Education and Social change

The relationship of education with social change is not a simple, unilateral one, as perhaps many would like instrumental in bringing about social change, it is also quite interestingly instrumental in maintaining the status quo. In other words, education plays both a 'conservative' and 'radical' role, i.e., it helps both in 'maintaining' and 'changing' different aspects of the social system. Social scientists have held diverse positions on the relationship between education and social change. There are some (Althusser 1972) who treat education as the most important 'ideological state apparatus' appropriated by the ruling classes to pursue their own ideas and interests. They maintain that education is an instrument forged by to believe, for education is not only

the ruling classes to serve and preserve their own interests and largely to maintain the status quo in the existing economic and political power structure. At the other end, are many social scientists,

politicians, educationists and educational .planners who consider education as an important instrument of social change, particularly in the context of as effecting economic development and third world countries. Here, education is treated social change. It is well known that the educational system is responsible for encouraging innovation in the material and technological spheres. This may involve training the labour force in these skills, challenging traditional attitudes, or promoting social mobility and allowing new elites to threaten and replace those before them. Some of these expectations are, to a large extent, contradictory. The radical and innovation functions of education are hard to reconcile with its role in the transmission of culture. Also, schools and universities are themselves a part of society subject to pressures from other parts of the social system. In a highly stratified society, for example, it is unrealistic to expect schools to inculcate strongly egalitarian principles. They are likely to function in these societies as important agencies

within the stratification system training the young for adult roles. Only where egalitarianism is accepted as part of the dominant value system of a society is it likely either to influence the organization of education or to be part of the moral and social training system are largely also influenced considerably by economic and technological factors. Education in turn may also influence social and economic change as a consequence of the role it plays in the processes of discovery and dissemination of newly acquired knowledge. Social Change Society comprises of a web of social relations and social change implies a change in these relationships. Concept of social change has been deliberated by a number of sociologists who have stresses the role of the two divisions of the society or the classes. According to this theory, conflict and contradictions between these two groups different ideas about such changes. Marxist theory imparted at school. Developments in the education

results in social changes. On the other hand , social change has been defined by Wilbert Moore (1963) as a significant alteration over time in behaviour patterns and culture, including norms and values. With respect to the social change it is important to understand how the rate and nature of change brings about alteration in society. In simpler societies, change is unusually slow: tradition, ritual, rites of passage, and social hierarchies hold such societies together thereby reducing the pace of social change. However, these elements weaken in the event of culture contact with other societies, and disasters such as wars, disease and famine. Terms such as 'progress', 'evolution', 'process' and so forth are often used, in the course of the discussion about social change. R. M. Maclver and C. H.Page (1950) have discussed and distinguished between these terms. The word, 'process' implies the idea of continuity; 'all that is meant by process is the definite stepby-step manner through which one state or stage merges into another'. Nothing is said here about the quality, of the process. It is simply a way of

describing how things happen in society; and also the way in which people adapt to certain elements in their society, or are assimilated to certain forms of activity, or adjust themselves to specific modes of behaviour. The term evolution implies a scientific concept of development and change, an unrolling or unfolding, a movement in some particular direction. Maclver and Page (1950) consider that societies may be classified as more or less evolved according to the complexity of their differentiation. More evolved simply implies a greater complexity and differentiation within the society; but again, evolution' is not merely a quantitative process. For society we find an increasing specialization of organs or units within the system or serving the life of the whole, we can speak of social evolution.' The words progress and process are frequently used in popular discussion as interchangeable words, but in the context of social change, at least, progress involves judgment whereas process are relative, and what may constitute social is simply descriptive of continuity. Value-judgments Maclver and Page, 'wherever in the history of

progress for one may represent retrogression, decay or stagnation for another. it all depends on the sort of ideal one has of society itself and the goal at which one is aiming.

W. J. H. Sprott (1967) presents a clear and simplified scheme of social change within a very narrow spectrum. According to him there is, firstly exogenous change which is caused by agencies external to society itself. Such factors as invasion, colonization, settlement, culture contact and disease are highly unpredictable and capable of effecting social disequilibrium and change. Secondly, there is endogenous change, which occurs from within the society. Sprott divides endogenous change into two main types according to their degree of predictability. There is 'episodic change' which is brought about within a society by some event, which could not have been predicted from one's personal knowledge of the state of our society. This applies particularly within the realm of inventions, which may have devastating effects upon the whole fabric and

lifestyle of society. In fact the invention in itself (e.g. radar, atomic energy, laser beams) is neutral. It is the use to which one puts an invention that decides whether society will progress or retrogress; but it will certainly change. There is, however, also 'patterned change' within the society, which permits a more precise prediction. depends upon the increase in a society of mutual Such prediction is of short term nature and it

concern, planning, rationality and an organized programme of social welfare, as well as political and economic consensus. Thus, social change can be considered due to three main types of factors or conditions: physical and biological; of technological; physical and and cultural. A consideration biological factors

involves such problems as the changing size and average age of a population, the varying balance between deaths and births, and the variations in the race, colour and culture in the differing elements environment, habitats and ecological modifications of population. Geographical factors,

may also affect society in terms of the occupations

people pursue. Technological factors may mean the vast the improvement importance in of mechanical management, devices, in fertilizers and seeds, and in the acceptance of economics, accountancy, and genetics - not as extras or sidelines, but as intrinsic dimensions of agriculture itself. Other technological advances have included the development of physical transportation by means of rail, aeroplane and automobile, and discovery and harnessing of atomic energy. Technological factors tool of governance and a medium of also mean the use of information technology as a social communication. In the present age of globalization no one can remain aloof and each society is influenced by cultural aspects of other societies which brings changes in everyday life as well as in the pattern of values and thinking. These can be said to be cultural factors bringing in social change. Community Based Development Strategy Strategy

In many countries, limited government success in managing natural resources, providing basic infrastructure, and ensuring primary social services

has led to the search for alternative institutional options. In recent years, a shift has occurred away from supply-driven toward demand-driven approaches, and from central command-and-control to local management or co-management of resources and services. This shift is intended to increase efficiency, equity, empowerment, and cost

effectiveness. One of these options is community based development. The experience in community based development is substantial, both about what works and what does not. From this experience it is clear that there is no single model appropriate for all places and times. Supporting community based development on a large scale requires new institutions which support: 1. Adoption networks of or goals and to processes organize which and

strengthen the capacity of a community, its sustain development and its benefits; groups,

2. Reorientation

of

bureaucracies

to

support

community empowerment and investment in social capital through user participation in decision making including rule formulation; and 3. Achieving a match between what people in a community want and are willing to pay for and manage, and what agencies supply. Experience development also does shows not that community based include

automatically

marginalized groups, the poor, women or ethnic minorities unless their participation is specifically highlighted as a goal, both at the agency and community levels. Community based development is concerned with the involvement of local stakeholders in decision making. If people in communities are to take initiative, be creative, learn, and assume responsibility for their own development, they must be actively encouraged to participate. This requires building into policies and projects features which enable peoples participation. In order to encourage community based development on a large scale, it is important to first understand the dynamics at the household, group, or community levels. Based on

this understanding, what needs to happen to support community action can be defined at successively higher and more distant levels. Community based development requires reversing control and accountability from central authorities to individuals, groups, and communities. Success is dependent on tapping into local needs and creating local ownership, and management responsibility), (rules, and authority, control,

organizational

capacity. The challenge facing agencies is to "reinvent themselves so that they can support community involvement, participation, and capacity building for sustained change. Community based management on a large scale requires fundamental changes in the policies, incentives, and structures of agencies. This has costs, but when done properly, the benefits are considerable.

Community based development is not an appropriate strategy need, for every to situation. be Three factors prior to influence the prospects for participation. These therefore, considered adopting a community based approach. These three

factors are the nature of the good or service, the nature of benefits, and the nature of the task. Nature of the Good or Service Collective action is necessary to ensure a flow of services management is not attractive to the profit making or goods when their provision or

sector, when resources are scarce, or collectively owned or managed. In such cases, the resource or service must be managed so that those who do not contribute or follow rules can be denied access. This ability to regulate access is critical for success and is usually determined by a combination of technological and social factors, such as organization, social pressure, and the ability toimpose sanctions. People must also be able to identify the boundaries of the resources. This is particularly important with common margin property resources such as rangeland, watersheds, fisheries, and woodlots. If people do not know what resources they are responsible for, they cannot be expected to manage those resources rationally.

Nature of the Benefits Collective action is easier to stimulate when benefits are quick, visible, and local, when they accrue only to those who participate, and when they are felt to be proportionate to contributions. Benefits are affected by ownership, tenure and land use measures such as forestry, fisheries, or wildlife protection accrue only at the district or national level, local communities have little incentive to participate. For this reason, clean up of rivers and lakes is difficult to induce through collective action. forestry and to tree planting projects particularly is The long gestation period before benefits accrue in a disincentive investment, when rights. If benefits from participation in conservation

combined with insecurity over tenure. Projects which have provided access to fodder, non timber actually successful maturing than have those generally which been solely more on forest products, and firewood while timber is relied

promised timber benefits. If the resource does not community based development should not

lend itself to quick, visible and localized benefits, be

attempted unless strategies can be developed that provide quick, visible benefits without violating a demand orientation (Uphoff, 1986). When results cuts, they may be counter why they should do the are induced artificially by agency initiated short productive to collective difficult work of action. Communities may justifiably ask themselves organization, negotiation, and resource mobilization themselves, when there are easier ways of getting the same results. Nature of the Task To Be Performed Community based development is dependent on action and change at the community level. This requires a clear goal orientation, definition of tasks to be performed at the community level and agreed upon outcomes at the community level (both physical and capacity building). Among the task characteristics which must be considered are specificity, coordination, and continuity. Community based development is being used by the Government of India in a number of programmes. It has the advantage that it encourages

participation from the local people. Community Based Organisations are an important stakeholders in most of the schemes implemented through NGOs. Apart from implementing Government Flagship programs and schemes some of these organizations have functioned independently. Cooperatives working in a particular field are one such example. Self Employed hundreds in villages Women of cooperatives Association and (SEWA) rural producers has got

groups under its fold. Mahila Mangal Dal formed of Uttaranchal, are also which spearheaded based Chipko movement community

organization working for environmental conservation. Importance of community based organizations has ecological conservation where local communities have collectively environment. Assessment of Right to Information Act made efforts to protect their been specifically recognized in the environment and

Two independent organizations i.e. Price Water House Coopers (PWC) and Centre for Good

Governance

(CGG)

conducted

the

impact

assessment of Right to Information act. According to CGG Right to information Act is a watershed movement in the history of public governance in the independent revolution. According use RTI to Act assessment to fight by PWC, citizens and India. PWH considered it as remarkable step to bring in a socio-economic a

and civil society organizations have been able to mismanagements corruption. The Act has been a catalyst to improve the governmental response, but still there are some planning and bureaucratic apathy. The government offices and their public information officers (PIOs) are marred with case overload of complaints and about non compliance by public authorities. In first 2.5 years, after this act was passed, about 2.5 million applications got filed to access the information. In the year 2008 alone about 8.5 lakh applications were filed by citizens daunting barriers to use law because of the poor

and

civil

society

organizations

to

obtain

the

information from the public functionaries. The assessments by CGG and PWC indicated that majority of applications were filed to streamline public utilities like delivery of rationed food to poor, pay wages and pensions, provide scholarships and school uniform, complete roads and housing projects etc. RTI was also used in large number by civil society organizations and NGOs to reveal corruption cases in public services. Ironically, RTI was not used in large number by aggrieved governmental employees who rely heavily on law as a tool with dealing in personnel matters. Likewise RTI was also not used by media in proportion to its size and strength in the Indian democracy.

PWC identified the following barriers to access information: 1. Lack of awareness about rights granted by RTI Act, particularly among the marginalized section of the society.

2. The primary data collected by PWC suggests that only 15% of the people in the country 3. The awareness about RTI is skewed towards the urban middle class and the similar elite sections of the society. 4. The study has also suggested the sharp gender According to PWC about 90% of RTI users are men. 5. PWC estimated the cost incurred by an individual in filing RTI using average wage rates estimated that the true cost of filing and India and twice that in urban India. 6. Psychological cost of filing RTI: The citizens and the other related organizations have to face hostile and indifferent public officials while filing RTI. There are also the cases of harassments and threats from public officials. 7. In some cases the RTI activists have to face dire consequences for accessing the and transportation costs. It is bias in the use of RTI Act. are aware about this Act.

RTI request is about Rs. 250 in rural

information interests.

from

those

with

vested

For example in Jan 2010, an

RTI activist Satish Shetty was murdered as he wanted to expose corruption in the city of Pune. 8. There is lack of infrastructure, inadequate number inadequate of or support no functionaries training for and Public

Information Officers.

9. According to PWC in 2008-09, 23 out of 28 people appointed as Chief Information Commissioners at national and state level were bureaucrats are soft while passing the orders. Right to Life and Human Rights retired civil servants. These

Traditional approach to the study of rights has been in terms of individual liberty. When it is said that someone has rights, it implies that the individual has a certain zone of liberty and privacy that no one has the authority to transgress or

snatch away. At the societal level, this naturally gets translated into the concept of civil liberties. In every society, the State formulates certain laws to protect the rights of individuals or groups from violation by other individuals and groups. These are reflected under the entire gamut of civil and criminal laws. However, a condition could arise when the State may itself seek to violate these rights of people particularly the Right to life and liberty.

Founding fathers of the Indian Constitution had also participated in the freedom struggle and hence were of the atrocities which the State of capable of doing. It is against this condition, that

provision Life and liberty has been kept. Liberty has been made under two assumptions, first that there some rights which are unalienable from an individual and second that there could be an attempt from the State to violate these

rights. The Right to life and liberty has been guaranteed under Article 21 of the Constitution life which states, No person shall be deprived of his or personal liberty except according to

procedure established by law. This article has

been said to be the heart of the fundamental rights and has been interpreted by the Supreme Court of India in a number of cases. First such was filed by the Communist leader A.K.Gopalan against his detention under the Preventive Detention Act. In the petition it was claimed that the Act contravened the provisions of Articles 13, detention was illegal. While Article 13 provides that the laws inconsistent with the Fundamental Rights are void; Article 19 provides Freedom of Speech and expression etc.; Article 21 provides that no person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to a procedure established by law and Article 22 provides for arrest and detention in certain cases. In the said case, there was a difference of opinion but it was held that procedure established by law referred to the state made laws and not to any abstract law or natural justice. The judgment supported the Government action and the petition was dismissed. 19, 21 and 22 of the Constitution and hence his case was Gopalan Vs. the State of Madras which

However, the position was changed in the case of Maneka Gandhi Vs. Union of India (1978) wherein the Apex Court held that no person should be deprived of his life and liberty except by a procedure established by law and this procedure must be reasonable, fair and just and not arbitrary, whimsical or fanciful and it is for the Court to decide in the exercise of its constitutional life or personal liberty in a given case is by procedure, which is reasonable, fair and just or it is otherwise. In the case of Francis Coralie Mullin Vs Administrator of Delhi (1981) the Court held: ..But the question which arises is whether power of judicial review whether the deprivation of

the right to life is limited only to protection of limb or faculty or does it go further and embrace something more. We think that the

right to life includes the right to live with namely, the bare necessaries of life such as facilities for reading, writing and expressing

human dignity and all that goes along with it, adequate nutrition, clothing and shelter and one-self in diverse forms, freely moving about

and mixing and commingling with fellow human of the components of this right would depend of the country, but it must, in any view of the matter, necessities of life and also the right to carry include the right to the basic

beings. Of course, the magnitude and content upon the extent of the economic development

on such functions and activities as constitute

the bare minimum expression of the humanimpairs would human dignity be would constitute

self. Every act which offends against or deprivation protanto of this right to live and it reasonable, have fair to and in accordance just procedure with

established by law which stands the test of other fundamental rights..

In the case of Olga Tellis Vs Bombay Municipal Corporation, the Court further held: ..The sweep of the right to life conferred by Article 21 is wide and far reaching. It does not mean merely that life cannot be extinguished or taken away as, for example, by the imposition and execution of the death sentence, except according

to procedure established by law. That is but one aspect of the right to life. An equally important facet of that right is the right to livelihood living, that is, the means of livelihood. If the right to livelihood is not treated as a part of the constitutional right to live, the easiest way of depriving a person of his right to life would be to deprive him of his means of livelihood to the point of abrogation. Such deprivation would not only denude the life of its effective content and meaningfulness but it would make life impossible to live. And yet, such deprivation would not have to be in accordance with the procedure established by law, if the right to livelihood is not regarded as a part of the right to life. That, which alone makes it possible to live, leave aside what makes like livable, must be deemed to be an integral component of the right to life.. because, no person can live without the means of

If really Article 21, which is the heart of fundamental rights has received expanded meaning from time to time there is no justification as to why it cannot be interpreted in the light of Article

45 wherein the State is obligated to provide education up to 14 years of age, within the prescribed time limit. Constitutional and Human Rights Rights granted to an individual can be divided into two groups. First types of rights are Constitutional rights. These are granted by the law of a country to its citizens. Neither are these granted to the citizens of other countries nor are these guaranteed in other countries. Second types of

rights are human rights. These rights are enjoyed by an individual because he is a human being. These rights cannot be taken away by any government or country and are also available to citizens of other country. Right to life and liberty is a right of second category and is available to citizens of other countries though in that case its connotations may vary as per various laws in force, but it is for sure that any individual, even though he may be of any other country cannot be deprived of life and liberty as per procedure established by law. The judicial pronouncement

referred

above

clearly

indicates

that

human

primarily involve the obligation of the state. . The

rights s are not merely matters of ethics. They

basic fact is that the duty-holders under human rights are states and the community of states. Human rights largely deal with oppression by the state. Human rights endow individuals with a legitimate claim against the state to enjoy an existential status with proper dignity. The primary thrust of human rights is on the empowerment of society, particularly the most vulnerable groups in society, to lay legitimate claims to the institution of the state for a life with dignity and freedom and resources.

State and social conflicts conflicts

State is both a source and a remedy for social conflict. Being a legitimate authority, it can exercise power and coercion. It can help in

reducing the inequalities by way of good governance and can also help in setting up mechanisms of conflict resolution. State is also a medium of social

change as patronage can help some groups to improve their status. However, policies of the state can also harm the interests of some social groups or could be resented by some people. Further, democracy is always fraught with fear of turning into the dictatorship of the majority or of certain large chunks of voters. This would lead to alienation of other groups. The Indian state was born in 1947 after the British left India. Important features of Indian state can be seen in the preamble of the Constitution which states the country to be a sovereign, socialist, secular and democratic republic. It also pledges to provide its people JUSTICE, social, economic and political; Liberty of expression, thought, belief, faith and worship; Equality of status Fraternity assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the nation. A plain reading of the preamble would indicate that the founding fathers had expected the country to be socialist. The term in general sense and opportunity; and to promote among them all

implies an equitable distribution of resources. As the society at the time of independence was basically feudal with gross social and economic inequalities, this meant taking away some of the resources and privileges from the well offs and giving it to the deprived. This would obviously be resented by those who controlled these resources and increase in social conflict. Similarly, social inequalities had also to be removed which also required the deprived are empowered. This would again cause resentment among some groups. The State was also required to be secular. It is well known that Mahatma Gandhi and other Congress leaders were not in favour of partition which was forced by Muslim League. This led to demands from the Hindu groups for similar type of state in India. Adoption of a secular mode caused resentment among these groups and again became a cause of conflict. Hence, given

the

conditions

at

the

time

of

independence, social conflicts were inherent in these conditions and it fell upon the Indian state to remove these differences and forge a cultural

and social unity in the country. Despite best efforts of the state, the conflicts have refused to lie Expression of discontent came in various forms. First was in the form of voting pattern of castes and communities which started voting on sectarian lines. This resulted in political parties indulging in vote bank politics and catering to castes and communities. While a positive aspect of this development was that the deprived classes found their voice, the negative aspect was that on social front it strengthened the divisions on caste and communal criterion for winning elections, other desirable requisites were ignored giving rise to a number of problems in electoral politics. Second form of the expression was in the form of social movements which started during the 1970s and are still continuing. Movements have taken place for a number of causes, and many of them have been successful. Third form of expression was in the form of insurgency and violent conflicts which arose in various parts of the country. Hence, success of basis. As this became the primary down and started expressing themselves.

Indian state in resolving social conflicts can at best be said to be partial. efining Civil Society As per the World Bank, the term civil society to refer to the wide array of non-governmental and not-for-profit organizations that have a presence in public life, expressing the interests and values of their members or others, based on ethical, cultural, political, scientific, religious or philanthropic considerations. Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) therefore refer to a wide of array of organizations: community groups, non-governmental organizations groups, organizations, foundations. (NGOs), labor unions, indigenous faith-based and charitable organizations,

professional

associations,

Although the term, has been used earlier, in recent times it has gained significance from the 1980s onwards particularly with respect to the developments in the Eastern Europe and former Soviet Union as well as the developing countries. The concept of civil society is linked to the

concept of the state in the sense that civil society organizations gain prominence when there is erosion in the credibility of the state which leads to emergence of parallel centers of power. Thus the recent attention to the civil society can also be traced to the eruption of social movements or resentment of the people against the state. Civil society is the space which exists between the community and the state. It is represented by those associations, the NGOs, individuals,

academicians, intellectuals which stroke who strive for betterment of the lives of people in the areas of their operation. Since the civil society institutions question the state, they are generally referred to as the institutions, which are distant from the state. The civil society is considered both complimentary and sometimes as a substitute for civil society is secular. Caste and kinship exist between the state and the community and

the state institutions. The basis of the formation of linkages,religion or tribal mobilization etc. are not the basis of the formation of civil society. Democracy and Civil Society

Democracy

and

Civil

Society

are

inseparably

related to each other. A healthy liberal democracy needs the support of a vibrant civil society. The foundation of the democracy-civil society nexus thesis could be traced in Tocqueville classic writings on American politics. In recent years, there are several scholars who have developed this democracy-civil society relation in various models of democracy. One such model is the Associative Model of Democracy as developed by Sunil Khilnani, the basis Paul of Trust formation and of Benjamin civil Barber. The According to them, the decentralization of power is decentralized units of power are inclined towards trust, association and democracy. The advocates of this perspective are critical of the centralized authority of the state, which they find too imposing. They pin their hopes on the communities or the decentralization in the western democracies. The perspective of the civil society is related to that literature which emerged in the wake of the decline of socialist societies, especially in Eastern Europe. Here, the civil society emerged in contrast to the totalitarian state. society.

