied; the surfaces to be coated are wet; the temperature of the surfaces to be coated is less than 3 C above the dew point unless otherwise specified in the product datasheet. Painted surfaces shall be protected against the accumulation of water for a period after application as required by the product data sheet. The packing of painted components into bundles shall not commence until the paint manufacturer's declared hardening time has expired. Adequate well ventilated space, protected against the influence of weather, shall be provided to allow the coating to harden sufficiently. Appropriate measures shall be taken to prevent damage to the coating during packing and handling. NOTE: Cold formed components are often produced as nesting profiles. Tightly packing components into nested bundles before the paint treatment is sufficiently hardened may result in damage.

2. by galvanizing and electro-zinkage (zinc plating), typical for corrugated sheets; Here are some provisions about metal spraying and galvanizing included in Annex F of the code EN 1090-2 [20], that covers execution of steel structures.
F.6 Coating methods
F.6.2 Metal spraying
Thermal metal spraying shall be of zinc, aluminium or zinc/aluminium 85/15 alloy and be undertaken in accordance with EN ISO 2063.

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3. STRUCTURAL STEEL
Thermal metal sprayed surfaces shall be treated with a suitable sealer before overcoating with paint in accordance with F.6.1. This sealer shall be compatible with the overcoating paint and shall be applied immediately after metal spraying cooling so as to avoid oxidation or moisture trapping.

F.6.3 Galvanizing
Galvanizing shall be undertaken in accordance with EN ISO 1461. Galvanized surfaces of cold-formed components shall be provided by using precoated steel strip or by hot dip galvanizing after manufacturing.
NOTE 1: Coating masses, finishes and surface qualities are specified in EN 10326 and EN 10327.

If hot dip galvanizing after manufacturing is specified, it shall be undertaken in accordance with EN ISO 1461 and requirements for procedure qualification of the dipping process shall be specified.
NOTE 2: Light gauge cold-formed components often lack inherent stiffness. Long components composed of thin material can be susceptible to twisting due to stress relieving at the elevated temperature of the zinc bath.

Requirements for the inspection, checking or qualification of the preparation to be carried out before subsequent overcoating shall be specified.

3. using weathering steel (oel patinabil, oel rezistent la coroziune); 4. using stainless steel (EN 1993-1-4 [19]).

3.9. SHAPES 3.9.1. General

Steel structures design is based on the use of: 1. standard profiles, obtained by hot rolling process (Fig. 3.20):

IPE, W, UB HEA, HEB, HEM, UC

IPN

UPN

UAP

L, LNP

L, LNP

IPET, HEAT, HEBT hollow sections

ROR RHS, MSH, TPS, RAUTA, VHP Fig. 3.20. Standard profiles 2. built-up sections, obtained by welding hot rolled plates (Fig. 3.21):

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3. STRUCTURAL STEEL

Fig. 3.21. Built-up cross-sections

3. thin-walled cold-formed shapes, obtained by bending cold rolled thin plates or sheets (Fig. 3.22):

Fig. 3.22. Cold-formed shapes

The most recent works tend to consider in calculation the actual structural elements, with their structural and geometrical imperfections, that is a tendency to abandon the ideal perfect bars. The following aspects are to be considered:

structural imperfections of the material; geometrical imperfections of the structure.

3.9.2. Structural imperfections

The most important structural imperfections of steel structural members are:

the presence of residual stresses; the non-homogeneity of mechanical properties over the cross-section.

3.9.2.1. Residual stresses

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3. STRUCTURAL STEEL

At the end of the rolling process the temperature is equal to approximately 600C. The exposed parts (the flange edges and mid web) tend to cool faster than the area around the flange to web joints. As a result, the complete cooling of the most exposed parts precedes the cooling of the flange to web joint areas, which remain hot for a longer period. This produces self-balanced residual stresses, whose distribution on the cross-section depends on the shape of the section (Fig. 3.23). Tests showed that residual stresses can be great enough, especially in jumbo sections (res = 0,5fy ... fy). (+) () () (+)

()

(+)
Fig. 3.23. Example of distribution of residual stresses Remarks

1. Great residual stresses also appear in welded built-up sections. 2. Residual stresses are less important in cold-formed sections.

3.9.2.2. Non-homogeneity of mechanical properties

Non-homogeneity of mechanical properties is a result of many factors but the most important one is the difference in thickness between web and flange, in hot rolled shapes as well as in welded ones. In cold-formed sections an important increase of the yielding limit (fy) and of the ultimate strength (fu) occurs in the corner areas as a result of the hardening due to the bending (or rolling) process (Fig. 3.24).

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3. STRUCTURAL STEEL

strength 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 fu 3 2 1 4 5 6 7 8 fy

rolling

bending

initial plate

increase due to cut down

fibre

Fig. 3.24. Increase of mechanical properties in the corner areas

3.9.3. Geometrical imperfections

The most important problems to be considered are:

variation of cross-section properties (A, I, W) along the member; mid-span initial deflection (f0); load eccentricity (e0). Tests on different shapes proved that the variation of cross-section properties

along the member is very poor, so they may practically be considered as deterministic variables. Generally, the mid-span deflection f0 is described by the ratio f0/L (L being the span). The statistical distribution of f0/L looks like the one in figure 3.25. n actual

L f0 f0/L 10 -3 0,2 0,7 1,0

Fig. 3.25. Statistical distribution of the mid-span deflection f0

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3. STRUCTURAL STEEL

Codes usually accept a value f0 equal to: f0 = L 1000 ( 3.6 )

The load eccentricity e0 can be designed or accidental and, depending on the values, it may be neglected or not in calculation.

3.10. STRUCTURAL STEEL REQUIREMENTS

In order to provide good elasto-plastic behaviour and for technological reasons, structural steels shall comply with some special requirements (Fig. 3.26):

a high strength, appreciated by a yield stress fy 235 N/mm2 and fu/fy > 1,2; a quite large yielding plateau; an adequate tenacity ( = property to keep large plastic deformation before failure under great forces), appreciated by u 15% and u 20y; a good resistance against brittle fracture, appreciated by the fracture energy
KV(+20C) 27J;

a good weldability, i.e. the property of steel to be welded in normal conditions.

For ductility purposes, EN 1993-1-1 [13] expresses some limits, given in the National Annexes, for which the recommended values are as follows:

fu/fy 1,10;

elongation at failure not less than 15%; the elongation at failure on a gauge length of 5,65 A o (where A0 is the original cross-sectional area);

u 15y , where y is the yield strain (y = fy / E). modulus of elasticity shear modulus E = 210 000 N / mm 2

EN 1993-1-1 [13] recommends the following values for material coefficients:

G=

E 81 000 N / mm 2 (1 + )

Poissons ratio in elastic stage coefficient of linear thermal expansion

= 0,3

= 12 10 6 perK (for T 100 C)

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3. STRUCTURAL STEEL

fu fy

Fig. 3.26. Typical behaviour diagram of structural steel Remarks

1. The high strength is the major advantage of steel, relative to the strength of other common structural materials: wood, masonry, concrete, etc. Unlike masonry and concrete, which are weak in tension, steel is strong both in tension and compression. An image of the strength of steel is given by the ratio:
cL = fy

( 3.7 )

A physical meaning of this factor is the greatest length of a bar whose crosssection is able to support its self-weight.
=
fy N V = fy = fy L = fy L = A A

In these relations: fy

yielding limit of steel; weight per unit volume of steel; axial force generated by the self-weight of the bar; area of the cross-section of the bar; the volume of the bar; normal stress on the most loaded cross-section of the bar. ordinary structural steel: 2800 4000 m;

N A V

Here are some values of this factor (cL) for different materials:

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3. STRUCTURAL STEEL

aluminium alloys: reinforced concrete in compression: glass fibre: carbon fibre:

2500 10000 m; 100 1300 m; 96000 184000 m; 150000 210000 m.

2. The capacity of steel to yield is a fundamental requirement for structural steel: a) Residual stresses result from the fabrication process both in rolled profiles and in welded built-up structural members (Fig. 3.27). The tendency to shorten of the warmer flange to web joint is braked by the other fibres of the cross-section. Consequently, once cooling completed, the flange to web joint remains in tension, while the other parts are in compression. Residual stresses, in tension and in compression, are self-balanced on the crosssection.

Fig. 3.27. Example of residual stress distribution

b) Figures 3.28 and 3.29 show the effects of residual stresses on a loaded structural member in tension and in bending, respectively.