The rights of the individuals, which were violated during the totalitarian regimes, were seen to be protected in the civil society. The existence of civil society also indicates the extent of democracy multi-party system or a democratic constitution. It also means, at the same time, existence of democratic norms and values like coexistence of culture and views. According to Gellner, the institutional notion of democracy is less comprehensive than that of civil society. Civil society is an arena of contestation and debate. Neera Chandhoke says that civil society is a space where individuals set their norms in association with each other. It resides in the life of those who question the states imposition on them. They make the state respond to their voices. Each group in the civil society is entitled to maintain its specificity, culture. These are based on the principles of freedom and equality. According to Manoranjan Mohanty, the civil society organizations may be called creature societies, because these differences along with tolerance of each others in a society, viz, formal democracy like elections,

associations question the state and strive to create an egalitarian and democratic order. A new generation of neo-Tocquevillians, the most prominent amongst whom is Robert Putnam, have since the 1990s revived the concept of civil society as the bedrock of democracy. Putnam a concept called Social Capital which stands for and networks. The linkage between popularized

features of social organisations such as trust, norms democracy and social capital takes off from one of Putnams famous study of the varying performances The work argues that North Italy of local governments across North and South Italy. generally promoted better institutional performance than the South, because here conditions were historically which itself resulted from the availability of better inter-personal and institutional trust in the society. Community and Civil Society Community is a group of people knit into geared to wider public participation in civic affairs,

relationships on the basis of primordial factors, i.e., religion, kin, family ties, caste, etc. These set

rules for the individuals, which constitute the community. The nature of the rules of the community about the rights of the individuals and citizens show the nature of polity and society. The rules of the community are particularistic and those of the state are universalistic. If there are conflicts between the two sets of rules, the democratic edifice of the polity gets eroded. But if on the other hand, the rights of the individuals in a society are in consonance with those democratic traits. The community exists between the state and civil society. The status of the democratic rights of individuals within the society of women, of disadvantaged groups, of minorities, institutions of state, civil society and community. The sociological argument on the distinction between community and civil society takes its purest, most systematic and most elaborate form in the work of Ferdinand Tonnies. Tonnies called these real or organic life and imaginary or mechanical structures Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft. In etc.depends on the nature of all the three of the state, the polity represents

Tonnies words, Gemeinschaft is old; Gesellschaft is new. In rural life, community among people is stronger and more alive; it is the lasting and Gemeinschaft, Gesellschaft (society) is transitory and superficial. Accordingly, Gemeinschaft a living (community) should be understood as genuine form of living together. In contrast to

organism, Gesellschaft as a mechanical aggregate

and an artifact. Sudipta Kaviraj in an article In search of Civil Society points to a connection between the two dichotomies: the state and the civil society on one hand, and the civil society and the community on the other. There are significant connections between these two separate arguments in several types of analyses of Third World politics. It has been argued that the proper working of a modern constitutional state requires a distinction not merely organisations in society, but the sphere of nonstate organisations being governed by Gesellschaft like principles. Features of Civil Society between the state and the other

Concept of civil society is a diverse one and there have been diverse analysis of the term. However, under: some features of the civil society are as

1. Firstly, civil society is the realm of organised social generating, at least partially self-supporting, autonomous from the state and bound by a legal order or set of shared rules. It is distinct from society in general in that it involves citizens acting collectively in a public sphere. 2. Secondly, civil society is concerned with public ends rather than private ends. It is an intermediary phenomenon standing between the private excludes parochial society: individual and family life and inward-looking group activity; and it excludes economic society: the profit-making enterprise of individual business firms. 3. Thirdly, civil society is related to the state in some way, but does not seek to control the sphere and the state. Thus, it life that is open, voluntary, self-

state; it does not seek to govern the polity as a whole. 4. Fourthly, civil society encompasses pluralism and diversity. It encompasses a vast array of organizations, formal and informal, including economic, cultural, informational and educational, interest groups, developmental, issue-oriented and civic groups. In addition, civil society encompasses what Thomas Metzger calls the ideological marketplace, the flow of information and ideas, including those which evaluate and critique the state 5. Fifth, it follows from the fourth that civil society does not seek to represent the

complete set of interests of a person or a community. Rather different groups represent or encompass different aspects of interest. 6. Sixth, civil society should be distinguished from the more clearly democracy-enhancing phenomenon of civic community. Civic community is both a broader and narrower concept than civil society: broader in that it encompasses all manner of associations (parochial included); narrower in that it includes only associations

structured horizontally around ties that are more or less mutual, cooperative, symmetrical and trusting. Role of Market in Governance

Functioning of the society and polity is heavily

affected by the economic conditions and patterns of the society. In India, the number of social groups taking recourse to collective action has increased since liberalization of economic policies. This has raised some important questions. Has the nature of social movements changed or is changing with the expansion of market? What kinds of new social movements are emerging? Has the state for social transformation? Do the market forces dominate and govern the state? Are social classes getting fragmented and loose in their capacity to organise and dominate? Has class base of the social movements declined with the rise of market? etc. become weak and withdrawn from its responsibility

For

understanding

this

concept

we

need

to

consider the changes in the Indian state vis--vis the economic policies. For this purpose, it can be divided into two phases. These are pre-1990s and post-1990; the phase preceding the present form of liberalisation and the phase coinciding with it. During the first two decades following Independence, the state was given a dominant international circumstances which prevailed at that time necessitated to accord such a position to the state. The division of the country into India and Pakistan, the consequent communal riots, influx of refugees after partitions, merger of princely states into the Indian Union, the division of the world in two ideologically opposite blocks the American and Russian known to be involved in the cold war were the leadership to adopt a development model in which the state would find a dominant place. This model which gave prominence to the state was conditions which motivated the national

place in the development model. The national and

known as Nehru-Mahalanobis model of development. It sought to build India a strong nation-state,

showing the unity of diverse regional, economic, cultural and regional groups. The market was supposed to depend on the state for its existence; it had to be regulated and get the permission of the state through licenses. It gave prominence to the state organs, especially bureaucracy, which came to known as the permanent government or non-alignment in the international relations. This development differences of and the country, eliminate on steel frame, state planning, mixed economy,

model envisaged that it would lead to overall the social hierarchy based

cleavages caste, religion, language, race, region, and economic disparity (will augment the economic growth, remove poverty, etc.). In the macro

economy it gave preference to the industry over the agriculture or the rural sector. However, the state introduced several measures which affected different classes and groups; these groups

participated in the collective actions in the coming decades. In the rural areas land reforms abolition of landlordism and making the tillers as owners of land, agricultural extension schemes, community development programmes and several

welfare measures were introduced by the state in different states. Though these schemes were not completely successful, these had improved the conditions of peasantry to varying degrees. The state in the rural economy was in the 1960s through the green revolution the HVY (High Yielding Varieties of seeds), fertilizers and inputs, seeds, machenisation, etc. in the selected areas of the country. The post 1990 phase, i.e., the era of liberalisation from the 1990s, has seen the decline in the state authority following the introduction of Structural Adjustment Programme introduced by the Narasingha Rao government in 1991. This phase is marked by the parallel rise of the market force and the civil society organisations which have eroded the monopoly of the state. Hence, the market was given secondary position in the policy formulations in relation to the state in the pre-liberalisation phase. The market not only had to depend on the state leadership and bureaucracy for clearance, licenses or operate under the inspector raj, it also had no major role most forceful and effective intervention of the

in measures meant for various sections of the society. Besides, the market had to face the corruption/lack of transparency, redtapism, etc. state. This brought to the prominence the role of the state in the process of democratisation, governance and development. A search for an alternative to the state as an agency for carrying of scholars and politicians argued that out development and democracy started. A section the alternative to the state could be found in the market. But there was an equal strident opposition to the market as an alternative. This was a general trend world over. The western world with the neo-liberal ideology and through the institutions Monetary Fund, etc., played a leading role to propagate the ideas that the panaceas to the problems of the third world could be found if the state in these countries rolled back or became a minimalist state and structural reforms were introduced in these countries. It boosted the market which is associated with the economic like the World Bank, International These were in general taken to be failure of the

reforms

programme, or the

popularly

known

as

the

globalisation

Structural

Adjustment

Programme. In case of India, by the 1980s the financial problems, mainly the balance of payment had become very acute. the solution to this was to be found in borrowing from the international donor agencies. But they could lend only if their conditions were accepted. The conditions included adopting their criterion of governance and taking up their policy of liberalization and globalisation. Thus liberalization and globalization resulted in a considerable reduction of the control of the state. This atmosphere was more conducive for examining state policies and opposing them if required. Entry of electronic media and social media on the internet made tremendous impact on the political and social front. Electronic media greatly Entry the strengthened journalism and of social medium further visual news democratized were

directly being broadcasted day and night.

situation. Now one need not be journalist or a

writer or a celebrity to air his views. This considerably increased the strength of the civil

society as the state was now bound to reply to the criticism from these groups if it was to retain its credibility among people. Civil society has made organs of the state. Market in itself is liberal in nature and hence needs liberal conditions to flourish. Strict control of the state is an anathema to the market and it seeks to reduce the power of the state, which, on the other hand seeks to exercise its control over the procedures. Thus market is more interested in parallel centres of the power other than the state. However the interest is conditional and is restricted to only those groups which help it in its business or help to promote the principle of lasses faire in general. Market does not support those organisations which hinder its functioning. This can be seen in a shift in the general nature of social movements. While the pre 1990s movements were basically socialist or leftist in nature, the movements which have come up in the liberal period stress more on freedom, equality, human rights and market by way of various rules and much better use of these tools in attacking various

governance. While the movements which came up in the pre liberalization era concentrated mainly on villages, centre of action for newer movements is the urban India.

Feudalism: Meaning and attributes

We come across the term feudalism in various contexts. Several times we also use various connotations of feudalism like feudal mind set, feudal anarchy etc. This article desribes the meaning simple way. According to famous historian F.L.Ganshof and attributes of feudalism and

characteristics of feudal society in a lucid and

Feudalism may be conceived of as form of society possessing well marked features which can be defined without difficulty. They may be summarized as follows: a development pushed to extremes of the element of a personal dependence in society, with a specialized military class occupying the higher levels in the social scale; an extreme

subdivision of the rights of real property; graded system of rights over land created by this subdivision and corresponding in broad outline to the grades of personal dependence just referred hierarchy of to; and a dispersal of political authority among a persons who exercise their own interest powers normally attributed to the State and which are often, in fact derived from its break up.

The definition sees feudalism as a legal and military arrangement in which a vassal accepts the obligations of obedience and service towards the Lord in return for obligations of protection and maintenance of the vassal by the Lord. Although classic feudalism is mainly linked to Europe, similar institutions existed in a number of other countries as well. The daimios, bushi and samurai of Japan were like vassals and were granted land like fief. In Arab and Turkish world, the fief took the form of iqta and pomestie in Russia was also a kind of fief. India has its version of feudalism, which though different from the European system had its

samants

and

jagirs.

In

military

terms,

feudalism, was the result of a situation in which the Lord was not able to maintain the required army, particularly the cavalry which was expensive to maintain. The burden was shifted to the vassals who were provided with land or certain other rights to enable them to meet their expenses as well as that of the soldiers they were required to maintain.

However, some other writers like French historian Marc Bloch looked at feudalism as a stage of society. He noticed that from the fifth century to the tenth century A.D., Western Europe was subjected to a number of invasions from a number of sources which created a great deal of insecurity and disrupted the economy. During this period, everyone in Western Europe was searching for security and subsistence. This search led to the formation of what Marc Bloch described as 'ties of interdependence". All sections of society entered into these ties; peasants surrendered their lands and resources to the local lord who promised them security and subsistence and

returned the lands to them on condition of their cultivating his fields without being paid wages. The local lord in turn, similarly, sought security and subsistence from the one more powerful than him by surrendering his lands etc., to be given back as fiefs on condition of rendering military service to the bigger lord. The smaller lord thus became the vassal of the bigger lord. The process went on until everyone became the lord of some and the vassal of others except the king who was the vassal of none and the peasant who was the lord of none. These ties of interdependence also produced cultural ethos. In all these views, the emergence other dramatic event or events. In economic terms it had origins in the slavery based modes of production. First Greece and then Rome were transformed slavery into a systematic production. The slave had no rights over himself and was the property of the master. Aristotle called the slave as property with a soul and the Roman called him as instrument vocale i.e. a corresponding religious ideology and

of feudal society was attributed to some or the

tool with a voice.

As war was an important mode

of acquiring slaves, the system declined once large scale conquests stopped. Existing slaves began to settle down as serfs and retainers in household and slowly grew more attached the to

households gradually improving their status. This was the origin of feudalism. In stages of economic aspect of social evolution, feudalism is a stage capitalist mode. Thus a serf of feudal society between the slavery based mode of production and

stood someway between the slave who had no rights whatsoever and the worker in the capitalist age who though did not have any control over the means of production, got wages for his work and could move freely from one employer to the other. A slave was like a piece of property which could be bought or sold anywhere, any time. The serf could not be sold apart from the land he worked

on. In case the lord sold the land to another lord, the serf was automatically transferred to the new owner. The serf had the hereditary right of occupancy of land given to him by the lord, but he

did not have the ownership right. The occupancy right was expressed in the phrase often used as a characteristic description of feudal society: "the peasant is tied to the land". This phrase had a dual meaning. If on one hand it meant that the peasant could not leave the land of his lord and go elsewhere, on the other it also limited the lord's right to evict the peasant from the land. Thus, even if the lord sold off a particular piece of land, the peasant could not be evicted from it; the land carried him to the new Master. Besides, the tied peasant or serf was fully entitled to the produce of his and his family's labour and of the land in his occupancy, even when the land formally belonged to the lord. In return for the occupancy of the land, however, the serf was obliged to cultivate other fields, the produce of which went to the lord's household, without being paid for the labour.

Feudal

system

had

its

own

structure

which

comprised of the serfs, free men, knights, lords and the King. All these were tied with obligations which were binding. Obligation of fidelity to the

lord was of primary importance. Fief was generally in the form of a landed estate but it could be an authority or a right. Manor was the fundamental unit in the feudal system of production. It comprised of three parts: demesne, tenement and the waste. First two were under cultivation with produce of the first part going to the lord, that of the second going to the peasant and third comprising of forests and pastures and used by the entire community. A characteristic manor village comprised of shoddy houses of serfs or farmers, church, artisan shops and other facilities. The Lord lived in a spacious and well defended castle which was also the refuge of peasants in times of attack. Peasantry was bound to fulfill certain obligations for the lord which included free labour on lords farms and household as well as several taxes on marriage, inheritance and a number of other things.

In the 14th century, Europe witnessed a number of natural calamities which severely reduced its population bringing a serious shortage of labour and a crisis in feudal economy. In the meanwhile

crusades and other travels had opened trading options and economy started shifting from land based economy to money based economy. Increase in trade was supported by the King as the traders could provide him money for maintaining an army and other paraphernalia of the state. Now the King could maintain a standing army. Invention of gunpowder, against which the castles had no protection, tilted the military balance towards the King. All these factors resulted in the end of feudalism and rise of the authority of the King. Health Indicators in India....

Public Health is one of the best reflection of Human Development in a country. India is one of those counrty where the spending on Public Health in proportion to percentage of GDP is one of the lowest in world. In this article we have covered the following indicators: 1. Infant Mortality Rate

2. Maternal Mortality Rate 3. Under Five Mortality Rate 4. Institutional deliveries 5. Life Expectancy at Birth

Infant Mortality Rate Infant Mortality Rate means number of infant (below one year deaths) per 1000 live births. Infant Mortality Rate which was 50 in 2009 and 47 in 2010 has declined to 44 as per the Sample 2012. However, there are again variations all over country. For rural areas, the figure is 48 while for the urban areas it is 29. In the bigger states, Kerala has the best rate of 12 while Madhya Pradesh is the worst with IMR of 59. IMR is one of the indicators for the Millennium Development Goals (MDG) and a target of 28 has been set by the year 2015. As per MDG Report, 2011, though IMR for the country as a whole declined by 30 points (rural IMR by 31 points vis--vis urban IMR by 16 points) in the last 20 years at an annual average decline of Registration System (SRS) Bulletin,

1.5

points,

it

declined

by

three

points

between

2008 and 2009. With the present

improved trend due to sharp fall during 2008be 45.04 which is short of the target. Under Five Mortality Rate Under Five Mortality Rate means number

09, the national level estimate of IMR is likely to

of

children who died before attaining five years of age. As per data provided by the Census in SRS bulletin, 2011, Under Fiver Mortality Rate in 2009 was 64 and showed an improvement of 5 points over 69 of 2008. This is monitored as one of the indicators of MDG and a target of 28 has set for 2015. As per MDG Report, 2011, India is expected to reach the figure of 54 and likely to miss the target.

Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR) and Institutional Deliveries

Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR) means the number of women aged 15-49, who die due to any cause relating to pregnancy during pregnancy or child

birth or within 42 days relating to pregnancy per 100,000 live births. MMR has reduced from 254 per 100000 live births in 2004-06 to 212 per 100000 live births in 2007-09

(SRS), a reduction of 42 points over a three year period or 14 points per year on an average. Maternal Mortality Ratio is also being monitored under Millennium Development Goals as per which MMR has to be reduced to 109. As per MDG Report, 2011, expected figure to be reached by 2015 is 139, thus falling short of the target, though sharper decline of 16% during 2003-06 and 17% during 2006-09 can be considered to matter of some relief. As regard the institutional deliveries, the rate of increase in coverage of institutional deliveries in India is rather slow. It increased from 26% in 1992-93 to 47% in 2007-08. As a result, the coverage of deliveries by skilled personnel has also increased almost similarly by 19 percentage points from 33% to 52% during the same period. rate of increase in deliveries by skilled personnel, the likely achievement for2015 is only to 62%, With the existing

which is far short of the targeted universal coverage Life Expectancy at birth Life expectancy at birth means the age up to which a new born is expected to live. As per data made available by SRS Bulletin, life expectancy has considerable improved from 49.7 years in 1970-75 to 66.1 years in 2006-10. However, this is quite less in comparison to the developed countries while life expectancy is usually above 80. Life expectancy is not uniform and there are variations between male and female, rural and urban and also in various states. Details of time wise life expectancy for male, female, rural and urban people are given below.

residence, India*, 19701970-75 to to 2006200610

Expectation of life at birth by sex and

Peri Mi od d-

To tal

Ru ral

Ur ba

n Ye Tot Ma ar al 197 19 075 7 3 49 .7 le 5 0. 5 Fe mal e 4 9. 0 2 . 1 5 5 . 7 5 8 . 1 5 8 . 6 5 To Ma Fem To Ma Fem tal le ale 4 4 4 7. 1 5 0 . 3 5 3 .6 5 6. 2 5 6. 9 tal le ale 5 5 8. 8. 9 8 5 9. 2 6 . 8 6 4. 1

8. 8. 0 9

197 19 5 5 680 7 8 2. 2. 3 5

5 5 0. 1. 6 0

6 1 6

5 6 6

0. 9.

198 19 5 5 185 8 3 5. 5. 4 4

5 5 3 4. .7 0

2. 1. 8 6 6 6

198 19 5 5 690 198 791 8 8 7. 7. 7 7

5 5 6. 6. 1 1

6 4. 9 6 5 . 3

3 2. .4 0 6 6

19

5 5 8. 8. 3 1

5 5 6. 6. 8 7

89

3 2. .8 3

198 892 198 993 199 094 199 195 199 296 199 397

19 90

5 5 8. 8. 7 6

5 9. 0 5 9. 7 6 0 .4 6 0 .9 6 1 .4 6 1 . 8 6

5 5 7. 7. 4 2

5 7. 4 5 8 .1 5 8 .7 5 9. 3 5 9. 8 6 0 . 2 6

6 1 6 9 6

6 8 6 5 6

6 .

4. 2.

5 5 6 6. 3 6 6. 7 6 7 . 3 6 7 . 7 6 8 . 0 6

19 91

5 5 9. 9. 4 6 0 6 0 5 4 5

5 5 8. 7. 0 9 5 5 8. 8. 6 2

4. 3.

19

92

0. 9.

5 4. .4 1 6 6

19 93

5 5 8. 8. 9 5

0. 9. 3 7 6 7 6 1 6 1 6 4

5 4. .9 5 6 6

19 94

5 5 9. 8. 4 9

0. 0.

6. 4. 3 9 6 6 6 6 1

19 95

5 5 9. 9. 9 3

1. 0.

6. 5.

199

19 6

498

96 1. 0. 4 6

2 . 2

0. 9. 1 5

0 . 5

6. 5. 8 3

8 . 2

199 599 # 199 600 # 199 701 # 199 802 199 903 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 1 19 99 19 98 19 97

6 2 . 3 6 2 . 7 6 3 . 3 6 4. 0 6 6

6 0 .9 6

6 4

6 1

6 7 .9 6 8 . 3 6 8 . 7 6 9. 2 6

1. 0. 5 8 6 9 6 6

0. 9. 3 7 6 6 1 6 3 6 7 6 1

6. 5.

1. 1. 2 6

0. 0. 7 6 1 6 6 6

1. 3 6 1. 9 6 . 5 6 3 . 2

6. 5. 7 6 1 6 6 6 4 6 7 6 1 6

2. 1. 3 4 6 9 6 4 6 9 6

1. 0.

7. 5.

2. 1.

1. 0.

7. 6.

3. 2. 3

4.

2. 1. 2

8. 6. 0 5

9. 7

20 04 20 01 -

00

0 0 2 2 0 0 3 2 0 0 4 2

6 9 6

6 8 6

6 .

3. 2.

5 2 6 5 . 6 6 6 . 1 6 6 . 5 6 6 .9 6 7 .

6 7 6

6 6 6

6 .

2. 1.

3 8 6

6 4 6 6 6 9 6

6 9 6

7 .

8. 6.

0 0 7 0 . 3 7 0 .6 7 . 7 7 0 . 8 7 1. 0

4. 3. 3 1 6 7 6 0 6 4 6 5 6 7 6 0 6 3

3 1. .0 9 6 6

4. 2 6 4. 7 6 . 2 6 5 .7 6 6. 0

8. 7. 2 6 4 6

05 20 02 06 20 07 20 04 08 20 05 03

4. 3.

3 2. .5 3 6 6

8. 7.

0 0 5 2 0 0 6 2 0

5. 3.

3 2. .8 6 6 2 6 6 9

9. 7. 0 5 6 6

5. 4.

4. 2.

9. 7. 0 5 6 6

6 7

5. 4.

4. 3. 5 2

9. 7. 2 6

-09 0

7 20 06 10 2 0 0 8 6 1 6 6

2 6 7 . 7 6 9 6 5 6 6. 5 6 6 6 0 7 1. 4

6. 4.

4. 3.

9. 8.

Development indicators in India and religion

As per Census reports, India has more than 2800 religions. However, majority of them are Christianity and Sikhism are major small sect having small followings. Hinduism, Islam, religions. Percentage wise distribution of followers of main religions, as per Census, 2001, is as under:

Distribution of Population by Religion Religion All religious Population Percentage Percentage 100.0

communities Hindus Muslims Christians Sikhs Buddhists Jains Others Religion not stated The Tendulkar 80.5 13.4 2.3 1.9 0.8 0.4 0.6 0.1 has also

Committee

indicated poverty trends on the basis of religious communities. As per the report, Sikhs have lowest whereas in urban areas, Christians have the lowest proportion (12.9%) of poor. In rural areas, the HCR for Muslims is very high in states such as Assam (53.6%), Uttar Pradesh (44.4%), West Bengal (34.4%) and Gujarat (31.4%). Head Count Ratio (HCR) It is an important indicator of poverty. It indicates Head Count Ratio (HCR) in rural areas (11.9%)

the percentage of population of a country or specific area or specific community which is living below the poverty line.

In urban areas poverty ratio at all India level is highest for Muslims (33.9%). Similarly, for urban areas the poverty ratio is high for Muslims in states such as Rajasthan (29.5%), Uttar Pradesh (49.5%), Gujarat (42.4%), Bihar (56.5%) and West Bengal (34.9%). This data indicates that among minority communities, existence of poverty is very high in Muslims. Some of the facts about conditions of Muslims have been discussed in the Sachar Committee report. As per the said report, the literacy rate among Muslims in 2001 was 59.1 %. This is far below the national average (65.1 %). If the SCs/STs, with an even lower literacy level of 52.2% and Muslims, are excluded, the remaining category of All Others show a %. high literacy level of 70.8

In urban areas, the gap between the literacy levels to of the Muslims All (70.1%) and the it national is 15 average is 11 percentage points and in relation Others category percentage points. Although the levels of literacy are lower in rural areas (52.7% for Muslims), the gap between the compared categories is also narrower. It both is important to note, however, that the

SCs/STs are still the least literate group in urban and rural India. Although the literacy male SCs/STs levels of 64% and 68% amongst

and Muslims respectively are not low, they are far contrast, Muslim women with a literacy level of 50% have been able to keep up with women of other communities and are much ahead of the SC/ST women in rural India. Muslim workers are mostly engaged in self-

below the level for All Others which is 81%. In

employment activity. This is particularly true in urban areas. Number of Muslims employed in salaried jobs is very low. In the aggregate while

25 per cent of Hindu-UC workers are engaged in regular jobs, only about 13 per cent of Muslim workers are engaged in such jobs. the Government departments and PSUs, the share of Muslim workers does not exceed 5 per cent. The data from State departments and state level PSUs shows a somewhat higher representation of Muslims information however, reveals that while Muslim, OBC than at the Central level. Detailed In most of

and SC/ST public sector employees have relatively higher concentration in lower level positions as compared to Hindu-Upper Caste workers whose participation in higher positions is more. Rise of Indian Nationalism

Meaning of nationalism Nationalism can be defined as a combination of common culture and ideology brought together by the common will of the people. Although, since times people of India held a notion that the country was one, the concept of India as a nation

was non-existent. The concept arose after the British occupation of the country. Like other colonial states, nationalism in the country was marked by the negative feelings against the British and the rise of national consciousness in the nineteenth century was essentially the result of the policies adopted by the British rulers. On the whole the policies were framed to exploit the country and the populace under subjugation. The economic, political Indian and people social giving changes rise to brought a about by the British rule resulted in the oppression of wide spread dissatisfaction among the masses. Moreover, the

uniform system of administration, development of post and telegraph, railways, printing press and educational institutions created by the British primarily as measures for running an effective administration also helped in providing favourable "conditions for the rise and growth of national movement. under: Economic factors consciousness which is essential for a national Some such specific factors are as

The British agrarian policy was mainly aimed at drawing out maximum land revenue and providing raw material for the British industries. In the be paid to the state was fixed for Permanent Settlement areas the land revenue to each Zamindar but there was no control on what zamindar charged from the peasants. As a result, the Zamindars kept charging more from the peasants than what they had to pay to the State. Most of the time, the peasants had to borrow money from money lenders who charged exorbitant rate of interest. Whenever the peasants tried to resist the exploitation by landlords and money lenders, the official machinery helped the latter. A large number of cash crops (like indigo, cotton, sugarcane) were taken by the British on dictated prices to be used as raw materials. Cotton and indigo cultivators were the worst affected. As a result of the British land revenue policy, large numbers of peasants lost their lands to zamindars and moneylenders and were reduced to landless labourers. The number of landless labourers was as high as 20% of the population (52.4 million with their dependents) in 1901.

If agriculture was in dire straits, the industry fared no better. Restrictions were imposed on import of Indian textiles in Britain while the British could bring their machine-made textiles virtually without any taxes to India. The Indian artisan was not in a position to compete with the goods produced by machines in England. Artisans in England had faced same problems with the advent of industrialization but in that country they were soon compensated by alternate employment opportunities in new factories. In India, loss of opportunities compensated in by hand craft sector and was a not large industrialization

number of artisans were rendered jobless. The workers in factories, mines, and plantations also suffered. They were paid low wages and lived in extreme poverty. The newly emerging Indian industrialists also faced hardship due to the

governments policies relating to trade, tariff, taxation and transport. They could see how Britain was using India mainly as a source of raw materials for British industries or in the later period as a place for the investment of British capital. The British capitalists who had vast

resources were provided with all the facilities. The nascent Indian capitalist class that had just started patronage, was, on the other hand completely ignored and disfavoured. Thus almost all the sections of Indian population suffered under the British rule. However, this discontent did not automatically lead to the emerging and needed government

development of a new consciousness among the people. There were a number of factors due to which the dissatisfaction with the foreign rule did not generate a proper national Vastness of the country with backward means of communication, lack of education, absence of a common language, and differences in the nature of grievances in different regions due to differences in the working of the administrative system were some of the important reasons. In absence of national consciousness, the discontent expressed itself in the form of sporadic revolts against some officer, zamindar or a new regulation. Peasant and Tribal revolts consciousness.

In the nineteenth century a number of peasant and tribal uprisings took place. These revolts cannot be called the conscious nationalist movements in the modern sense. However, all these movements were a result of and were directed against the British policies. At times these were also sparked off by some oppressive policies of a zamindar, money lender or an administrative officer. Though these were not conscious nationalist uprisings, but, in due course this contributed to the emergence of nationalist were consciousness. led by According traditional to Sumit elements Sarkar, for at least a century after Plassey there (dispossessed local chiefs, zamindars or religious lower class social character. Kathleen Gough has compiled a list of 77 peasant uprisings involving violence. The tribal movements were militant. K. Suresh Singh in his study of the tribals, says violently than any other community including peasants in India. that, they revolted more often and far more revolts

figures). These revolts were predominantly of a

There is a very long list of peasant and tribal revolts spread throughout India. of the nineteenth century In the first half Travancore revolt

(1800-09), Bhil revolt (1818-31), Ho revolt

(1820-21) and Khasi revolt (1829-31) were among important peoples movements. And so were Wahabi movement (1830-69), Kol revolt (183 1). Faraizi movement (1834-47) and Santhal revolt (1855-56). In most of these revolts the leadership and support was provided by the feudal chiefs. During the same period we come across a number of protests by town people against the British. Strike in Banaras (1810-11) and the revolt of Bareilly (1816) are important examples. In the case of Banaras, the city people went on strike against the levying of House Tax while, in Bareilly, the protest was directed against the Police Tax, which was levied to provide police protection to the citizens. In the case of Banaras Bareilly people had to pay the tax. The Revolt of 1857 the British had to withdraw the tax while in

The

accumulated

feelings

of

discontent

and

dissatisfaction with the British rule gave rise to the revolt of 1857 in which millions of soldiers, artisans and peasants made a combined effort to the traditional elite, deposed rulers overthrow the British rule. The revolt was led by and impoverished zamindars. Peasants and demobilized solders formed the mass base of the rebellion. It soon spread to most of the Northern and Central India and everywhere soldiers rebellion followed by popular revolts of civilian population. According to one estimate, of the total number of about 1,50,000 men who died fighting the English in Avadh, over 1,00,000 were civilians. In many of the princely states of these regions, the rulers remained loyal to the British but the soldiers and people joined the rebels or refused to fight against them. W.H. Russel, who toured India in 1885 as the correspondent of the London directed to the white man's carriage Oh! that Times, wrote: "In no instance is a friendly glance language of the eye! Who can doubt? Who can misinterpret it? It is by its alone that I have learnt out race is not even feared at times by was

many and that by all it is disliked." Hindu Muslim unity was an important characterstic of the revolt both at the level of sepoys as well at the level of cooperation between the communities. In the end, the British succeeded in ruthlessly leaders and there was complete understanding and

suppressing the Revolt. The reasons were many. Despite its wide reach, the Revolt could not embrace the entire country or all sections of Indian society. Bengal, South India and large parts of Punjab remained outside its reach since these areas had already exhausted themselves through prolonged rebellions and struggle against the British. Most rulers of Indian states and the big zamindars remained loyal to the foreign rulers. Thus, Scindhia of Gwalior, Holkar of Indore, the Nizam of Hyderabad, the Rajput rulers of Jodhpur and many other Rajputana states, the Nawab of Bhopal, the rulers of Patiala and Kashmir, the Ranas of Nepal, and many other rulers and chieftains gave active support to the British in suppressing the Revolt.

In general, merchants and moneylenders either supported the British or refused to help the rebels. The modem educated Indians also did not support the Revolt. The leaders of the Revolt fought with courage, but could neither coordinate their struggle nor evolve a unified high command. Instead, they indulged in constant petty quarrels. The rebels were short of modern weapons and often had to fight with primitive weapons such as swords and spikes. They were very poorly

organised. The sepoys were brave but at times there was lack of discipline which affected their military efficiency. Above all the rebels lacked a modern

understanding of British colonialism or the nature of the state and society which was to replace it. They were united by their hatred of the British rule no and the desire to restore pre-British

economic, political and social relations, but shared conception of the political or socioeconomic structure of free India. Common all-India feeling

and interests were yet to evolve. Perhaps if the Revolt had lasted a few years, a common modern

understanding and national consciousness would have evolved in the course of the struggle, as it did later; but the rebels were given no such time. Though the revolt failed but it generated for the first time some sort of national feeling. For the first time it unified and brought together people having different ethnic, religious and class background against the British rule. Even after the suppression of this major revolt popular uprisings in India continued throughout the century. Peasant Movements Movements after 1857 The important movements in the second half of the 19th century were Indigo revolt (1859-60) in Bengal, Kuki revolt 1860-90) in Tripura, Kuka revolt (1869-72) in Punjab, Pabna Peasant Movement (1872-73) in Bengal, Vasudev Balvant Phadke's Revolt (1879) in Maharashtra and Birsa Munda's revolt (1899-1900) in South Bihar. These fostered a fighting spirit and strengthened national consciousness among the people. revolts were not successful but they nineteenth

Factors Contributing to Indian Consciousness In order to effectively administer the country, the British evolved an administrative structure and formulated administrative policies and measures. Though evolved of for the purpose of better among administration, these measures also helped in the development national consciousness Indians. Some of these policies are as under: Unified System of Administration Colonial system of administration stressed on

centralization with the intent of ruling the entire British governed territory from a single point. This the colonial rulers adopted. Land required a uniform system of administration which revenue administration, police, law and order machinery and judicial system were made uniform for the whole British ruled territory. The colonial rule also strove industrial goods without any hindrance. The impact of these goods destroyed the Indian artisan industry and revenue policies eroded the rural self sufficient economy of the village. These to create a unified market in order to sell its

developments

created

conditions

for

economic

unification of the country. Communication Network Post and telegraph services were extended and telegraph. After 1853, work on Railway lines was started. The plan was to link the presidencies with each other and the hinterland with major ports. The main advantage of Railways for the British was a cheap mode of transport to carry goods to ports and back. But once the railway network developed, passenger traffic also increased, and people living at distant places got new opportunity to interact with one another. Printing Press The introduction of the printing press made the transmission of ideas and learning less expensive. A number of newspapers and periodicals started appearing. Through these publications the problems by people. in different parts of the country could be shared

improved and the major towns were linked with

New Education System The British introduced a new system of education

which was mainly derived from the West - both in form and content. The main idea behind this system was to create a loyal section of Indians administrative tasks for the British. As Macaulay put it, the idea was to form "a class of persons, Indians in blood and colour, but English in taste, in opinions, in morals, and in intellect". However the modern educational system familiarised educated classes with the ideas of equality, liberty and nationalism, in an atmosphere of growing disillusionment with the colonial rule. The education system itself bred disillusionment as it was elitist, serving only a small section; while as many as 92% educated nationalist unification, Indians Italian turned in towards Europe and Indians were illiterate even in 1921. So the contemporary (like German nationalist movements the who would effectively carry out clerical and lower

movement against Turkish empire). They then were exposed to the works of liberal writers and thinkers like John Milton, Shelly, Bentham, John

unification

Stuart Mill, Herbert Spencer, Rousseau, Voltaire, Mazzini and Garibaldi. The Indians who were studying in England found on their return to India taken for granted in the European countries. British Policy of Expansion The British in the beginning conquered different areas to establish their hold. But this policy of expansion continued. They kept extending their territories by annexing Indian states, one after the other, even if those states were not at war with the British. The important among these were annexations of Sind (1843), Punjab (1849) Rangoon and Pegu (1852) and Awadh (1856)Jhansi, Satara and Nagpur were also taken that they were denied all the rights which were

over. The Indian rulers were getting apprehensive of the British. Intellectual Awakening Nineteenth Century India is marked by a process

of social reform and intellectual ferment. By intellectual ferment, we mean an attempt at a

critical

and

creative society

examination with the

of purpose

the of

contemporary

transforming it along modern lines. This was done

by the intellectuals who had received the benefit of modern education. Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Keshub Chandra Sen, Ishwar Chandra vidyasagar, M.G. Ranade and Sir Syed Ahmed Khan were among the leading intellectuals of the nineteenth national consciousness. The British, in order to provide a justification for foreign rule had tried to project the immediate Pre-British period (18th century) as a period of stagnation. Along with this they tried to establish that Indians had no achievement to their credit in the field of Science and Technology and were incapable of providing a proper government. of The in educated art, Indians countered this thesis by bringing to light the achievements Indians literature, philosophy and science. This enquiry into the history, led to a new awakening aimed at reforming Indian society, by, doing away with the evil practices which were being perpetuated in the name of religion. century who contributed to the awakening of

architecture,

Discriminatory character of British Rule The attitude of racial superiority adopted by the

English also contributed to the growth of Nationalist sentiments. In their daily interaction with the British, the educated middle class began to feel that it was being discriminated on racial grounds. Europeans were considered better than Indians even in those cases when the latter were better educated and wealthier. All Indians irrespective of their class and status were kept out of European clubs and were not allowed to travel in the same compartment of the train in which the Europeans travelled. In government jobs, race and not merit was the deciding factor. Apart from social behaviour this discrimination was carried in judicial

matters as well. G.O. Travelyan, a historian and an influential civil servant, pointed out in 1864: "The testimony of a single one of our countrymen has more weight with the court than that of any number of Hindus, a circumstance which puts a terrible instrument of power into the hands of an unscrupulous and grasping English man". glaring instance of racism appeared when the Most

Ilbert Bill was proposed in 1883, when Lord Rippon was the Viceroy. As per this bill, Indian magistrates and session judges could try Europeans in criminal cases. Vehement opposition from the European community forced the Viceroy to amend the Bill. The experience of this discrimination also contributed to the growth of national consciousness. Middle class consciousness During the nineteenth century, apart from popular uprisings and revolts at the mass level, a new consciousness class and, like was developing which in the sections and middle classes. It was this middle medium for the channelisation of popular discontent, was Raja instrumental in the Rammohan and which took Roy, upon development of national consciousness in India. Social reformers Swami Vivekanand the Dayanand social formed evils Saraswati Swami consciousness, became the chief educated

organizations

prevailing in the society. In doing so they critically examined the society and the social structure. These movements though largely confined to the

educated middle class sections helped in developing a sense of belonging to the same culture. This was helpful in generating a national consciousness among Indian people. Besides

this

social

consciousness

political

consciousness was also developing. The educated Indian middle class which included merchants, traders, industrialists, professional groups like

lawyers, teachers, journalists and doctors was also suffering under the British rule. As compared to peasants and workers this class could see more of colonial rule. In the beginning (first half of the 19th century), this class was of the opinion that the means of communication, railways and other industrial Indians. Under this understanding they therefore supported the British policies but gradually it became economic clear policies that the British benefiting administrative the British measures were to help the British rule, and, their merchants and capitalists. Once the Indian middle class realised this, they started protesting against were enterprises were going to benefit clearly the imperial designs and analyse the nature

the colonial rule. But unlike the peasants, tribals and workers whose protest was expressed in the form of uprisings and revolts, this class followed a ways. 1) They started writing to books, articles and the different policy. The middle class worked in two

publishing

newspapers

critically

analyse

British policies and developing consciousness among the masses. Introduction of printing press and its effectiveness in reaching large number of people was utilised by the Indian middle class for propagating ideas of social reform, protesting exploitation done by the British and creating a national consciousness. Ram Mohan Roy was a pioneer in this field. He produced a number of books Kaumudi (Bengali) which published several articles on varied themes. Dinabandhu Mitra wrote the play Nil Darpan depicting the plight of indigo cultivators. Bankimchandra wrote Anand Math,full of nationalist aspirations. In Urdu a large number of works were written in prose and poetry about the degrading conditions of the masses and destruction of many and started a journal called Sambad

urban centres. In Marathi, Hindi and Tamil also a number of works were published. A number of periodicals and newspapers in different languages English and vernacular languages. The prominent among these were: the Hindu Patriot, Amrita Bazar Patrika, Bengali, Sanjivani in Bengal, Native Opinion, Maratha and Kesari in Bombay, the Madras, the Hindustan and Azad in U.P., the Tribune and the Akhbar-i-am in Punjab. By 1877 there were as many as 169 newspapers in the vernacular. A number of nationalist literary figures also came into prominence such as started publication. These publications were in

Hindu, Andhra Patrika and Kerala Patrika in

Bankimchandra Chatterjee, Rabindranath Tagore, Vishnu Shastri Chiplunkar, Subramaniyam Bharti, Bhartendu Harish Chandra and Altaf Hussain Ali. 2) The second method adopted by the middle

classes was to form organisations, associations and societies for joint programmes and activities. Some of the early organisations were the Landholder's Society (1837) which was an association of the landed gentry of Bengal Presidency. It was not a

nationalist organization and its object was Bihar and Orissa. Anther association,

to

protect the interest of the landlords in Bengal, British India Society was formed in 1843 whose educated classes. in 1851 to form Bengal

interests were more general and it included the The two associations merged British India Association. and Deccan

Similarly the Bombay Association

Association were formed in Maharashtra and the The main aim of these organisations was collective action against the British policies harming their interests. Their methods were mostly legal actions in courts or petition against the East

Madras Native Association was formed in Madras.

India

Company and British parliament. They wanted reforms to be included in the Company's charter of 1853. But the charter of 1853 failed to satisfy their aspirations. After the take over of India's administration by the British Crown in 1858, new hopes kindled among the Indian middle classes. They thought that the British government would stop the

economic exploitation and work for the welfare of

the country. Soon they realised that the British Crown too was out to exploit India economically. Now the political activities increased and a number of new organisations appeared. London India

Association was formed in England. The association was later merged with the East India Association in 1866. In Maharashtra, Poona Sarwajanik Sabha was formed by M.G.Ranade in 1870. In Bengal, the Indian Association was formed in 1876 Madras Madras by the young Sabha in nationalists was 1881 who in were the disenchanted acticvities of British India Asociation. Mahajan formed and Presidency Bombay

Presidency Association was formed 1885. As compared to the earlier organisations formed by middle class elements, these organisations were political in nature. Their main aim was to protest against the British policies through petitions and resolutions. They tried to achieve mass awakening through public meetings and statements. They also exchanged views on the national issues. Around the same time the British Government passed some repressive measures like Lincoln Act,

Vernacular Press Act, lowering the age for Indian Civil Services etc. Lord Lytton (1876-80) the Viceroy was responsible for these measures. The reaction to these measures was very strong. The main newspaper of Bengal, Bangalee wrote: "To Lord Lytton must belong the credit of having done much by his repressive measures towards stimulating the public life of this country and for this service gratitude of our country (June 12. 1880)". Indian National Congress The Indian Congress was formed in 1885. Its first meeting was held on 28 December 1885 in Bombay. Its first president was W.C.Bonne jee and it was attended by 72 delegates from all over hdia. A.O.Hume, an Englishman who had retired from the Indian Civil Service, played a significant role in this process. It is quite often pointed out 'that Hume established the Congress to provide a 'safety valve to deflect an impending widespread unrest among the Indian masses against the British rule. certainly his Lordship will be entitled to the

Despite Hume's beliefs, it is difficult to prove that a major popular revolt was imminent. In fact, the formation of the Congress was a logical culmination of the nationalist activities since the 1860s and 1870s. The British policies in India were

generating a sense of discontent among most classes of Indians. Nationalist ideas were being disseminated through the various newspapers and in English. Various nationalist political associations were trying to create public opinion against the colonial policies. As all these associations held similar ideas, it was natural that sooner or later the leaders of these associations and other members of educated middle class would try to coordinate their efforts and form a national organization. This organization came up in the form of Indian National Congress. Its goal was to create unity, intimacy and magazines published in various Indian languages and

friendship among all the Indians from various

linguistic, regional and religious backgrounds. It also sought to remove prejudices relating to race,

language, religion and provinces. It further aimed at expressing the views of educated Indians on the important problems of the day, including the colonial policies. The early nationalists constantly wrote and spoke about the need for constitutional reforms which would give the Indians a more effective voice in the governance of their own country. They also complained that the country was growing poorer under the British rule, that India's wealth was taken away to Britain through various means, that the traditional Indian industries were destroyed through the import of foreign machinemade goods, that India's modem industries were tariff, that Indian taxpayers were forced to pay for colonial expansionism in Afghanistan and Burma, and the Indian peasants were sinking in increasing poverty because of increasing revenue demand. Emergence of Indian National Congress is a very important event in Indian history. National consciousness generated in the previous decades suffering due to faulty government policies about

needed a national organization to manifest itself. The manifestation came in the form of Indian

National Congress, which took it upon itself the responsibility of representing the country as a whole. In the initial years, its leaders adopted peaceful and legal methods of campaign as they had faith in the good sense of the colonial rulers as well as the British Parliament. They believed that if public opinion was created in India and in England, and reasonable demands were presented before them, these could be accepted. However, their constant criticism of the colonial government did not find favour with the British authorities. Dufferin, the then viceroy, attacked the Congress leaders as 'disloyal babus', 'seditious brahrnins' and 'violent villains'. He said that the government cannot allow the Congress to continue to exist'. Curzon, a later Viceroy expressed the hope in 1900 that 'the Congress is tottering to its fall, and one of my great ambitions, while in India, is to assist it to a peaceful demise'. However, despite this official hostility, the Congress continued to grow and lead the national movement against the colonial rule.

However, soon there arose a group among the Congress leaders who questioned the moderate approach of earlier leaders. These leaders were called extremist and they brought in what is not faith in the British rulers. Bal Gangadhar Tilak, the most prominent leader declared the Lajpat Rai and Bipin Chandra Pal. Aurobindo Ghosh, another leader, attacked the very foundation of the Western civilisation and asserted that the Indians should oppose not only the political aspects of the foreign rule, but also ban the foreign goods, foreign dress, foreign language and foreign habits and manners. The most important leaders of the Extremist wing were Bal Giuigadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, Aurobindo Ghosh and Lala Lajpat Rai. The Government partitioned Bengal in July, 1905. On 7 August 1905 the Swadeshi movement was formally declared. From now on the people were advised to boycott all foreign goods, particularly British goods like Manchester cloth and Liverpool Swaraj is my birth right and I shall have it.Lala known as extreme nationalism. These people did

salt. The day on which the partition was officially effected (16 October 1905) was declared a day of mourning and a strike was observed in Calcutta. Many processions were taken out and people went other's wrist to signify unity. Huge to bathe in the Ganges and tied Rakhis on each meetings attended by thousands of people were held all over the city. Slogans of Swadeshi and Swaraj were provinces as well and Bande Mataram became a popular song during this period. Students and other young people, women and even workers participated in the movement which continued for many months. The Government replied by repression which in turn gave birth to revolutionary terrorism. Anushilan and Jugantar were two revolutionary groups which emerged during this period. Emergence of Mahatma Gandhi Mahatma Gandhi arrived in India in 1915. Initially taken up not only in Bengal but in many other

he spent one year in visiting various places in the country with a view to have an understanding of the situation. During 1917-18 he took up the

issues of indigo farmers of Champaran, textile workers of Ahmedabad and peasants of Kheda in Gujarat. These struggles witnessed the use of his specific method of agitation, known as satyagraha which he had developed in South Africa. These struggles Gandhi's demonstrated method of to the Indian people his political struggle and

principles of non-violent non-cooperation. They, on himself with the Indian situation and understand

the other hand, helped Gandhi to familiarise the strengths and weaknesses of the Indian people. They also attracted many political workers who were to prove valuable in the future struggles. Apart from the political front Mahatma Gandhi was active on the social front and worked for the upliftment of lower classes as well as for communal unity. His all encompassing ideology and stress on non nationalism resulted in development of an ideology which we can call Gandhian nationalism. His concept of nation was not based on communal, ethnic or religious basis, though he himself claimed to and was a devout hindu. His concept of swaraj meant a enlightened self control and self

development

leading

to

harmony

and

tolerance

among the communities innew India. Apart from ending the colonial rule, he also aimed at moral regeneration of the Indian society and in this for liberation. His importance in the national movement can be seen from the fact that under his leadership the movement from touched to the masses, Gandhiji the artisans, the peasant and the common Indian. During the period foremost leader of the National movement. During Non co-operation and Khilafat movement in 1920, Civil disobedience movement in 1930 and Quit India participated. It was this mass character of the movement which compelled the British to leave India. Impact of Urbanization on Indian society Movement in 1942in which millions 1919 1947, remained sense his struggle was larger than the struggle

this period he took part in three big movements,

Impact of Urbanisation As a process, Urbanisation has demographic as well as social dimensions. Demographically, it means growth of urban areas and more and more people living in these areas. In this sense, it refers to the proportion of a total population living in cities and towns at a given point of time. In social terms, it is used to denote a distinct way of life sociology, which emerges in cities due to their large, dense and heterogeneous population. Such a life is distinct from the life and activities of the rural populace.