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3. STRUCTURAL STEEL

= res + N

Fig. 3.28. Influence of residual stresses on a tensioned member

= res + M

Fig. 3.29. Influence of residual stresses on a member in bending

It is to note that the stress distribution according to the theory is strongly affected by the existing residual stresses. c) For the members in figures 3.28 and 3.29 the evolution of the total stress
= res + N (or M)

( 3.8 )

in the bottom flange is examined in figure 3.30 (the phenomena in the bottom flange are the same for the member in tension or in bending). It is to observe (F = N or M):

when F fy res all fibres behave in the elastic range (Fig. 3.30a, b); when fy res < F fy some fibres behave elastically and some plastically (Fig. 3.30c); when F = fy all fibres behave plastically (Fig. 3.30d).

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= res + F

a)

res

b)

c)

d)
Fig. 3.30. Evolution of the total stress in the bottom flange

As a result:

the uniform stress distribution in the bottom flange, usually accepted in current design, is a conventional one (it is correct only in the final state, when F = fy);

the elastic behaviour in the meaning no plastic deformation after unloading is real only for the entire section as a whole, or when F is insignificant; in order to allow all fibres to reach the yield stress, steel used for structural members must possess a large plastic yielding plateau. When this fundamental requirement is not satisfied, the material has a fragile behaviour and a fragile rupture is to be expected in the moment when in a single fibre, the most stressed one, the stress reaches its ultimate strength value (like cast iron, glass, etc.).

d) The good plastic behaviour is also fundamental in the situations of a structural member in tension with an important hole (Fig.3.31) or in the case of a structural member in tension with a non-homogeneous cross-section.

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max min

average

Fig. 3.31. Stress distribution around a hole in a member in tension

3. An adequate tenacity and the avoidance of brittle fracture are fundamental requirements for a structural steel in order to create the possibility to transform the structure into a plastic mechanism (Fig.3.32), able to dissipate energy. The capacity to dissipate energy is a very important requirement for a structure situated in seismic regions when it is subjected to severe earthquake motions.

Fig. 3.32. Example of plastic mechanism for a structure during earthquake

4. A good weldability in normal conditions is an important requirement in order to avoid an uneconomical cost of fabrication. The above qualities of a structural steel result from:

chemical composition and crystalline structure; the process of steel making; the rolling process influence.

3.11. STRUCTURAL STEEL GRADES

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Table 3.1 shows the main characteristics for the most common Romanian structural steel grades, according to STAS 500/280.
Table 3.1. Main characteristics for some Romanian steel grades

Steel type

Nominal steel grade

Ultimate tensile strength r (N/mm2)

Ultimate elongation %

Yield strength c Design strength R (N/mm2) thickness t (mm) t 16 16 < t 40 230 210 270 250 340 300

Material factor m = c/R

Carbon steel High strength low alloyed

Remarks

OL37 OL44 OL52

360 440 430 540 510 630

25...26 22...25 21...22

240 220 280 260 350 315

1,09 1,08 1,11

1. Steel grades with fine grains (OCS) are fabricated for special welded structures. 2. Corrosion resistant structural steels (RCA, RCB) and stainless steels (ORC) are fabricated for special use. The unified European pre-standard EUROCODE 3 [2] uses the steel grades defined in the European standard EN 10025:1990+A1:1993 [5]. This standard was adopted in Romania as SR EN 10025:1990+A1:1994 [6]. Although there is a good correspondence between the steel grades defined by STAS 500/280 and the ones described in [5] and [6], an exact equivalence is not possible. EN 1993-1-1 [13] uses the steel grades defined in the family of standards EN 10025. These standards were adopted in Romania as SR EN 10025-1 SR EN 10025-6+A1 [21], [22], [23], [24], [25], [26]. Although there is a good correspondence between the steel grades defined by STAS 500/280 and the ones described in [21] [26], an exact equivalence is not possible. Steels used in [13] are designated as follows (EN 100271, 2) [27], [28].
Table 3.2. Example of steel grade designation according to EN 100271 [27] Letter Figure Symbol 1 Symbol 2

example Letter

355

J2

S for structural steel

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Figure Symbol 1

Minimum value of the yielding limit in N/mm2 for the lowest range of thickness Fracture energy in Joules for a given temperature, defined as follows:

Table 3.3. Definition of the fracture energies C 27 J 40 J 60 J 20 0 20 30 40 50 60

JR KR LR

J0 K0 L0

J2 K2 L2

J3 K3 L3

J4 K4 L4

J5 K5 L5

J6 K6 L6

Symbol 2

Obtaining mean of steel:

M: N: Q: G:

thermo mechanical normalised or by normalising rolling quenched and tempered other characteristics followed by 1 or 2 digits if necessary.