Louis Wirths formulation of urbanism as a way of life explains that the city, characterised by a relatively large, dense and permanent settlement of social structure and gives rise to various kinds of social relationships and patterns of behaviour among the city-dwellers. Further, Louis Wirth also argues that the impacts of the city effects are wider than city itself. Thus, the city draws surrounding villages and even remote communities the socially heterogeneous individuals, breaks down rigid

into its orbit. In other words, urbanism as a way of life is not peculiar to city-dwellers alone as the influences of the city (i.e., impact of urbanisation) stretch far behind its administrative boundaries.

Urbanisation has its bearing on social relationships in community living. The relationships of community-living contractual and transitory. Urbanisation also tend to become impersonal, formal, goal oriented, indicates a transformation of economic activities from the agricultural sector to the non-agricultural sector, and the proportion of population engaged in secondary and tertiary sectors of activities

increases with division of labour and specialisation of work. Further, the process of urbanisation also leads to breakdown in the functioning of existing traditional institutions and patterns of behaviour and of social control. It leads to a situation of continuity often continue to urbanisation. persist, but and change in the sense that the traditional forms their functions undergo major re-adaptations in the face of

Since the beginning of the century, percentage of population, living in urban areas has steadily increased. In 1901, only 10.8% of the population lived in urban areas. In 1951, the percentage rose to 17.3%. In 2001, the percentage of population in urban areas was 27.81% while in 2011, it has arisen to 31.16%. The data of Census, 2011 also indicates that for the first time since independence, absolute increase in urban population (9.1 crores) is higher than in rural population (9 crores). This rapid pace of urbanization, more so in the recent years has affected the traditional institutions like the caste, joint family, neighbourhood. A new social structure completely wiped out. It continues to co-exist while though in a changed form. Caste, the most influential concept of yesteryears still exists in the urban settings though in a very changed mode. Feudal socio-economic system which has granted it an almost legal authority does not exist in urban areas. Therefore concept of caste is not of much relevance in public life. Certain has emerged but the old structure has not been

aspects of behaviour associated with caste ideology have now almost disappeared in the urban context as these are not practicable in the current socioeconomic settings. The rules of commensality have very little meaning in the urban context where one may not know or may ignore or may be forced to ignore the caste identity of ones neighbours, friends, servants, employers etc. However, the caste survives in personal matters like family and marriage matters. Even this aspect is now being eroded as frequency of inter-caste marriages has considerably increased. It also survives as a source of identity and an ethnic group. This is evident from a number of caste associations active in urban settings. These have presumably come up as an effort of the people to preserve their caste identity and also to nurture caste based solidarity show which could be utilized to make economic or political gains. Another aspect in which it has survived is in politics. While voting, a preference is exercised for someone from the caste, although other factors like public image are also important in urban areas.

Family structure and kinship relationships have also undergone a great change. Size of the family has diminished in the urban settings due to increasing awareness of the family planning measures. Some of the functions of the family have been relegated to other institutions. Most important change has come in the relative equality in regard to status and rights of women. This has been made possible due to urban settings providing more and more employment opportunities resulting in their economic independence. Urban joint families are gradually being replaced by nuclear families, though relationship with the extended family is maintained though the ties are mainly ceremonial.

However, this does not mean that family and kinship relations have become redundant. In times of necessity, it is these relationships that are first resorted to. When there is some serious illness, members of the family and close kin residing in the bigger cities are called in for help. Likewise when a person in rural areas needs educational or counterparts for help. Family and kinship networks economic advancement, he calls upon his urban

are also used for the advancement of rural based boys seeking new avenues in the urban setting. Thus, kinship is an important principle of social organisation in cities and there is structural congruity between joint family on one hand and requirements of industrial and urban life on the other. An important change in the family structure has been that from the rural patriarch dominated family, the urban family has become more egalitarian. Status of women has improved primarily

to their being economically independent, awareness of rights and legal remedies available to them. Apart from women, the younger generation i.e. the children also have a say in the family matters unlike generation made most of the decisions. The social control of the older generation is now less rigid and after a certain stage becomes advisory in nature. Urbanization is usually seen as an indicator of development as it indicates that more and more the earlier periods when the older

people

are

engaged However,

in

secondary increase

or in

tertiary urban

economic activities which are considered to be more productive. population has been spurred not by the pull factor villages. This push factor has created an exodus from the villages. As no systematic effort was made to develop industries in smaller towns which landed in cities which were not geared up to provide even basic facilities to these people. First requirement of these migrants was accommodation and when the city could not meet their demands, extremely pathetic conditions. As per draft mission document of National Urban Livelihood Mission under the Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation, population residing in slums came up in cities, in which people lived in could provide employment to these people, this group rapid

of the cities but by the push factor of the

urban slums has been estimated at about 93 million. As per data provided by Census, 2011, 3% of the urban population does not have an exclusive room for living, while 32% live in one room house. About 29.4% of the urban population

does not have access to tap water and 18.6% do not have latrine facility within the house. 7.3% of urban population still does not have access to electricity. This aspect of urbanization can hardly be accepted and brings with itself a host of economic, social and environmental problems. The Panchayat Extension to the Schedule Areas Act (PESA) , 1996

By the 73rd Amendment Act, the democratic decentralization in the form of Panchyati Raj institutions was envisaged for the villages in India. However, this was not applicable for the villages Union government came up with The Panchayat Extension to Schedule Areas (PESA) Act to empower decentralization. villages, relatively the very Schedule The contextual areas with background of indices degree democratic and hamlets in the Schedule Areas. In 1996,

these areas was very different from the other human low development and the were of

marginalization and vulnerability was high, therefore

this Act was specially designed keeping all these factors at the centre. About Schedule Areas The Indian Constitution is supposed to protect tribal

interests, especially tribal autonomy and their rights over land, through Fifth and Sixth Schedules of the Constitution of India. Scheduled Areas of Article 244(1) are notified as per the Fifth Schedule and Tribal Areas of Article 244(2) are notified as per the Sixth Schedule.

1. The provisions of the Fifth Schedule shall apply to the administration and control of the Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes in any State (other than the states ofAssam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram). 2. The provisions of the Sixth Schedule shall apply to the administration of the tribal areas in the State of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram. Criteria for identification of Schedule Areas The criteria followed for declaring an area as Scheduled Area are preponderance of tribal population; compactness and reasonable size of the area; under-developed nature of the area; and marked disparity in economic standard of the

people. These criteria are not spelt out in the Constitution of India but have become well established. They embody principles followed in declaring `Excluded' and `Partially-Excluded Areas' under the Government of India Act 1935, Schedule `B' of recommendations of the Excluded and Partially Excluded Areas Sub Committee of Constituent Assembly and the Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes Commission 1961.

Salient features of PESA Every village shall have an elected Gram Sabha and it shall be competent to safeguard and preserve people.This Act extends panchayats to the tribal areas of the states such as Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Orissa and Rajasthan. It intends to enable tribal societies to assume control over their destiny and to preserve and conserve their traditional rights over natural resources. The State Governments were the traditions and customs of the

required to enact their legislations in accordance with the provisions of the Act within one year, i.e. by December 23, 1997. Most of the states have enacted the required state legislation to give effect to the provisions contained in Act 14, 1996. The salient features of the Act are: 1. Gram economic Sabha and shall approve for the social plans, and their

programmes

projects

development

before

implementation. 2. It would be responsible for the identification or selection of persons as beneficiaries under the poverty alleviation and other programmes. 3. Every Gram Panchayat shall obtain from the related Gram Sabha a certificate of utilization of funds for the plans, programmes and projects. 4. The reservation of seats in the Scheduled Areas in every panchayat shall be in the proportion of the populations of the communities in the panchayat.

5. Planning and management of minor water bodies in the Scheduled Areas shall be

entrusted to panchayats at the appropriate level. 6. Recommendations of the Gram Sabha or the licenses concessions for for mining the minerals, exploitation and of panchayats shall be mandatory for granting i) ii) minor

minerals by auction in the Scheduled Areas. 7. The state legislature shall endow panchayats and the Gram Sabha specifically with:

i) the power to enforce prohibition or regulate and consumption of any intoxicant; or restrict the sale

ii) the ownership of minor forest produce; iii) the power to prevent land alienation in the Scheduled Areas; iv) the power to manage village markets; v) the power to control money lending to Scheduled Tribes and social sectors;

vi) the power to control local plans and resources for such plans, including tribal sub-plans; and vii) the state legislations that may endow panchayats with powers and authority, as may be necessary to enable them to function as institutions of selfgovernment, and contain safeguards to ensure that panchayats at the higher level do not assume the powers and authority of any panchayats at the lower level or of the Gram Sabha.

Growth of Telecom Sector in India

In the pre-liberalisation era telecommunication was telecommunication meant telephone and telegraph under the control of public sector. In that age,

provided by the public sector. Although the number of telephones grew constantly under the public sector yet these were never able to satisfy the

demands and there was always a long waiting queue. In the post liberalisation era i.e after 1991 the opening of the sector has not only led to rapid growth but also benefited the consumers through low tariffs as a result of intense competition. Telecom sector has witnessed a continuous rising trend in the total number of telephone subscribers. From a mere 22.81 million telephone subscribers in 1999, the number increased to 846.33 million at the end of March, 2011. The total number of telephones stands at 926.55 million at the end of December'11 showing addition of 80.22 million during the period from April to December'11. Wireless telephone connections have contributed to this growth as their number rose from 165.09 million in 2007 to 811.60 million in March, 2011 and 893.86 million at the end of December'11. The wire line connections have however, declined from 40.77 million in 2007 to 34.73 million in March, 2011 and 32.69 million in December'11. Teledensity

Tele-density penetration in

(number of the

telephones per 100 There has been

population) is an important indicator of telecom phenomenal growth of tele-density in the country with the evolution of new wireless technologies. The tele-density which was 18.22% in March 2007 increased to 70.89% March, 2011and 76.86% in December'11. Thus there has been continuous improvement in the overall tele-density of the country. The rural teledensity increased to 33.83% in March, 2011 and 37.52% at the end of December'11. The urban tele-density increased from 48.10% in March 2007 to 156.94% in March, 2011 and stands at 167.46% at the end of December'11. Present status of Telecommunication sector in India Indian Telecommunication growth sector maintained the the which was 5.89% in March 2007 country.

impressive

rate

during

current

year. Indian telecom network has 926.55 million connections at the end of December'11 with 893.86 million wireless connections and is the

second largest network in the world after China. The one billion mark also appears to be achievable. The penetration of internet and broadband has also improved with 20.99 million internet subscribers and 13.30 million broadband subscribers across the country. The future progress of telecommunication in our country is very encouraging as operators have started rolling out the wireless services are expected to be available in the entire country. The present status of telecom sector is as under: Indian Telecom market is one of the fastest growing markets in the world. With its 926.55 million Telephone connection, it is the second largest network in the world after China. It is also the second largest wireless network in the world. broadband networks in the country and soon the

The country is poised to achieve 1 billion telephone connections.

 Wireless telephones are increasing at a faster rate. The share of wireless telephones is 96.47% of the total phones. The share of private sector in total telephones is 86.09%. Overall tele-density has reached 76.86%. Urban tele-density is 167.46%, whereas rural teledensity is at 37.52% which is also steadily increasing. Broadband connections increased to 13.30 million. Civic and Political Rights

Civic and political rights are basically rights of freedom and expression, cultural freedom and Right to participate in the formation of the Government in the country. These are also visible in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in the form of the Articles 18 to 22 which are as under:

Article 18. Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance. Article 19. Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers. Article 20 (1) Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association.

(2) No one may be compelled to belong to an association. Article 21

(1) Everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country, directly or through freely chosen representatives. (2) Everyone has the right of equal access to public service in his country. (3) The will of the people shall be the basis of the authority of government; this will shall be expressed in periodic and genuine elections which shall be by universal and equal suffrage and shall be held by secret vote or by equivalent free voting procedures.

Article 22. Everyone, as a member of society, has the right to social security and is entitled to realization, through national effort and international co-operation and in accordance with the organization and resources of each State, of the economic, social the free development of his personality. These rights also find place in our Constitution. As per Article 19 all citizens have the rights: and cultural rights indispensable for his dignity and

(a) to freedom of speech and expression; (b) to assemble peaceably and without arms; (c) to form associations or unions; (d) to move freely throughout the territory of India; (e) to reside and settle in any part of the territory of India; and

(g) to practise any profession, or to carry on any occupation, trade or business. Article 25 to 28 These rights provide for freedom of religion and Article 29 to 31 provides for protection of minorities.As regards the participation in the

political process, Article 326 provides for universal suffrage for Elections to the House of the People and to the Legislative Assemblies of States. The House of the People and to the Legislative article reads as under; The elections to the Assembly of every State shall be on the basis of adult suffrage; that is to say, every person who is

a citizen of India and who is not less than eighteen years of age on such date as may be fixed in that behalf by or under any law made by the appropriate Legislature and is not otherwise disqualified under this Constitution or any law made by the appropriate Legislature on the ground of non-residence, unsoundness of mind, crime or corrupt or illegal practice, shall be entitled to be registered as a voter at any such election. general, these freedoms granted

In

by

the

Constitution have generally prevailed in the country was a brief period during the emergency from 1975-77 in which these rules have

during more than 60 years of democracy. There been

threatened. Apart from that period, the successive Governments have by and large abided by these this by an active judiciary which, as we have seen in the cases referred above have cautioned the Government wherever necessary and upheld the rule of law. Since quite some time, civil society has rights of the citizens against the power of the also been an important player in supporting the principles. An important role has been played in

state. It is not that violations have not happened, but it is also heartening to see that the judiciary and the people in general have condemned these provided to the victims. Development, equality and affirmative action violations and adequate legal remedies have been

Development does not only mean increase in GDP or increase in national income. In order to be inclusive and percolates down to the lowest sections of the society. This brings us to the issue of equitable distribution of resources and income and favorable socio-political conditions. In this context, it would be better to have a look at the preindependence Indian society. Society at the time of independence was deeply fragmented. Caste system formed a complex social structure with discrimination excluded against the lower and castes and untouchability was widely practiced. Tribes were from mainstream were heavily the concept of social justice. However this requires socially useful it is necessary that growth is

exploited both by the colonial rulers as well as the intermediaries. Village society was a perfect example of a exploitative feudal set up where

discrimination was the norm. Social discrimination was supplemented by economic disparities with those at the higher end of the social ladder also being at the higher pedestal on the economic ladder. Gender discrimination was another problem with women facing social exclusion and having no rights the 20th century brought in one more aspect of social fragmentation which led to the partition of reflected in the issue of protection of rights of minorities. Constitutional and legal measures Founding fathers of the Constitution sought to fight these social evils and tendencies through various provisions in the Constitution. Legal equality was brought in by the provision of universal adult the country. After independence this was of education and property. Rise of communalism in

suffrage in Article 326 and Right to equality before law as per Article 14. As per Article 15,

State was prohibited from discrimination on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth or to ensure that no citizen will be subjected to disability, liability, restriction or condition with regard to access to shops, public restaurants, hotels and places of public entertainment; or (b) the use of wells, tanks, bathing ghats, roads and places of public resort maintained wholly or partly out of State funds or dedicated to the use of the general public. However, the Article empowered the State for making any special provision for the advancement backward classes of citizens or for the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes. Article 16 prohibited the State from discriminating in the matters of public employment though again empowering the State for making special provision for certain social groups and Article 17 abolished untouchability. Right to Exploitation has been of any socially and educationally any of them. Further, the State was also asked

provided in Articles 23 and 24. Article 23 prohibits traffic in human beings and forced labour and Article 24 prohibits child labour in factories etc.

After independence, the Government adopted a mixed economy with public sector domination. Stress was industries under the guidance of the public sector with of the the expectations society. to The a that the effect resulted divide. of in The development would soon percolate to the other parts approach rural-urban inequalities development of urban areas and neglecting of rural areas leading development was lopsided and its spread was uneven resulting in which were compounded by a discriminative social structure. It is not that the Government did not make any effort to remove these disparities. Reservation of seats in legislature as well as in the Government jobs was made for persons of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes was provided. The first five year plan also addressed the issue of Women welfare, Child Welfare and Family Welfare. The subjects have formed part of the successive plans as well. Twenty points point about programme the which was of initiated in 1975 and restructured in later years contained development on industrialization particularly the heavy

Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, Women and the Child. The flip side However despite these schemes failed to reduce the because disparities of various between aspects various groups related mainly to

implementation. As a result, these programmes could not penetrate deep in the society and as a result, a large section of the population remained excluded from the development process. This was evident in a number of indicators. Let us consider the example of literacy rate. From 1951 to 1981, literacy rate increased from 18.33% to 43.57%. Interestingly, gap between the male and female ratio which was 18.30 in 1951 increased and SC population which was 13.75 in 1961 hand increased to 14.85 in 1981. This was true of other weaker sections of the society like Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, landless labourers etc. weaker section of population is not able to obtain This indicates the fact that a to 26.62 in 1981. Gap between general population

full benefits of the scheme and underlines the need for an appropriate affirmative action and effective implementation in respect of these groups. Bureaucratic procedures have been one of the reasons for poor implementation of the developmental schemes. government machinery to a part of development Such kind of work requires the

process as a stake holder. However, bureaucratic machinery in India has been trained to be masters and not partners or stakeholders. This attitude at all levels was not conducive to the participation of the people in the development process. bureaucracy was not connected with the people, at most of the times, it was also not aware of the needs of the people making some of the programmes useless to the people. Hence it was As

thought that it would be better if some power regarding local governance is delegated at the local level. Decentralization and People's Participation This led to the Government bringing in the Panchayati Raj amendments to the Constitution

which resulted in establishment of a three tier Panchayati raj system i.e. Gram Panchayat at the village level, Block Committees at the Block Level Apart from other things the amendment provided for reservation for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes as well as women. The Act also provided for regular election to these bodies as well as constitution of a Finance Commission to provide grants to these institutions. These provisions have led to the empowerment of the weaker sections of the society and have helped them participate in the matter of local governance. A global economy and pressure of international bodies have forced the Government to change its functioning. The Government has loosened some of to governance. Definition of good its control and concept of Government is giving way governance requires that it should be accountable, participative, transparent, responsive, effective and efficient, follows the rule of law, equitable and inclusive and taken by the Government in this regard. Enacting is consensus oriented. Some steps have been and the District Committees at the district level.

of Right to Act, 2005 is one such measure. This has opened the functioning of the Government to the public scrutiny as now no authority can refuse to provide information to any member of the public except regarding certain issues like national

security or pending investigations. The fear of this scrutiny has also brought some reasonableness in the authority now understands that his acts could be subject to public scrutiny. Apart from this, civil society including the NGOs of the new scheme of governance. functioning of the Government as every

and Voluntary Organizations are an important part These organizations have been broadly functioning in two ways. First is by taking on some responsibilities of the Government developmental programmes in the field of health, education and other social aspects. On its part the Government has also recognized these organizations as one of the stakeholders in the development process and in the ongoing development schemes. Government has also recognized the potential of collective action in the development process and in implementing a number of

due recognition has been given to self help groups and community based organizations which are more aware of the needs of the individuals as well as the local community. Second type

of

organizations

are

putting

Government initiatives to scrutiny and forcing the increased the accountability of the Government as

Government to take a particular action. This has well as made the people aware of the malaise in the functioning of the Government. Recent movement for enacting a Lok Pal Bill was led by

such an organization. Apart from these a number of such organizations have been working on the issue of environmental and ecological conservation. These issues are related to the concept of sustainable development as many such issues are related to the village economy. Work of such groups a voice through these groups. Within the Government, situations have also has led to empowerment of tribals who have found

changed. Stress is now on social development and including those who have till now been left behind.

One of the most important steps of the Government which would go a long way in reducing inequality is placing Rights with effect from 1st April, 2010. We have Right to Education under Fundamental

seen that difference between the male and female literacy rates had increased from 1951 to 1981. This could have only happened due to programmes not being able to draw and retain female children in school. However, the difference has been constantly reducing since then. It was 24.84 in 1991, 21.59 in 2001 and 16.68 in 2011. Apparently the reduction in difference has been the sharpest during the period 2001opening up of the Government and involvement of the voluntary organization. With the education becoming a fundamental right it can be expected that the existing difference between literacy rates like the SC/ST will be completely removed. The Government has been already implementing a number of schemes to provide subsidized ration to the people through a number of PDS schemes which has helped the people in meeting their food referred above as well among other social groups 2011. This period is also associated with the

requirements.

Now

the

Government

is

making

efforts to bring in a Food Security Bill which if enacted will provide reasonable food security to those sections who are not able to afford it.

In a nutshell, the Government has made attempts to change its functioning to make it more inclusive and participative. The efforts appear to have made some impact on the ground. However, the country still has a long way to go. In Human Development Index prepared by UNDP gives an idea of the inequalities existing in the country. As per the said when the value is discounted for inequality, the HDI falls to 0.392, a loss of 28.3 per cent due to inequality in the distribution of the dimension to inequality of 27.4 per cent and 31.4 per cent respectively. The average loss due to inequality for medium HDI countries is 23.7 per cent and for South Asia it is 28.4 per cent. The report also assesses gender inequality. As per the said report India has a Gender Inequality Index value of 0.617, ranking it 129 out of 146 countries in indices. Bangladesh and Pakistan show losses due report Indias HDI for 2011 is 0.547. However,

the 2011 index. This means that a lot of efforts are still required before we could call our growth truly inclusive. Class consciousness and movements in India

Concept of Class: Meaning Social class has been defined as a kind of social people occupying similar social positions. Wealth, income, education, occupation are some of the basic determinants of class. It is relatively open, i.e. anyone who satisfies the basic criteria can become its member. Marx has defined class in terms of the extent to which an individual or social group has control over the means of production. In Marxist terms a class is a group of people defined by their relationship to the means of production. Max Weber suggests that social classes are aggregates of individuals who have the same

group, It is generally defined as a stratum of

opportunities of acquiring goods, the same exhibited standard of living. Class consciousness: Indian context Traditionally, Indian social structure has been dominated by the caste system and concept of class was relegated to the background. Even, if present in a restricted way, it was overshadowed by the caste component of the society. Concept of class was limited to interaction between the rulers and the ruled. Kings and nobility were the rulers and were a separate class different from the common people. However, with the advent of the British, the situation changed. The revenue system adopted by the British divided the rural society into two classes, zaminadars and tenants. Industrialisation and economic policies followed by the British brought in a class of industrialists and workers. Similarly, administrative requirements led the British to impart western education in India, thus creating an educated middle class. The process of the rise of new social classes among different communities was also uneven. This

was due to the fact that certain communities were already engaged in definite economic, social or educational vocations in pre-British period. For example Baniyas were traders by vocation in our traditional social structure. Hence they were the first to take up modern commerce, banking and industrial enterprises. Similarly, Brahmans were the first to take up modern education and enter the professional classes. These communities took up the new challenges and entered these spheres of activity first because they were already having the basic disposition towards these occupations. Thus on the eve of Independence we find that Indian and classes. In some cases, these coincided with each other but in some they did not. The of land British administration made as, the various types social structure was made up of innumerable castes

and Mahalwari settlement with the natives.

settlement, Ryotwari settlement

settlements such

Permanent Under

the permanent Settlement, the right of ownership

of this land were transformed into a mass of

was conferred on the zamindars and the peasants

tenants. Failure on the part of some zamindars to pay the fixed revenue led to the auction of portions of large estates. This in turn, led to the

entry of a new class of landlords who were primarily the merchants and money-lenders. The right of ownership also recognised the right to lease. This led to largescale growth of smaller tenures. In the course of time, tenure passed into the hands of non-cultivators such as moneylenders, traders, and absentee landlords, who had very little interest in agriculture itself. Their main aim was only in extracting money from the land. Apart from these, there were intermediaries in zamindari areas who were given tenureby zamindars. Class consciousness after independence On the eve of Independence, the class of

intermediaries owned a large portion of land in their hands while the peasant cultivators had little or no lands. There was also extreme economic inequality leading to socio-political inequality in Indian society. Hence, our national leaders placed a lot of

emphasis on land reforms after India gained independence. The first phase of land reform was taken up in 1950s when zamindari was abolished. This had several consequences. It led to the formation of new classes. When Zamindari system the of erstwhile zamindars to lands These which as declare were were

was abolished, in states like U.P., the Government permitted ownership cultivating those they

called Khudkasht lands.

themselves.

lands

these lands and declared the land, which they

the Zamindars forced most of the tenants out of

So,

consequence,

were holding as Khudkasht. The size of holding

declared was subject to land ceiling. Thus, after cultivators of the soil. The

the land reforms they simply came to be renamed asbhoomidars, i.e., tenants who were actually cultivating the land prior to the land reforms were thrown out of their lands and most of them became landless agricultural labourers. It led to the pauperisation of the peasants, but there was a category of better off tenants who were able to buy the surplus land, created the Zamindars, at reasonably low rates determined due to the land ceilings from

by the Government. Thus, a new class of peasant proprietors or cultivators was formed who took up agriculture as an enterprise. Although the land reforms to create a socially homogeneous class of cultivators but it changed the social structure of the village. Socio-political and great setback and they were not in a position to control the peasants. Most of them have taken active cultivation. Being educated and having capital, they also improved methods of agriculture and created a class of progressive farmers who had some education and often training in economic position of the zamindars received a

agriculture. In areas, where the British had made Ryotwari settlement and peasant was the owner of the land, the position of the cultivator of the land was no better and he was burdened with excessive land revenue, small landholdings, acute indebtedness, this class underwent impoverishment from the very beginning. End of colonial rule brought a change in these conditions. Thus, end of colonial rule ended the two classes of tenants

and zamindars and instead brought in classes of rich peasants, middle peasants and poor peasants. In the urban areas, social classes comprise of the capitalist or industrialist, corporate sector, professional classes, petty traders and shopkeepers and working classes. All of these exist more or less independently without any conflict except those of industrial and working class. The conflict has seen a number of movements which were mainly influenced by the leftist ideology. Initial industries was slow till the next century. The First World War created hardships for the people there were a number of strikes from 1914 to 1920. This included Ahmedabad Textile Workers strike led by Mahatama Gandhi. However, strikes were mainly related to increase in wages and concept of class consciousness was absent. All India Trade Union Congress was formed in 1920 by Lala Lajpat Rai and remained the main labour organistion till 1945 when it split on party lines. It is dominated by the leftist ideology. Another organization, Indian were set up in the 19th century, but the progress

National Trade Union Congress was formed in May,

1947 by the leaders of the Indian National Congress. These unions have continuously taken up the cause of worker and various methods like demonstrations and strikes have been resorted to, during the course of the struggle. Bombay Textile mills strike was one of the longest which dragged on for more than a year. The Government has also been sympathetic to the cause of workers and have passed a number of Fund and Gratuity Act etc. All these affected laws like the Labour Law, , Bonus Act, Provident

the working class people in the country. It is a changed scenario ever since India adopted New Economic which Policy and under Structural an open Adjustment and liberalised programme in 1991. The New Economic Policy, economic regime, has emphasised a deregulated regime with less emphasis on regulation of labour and employment conditions. This trend largely went against the interests of the working class. The major adjustment policy followed by the private as well as public sector has resulted in an increase in the casualisation of labour on a large scale. It also operates

resulted in the redundancy of existing workforce and relocation of units to lower wage areas with temporary workforce. Apart from that companies had resorted to direct reduction of workforce. The industrial units resorted to no new recruitment or replacement, retrenchment, voluntary retirement schemes, increased sub contracting, automation and shut down of departments and closure. This is accompanied by the shift in the government policies which has resulted in a loss of bargaining power of the workers. India: Unity amidst diversity

Inspite of VARIOUS diversities, Indian community shares certain bonds of unity. The first bond of unity of India is found in its geo-political

integration. India is known for its geographical unity marked by the Himalayas in the north and the oceans on the other sides. Politically India is now a sovereign state. The same constitution and same parliament govern every part of it. We share the

same political culture marked by the norms of democracy and secularism. The geo-political unity of India was always visualized by our seers and rulers. The expressions of this consciousness of the geo-political unity of India are found in RigVeda, in Sanskrit literature, in the edicts of Asoka, in Buddhist monuments and in various other sources. The ideal of geo-political unity of India is (the old indigenous classic and name for also reflected in the concepts of Bharatvarsha India), Chakravarti (emperor), Ekchhatradhipatya

(under one rule). Another source of unity of India lies in what is known as temple culture, which is reflected in the network of shrines and sacred places. From Badrinath Rameshwaram in the south, Jagannath Puri in the east to Dwaraka in the west the religious shrines and holy rivers are spread throughout the length and breadth of the country. Closely related to them is the age-old culture of pilgrimage, which has always moved people to various parts of the country and fostered in them a sense of geoand Kedarnath in the north to

cultural unity. As well as being an expression of religious sentiment, pilgrimage is also an expression of love for the motherland, a sort of mode of worship of the country. It has acted as an antithesis to the regional diversity and has played a significant part in promoting interaction and cultural affinity among the people living in different parts of India. Indian culture, has a remarkable quality of

accommodation and tolerance.

There is ample

evidence of it. The first evidence of it lies in the elastic character of Hinduism, the majority religion of India. It is common knowledge that Hinduism is not a homogeneous religion, that is, a religion having one God, one Book and one Temple. Indeed, it can be best described as a federation of faiths. Polytheistic (having multiple deities) in character, it goes to the extent of accommodating village level deities and tribal faiths. For the same reason, sociologists have distinguished two broad forms of Hinduism: sanskritic and popular. Sanskritic is that which is found in the texts (religious books like Vedas, etc.) and popular is that which is found in

the actual life situation of the vast masses. Robert Redfield has called these two forms as great tradition of Ramayana and Mahabharata and the everything passes for Hinduism. What it shows is that Hinduism has been an open religion, a receptive and absorbing religion, an encompassing religion. It is known for its quality of openness and accommodation. Another evidence of it lies in its apathy to conversion. Hinduism is not a proselytizing religion. That is, it does not seek converts. Nor has it ordinarily resisted other religions to seek converts from within its fold. This quality of accommodation and tolerance has paved the way to the coexistence of several faiths in India. Indian society was organized in such a way that various social groups were independent of each other. One manifestation of it is found in the form of Jajmani system, i.e., a system of functional interdependence of castes. The term jajman refers generally to the patron or recipient of specialized services. The relations were traditionally between a food producing family and the families little tradition of worship of the village deity. And

that supported them with goods and services. These came to be called the jajmani relations. Jajmani relations were conspicuous in village life, as they entailed ritual matters, social support as well as economic exchange. The whole of a local social order was involved (the people and their values) in such jajmani links. A patron had jajmani relations with members of a high caste (like a Brahmin priest whose services he needed for rituals). He also required the services of specialists from the lower jati to perform those necessary tasks like washing of dirty clothes, cutting of hair, cleaning the rooms and toilets, delivery of the child relations were expected to be and were broadly supportive of each other with qualities of ready help that generally close kinsmen were expected to show. Sociologist M.N.Srinivas has called this vertical unity of castes'. The jajmani relations usually involved multiple kinds of payment and obligations as well as multiple functions. No caste was selfsufficient. If anything, it depended for many etc. Those associated in these interdependent

things on other castes. In a sense, each caste was a functional group in that it rendered a specified service to other caste groups. Jajmani system is that mechanism which has formalized and regulated this functional Furthermore, castes cut across the boundaries of religious communities. We have earlier mentioned that notions of caste are found in all the religious communities in India. In its actual practice, thus, the institution of jajmani provides for inter linkages between people of different religious groups. Thus a Hindu may be dependent for the washing of his clothes on a Muslim waterman. Similarly, a Muslim on a Hindu tailor, and vice-versa. Efforts have been made from time to time by sensitive and sensible leaders of both communities to synthesise Hindu and Muslim may be dependent for the stitching of his clothes interdependence.

the

traditions so as to bring the two major communities closer to each other. Akbar, for example, founded a new religion, Din-e-Ilahi, combining best of both Eknath and Guru Nanak, as well as some sufi the religions. Some bhakti saints like Kabir,

saints made important contributions in forging unity among to communities. At the time of independence struggle, Mahatama Gandhi laid extreme emphasis on Hindu Muslim unity which was instrumental in India becoming a secular state and moving on the path of progress. All these factors have helped in developing a composite culture in the country which provided a model for the preservation and growth of plurality of cultures within the framework of an integrated nation. The above account of the unity of India should not be taken to mean that we have always had a smooth sailing in matters of national unity, with no incidents of caste, communal or linguistic riots. Nor should it be taken to mean that the divisive and secessionist tendencies have been altogether absent. These tendencies were at full force at time of independence when the partition took place. There have been occasional riots, at times serious riots like those after Babri Masjid demolition and in Gujarat in 2002. Incidents of oppression and violence against members of scheduled castes take place from time to time and

regionalism has expressed itself in extreme in separatist movements in the North East and in a little less extreme form in the violence against north Indians in Mumbai. The redeeming feature, however, is that the bonds of unity have always emerged stronger than the forces of disintegration. Womens movements in India

Social

prominently

reformers

raised which

of

the

the

issue

19th century of in

gender

had

discrimination

resulted

substantial

improvement in the position of women. Consequently, women took part in the national movement in large numbers. However, after independence, the

national movement came to an end and constitution had granted equality between sexes, no apparent cause left for the women to mobilize themselves for any collective action. Many womens organizations as such as AIWC social

reoriented

themselves

primarily

organizations

running

hostels,

schools,

providing

limited work opportunity, etc. Many of the major political parties started token womens fronts. But this state of dormancy did not last long. The social transformation soon started giving way to dissatisfaction. The women responded to the situation in two ways. First was that the women actively took part in the struggles on the issues which were all encompassing. Their participation in environmental and ecological issues was one such example. Secondly, they also focused on the issues which were specifically women oriented including the right to property and right against violence. Protests against sexual violence, dowry expectations that independence would result in

and sati were some such issues. Right to ownership of property: Bodhagaya Math Struggle

Traditionally women do not have any right to hold property except their stridhana which could be in form of some money, jewellery or cloths. As women was herself treated like a commodity under the

control of her male relative the ancient law makers did not envisage her as holding any property much less the ownership of the land. She was supposed to remain dependent on her husband. This was a predominantly agrarian society was of prime very important disability as ownership of land in a importance. These questions were raised during the Bodhgaya movements. Apart from the fact that these questions were raised in movement, it was also important that the questions were raised by the rural and not so educated women. The Bodhgaya movement, initiated in 1978 in the Gaya district of Bihar, was a struggle by landless laborers and sharecroppers to gain rights in land which they had cultivated for decades. The land, some 9,575 acres spread over 138 villages, was held by a Math (a monastery-cum-temple

complex), much of it in violation of land ceiling laws. Math officials exploited the peasants and also under the leadership of the Chatra Yuva

sexually abused the women. The struggle emerged

Sangharsh

Vahini,

Gandhian-socialist

youth

organization founded in 1975 by Jayaprakash Narayan (a contemporary of Mahatma Gandhi) and committed to improving the lot of the disadvantaged. Vahini membership was restricted to those under thirty, and included women in every tier of the organization. The movement lasted several years. Its primary slogan was Jo zameen sow and plough the land are the owners of the land). Women actively participated in the movement and over time, they began participating in equal numbers with the men and also courting arrest with accompanying children. In addition, women within the struggle. They focused on womens exploitation, housework, and their exclusive responsibility girl for discrimination against children, organized shivirs (camps) to discuss their concerns

ko boye jote, voh zameen ka malik hai (those who

mens verbal and physical violence against them, (most one importantly) against womens need and for independent land rights. Resolutions were passed, including wifebeating another demanding land in womens own names.

Finally in 1981, the government identified 1,000 acres of the Maths land for redistribution to the priority to landless laborers, the disabled, widows, and small peasants. Women other than widows did not figure in the list, and they protested their exclusion. After a prolonged debate on why women should have independent land rights, in 1982 it was decided that women too would receive land in their own names in future distribution. In two villages the villagers unanimously approved lists for giving land only to women and widowers. In time, women received land in various ways: individual titles, joint titles with husbands, as widows, destitute and disabled persons, and in some cases as unmarried adult daughters. Although such women were few since most girls there were married before they were eighteen, the idea that unmarried daughters were eligible was an important step forward. A powerful critique of patriarchy emerged in the Bodhgaya Math struggle. Women raised a large number of questions about the power structure involving womens issues questions about all the Maths illegal holdings were distributed and agitating farmers. The Vahini drew up a list, giving

family, work distribution, and family violence and unequal access to resources enjoyed by men and women, issues of male female relationships and womens sexuality.

Thus Bodhgaya Math struggle successfully raised the issue of property rights of women. However, demand for equal property rights continued. In 2005, an amendment of Hindi Succession Act was passed which gave equal rights of inheritance to daughters. Shramik Sangathana of Dhulia Beginning in the early 1970s in the Dhulia district of Maharashtra the tribal Bhil landless labourers agitated against the extortionate

practices of local landlords most of whom were non-tribals and treated the tribals as sub-human. In 1972 the Shramik Sangathana was formed, which, following the drought and famine, took up the struggles against land alienation through occupying and cultivating the fallow land.

The Shramik Sanghatana argued that contemporary drought was related to unequal land relations. They, legislation on land reforms to counter drought. They wastelands and repossession of lost lands. therefore, demanded a comprehensive

also mobilised the tribals for access to forestland, The local landlords were also traders, alcohol vendors, and merchants who consolidated their landholdings by taking over the tribal land by fraud and by trapping the tribals into a cycle of indebtedness. The Sangathan mobilized both the farmers as well as the tribals for the movement by adopting different groups took part in these agitations. Tribal women faced domestic violence as a result of alcoholism of their men. The Shramik Sanghatana initiated its work by organising the tribals at the drought-relief sites. Like the Parishad, the Shramik Sanghatana organised protests against the inferior conditions of work and differential wages for women and men. while conducting negotiations, with the landlords In these mobilisations tribal women took lead and strategies. Women from both these

and officials another source argues that they were more adamant than the men. The urban women activists women. Sathe introduced a feminist perspective to tribal Tribal women could put across their concerns regarding working conditions confidently but were unable to express domestic violence that they faced within the house. The Shramik Sanghatana women activists organised womens conferences, meetings and informal group sessions to encourage women to speak about their problems and help them to understand the underlying issues. Over time the discussions, which were earlier restricted to the issues regarding sexual division of labour, now expanded to domestic violence at home. As these discussions continued the Sanghatana activists and the tribal women started seeing the links between domestic violence and the structures of enticement for men so that they get further exploitation and was rather a deliberate like Chhaya Datar and Nirmala

indebted to the landlord. No wonder tribal women

started organising an anti-alcohol stir in 1972. The workers Sangthan movement movement, meetings in feminism, Bombay discussed womens the and organised liberation liberation

movements in the rest of the world. It is said that forms of gender discrimination and violence in the private sphere cannot be understood without assessing economic conditions. The work of Shramik these two perspectives. Self Employed Women Association and Anti Price Rise Agitation Sanghatana shows the integral relationship between

In Gujarat, in 1972, Ela Bhatt, who worked in the women wing of the Textile Labour Assciation found Self Employed Women Association (SEWA) which was an organization of self employed women working mostly in the informal sector. These women suffered from low income, harassment from authorities and lack of recognition of their work as socially useful labour. SEWA worked in a way like a trade union and sought to improve the conditions of these women by providing training, technical

support and most importantly a collective bargaining power. However, SEWA confined its activities on the economic front and did not venture into other aspects of social discrimination as was done by other feminist movements. As women in the rural areas are mobilized in famine agitations, the women of the urban areas organized to fight against the hike in the prices of essential commodities that was followed by the famine. In 1973 United Womens Anti Price Rise activists to mobilize women against inflation in the cities. The movement grew rapidly becoming a mass womens movement for consumer protection, demanding that both prices and the distribution of essential commodities be fixed by the government. Thousands of working class and lower middle class morchas and developed strong structures women took to the streets in the so called latni of mobilizations and communication. The movement was generalized and visible in many parts of the metro-politan cities, though centered mainly to Patna and Bombay. Women marched down the Front was formed by Mrinal Gore and some other

Bombay streets waving rolling pins and empty cans of oil. However, this movement like the SEWA concentrated develop a discrimination. Anti Arrack Movement The women of Nellore district of Andhra Pradesh who got a chance to enter the world of literacy through the state sponsored literacy campaign, came to know through the textbooks the ill effects of alcoholism and its impact on women. Spontaneous action came from the women who experience the ill-effects in their day to day life because of the alcoholic habits of their menfolk. Thousands of women joined in picketing liquor outlets, disciplining habitual drunkards, and demanding from the critique on specific of patriarchy issues and or did gender not

administration a total ban on alcohol sales. The women from all political leanings strove their utmost to make the agitation a success. Women realized their strength and importance and the government bowed to the wishes of people. Sale of arrack was banned in the district of Nellore to begin with and

later on the ban was extended to the rest of the state. The agitation of Andhra Pradesh inspired people of other states, especially Haryana, to take up similar issues. . These anti-arrack movements took up the case of physical violence against women in the family and the economic problems of the household associated with alcoholism of men, and thus brought issues which were considered to be private in nature into public discourse and requiring state intervention. Anti Rape Movement: The anti rape movement begun in 1977 by the Civil Rights groups following an incidence of custodial rape. With the public outcry following the custodial rape, womens organizations initiated the anti-rape movement. Mathura, a 15-year-old girl and a member of a scheduled caste, was raped by two policemen at a police station. The policemen were acquitted on the ground that there was no rape, because there was no proof that Mathura had resisted. Although on appeal the decision was reversed by the Bombay High Court, the Supreme

Court again acquitted the policemen holding that Mathuras story of stiff resistance was false and that the intercourse was a peaceful affair. In protest against the Supreme Court judgement, on 8th March, the Womens day in 1980 thousands from major universities, the womens wing of left of women of different quarters of life students

political parties, housewives, womens organizations came together in the cities of Ahemadabad, Nagpur, Pune, Bombay and Delhi. They demanded a reopening of the case. In Nagpur and Bombay a series of rallies, seminars, marches, sit-ins and street plays were held. A womens organization that specifically focused on ending rape, the Forum Against Rape, was founded. The Supreme Court took heed and agreed to review its decision, but ultimately stuck to its verdict. Pressure from this campaign meanwhile affected the recommendations of the Law Commission of India, so harsher legal penalties for rape were recommended in the Criminal Law Amendment Bill of 1980, which was passed by

Parliament

in

1983.

The

issue

has

been

prominently raised once again due to an incident of gang rape and subsequent cruelty meted out to a thousands of people participated and demanded harsher punishment for the accused. Anti Dowry Movement The Progressive Organisation of Women in 23 year old girl in December, 2012 in which

Hyderabad first organized protests against dowry in 1975. The imposition of National Emergency prevented its full fledged growth. After lifting of the Emergency women in Delhi organized on a large scale against the social practice of dowry some time around 1977. It began with the organized protest of Mahila Dakshata Samiti. They for dowry, especially against murder and abetment of suicide. They demanded the prosecution of the accused in a dowry related murder case. The accused was a well-placed government doctor who being dissatisfied with his wifes dowry murdered her for another woman and threw the protested against the violence inflicted upon women

dead body in the Ganges River in Kanpur. The death remained a mystery for a long time, but the husband was nabbed and punished for his crime. Protests against dowry harassment and murder began in several parts of the country but Delhi remained the site of a sustained agitation against dowry and dowry-related crimes largely because it seems to have the highest number of murders of women for dowry in the country.

Protests in the form of demonstrations and other means indifferent attitude of the wider public and policy makers to the issues of womens death by by feminist groups could change the

kerosene. They could even prove that many of the official suicides are in fact not suicides but murders that had been committed by the husband The feminist groups devised a series of strategies to enhance the public awareness of the problems associated with dowry. They recorded the last words testimony, of and the dying encouraged women, the took friends the family and of the women and family demanding more dowry.

neighbours to come forward with their evidence. As

a result many families began to lodge complaint with the police against the harassment of their daughters by the in-laws for more dowry. In 1980 a year after the anti dowry agitation began, the government passed a law against dowry related crimes that recognized abetment of suicide because of dowry demands as a special crime and made mandatory a police investigation into the death of any women within five years of marriage. Agitation against Sati In 1987 the death of a young widow in the funeral pyre of her husband in Rajastan sparked off a campaign against the practice of sati or self immolation across the country. Roop Kanwar, a graduate, was married a short while before her husband died and she spent only around 6 months with him. After his death it was decided that Roop Kanwar would become sati. The impending event was announced in advance though her family was not informed. She was dragged to the funeral pyre despite her protests and put on the pyre after drugging her. Reports

indicated that the local authorities knew about the planned sati and still they could not do anything effectively to stop the event. Immediately after the spot being visited by scores of immolation, the site became a popular pilgrimage devotees. Supporters of sati formed an organization called Sati Dharam Raksha Samiti. They arranged the assistance though glorifying the act of sati and commodifying it. Even several laws exist under which the ideologues and profiteers of sati could have been punished, still the state government did not take any action largely because the promoters and those who argued for sati belonged to the Rajput community and the issue had become an issue of Rajput community identity. The politicians were more concerned about their vote banks than any gender issue. The feminists and women activist protested the killing of women in the name of religion. They conducted protests in Delhi as well as other parts of the demonstrations and other forms of for pilgrims and made money by

country. Feminists demanded state intervention.