Table 3.4. shows examples of values of some mechanical characteristics for the most common structural steel grades given in EN 1993-1-1 [13]; fy is the yielding limit, whilst fu is the ultimate strength.
Table 3.4. Mechanical characteristics for some steel grades given in EN 1993-1-1

[13] (EN 1993-1-1 Tab. 3.1. Nominal values of yield strength fy and ultimate tensile strength fu for hot rolled structural steel) Standard and steel grade Nominal thickness of the element t [mm] t 40 mm fy [N/mm2]
EN 10025-2

40 mm < t 80 mm fy [N/mm2] 215 255 335 410 255 335 390 fu [N/mm2] 360 410 470 550 370 470 520

fu [N/mm2] 360 430 510 550 390 490 520

S 235 S 275 S 355 S 450

EN 10025-3

235 275 355 440 275 355 420

S 275 N/NL S 355 N/NL S 420 N/NL

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3. STRUCTURAL STEEL

S 460 N/NL
EN 10025-4

460 275 355 420 460 235 355 460

540 370 470 520 540 360 510 570

430 255 335 390 430 215 335 440

540 360 450 500 530 340 490 550

S 275 M/ML S 355 M/ML S 420 M/ML S 460 M/ML

EN 10025-5

S 235 W S 355 W
EN 10025-6

S 460 Q/QL/QL1

Table 3.4. Mechanical characteristics for some steel grades given in EN 1993-1-1

[13] (EN 1993-1-1 Tab. 3.1. (continued): Nominal values of yield strength fy and ultimate tensile strength fu for structural hollow sections) Standard and steel grade Nominal thickness of the element t [mm] t 40 mm fy [N/mm2]
EN 10210-1

40 mm < t 80 mm fy [N/mm2] 215 255 335 255 335 390 430 fu [N/mm2] 340 410 490 370 470 520 550

fu [N/mm2] 360 430 510 390 490 540 560 360 430 510 370 470 550

S 235 H S 275 H S 355 H S 275 NH/NLH S 355 NH/NLH S 420 NH/NHL S 460 NH/NLH
EN 10219-1

235 275 355 275 355 420 460 235 275 355 275 355 460

S 235 H S 275 H S 355 H S 275 NH/NLH S 355 NH/NLH S 460 NH/NLH

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3. STRUCTURAL STEEL

S 275 MH/MLH S 355 MH/MLH S 420 MH/MLH S 460 MH/MLH

275 355 420 460

360 470 500 530

The partial factors M are applied to the various characteristic values of resistance as follows:

resistance of cross-sections to excessive yielding, including local buckling resistance of members to instability assessed by member checks resistance of cross-sections in tension to fracture resistance of joints

M0; M1; M2;

special provisions.

The values of the partial factors M may be defined in the National Annex. The following numerical values are recommended for buildings and they are adopted in the Romanian National Annex:
M0 = 1,0 M1 = 1,0 M2 = 1,25

Table 3.5. Partial safety factors for joints given in EN 1993-1-8 [18] (EN 1993-1-8 Tab. 2.1)
Resistance of members and cross-sections Resistance of bolts Resistance of rivets Resistance of pins Resistance of welds Resistance of plates in bearing Slip resistance - for hybrid connections or connections under fatigue loading - for other design situations Bearing resistance of an injection bolt Resistance of joints in hollow section lattice girder Resistance of pins at serviceability limit state Preload of high strength bolts Resistance of concrete
M2 M0 , M1 and M2 see EN 1993-11

M3 M3 M4 M5 M6,ser M7 c see EN 1992

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3. STRUCTURAL STEEL NOTE: Numerical values for M may be defined in the National Annex. Recommended values are as follows: M2 = 1,25 ; M3 = 1,25 for hybrid connections or connections under fatigue loading and M3 = 1,1 for other design situations; M4 = 1,0 ; M5 = 1,0 ; M6,ser = 1,0 ; M7 = 1,1.

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