Some of their main demands were that i) Roop Kanwars in-laws and the doctor who drugged her should be prosecuted for murder; ii) all those who profited financially or politically from her death should be punished; and iii) a new law should be promulgated banning both the committal and glorification of crimes against women in the name of religion (Radha Kumar). Soon after Roop Kanwars death the Rajputs came out in defense of the act of sati the self-immolation of the bride on her husbands pyre. They defended it on the ground that it is part of the Rajput tradition where men kill and are killed in the battlefields and women do their role by killing as the true example of Rajput identity. The major argument of the pro-sati camp was that if the state represented the people, then the Rajpus were a people among whom sati was an ideal and a tradition and as such it should be recognized argued, refusal to legitimize sati is a deliberate and legitimized. And hence, they themselves at home. Rajputs began projecting sati

attempt to marginalize the Rajputs. The head

priests of some of the major Hindu temples and some of the extreme Hindu nationalists groups joined the pro-sati activists. The pro-sati agitations could mobilize large number of women who, in fact that they represented the true desires of Hindu women and they accused feminists of being unrepresentative. Thus feminists were placed in an anomalous position of appearing to speak in the interests of women whom they could not claim to represent differently. Chipko Movement Chipko movement was not essentially a feminist or women based movement against the environmental and ecological degradation in this movement was related to movement. It was essentially a and who defined their interests were supporting their own oppression. They claimed

degradation. However, the issue of environmental womens increasing toil for fuel and fodder in the face of such degradation, and from this was generated the idea that women, by virtue of their own nature related activities, have an especially

nurturing attitude towards nature. The Chipko movement originated around 1970s (though the seeds of the movement were there from the for commercial interests. The name Chipko is derived from the Hindi word for hugging the trees, which is what the Garhwal women did en masse in order to prevent indiscriminate forest felling for commercial interests. While the men of the region conceded that the government had the prerogative in forest felling, the women protested on ecological grounds. Women argued that the forest is directly connected to the essence of life soil, water and pure air. When Europes forest for fulfilling the need for wood. cover was depleted, Britain looked at its colonies Accordingly adopted a forest policy, which would facilitate indiscriminate felling of trees. The same was the case with India. There were popular protests during the colonial period in India against the forest policy of the colonial masters. The policy continued after independence and forest felling continued activities. People protested government policy. There for commercial and developmental British period) against indiscriminate forest felling

were popular demonstrations against the government decision allowing contractors to fell angu trees. system of forest exploitation, supply of forest Peoples demand included an end to the contractor

produce to the villagers at concessional rates and the forest revenue settlement. They pledged not to allow cutting of trees. Women attaching adopted the strategy to the of trees hugging when or the

themselves

contractors came for cutting the trees. It started in 1974 when a group of women under the trees which had been auctioned by leadership of Gaura Devi prevented the felling of the Government. All along the movement, the women actively participated in the movement and also adopted various other peaceful forms of protest. The central government acceded to the demands of women and ordered a ban of the cutting of green trees. The Chipko movement did not stop with the end of commercial forest felling. The activists later on concentrated on the educational work in the villages. The women gained enormous self-confidence through the movement and were in

a position to articulate their own long-term larger needs clearly. Conclusion Over the decades, womens groups across the spectrum have engaged with myriad issues. Mostly they stood for issues that are not just womencentric but are concerns of wider society as well. The problems that women face are that of other social categories too. Womens mobilizations of the past proved their intended organized actions (as in the case of anti-arrack, anti-price rise, Chipko etc.) always brings Participating about in wider such social repercussions.

mobilizations

definitely gives the women of the community a social identity. And this social identity of course makes way for their empowerment. Their empowerment is realized through the affirmative actions taken by the state as well as the civil society organizations in response to their efforts and capacity to initiate collective action. further

NCERT's Cartoon Controversy

The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) dropped six cartoons from four political science textbooks. The NCERT took this the deletion of a total of 22 cartoons. The controversy The controversy related to cartoons started when different political parties raised the questions of including a few cartoons in the Political Science books of NCERT meant for eleventh and twelfth standard. One of the cartoons depicts Ambedkar writing on snail depicting the very slow pace of the framing of the constitution. The same cartoon also displayed Pt. Nehru with a whip in his hand standing behind Dr Ambedkar. The second decision after Thorat Committee had recommended

cartoon was taken from the Times of India newspaper which was related to the anti-Hindi agitation that took place in 1967 in Tamil Nadu.

After this controversy in parliament the Ministry of Human Resource and Development set up a six member committee under the S.D. Throat. The Committees mandate was to examine educationally in appropriate materials in the school text books is suggest alternatives if necessary. The committee used National Curriculum Framework 2005, guidelines to review the controversial cartoons. Thorat Committees View The committee reviewed six text books which report to the government the committee recognized the value of cartoons as a pedagogical tool for teaching but it also advised caution. The committee suggested that the cartoons should be used for well defined educational purposes, but should also be tested for their consequences and sensitivities with respect to various groups. The committee proposed that out of 470 cartoons which it reviewed, the 17 of these should be deleted and improvement should be made in the notes given of 18 of the other cartoons. The

reviewed contained 470 cartoons. While giving its

committee

also

suggested

replacing

the

word

Dalit with Schedule Caste About the cartoon related to Ambadker, the Thorat Committee was of the view that images tend to have stronger impacts than words. Even though Ambadkar was projected in a positive manner in the text of the cartoon the image gives committee was of the view that academic world in not immune to caste and religion stereotypes. While the cartoons were meant to improve the teachings, taken into account. The flip side of the removal of cartoons The supporters of the cartoons were of the view that these cartoons were in the text books from past five years, and no such objection was made. Secondly anything that is politically inappropriate might be educationally appropriate. Removal of the cartoons has nullified the very objective of National Curriculum Framework 2005. It has also limited the critical thinking and creativity. A society that the sensitivity of various groups should have to be negative connotation about Ambadkars image. The

cannot tolerate diverse books cannot be a healthy society. Some of the critics to these changes are also of the view that Ministry of Human Resource and Development must not encroach into the academic autonomy of NCERT. Also text books created by NCERT are just exemplars, it is not mandatory for different boards to follow them. NCF 2005, allows teachers to use more than one text books. Non Government Organizations (NGO) and Community Based Organizations (CBO)

Community and related organizations The term community is vague concept and has

been defined variedly by different scholars and organizations. Some of the common characteristics of a community are a defined territory, close and informal relationships among the inhabitants, common values and beliefs, organized interaction, cultural McMillan and Chavis, Community is defined as a similarity and strong group feeling. According to

feeling that members have of belonging, a feeling that members matter to one another and to the be met through their commitment to be together WHO Expert by committee on community boundaries group and a shared faith that members needs will defines and/or

community as follows: A community is a social group determined geographical common values and interests. Its members know

and interact with each other. It functions within a particular social structure and exhibits and creates certain norms and values, and social institutions Meaning of Community Based Organizations A community based organization can be defined as a public or private nonprofit organization that is representative of a community or a significant segment of a community, and is engaged in safety community needs. Small Grants Programme (SGP) being run through the Global Environment Forests defines CBO as All such organization, institutions or congregation of people, which have Facility (GEF) and Ministry of Environment and meeting human, educational, environmental, or public

local area/ village-based presence, maturity and structural arrangements. These are owned and managed by members. They are formal, legal entity or informal registered organizations maintaining separate books of accounts, systems and ways of working. They have group identity- membership. They should not be affiliated to any religious, political or separatists parties/ groups. Meaning of Non Government Organizations (NGO) A Non-Government Organization is an organization by individuals or legal entities

created

like

companies or societies that operate independently from the Government. The organization is a legal entity under the law of the land and is a nonprofit organization. Thus the NGO is distant both from the Government as well as from the profit seeking business entities. In the cases in which NGOs are funded the status totally NGO from by or partially its in by nonthe governments, governmental organization. representatives maintains membership excluding

government

Difference between NGO and CBO An NGO is different from Community Based

Organization. However, as the fields of operation of both these categories overlap, the identity also overlaps in certain cases. Some of the differences between the CBOs and NGOs are as under. CBOs Work mainly to solve the problems of their members NGOs Mainly assist in solving the problems of others Area of scope of is much Have a narrow scope Mainly established for the short-term objectives Financed from internal sources and external Financed from external sources wider and usually involves multiple communities

Usually work for long term objectives

CBOs These have the advantage of membership solutions

NGOs These have professionalism as their advantage Government institutions

Raises issues and seeks Work as a watchdog of

Emergence of NGOs and CBOs These organizations grew up due to a rising consciousness that the State is not able to or may not be able to solve a number of problems. This led people to take the initiative of local development distant from the Government, they had in their own hands. As these organizations were no hesitation in pointing out the deficiencies in the Government system. On the part of the State also, there was a consciousness that in order to have all round and socially inclusive development, the system should become participatory. The concept of the Government gave way to the concept of governance. participatory, considered equitable appropriate As good governance is inclusive, include it to and was these A large

organizations in developmental activities.

number of these organizations ate being supported by the Government. This has led to a considerable increase in the number of NGOs in the country. NGO and CBO in Indian context According to recent reports, India has possibly the largest number of active non-government, not-forprofit organizations in the world. A recent study commissioned by the government put the number of such entities, accounted for till 2009, at 3.3 million. That is one NGO for less than 400 Indians, and many times the number of primary schools and primary health centres in India. Even this staggering number may be less than the actual number of NGOs active in the country. This is because the study, commissioned in 2008, took into consideration only those entities which were registered under the Societies Registration Act, 1860 or the Mumbai Public Trust Act and its variants in other states. Such organisations can be registered under a plethora of Acts such as the Societies Act, 1860, Indian Trust Act, 1882, Public Trust Act, 1950, Indian Companies Act,

1956

(Section

25),

Religious

Endowment

Act,1863, The Charitable and Religious Trust Act, 1920, the Mussalman Wakf Act, 1923, the Wakf Act, 1954, and Public Wakfs (Extension of Limitation Act) Act, 1959, etc. Ensuring Energy Security Security

Energy and prosperity Energy is one of the basic requirements for performing daily routine activities like lighting and cooking as well as for community purposes and consumption is an indicator of economic prosperity of a region. Poor people generally have carrying out developmental activities. Energy limited

resources to spend on their energy requirements and hence these people are at the lowest rung of the energy ladder. A poor household will use energy only for his basic minimum needs i.e cooking and lighting. However, as prosperity grows, the household may start using a refrigerator, a cooler or even an air conditioner. Hence economic

prosperity increases energy consumption. In keeping with the economic conditions, per capita power consumption in the country is very low at 733 Kwh as compared to other countries of the world. Electricty Electricity is the most important source for meeting energy requirements of the country. As per figures available with the Central Electricity Authority, the country had generation capacity of 1,73,626 MW as on 31st March, 2011. Out of this 12160.50 MW was added in the year 2010-11. Gross annual generation of power during the year was 2010-11 was about 811 BU (Billion Units) which was an improvement of 5.6% over last year. However, the demand has risen more sharply at 6%. Demand during the year 2010-11 was about 861 BU while availability was 788 BU thereby causing a deficiency of about 8.5%. Similarly, peak demand during the year was 1,22,827 MW while the peak demand met was 1,10,256 MW causing a deficit of 9.8%. The average per capita consumption of electricity in India is a mere 478

kWh2 (2010), compared to the world average of 2,300 kWh. Apart from the generation being less than the demand, another important aspect is that the present system and processes are oriented towards urban consumers, high end consumers and the rural households at a disadvantage and makes electricity out of bounds of a number of households. According to The World Energy Outlook 2011, 268 million people of rural India and 21 million electricity (survey figures of 2009). This together constitutes 25% of the total Indian population. Cooking and Transport Energy demands for cooking and transport are met through petroleum products. Where LPG is not available, kerosene and fuel wood are used for cooking. Kerosene is also used for lighting purposes in the absence of electricity. Demands for people of urban India do not have access to

to a little extent agricultural consumers. This puts

transport sector are met through petrol and diesel. However, the country imports about 70% of its

requirement of crude oil and hence crude oil based products are quite expensive. Renewable energy also plays an important role in meeting increase in times to come. Renewable energy installed capacity as on Jan, 2012 was 24 GW. This comprises of wind energy (16GW), small hydropower (3.3GW), biomass power (3.0 GW) and solar power (445 MW). energy requirements and its proportion is likely to

Earlier power sector was closed to the private sector. Now with the advent of the Electricity Act, 2003, private players have started entering the market. This has brought in the required capital as well as a professional attitude. Government of India launched Rajiv Gandhi Grameen Vidyutikaran Yojana (RGGVY) in the year 2005 for taking up the cause of rural electrification. Under this scheme capital subsidy for 90% of project cost is being provided by Government of India. Under this RGGVY programme, cumulatively up to 31.03.2012, works in 104496 un-electrified villages have been completed and connections to 1.94 crore BPL households have been released.

Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM) was launched in January, 2010. Overall objective of 20,000 MW of grid connected solar power, 2000 MW of off grid solar applications including 20 million solar lights, 20 million sq. m. solar thermal conditions collector for area, developing creating solar favourable manufacturing the mission for 2022 is deployment of

capacity in the country and to support R & D and capacity building. The first phase of the mission aims at setting up of 1,100 MW grid connected solar plants, 200 MW capacity equivalent off-grid solar applications and 7 million square meter solar thermal collector area till March, 2013. As per annual report of the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, the country has a potential of 12 million family biogas plants, which can daily generate on an average 35 million cubic meters of biogas. Apart from meeting energy requirements it 11th five year plan it is envisaged to install 6.47 is also a source of organic manure. During the lakh biogas plants under the National Bio Mass

Management Programme. These plants would have an estimated generation capacity of about 12.94 lakhs cubic meters of biogas per day and would be capable of saving 1.26 crores of LPG cylinders annually and producing organic fertilizer equivalent to 624 lakh kg of urea. The scheme has been running since 1981-82 and 44.04 lakh plants had been installed up till March, 2011, thereby achieving 35.7% of the potential. Future estimates Energy requirements of the country would increase at the rate of about 7.4% taking the estimated demand in the year 2031-32 to be around 800 GW. Considering the present installed capacity of 185GW it would mean a five fold increase in the generation capacity. However, the past experience does not show a much encouraging picture. In the tenth plan, a capacity addition of 21,180 MW was achieved which was only 51.5% of envisaged a target of capacity addition of 62,374 the target. The XIth plan (2007-12)

MW but up to 31st March, 2011, a capacity

addition of 41,297 MW only had been made which is about 66% of the target and it is very unlikely that the target for the plan period would be achieved.

Therefore, if the required energy production is to be achieved, swift action will have to be taken at policy as well as implementation level. It requires use of the capacity available. Increase in capacity would require completion of projects in time and meeting the targets under schemes. Presently, Optimum unitization would depend to a large extent on the availability of required amount of coal. Some of the thermal power plants also run on gas. The gas supply to power sector has been lower than the requirement over the last 10 years, although the deficit for gas has reduced from 45% in FY01 to 20% in FY11. Total loss of generation in financial year 2010 due to shortage in gas supply has been to the tune of 3.24 billion units. Therefore, uninterrupted supply of fuel to the 55% of the power is generated by using coal. substantial increase in capacity as well as optimum

thermal power plants has to be ensured to make full use of their capacity. Though efforts have been made to tap the renewable sources, full potential is yet to be exploited and greater stress need to be placed on these sources as they can provide clean energy without any harmful effect on the environment and are also capable of providing energy in remote and inaccessible areas where conventional electrification is difficult. Nuclear energy can also play a big role in considered as a viable option subject to other related issues including safety measures. Apart from increasing capacity, the issues related to distribution are also important. On the technical side there is the issue of transmission and distribution losses which are substantial. On the managerial side there is the issue of tariff and financial viability of the distribution companies. On the social side there is the issue of availability of adequate equipments for using this energy and its judicial use and conservation. All these require providing energy and should be seriously

sustained efforts from all stake holders to make the concept of Power for all a reality in the country. Large requirement of energy, particularly in the agricultural sector and rural areas are met through animal power which needs fodder to sustain. Dairy industry is also based on livestock which needs for livestock are classified as roughages and concentrates, dry and fresh, as well as conventional and novel. Roughages are high in fodder to survive. . Generally, the feed and fodders

crude fibrous material which essentially consists of

cellulose, hemi-cellulose and to some extent lignin, the last increasing in level with advances in maturity of the crop. Working area Group the for As per a report of the the 11th five year plan, and

permanent pastures constitute 3.6% of geographical in country. Their productivity

carrying capacity are declining, though these lands support grazing ruminants such as cattle, sheep chunks of common property and community lands which are under the public domain, but becoming and goats in large numbers. There are large

drastically reduced for livestock grazing. In India, the forest cover is to the tune of 22.6% of which over conservation. 85% These lands used to be a major are under protection and

source of feeds and fodder for the livestock rearing communities dwelling within and nearby the forests. As per the annual report of the Animal husbandry department for 2011-12, the area cultivated under fodder is about 4.6% of the total cultivable area. widespread and are grazed by the domestic grasslands is about 12.4 million Exclusive pastures and grasslands are

animals. Total area under permanent pastures and hectares (NABCONS). An area of 15.6 million ha is classified as wasteland and is also available for grazing. However majority of these lands have either been degraded or encroached restricting their availability for livestock grazing. As per the draft 12th five year plan, the National upon

Livestock Mission (NLM) will have an important

mini-mission of feed and fodder, with an objective

to substantially reduce the gap between availability and demand. The deficit of dry fodder (10 per cent), concentrates (33 per cent) and green although availability of feed resources has improved somewhat. The forage and fodder seed need varietal and quality improvement alongside better availability. The NLM will encourage seed companies priority basis. Developing common and SAUs to take up forage seed production on a property resources, including grazing land and wasteland, and better utilisation and enrichment of crop residues/agricultural priority. Ration balancing, which is being promoted mission on feed and fodder. Water Policy 2012: Analysis by-products is the other fodder (35 per cent) continues to be high,

under NDP, will also be promoted under this mini-

Water is again one of the biggest necessities of life without which no one can survive. Water is required for drinking, washing and sanitation. It is

also required for agriculture and a number of industrial activities. However, out of these drinking water has attained highest priority. In a UNICEFWHO report, between the period 1990-2010, India has been able to provide clean drinking water to about 550 million people although about 97 million people are yet to have access to clean drinking water. As per data provided by the World Bank 90% of the people have access to clean drinking water. National Water Policy, 2002 has mentioned water allocation priorities as under:1. Drinking Water 2. Irrigation 3. Hydro-power 4. Ecology 5. Agro-industries and non-agricultural industries 6. Navigation and other uses

The policy has also laid guidelines for periodic reassessment of ground water considering the quality and economic viability of extraction; financial and physical sustainability of the existing resources; participatory approach to Water Resources

Management

by

including

various

government

agencies, users and other stake holders; private sector partnerships in planning, development and management of water resource projects; monitoring of water quality of both ground and surface water; conservation of water; flood control and management; land erosion by sea or by river and drought-prone area development. However, the Government is intending to revise the National Water Policy and accordingly has prepared draft policy notes that water is required for domestic, agricultural, hydropower, thermal power, navigation etc and utilization in all these diverse uses should be optimized and an awareness of water as a scarce resource should be fostered. It has also been stated that Government must ensure access to a minimum quality of potable water for essential health and hygiene to all its citizens, available within easy reach of the household. the Draft National Water Policy, 2012. The

The policy also identifies the areas of concern in management of water resources, some of which are as under: 1. Large parts of India have already become water stressed. Rapid growth in demand for water due to population growth, urbanization and changing lifestyle pose serious challenges to water security. 2. Issues related to water governance have not been addressed adequately. Mismanagement of water resources has led to a critical situation in many parts of the country. 3. There is wide temporal and spatial variation in availability of water, which may increase substantially due to a combination of climate change, causing deepening of water crisis i.e., floods, increased erosion and increased frequency of droughts, etc. 4. Climate change may also increase the sea levels. This may lead to salinity intrusion in increased coastal inundation in ground water aquifers / surface waters and coastal and incidences of water related disasters,

regions,

adversely

impacting

habitations,

agriculture and industry in such regions. 5. Access to safe water for drinking and other domestic water needs still continues to be a problem in many areas. Skewed availability of between different regions and different people in the same region and also the intermittent and unreliable water supply unrest. 6. Groundwater, though part of hydrological cycle and a community resource, is still perceived as an individual property and is exploited inequitably and without any consideration to its sustainability leading to its over-exploitation in several areas. 7. Water being resources planned projects, and though multiin a disciplinary with multiple stakeholders, are implemented fragmented sustainability people. manner and without giving to due the system has the potential of causing social

consideration to optimum utilization, environment holistic benefit

8. Inter-regional, inter-State, intra-State, as also inter-sectoral disputes in sharing of water, strain relationships and hamper the planning on basin/sub-basin basis. 9. Grossly inadequate maintenance of existing irrigation wastage infrastructure and has resulted of in under-utilization available optimal utilization of water through scientific

resources. There is a widening gap between irrigation potential created and utilized. 10. Natural water bodies and

drainage

channels are being encroached upon, and diverted for other purposes. Groundwater recharge zones are often blocked. 11. Growing the causing pollution of especially affecting besides through industrial of environmental water safe and sources, is water health

effluents,

availability

hazards. In many parts of the country, large and 12. devoid of flows to support

stretches of rivers are both heavily polluted aquatic ecology, cultural needs and aesthetics. hygiene is an even more serious problem. Access to water for sanitation and

Inadequate sanitation and lack of sewage treatment are polluting the water sources. 13. overall scarcity and economic value of water results in its wastage and inefficient use. 14. for The lack of adequate trained personnel scientific planning, and utilizing modern capabilities analytical Low public consciousness about the

techniques

incorporating information technology constrains good water management. 15. 16. A holistic and inter-disciplinary approach The public agencies in charge of taking own without consultation at water related problems is missing. water related decisions tend to take these on their with stakeholders, often resulting in poor and unreliable service characterized by inequities 17. of various kinds. streams, Characteristics of catchment areas of rivers and recharge zones of

aquifers are changing as a consequence of land use and land cover changes, affecting water resource availability and quality.

The draft policy also lays guidelines for framing public policies for water management. These guidelines are as under: 1. Planning, development and management of

water resources need to be governed by common integrated perspective considering local, environmentally sound basis, keeping in view the human, social and economic needs. 2. Principle of equity and social justice must 3. Good governance through transparent informed decision making is crucial to the objectives of equity, social justice and sustainability. Meaningful intensive participation, transparency and accountability should guide decision making and regulation of water resources. 4. Water needs to be managed as a common pool community resource held, by the state, under public trust doctrine to achieve food security, support livelihood, and ensure equitable and sustainable development for all. inform use and allocation of water. regional, State and national context, having an

5. Water is essential for sustenance of ecosystem, and therefore, minimum ecological needs should be given due consideration.

6. Water, after meeting the pre-emptive needs for safe drinking water, sanitation and high priority allocation for other domestic needs (including needs of animals), achieving food security, supporting sustenance agriculture and minimum eco-system needs, may be treated as and efficient use. 7. All the elements of the water cycle, i.e., evapo-transpiration, precipitation, runoff, river, lakes, soil moisture, and ground water, sea, etc., are interdependent and the basic hydrological unit is the river basin, which should be considered as the basic hydrological 8. Given the limits on enhancing the availability of utilizable water resources and increased variability in supplies due to climate change, meeting the future needs will depend more on demand management, and hence, this needs to be given priority, especially through (a) unit for planning. economic good so as to promote its conservation

evolving an agricultural system which economizes on water use and maximizes value from water, and (b) bringing in maximum efficiency in use of water and avoiding wastages. 9. Water quality and quantity are interlinked and need to be managed in an integrated manner, consistent with broader environmental management approaches inter-alia including the use of economic incentives and penalties to reduce pollution and wastage. 10. The impact of climate change on water resources availability must be factored into water management related decisions. Water using activities need to be regulated keeping situation. Apart from the above, the policy lays guidelines regarding adaption to climate change; enhancing availability of water available for use; demand management and and water use project efficiency; planning water and pricing; conservation of river corridors, water bodies infrastructure; implementation; management of flood and drought; in mind the local geo climatic and hydrological

water

supply

and

sanitation;

institutional

arrangements; trans-boundary rivers; maintenance of database & information system and research and training needs.

Communal conflicts in India

What is Communalism? According to famous historian Bipin Chandra Communalism consists of three stages one following the other. These stages are as: 1. The first bedrock of communal ideology says that people who follow the same religion have common secular interests i.e. common political, social and 2. The second tenet of communal ideology states that political, social and cultural interests of one religion are dissimilar and divergent from the interests of the followers of another religion. 3. The followers of different religions or communities hostile. are seen to be mutually incompatible, antagonistic and cultural interests.

Communal conflicts are a carryover from the preindependence period, when communalism forced a partition upon the country. India witnessed its worst communal riots in 1948 after the partition. Noakhali in Bengal and several villages of Bihar were the worst hit. The first major riots between Hindus and Muslims after the bloodshed of partition in 1947 occurred in Jabalpur in Madhya Pradesh in 1961. Communal riots between Hindus and Muslims

erupted in Ahmedabad in 1969. Atleast 1000 people had died during this riot. They were followed by riots in Uttar Pradesh with periodic violence erupting elsewhere. Hindu-Muslim riots broke out in Jamshedpur and Aligarh in 1979 and in Moradabad in 1980. The assassination of the then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi on October 31, 1984, sparked anti Sikh riots that continued for about 15 days. Although the riots took place in many parts of the

country,

Delhi,

the

national

capital

was

most

affected. Thousands of people were killed and many more were injured. There was widespread the streets. On May 21, 1987, Meerut witnessed widespread riots which continued for months. In the following months, 350 people were killed. It took several weeks for a 13,000-strong army detachment to restore peace in Meerut. On October 23, 1989 began the month-long riots in Bhagalpur allegedly triggered by the police atrocities. Of the 864 cases filed by the police, 535 were closed and most accused acquitted for lack of evidence. Following police atrocities in 1989, the silk city of Bhagalpur saw massacre and arson in which over 1,000 people died, nearly 50,000 were displaced and 11,500 houses torched. The Babri masjid demolition set off riots all over the country. Mumbai also witnessed riots between December 1992 and January 1993. For five days in December, 1992 and then again for a fortnight loot and arson and chaos and lawlessness ruled

in January, the city witnessed unprecedented riots. The Maharashtra government set up the Sri Krishna Commission of Inquiry, which submitted its tally was 900 who belonged to both report in 1998. As per the Commission, total death the communities. On February 27, 2002 suspected Muslim mob attacked a train carrying activists of the Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP) back from the disputed holy site of Ayodhya. The attack left 58 Hinduactivists dead. The episode resulted in major riots, which left thousands of Muslims dead in Gujarat. Important movements in India since independence

Popular Movements are non party movement which came up to rectify some problems in the functioning of party politics. They should be seen as an integral part of our democratic politics. They represented new social groups whose economic and social grievances were not redressed in the realm of electoral politics.

Chipko Movement The movement began in two or three villages of Uttarakhand when the forest department refused permission to the villagers to fell ash trees for making sports agricultural manufacturer tools. for However, commercial the use. forest This department allotted the same patch of land to a enraged the villagers and they protested against the move of the government. The name of the movement came from a word meaning embrace: the villagers hugged the trees and thus saved them by putting their bodies in the way of the contractors axes. The villagers demanded that no forest-exploiting contracts should be given to outsiders and local communities should have effective control over natural resources like land, water and forests. They wanted the government to provide low cost materials to small industries and ensure development of the region without disturbing the ecological balance. The movement took up economic issues of landless forest workers and asked for

guarantees

of

minimum

wage.

The

movement

achieved a victory when the government issued a ban on felling of trees on the Himalayan regions for fifteen years, until the green cover was fully restored. Trade Union Movement Trade union movement had a strong presence among industrial workers in major cities like Mumbai, Kolkata and Kanpur. All major political parties established their own trade unions for mobilizing these sections of workers. Peasants in the Telangana region of Andhra Pradesh organized massive agitation under the leadership of Communist parties in the early years of independence and demanded redistribution of land to cultivators. Peasants and agricultural labourers in parts of Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar and

adjoining areas continued their agitations under the leadership of the Marxist-Leninist workers; who were known as the Naxalites. National Fish workers Forum

The government permitted entry to mechanized trawlers and technologies like bottom trawling for large-scale harvest of fish in the Indian seas. Throughout the seventies and eighties, local fish workers organization fought with the state

governments over the issues of their livelihood. With the coming of policies of economics liberalization in and around the mid eighties, these organizations were compelled to come together on a national level platform- the NFF or National Fish workers Forum. Fish workers fro Kerala took the main responsibility of mobilizing fellow workers, including women workers from other States. Narmada Bachao Aandolan Sardar Sarovar Project, an ambitious development central India in early eighties. The project consisted of 30m big dams, 135 medium sized and around 3,000 small dams to be constructed on the Narmada and its tributaries that flow across three states of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Maharashtra. Sardar Sarovar Project in

project was launched in the Narmada valley of

Gujarat

and the Narmada Sagar Project

in

Madhya Pradesh were two of the most important and biggest, multi purpose dams planned under the project. Narmada Bachao Aandolan, a movement a save Narmada, opposed the construction of these dams and questioned the nature of ongoing development projects in the country. Kashmir issue Jammu and Kashmir comprises three social and political regions: The heart of the Kashmir region is the Kashmir valley; the people are Kashmiri speaking and mostly Muslim with a small Kashmiri speaking Hindu minority. Jammu region is a mix of foothills an plains, of Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs an speaker of various languages. The Ladakh region is mountainous, has very little population which is equally divided between Buddhists and Muslims. Before 1947, Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) was a Princely State. Its Hindu ruler, Hari Singh, did not want to merge with India and tried to negotiate with India and Pakistan to have an Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh.

independent status for his state. The Pakistani leaders thought the Kashmir region belonged to Pakistan, since majority population of the state was Muslim. But this is not how the people themselves saw it- they thought of themselves as Kashmiris above all. The popular movement in the State, led by Sheikh Abdullah of the National Conference, wanted to get rid of the Maharaja, but was against joining Pakistan. The National Conference was secular organization and had a long association with the Congress. Sheikh Abdullah was a personal friend of some of the leading nationalist leaders including Nehru. In October 1947, Pakistan sent tribal infiltrators from its side to capture Kashmir. Military help. Dravidian Movement This was one of the first regional movements in Indian politics. Though some sections of movement had ambitions of creating a Dravid nation, the movement did not take to arms. It democratic means like public debates and the used This forced the Maharaja to ask for Indian

electoral

platform

to

achieve

its

ends.

The

Dravidian movement led to the formation of Dravida Kazhagam (DK) under the leadership of Tamil social reformer E.V. Ramasami opposed Periyar. The organization strongly the Brahmins

dominance an affirmed regional pride against the political, economic and cultural domination of the North. Initially, the Dravidian movement spoke in terms of the whole of south India; however lack of support from other States Limited the movement to Tamil Nadu. The DK split and the political legacy of the movement was transferred t Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK). The DMK made its

entry into politics with a three pronged agitation in 1953-54. Khalistan issue

The decade of 1980s also witnessed major developments in the State of Punjab. The social composition of the State changed first with Partition and later on after the carving out of country was reorganized on linguistic lines

Haryana and Himachal Pradesh. While the rest of in

1950s, Punjab had to wait till 1966 for the creation of a Punjabi speaking State. The Akali Dal, which was formed in 1920 as the political formation of a Punjabi suba. The Sikhs were now a majority in the truncated State of Punjab. There were two factions in Akalis, the moderates and the extremists. They lead a movement and took up water dispute issue between Punjab and neighboring states. The leadership of the movement passed from the moderate Akalis to the extremist elements and took the form of armed insurgency. They also demanded secession from India and their headquarters inside the Sikh holy shrine, the Golden Temple in Amritsar, and turned it into an armed fortness. In June 1984, the Government of India carried out Operation Blue Star, code name for army action in the Golden Temple. In flush out the militants, but it also damaged the historic temple and deeply hurt the sentiments of the Sikhs. A large proportion of Sikhs in India and abroad saw the military operation as an attack this operation, the Government could successfully formation of Khalistan. These militants made wing of the Sikhs, had led the movement for the

on their faith and this gave further impetus to militant and extremist groups. Still more tragic turn of events complicated the Punjab problem further. Prime Minister Indira Gandhi was

assassinated on 31 October 1984 outside her residence by her body guards. The NorthNorth-East This region consists of seven states, also referred to as the seven sisters. The region has only 4 percent of the countrys population but about twice China, Myanmar and Bangladesh and serves as Indias gateway to South East Asia. At Independence the entire region except Manipur and Tripura comprised the State of Assam. Demands for political autonomy arose when the non-Assamese felt that the Assam government was imposing Assamese language on them. There were Leaders of the major tribal communities wanted to separate from Assam. They formed the Eastern India Tribal union which later transformed into a opposition and protest riots throughout the State. as much share of its area, shares boundaries with

more

comprehensive

All

Party

Hill

Leaders

Conference in 1960. They demanded a tribal State to be carved out Assam. Finally instead of one tribal State, several State got carved out of Assam. At different points of time the Central Governments had to create Meghalaya, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh out of Assam. Tripura and Manipur were upgraded into States too. The 1972. Sikkim At the time of Independence, Sikkim was a protectorate of India. It meant that while it was not a part of India, it was also not a fully sovereign country. The first democratic elections to Sikkim assembly in 1974 were swept by Sikkim Congress which stood for greater integration with India. The assembly first sought the status of associate state and then in April 1975 passed a was followed by a hurriedly organized referendum that put a stamp of popular approval on the resolution asking for full integration with India. This reorganization of the North-East was completed by

assemblys

request.

The

Indian

Parliament

accepted this request immediately and Sikkim became the 22nd State of the Indian Union. Goas Liberation Although the British Empire in India came to an end in 1947, Portugal refused to withdraw from the territories of Goa, Diu and Daman which were under its colonial rule since the sixteenth century. After Indias Independence, the Indian government tried very patiently to persuade the Portuguese government to withdraw. In December 1961, the Government of India sent the army which liberated these territories after barely two days of action. Goa, Diu and Daman became Union Territory. In January 1967, the Central Government held a special opinion poll In Goa asking people to decide if they wanted to be part of Maharashtra or remain separate. This independent India was that a referendum-like the only time in

procedure was used to ascertain peoples wishes on a subject. The majority voted in favor of remaining

outside of Maharashtra. Thus, Goa continued as a Union Territory. Finally, in 1987, Goa became a State of the Indian Union. Recent developments Most crucial development of this period was the in 1989. The party that had won as many as 415 seats in the Lok Sabha in 1984 was reduced to only 197 in this election. The Congress improved its performance and came back to power soon after the midterm elections held in 1991. But the elections of 1989 marked the end of what political scientists have called the Congress system. Second development was the rise of the Mandal issue in national politics. This followed the decision by the new National Front government in 1990, to implement Commission that jobs in central government should be reserved for the Other Backward Classes. the recommendation of the Mandal

defeat of the Congress party in the elections held

Third, the economic policy followed by the various governments took a radically different turn. This is known as the initiation of the structural adjustment program or the new economic reforms. Started by Rajiv Gandhi, these changes first became very visible in 1991 and radically changed the direction that the Indian economy had pursued since Independence. Fourth, a number of events culminated in the demolition of the disputed structure at Ayodhya (known as Babri Masjit) in December 1992. This event symbolized and triggered various changes in the politics of the country and intensified debates about the the rise nature of the of BJP Indian and nationalism the politics and of secularism. These developments are associated with Hindutva.

Finally, the assassination of Rajiv Gandhi in May 1991 led to a change in leadership of the Congress Party. He was assassinated by a Sri Lankan Tamil linked to the LTTE when he was on an election campaign tour in Tamil Nadu. In the

election of 1991, Congress emerged as the single largest party. Following Rajiv Gandhis death, the party chose Narsimha Rao as the Prime Minister. Era of Coalitions Elections in 1989 led to the defeat of the

Congress party but did not result in a majority for any other party. Though the Congress was the largest party in the Lok Sabha, it did not have a clear majority and did not have a clear majority and opposition. The National Front (which itself was an alliance of Janata Dal and some other regional parties.) received support from two diametrically opposite political groups: the BJP and the Left Front. On this basis, the National Front formed a coalition government, but the BJP and the Left Front did not join in this government. Secular marriages in India By Davendra Davendra Sharma therefore, it decided to sit in the

A family is the basic unit of social organization and

marriage plays an important role in forming a family. Marriage is a universal institution though its function and forms may vary from one society to acknowledges intimate and sexual relationship other. It can be defined as an institution which between the individuals called spouses and their right to procreate and maintain children. It is also a social and civil contract between individuals which their children and in-laws. which the marriages are Each society has accepted by some establishes rights and obligations over each other, developed its own ways for solemnizing marriages in authority. In most of the cases the authority is

religion while in some cases it is some legal authority or the Government. In the latter case, the marriage is called secular or civil marriage. System of marriages in India Traditionally, marriages in India have been of religious types and were solemnized and governed by traditions of their respective religions. Presently, these are governed by various Acts formulated on

the basis of the religion followed by the individuals to be married and ceremonies under these Acts are considered sufficient, without any need for any approval or registration from any legal authority. Needless to say these methods of solemnization, applied only to those marriages in which both the intending partners were of the same religion. These did not have any provision for inter religious marriages or for other persons who did not want to solemnize their marriage ceremonies as per their religious customs and traditions. To remove this problem, the British enacted the Special Marriages Act, 1872, which for the first time provided for inter religious marriages. It was optional and initially those who wished to marry under this Act had to renounce their religion. However, the Act contained no provision for dissolution or nullification of marriage. For these matrimonial remedies it only made the Indian Divorce Act 1869 applicable to the marriages governed by it. In the year 1922, the Act was amended to make it available to Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists and Jains for marrying within these

four communities without renouncing their religion. The Act remained in force in this form till brought in 1954 which provided for solemnizing independence. A new Special Marriages Act was

inter religious marriages as well as provided for an alternative to those individuals who despite coming under jurisdictions of one of the religious marriages Acts do not want to solemnize their marriage as per religious rites.

An important difference between marriages under the personal laws and secular marriages is that legal authority, are automatically registered. On the other hand, there is no such binding on marriages solemnized solemnizing traditions sufficient. under under of the the personal said as per laws, wherein law, and is marriage customs the latter, by way of being solemnized before a

personal

However, number of marriages under

the Special Marriages Act is much lower than the marriages under other Acts, and as a result most of the marriages are not registered with any legal authority.

Earlier marriage was considered to be a personal affair with male in the dominating position. Marital disputes were rare and were usually settled by usually in favour of male. However, in recent times, various changes in the society have increased the number of marital disputes and adjudication of these disputes has been brought in the judicial which is not usually available in marriages arena. This requires legally valid proof of marriages solemnized under personal laws. This required a comprehensive legislation to be brought for providing registration of all marriages under the Act. Apart from marital disputes, registration is also helpful in stopping the practice of Child marriage. Article 3 of the UN Convention on the Consent to Marriage, Minimum Age for Marriage and Registration of Marriage, mandates that all marriages shall be registered in an appropriate official register by the competent authority. The Registration of Births and Deaths the informal social structures like caste panchayats,

(Amendment) Bill, 2012

The Supreme Court in its order passed on 14/2/2006 in the case of Seema Vs.Ashwini Kumar directed that marriages of all citizens of India, irrespective of their religious denominations, should be compulsorily registered in the States where these marriages are solemnized and also directed that as and when such legislation is framed, the same shall be placed before the Court for scrutiny.

The Committee on Empowerment of Women (2006Deserted by Non Resident Indian

07) in its 12th report on Plight of Indian Women (NRI)

Husbands, which was presented to the Lok Sabha

on 13th August, 2007 also took a view that all marriages, irrespective of their religion should be compulsorily registered. The Committee also desired that the Government should make registration of all marriages mandatory and the procedure should be made simpler, affordable and accessible. The 18th Law to Commission in its 205th report, of Child

Proposal

Amend

the

Prohibition

Marriage Act, 2006 and other Allied laws,

recommended that registration of all marriages of all communities Further, should the be Commission in made its mandatory.

211th report, Laws on Registration of Marriage and Divorce-A proposal for Consolidation

and

Reform recommended Parliamentary legislation on compulsory registration of marriages which will bring country wide uniformity in the substantive law and will be helpful in achieving the desired goal.

In accordance with these recommendations, the Government introduced the Registration of Births and Deaths (Amendment) Bill, 2012 which

provides that every person shall get his marriage registered under this Act or under the Anand Marriage Act, 1909 or any other Act. Under this Act, marriage means and includes a marriage solemnized between a male and a female belonging to any caste or religion or tribe under any law for the time being in force and includes marriages solemnized under any custom or usage in any form or manner recognised by law or the marriage registered under any law for the time being in force and also includes remarriage. The Registrar

looking after the registration of births and deaths will also register marriages. The Bill also prescribes procedure for registration as well as

penalties for not giving information in time. The Bill is presently with a select committee of the Rajya Sabha. Further, the Government also amended The Anand Marriage Act providing for registration of marriages under the said Act. Implications of the amendment The amendment seeks to make the registration of being made in the Registration of Births and Deaths Act, and not in the concerned personal laws, non-providing information will not in any affect the validity of the marriage solemnized under these Acts. Section 29A of the proposed amendment Act states that The provisions of this Act relating to registration of marriage shall be in addition to, and not in derogation of, any other law registration of marriages of the parties under this Act shall not be deemed to affect any right for the time being in force and the

marriages mandatory. However, as the provision is

recognised or acquired by any such party under any law, custom or usage. Further penal provisions for not providing information about marriage are extremely light, Section 3A proposing that Any person who contravenes the provisions of sub-section (1) of section 10A, shall be punishable with fine which may extend to fifty rupees. This amount marriages. would hardly be a deterrent for non-registration of Amendment of concerned various

marriage Acts and personal laws would have been more effective, as in that case, registration could be incorporated as a part of marriage solemnization, without which the marriage could not be deemed complete. In its present from, the Bill registration of marriages. Future of secular marriages Secular or civil marriages have some distinct advantages over marriages solemnized under the personal laws. First aspect is that it is officially documented leaving no room for disputes regarding solemnization of the marriage. Second is that it is not likely to make much impact regarding

would help in stopping practice of child marriage as a legal authority will not allow such marriages. Another important aspect is that these marriages do away with the financial burden that is borne by the parties as during the solemnization society does of not marriages. form an However, such kind of marriages, are not much common appreciable view about such marriages. Solemnization of marriages in the traditional way is considered more respectable and reliable than the marriages. Registration of marriage does not mean a secular marriage. It is like keeping a record of the marriages done under various personal laws. In case it is implemented successfully, it will be of considerable help in improving the status of women in the society. However, this is not likely to result a distant idea. Energy Poverty By: Davendra Sharma in predominance of secular marriages which is still civil

Energy is one of the basic requirements for performing daily routine activities like lighting and cooking as well as for community purposes and carrying consumption is an indicator of economic prosperity of out developmental activities. Energy

a region. Poor people generally have limited resources to spend on their energy requirements and hence these people are at the lowest rung of the energy ladder. A poor household generally use energy only for its basic minimum needs i.e cooking and lighting. household like However, may as prosperity using or it grows, for even an the air start

luxuries

refrigerator,

acooler

conditioner. Hence economic prosperity increases energy consumption. In keeping with the economic conditions, per capita power consumption in India is very low at 733 Kwh as compared to other countries of the world. This brings in the concept of energy poverty. Though the term defies a clear cut definition, yet it can be loosely defined as a stage when people

are not able to have access to adequate amount of energy services. This could either be due to non availability of power or due to lack of purchasing power among people. Non availability of clean source of energy adversely affects the well being of the people as well as their productivity. In such a condition, people may resort to use of those sources which are either costly or inefficient or are hazardous to the environment. A poor family without access to LPG and biogas may resort to kerosene or biomass, both of which are less efficient and more polluting then LPG. Similarly, if a farmer does not have access to electricity, he will have to resort to use of diesel for running pumps for environment adversely. Present status of power generation Electricity is the most important source for meeting energy requirements of the country. As per figures available with the Central Electricity Authority, the country had generation capacity of 1,73,626 MW as on 31st March, 2011. Out of this 12160.50 irrigation, which is costly and also affects the

MW was added in the year 2010-11. Gross annual power generation during the year was 2010-11 was about 811 BU which was an improvement of 5.6% over last year. However, the demand has risen more sharply at 6%. Demand during the year 2010-11 was about 861 BU while availability was 788 BU thereby causing a deficiency of about 8.5%. Similarly, peak demand during the year was 1,22,827 MW while the deficit of 9.8%. The average per capita peak demand met was 1,10,256 MW causing a consumption of electricity in India is a mere 478 kWh2 (2010), compared to the world average of 2,300 kWh.

Apart from the generation being less than the demand, another important aspect is that the present system and processes are oriented

towards urban consumers, high end consumers and to a little extent towards agricultural consumers. This puts the rural households at a disadvantage and makes electricity out of bounds of a number of households. According to The World Energy Outlook 2011, 268 million people of rural India

and 21 million people of urban India do not have access to electricity (survey figures of 2009). This together constitutes 25% of the total Indian population.

Energy demands for cooking and transport are met through petroleum available, kerosene and fuel wood are used for cooking. Kerosene is also used for lighting purposes in the absence of electricity. Demands for transport sector are met through petrol and diesel. However, the country imports about 70% of its requirement of crude oil and hence crude oil based products are quite expensive. Renewable energy also plays an important role in meeting energy requirements and its proportion is likely to increase in times to come. Renewable energy installed capacity as on Jan, 2012 was 24 GW. This comprises of wind energy (16GW), small hydropower (3.3GW), biomass power (3.0 GW) and solar power (445 MW). Government initiatives products. Where LPG is not

1. Earlier power sector was closed to the private sector. Now with the advent of the Electricity Act, 2003, private players have started entering the market. This has

brought in the required capital as well as a professional attitude. 2. Government of India launched Rajiv Gandhi Grameen Vidyutikaran Yojana (RGGVY) in the electrification. Under this scheme year 2005 for taking up the cause of rural capital subsidy for 90% of project cost is being provided by Government of India. Under this RGGVY 31.03.2012, programme, works cumulatively in 104496 up unto

electrified villages have been completed and connections to 1.94 crore BPL households have been released. 3. Jawaharlal (JNNSM) was launched in January, 2010. deployment of 20,000 MW of grid Nehru National Solar Mission

Overall objective of the mission for 2022 is connected solar power, 2000 MW of off grid solar applications including 20 million solar lights, 20 million sq. m. solar thermal

collector area, creating favourable conditions for developing solar manufacturing capacity in the country and to support R & D and capacity building. 4. The first phase of the mission aims at setting up of 1,100 MW grid connected solar plants, 200 MW capacity equivalent off-grid solar applications and 7 million square 2013. 5. As per annual report of the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, the country has a potential of 12 million family biogas plants, which can daily generate on an average 35 million cubic meters of biogas. Apart from meeting energy requirements it is also a 11th five year plan it is envisaged to install Bio Mass Management Programme. These plants would have an estimated generation capacity of about 12.94 lakhs cubic meters of biogas per day and would be capable of saving 1.26 crores of LPG cylinders annually source of organic manure. During the meter solar thermal collector area till March,

6.47 lakh biogas plants under the National

and producing organic fertilizer equivalent to 624 lakh kg of urea. The scheme has been running since 1981-82 and 44.04

lakh plants had been installed up till March, 2011, thereby achieving 35.7% of the potential. 6. Village energy security projects are being taken up for those villages and hamlets where electrification is not possible by conventional means. 65 projects have been commissioned so far. However, the scheme is year plan. Power not likely to be continued in the 12th five 7. A number of other programmes like Biomass Programme, Bagasse Cogeneration Programme, Biogas Based Distributed/Grid Power Generation Programme and Small Hydro Power Programme are also being run to augment the energy generation capacity. Future requirements Energy requirements of the country would increase at the rate of about 7.4% taking the estimated

demand in the year 2031-32 to be around 800 GW. Considering the present installed capacity of 185GW it would mean a five fold increase in the generation capacity. However, the past experience does not show a much encouraging picture. In the tenth plan, a capacity addition of 21,180 MW was achieved which was only 51.5% of envisaged a target of capacity addition of 62,374 the target. The XIth plan (2007-12)

MW but up to 31st March, 2011, a capacity addition of 41,297 MW only had been made which is about 66% of the target and it is very unlikely that the target for the plan period would be achieved.

Therefore, if the required energy production is to be achieved, swift action will have to be taken at policy as well as implementation level. It requires use of the capacity available. Increase in capacity would require completion of projects in time and meeting the targets under schemes. Presently, Optimum unitization would depend to a large extent 55% of the power is generated by using coal. substantial increase in capacity as well as optimum

on the availability of required amount of coal. Some of the thermal power plants also run on gas. The gas supply to power sector has been lower than the requirement over the last 10 years, although the deficit for gas has reduced from 45% in FY01 to 20% in FY11. Total loss of generation in financial year 2010 due to shortage in gas supply has been to the tune of 3.24 billion units. Therefore, uninterrupted supply of fuel to the full use of their capacity. Though efforts have been made to tap the renewable sources, full potential is yet to be exploited and greater stress need to be placed on these sources as they can provide clean energy without any harmful effect on the environment and are also capable of providing energy in remote and inaccessible areas where conventional electrification is difficult. Nuclear energy can also play a big role in providing energy and should be seriously considered as a viable option subject to other related issues including safety measure. thermal power plants has to be ensured to make

Apart from increasing capacity, the issues related to distribution are also important. On the technical side there is the issue of transmission and distribution losses which are substantial. On the managerial side there is the issue of tariff and financial viability of the distribution companies. On the social side there is the issue of availability of adequate equipments for using this energy and its sustained efforts from all stake holders to make the concept of Power for all a reality in the country. Electoral Reforms By: Davendra Sharma judicial use and conservation. All these require

Holding of regular elections is the foundation of a representative democracy like ours. However, in order to be the democracy to be participatory in true sense, it is of utmost importance that the elections held are free and fair and reflect the true will of the people. Indian experience of more

than 60 years has shown us that a number of malice have entered our electoral politics which is hampering the true voice of the common man from reaching our legislative institutions. Criminalization of politics, excessive use of money power, misuse of government machinery, regulation of conduct of political parties, non-availability of option of negative/neutral voting and delay in adjudication of election disputes are some such prominent issues.

The issue of electoral reforms has been taken up a number of Commissions and Committees like the Goswami Committee on Electoral Reforms (1990), Indrajit Gupta Committee on State funding of elections (1998), Vohra Committee Report (1993), Law Commission Report on Reform of the Electoral Laws (1999), National Commission to review the Working of the Constitution has also (2001). Election Commission of India proposed certain

electoral reforms in the year 2004 while the Second Administrative Reforms Commission has also 2008. deliberated upon the issue in its report in the year Nonetheless, despite these detailed

deliberations these problems continue to plague the Indian electoral system. Criminalisation of politics Participation and winning of elections by a

candidate having criminal background is the most evident problem of the Indian electoral politics. As per a report prepared by ADR India, 15% of the candidates contesting last Lok Sabha elections had criminal cases pending against them. Out of these 608 candidates, have criminal cases of serious nature. Almost all the major political parties fielded these candidates and a large number of such candidates contested as independents as well. The above said report also states out of 543 elected candidates 162 have criminal cases pending against them. Presently, Section Act,

of 1951

the

Peoples for

Representation

disqualification of persons convicted for certain offences. The disqualification is operative for a period of six years after the punishment has been served. However, as the previously mentioned

provides

figures would clearly indicate, the law has not been able to make any impact. One reason for this is that considering the present judicial scenario, it is difficult to prove charges against a powerful politician. Another reason is that not have legal liability. In this regard, the Election Commission has the political

parties which give tickets to such candidates do

proposed that those persons against whom charges have been framed by a Court for an offence punishable by imprisonment of five years or more, As a precaution against lodging of false case just prior to the elections, it has also been suggested that only cases in which charges have been framed before six months prior to the elections should be taken into account for that election. Funding of elections Excessive use of money in elections is another problem area. Section 77 of Representation of Peoples Act and Rule 90 of the Conduct of should be disqualified from contesting the elections.

Election Rules prescribe maximum limits for the expenditure in the Parliamentary and State legislatures. However, the concept of limit has been assailed on two grounds. Firstly, it is said that the limits prescribed are unrealistically low (limit for parliamentary constituencies of bigger states such as Uttar Pradesh is Rs.25 lakhs). Second aspect is that despite this criticism most of the candidates in their statement of expenditure claim that they have spend only 45% to 55% of the limit. Both these statements are contradictory. However, this becomes possible because Section 77 of the Representation of Peoples Act mentions the expenditure as that done by the candidate or his agent. This brings in the possibility of expenditure not being reported under the claim that this is not done by the candidate or his agents. Hence prescribing of limits does not seem to have served any purpose.

However, excessive use of money in elections causes problems in the basic functioning of the democracy. National Commission on Review of

Working of the Constitution has pointed out that

high cost of elections creates a high degree of compulsion for corruption in the public arena, and are believed to be unaccounted criminal money in return for protection, unaccounted funds from business groups who expect a high return on this investment, kickbacks or commissions on contracts, etc. and also that Electoral compulsions for funds of corruption.. State funding of elections has been suggested as matter was considered by Indrajit Gupta become the foundation of the whole super structure that the sources of some of the election funds

a solution to excessive use of money power. The Committee report which agreed with the proposal for state funding but stated that in view of economic conditions only partial funding can be done. Law Commission also considered the issue and said that even partial state funding should be done only after setting up a mechanism for regulating the functioning of parties including aspects related to internal democracy and auditing elections should be seen in context of transparency

of accounts. Hence the concept of state funding of

in internal functioning of the political parties without which state funding whether complete or partial is not likely to serve its purpose. Misuse of Government machinery The issue of Government sponsored advertisements

just before the elections is an example of misuse of Government resources. These advertisements, on the pretext of giving information to the public are actually aimed at influencing the voters. This gives the ruling party an undue advantage over other parties and candidates at the expense of the Government. In this regard, the Election Commission has proposed that for six months prior to the date of expiry of the term of the House, there should be a ban on advertisements on achievements of the Government but advertisements/dissemination of information on poverty alleviation and health related schemes could be exempted from the ban. There is also the practice of putting up banners and hoardings in public places, depicting achievements of governments. This should be banned, if possible. Otherwise, there should be specific provisions that

name or symbol of any political party or photograph of any of the leaders of the party should not appear on such hoardings/banners. Regulation of conduct of political parties Presently, the process for being registered as a

political party is very simple and once a party gets registered it remain registered in perpetuity as there is no process to deregister it. As per data available with the Election Commission, about 1100 political Sabha elections and there are many more which are only registered but do not contest elections. Election Commission Commission should has be suggested empowered to that the regulate parties contested the last Lok

registration as well as de-registration of political parties to reduce mushrooming of political parties.

Regulation of conduct of political parties is one of the reforms. most Political important parties aspects are of an the essential electoral

requirement in a representative democracy and being the repositories of political power, it is important to decide how these parties should

conduct their internal affairs. Election Commission has suggested that the parties should publish their accounts annually, and should be legally required to approved by the Comptroller and Auditor General. Apart from these, there is the issue of internal party democracy. The issue has been discussed by the Law Commission in its report in the year 1999 and National Commission on Review for the Working of the Constitution. Both of them have supported the concept of internal democracy in the political parties. Negative/Neutral Voting At the time of elections, a condition may arise in which the voter wants to cast his vote but does not consider any of the candidates worthy of his vote. The present legal situation does not have any provision for such a situation. Only provision that exists is that of Rule 49 O of the Conduct of Election Rules in which a voter can refuse to vote but this does not interpret in rejection of all the candidates. This brings in the concept of negative get their accounts audited annually by the auditors

voting or the right to reject. The concept is also linked to a candidate winning more than half of the votes polled to win an election. This would require run offs and fresh elections in cases where none of the candidates achieve that

criterion or where number of negative votes are higher than the votes got by any single candidate. The Law Commission took up the issue in its report in the year 1999 wherein it recommended what it called alternative method of election. With respect to te practical difficulties, the Commission run-off and a fresh election in case no candidate obtains 50% or more votes even in the run-off, and in that sense expensive and elaborate, yet it has the merit of compelling the political parties to put forward only good candidates and to eschew Commission 2001, in proposal reiterated dated in bad characters and corrupt elements. Election 10th December, has also again 2004,

stated that, No doubt this method calls for a

accepted the concept and has recommended that provisions for a column none of the above should

be made in the ballot paper or the EVM to enable a voter to reject all candidates if he so desires. Adjudication of election disputes Section 80 and 80A of the Representation of Peoples Act, 1951 provides that an election petition can be filed only in the High Court. that endeavor shall be made to conclude the trial within six months from the date on which the petition is presented to the High Court. However, makes it impossible to decide these case in these limits and cases drag on for years and in a number of cases final conclusion takes place after the term of the representative is over. Special benches have been suggested to hear election related cases to expedite them. Other issues 1. Election increase Commission the has also proposed of to the the back log of the cases with the High Court Although Section 86(7) of the said Act provides

security

deposit

candidates to deter non-serious candidates

from contesting the elections. The Commission has also suggested an amendment in Section 34 of the RP ACT, 1951 to empower the Commission to prescribe the security deposit People. 2. Presently, a person can contest from two constituencies in a single election. In that case, if he wins from one seat, bye-elections have to be held for the other. In this regard the Election Commission has taken the view that law should be amended to provide that a person cannot contest from more than one constituency at a time. In case the provision to facilitate contesting from two constituencies is to be retained, the law should be amended to provide that if a candidate wins both seat and has to vacate one, then he should have to deposit in the Government account an appropriate amount of money being the expenditure for holding the bye-election. The for amount State could be Rs.5,00,000/Assembly before every election to the House of the

and Council election and Rs.10,00,000/for election to the Lok Sabha. 3. In order to ensure the independence of the Election Commission, Article 324 of the

Constitution provides that the Chief Election Commissioner cannot be removed from office except in the manner prescribed for removal of a Supreme Court Judge. However, no such this protection is available for of Election Election

Commissioners. Election Commission has sought safeguard in respect Commissioners. 4. Opinion polls/Exit polls have also been a much-discussed subject particularly in cases phase. has The matter that there has been be where elections are held in more than one under some consideration of the Election Commission, which restriction on such polls. Conclusion As the successive Committees and Commission have pointed out, electoral reforms are of utmost opined should

importance for bringing transparency and purity in public life. Ministry of Law and Justice has constituted a Core Committee, which has held a number of consultations, with individuals and groups, on various issues related to electoral reforms. However, as the report has not been submitted yet, the stand of the Government and other stakeholders on these issues will be clear only after the Committee submits its report. Execution of Kasab: The Controversy

The controversy related to the execution of Ajmal Kasabs revolves around the violation requirements of law and due process. The strong

of

logic that is given by the critics against the execution of Ajmal Kasab is that the government handled the whole execution in a hazy and non transparent manner. It was done to ensure that Ajmal Kasab and other Human Right activists were his behalf to stop the execution even though other denied the privilege of approaching the courts on

death-row earlier.

prisoners

have

had

this

advantage

Presidents Clemency and its Judicial Review The Indian Constitution grants clemency powers to the President and respectively through Articles 72 and 161 of the humane approach by means of a reprieve or mercy. The Constitution of India permits any convict who is sentenced to death to appeal for mercy. However, the President and the Governors are not obliged to accept every mercy plea. According to the Constitution of India, the President and the the Governors of States,

Constitution of India. The purpose was to add a

Governors of State are bound to act on the advice mercy petitions. The decision of President related to the mercy

of the Union council of ministers while deciding on

petition is subject to judicial review. The Supreme Court has held that the courts cannot go into the merits of the Presidents mercy decision, but they can certainly examine whether he considered all

the

relevant

materials,

and

order

fresh

consideration if it is shown that he left out some. The scope of this judicial review is limited to examining whether the clemency powers have been used with reasonable application of mind or on the basis of extraneous or malafide consideration. When a the Clemency powers are exercised on application of mind, the court will take no action over it but if exercise of powers under these articles appears to be based on malafide or extraneous considerations, it can set aside the decision of the President or the Governor. Kasabs execution execution and governments role The crux of the controversy of Kasabs execution is that, the government carried out the whole process in such a way that neither Ajamal Kasab nor anybody else was given the chance to approach the courts for the judicial review of the decision over his mercy petition. The government apparently wanted to spare the courts even the little burden

of checking whether the President was apprised of

all the mitigating materials before he rejected Kasabs mercy petition. The Supreme Court had confirmed Kasabs death sentence on August 29. After this a mercy petition was filed before the President. The Ministry of Home Affairs recommended rejection of the petition to the President, Pranab Mukherjee, on October 23, and the President rejected it on November 5. This decision was deliberately not made public by the government. The presidential media and public would most certainly have been challenged in the court, leading to a stay of Kasabs execution until the legal issues arising from the rejection were settled. Section 4(1) (d) of the RTI Act requires that every public authority shall provide reasons for its administrative or quasi-judicial decisions to the affected persons. However Kasab himself was made aware about the decision of rejection on his mercy petition on November 20th, i.e. just one day prior rejection of the mercy petitionif reported in the

to the date of his execution (21st November), in

order to deliberately deprive him of any chance to challenge the rejection of his mercy petition in court of law. Conclusion Article 21 of Indian constitution states that no

person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty by the State except according to the procedure established by law. This fundamental right is available to not just to citizens of India, but to the foreigners as well. Purposely denying Kasab a chance to challenge the rejection of his mercy petition in court of law is violation of this fundamental right. According to many of those who supoorted the execution, since Kasab perpetrated a horrific crime which was seen live by the whole world thus the judicial review to the mercy petition would have just delayed his capital punishment. However, its true to a great extent that even if give a chance for judicial review Kasabs fate would have been same, but in that case the government would have followed the rule of law. This action of the

state cannot be accepted in a democratic society which supposedly holds the rule of law in high esteem, demands transparency in government, and enacts laws such as the Right to Information Act. CentreCentre-State relations

Constitution of India defines India as a Union of states. The structure is different from that of a as that of a federation of states (USA). This structure was necessitated by the conditions prevailing at time of framing of the Constitution. India is a vast and diverse nation with different caste, creeds, languages, culture and religion. Further, it was not even a single political entity and apart from the British Dominion comprised of a number of independent princely states. The diversities However, history had required showed a federal the existence structure. of centralized government (United Kingdom) as well

fissiparous and separatist tendencies and partition had just taken place. This led the Constituent Assembly to go for a structure which though

comprising of different government and legislatures at the Union and the State level, was tilted in favour Constitutional of the provisions Union. Some regarding of the important centre state

relations are as under: Important Constitutional provisions 1. Article 1 defines India as a Union of states. 2. Article 2 and 3 empower the Parliament to admit new states or establish new states by uniting territories of two states or changing the bill to alter name, boundary and territory of any state shall not be introduced in the Parliament unless the same has been sent to the expressing its views. concerned state legislature for the boundaries or names of states. However,

3. Article 153-155 provide that there shall be a Governor in each state who shall be appointed Governor. by the President. The executive power of the Government shall vest in the

4. Article

169

empowers

the

Parliament

to

create or abolish Legislative Councils in a State if the Legislative Assembly of the State passes a resolution to that effect by a majority of the total membership of the Assembly and by a majority of not less than two-thirds of the members of the Assembly 5. Article 200 provides that any bill, which in the opinion of the Governor would endanger the position of High Court provided by the Constitution, shall be sent to the President 6. Article 246 provides that Parliament can make laws on the subjects under the Union List and Concurrent List. Similarly, state legislature can legislate on the subjects in 7. Article 249-250 empower the Parliament to legislate on the subjects enumerated in the State list in certain specific circumstances and during the period of national emergency. Laws passed by the Parliament under these laws will prevail if there is any inconsistency the State list and Concurrent List. for his assent. present and voting.

between these laws and any law passed by the State Legislature on the subject. 8. Article 252 also provides that if legislatures of two or more states ask the Parliament to make a law on such matters over which it does not have any power to legislate, the Parliament can legislate on such subject but such legislature of such states pass resolutions for adopting the same. 9. Under Article 253, the Parliament can pass laws for implementation of an international 10. treaty or agreement. If there is an inconsistency between State in legislature the on a subject list, law law will be effective only if the

the law passed by the Parliament and that by a enumerated 11. Concurrent

passed by the Parliament will prevail.

Article 256 and 257 provide that the

States shall exercise their executive powers in accordance with the laws made by the Parliament and the Union shall have the power to give necessary directions to the States on subject it may consider necessary including

those for the construction and maintenance of means of communication and railways. However, any sum incurred in this regard will have to be paid by the Union. 12. while 13. As per Article 258 and 258A, the states can transfer some of its

Union can confer certain powers on states functions to Union by mutual consent.

Article 262 provides that Parliament

can make laws for adjudication of disputes relating to inter state rivers or river valleys. 14. 15. Article 263 empowers the President to Article 268 provides for certain duties set up an inter state Council.

to be levied by the Union but collected and appropriated by the States, while Article 269 provides for certain taxes levied and collected by the Union but assigned to the states. Article 270 provides for certain taxes levied and to be distributed between the Union and the States. 16. Article 275 provides for such grantin-aids to the states as the Parliament may determine.

17.

Article 280 provides for setting up a Commission the Union every and five the years to

Finance between

decide the modalities of revenue sharing

States.

Recommendations of Finance Commission shall be laid before the Parliament. 18. Article 312 provides for establishment of All India services while Article 315 provides for establishment of Union and State Public Service Commissions. 19. Article 352-355 empower the Government to proclaim emergency in times of threat to the country by war, external aggression or armed rebellion. During this period, the Union will have powers to give directions to the State or make appropriate legislations. 20. take Article 356 empowers the President to up the functions of the State

Government and authorize the Parliament to take up the functions of state legislature. Dynamics of centre state relations relations

First

few

decades

after

independence

were

signified by the concentration of powers at the centre. This was because of political domination of the Congress both at the level of the Centre and centralized planning. 1967 when non the Sates as well as some other factors like The situation changed in Congress parties formed

Government in some of the states. Most of these parties had regional strongholds and these were always suspicious of the intentions of the Union Government. The political scenario in the next few decades saw the different political parties ruling at the Union and the State levels. This was the starting of conflict between the Union and the States. However, as a single party i.e the

Congress ruled during the country during this period, the states were in no position to influence the centre. The period during and after 1990s saw one party rule being replaced by alliances in which the regional and state based parties played an important role. Now the states increased their prominence in politics and are in a position to influence the policies at the central level.

First Commission on Centre State Relations : Sarkaria Commission

In 1983, the Government of India appointed a Commission under the Chairmanship of Justice R.S.Sarkaria to examine the working of centre state relations. The Commission submitted its report in 1988. Some of the important recommendations made by the Commission are as under: 1. Commission recommended that Constitution be amended to provide for consultation with the The Government for has accepted in Chief Minister while appointing the Governor. the the recommendations amendment

Constitution but has agreed that consultation with the Chief Minister should be retained as convention. interstate Governmental 2. The Commission also recommended that an Council Council to be be called set up. Inter This

recommendation has been accepted by the Government and in interstate Council has been set up.

3. Local

Self

Governments through

should

be

strengthened. This has been accepted and 74th constitutional amendments. States in respect of implemented

73rd and

4. There should be prior consultation with the overlapping and concurrent jurisdictions except in emergent cases, though it may not be necessary to make such consultation a matter of constitutional obligation. 5. On a concurrent subject, the Union should occupy only that much field of a subject on which essential in the larger interest of the Nation leaving the details for action by the States within the broader framework of the policy laid down in the Union law. Inter State Council As per Article 263 of the Constitution, the President is empowered to form an Inter State Council. The Council was formed on 28 May 1990. The Council is a recommendatory body for uniformity of policy and action is

discussing and investigating matters of common interest of some or all states or states and the Union. The Council is chaired by the Prime Minister and includes Chief Ministers or Heads of

Government of State and Union Territories and six Cabinet Ministers nominated by the Chairman as members. Standing Committee of the Council was constituted consultation and processing of matters for the in the year 1996 for continuous

consideration of the Council. Standing Council is chaired by the Union Home Minister and has five Union Cabinet Ministers and nine Chief Ministers as members. Inter State Council has held ten meetings so far in which view has been taken on Commission out of which 180 have all the 247 recommendations of the Sarkaria been implemented, 2 are in process of implementation and 65 have not been accepted. Further the Council has also taken up matters of important appointment, Action Plan for good policy issues like Contract labour and contract governance, disaster management and atrocities on SC/ST.

S.R.Bommai case: Observations of the Supreme Court

Case was filed in the Supreme Court against dismissal The of elected Court State in Government judgment the in Karnataka under Article 356 of the Constitution. 11th March, Supreme 1994, examined issue dated of

applicability of Article 356 in detail and laid down certain principles for use of the provision, some of which are as under: 1. Action under Article 356 has to be on basis of basis of satisfaction of the President that a situation has arisen where the Government cannot be run in accordance with the constitution. The satisfaction contemplated is subjective. 2. Power under Article 356 is a conditioned power. The satisfaction must be based on some relevant material. 3. Proclamation under the article should be issued only when such situation exists.

4. Proclamation

under

Article

356

is

not

immune from judicial review. 5. If the Court strikes down the proclamation it has the power to restore the dismissed Government to office and revive Legislative Assembly. Punchi Commission: Commission: Second Commission on Central the

State Relations

In 2007, the Government of India appointed the second Commission on Centre State Relations. The the important recommendations made by Commission submitted its report in 2010. Some of the Commission are as under:

Union

should

restrain

itself

in

asserting

Parliamentary supremacy in matters assigned to States who should also be consulted before framing legislation in the concurrent list.

Bills referred by the Governor for assent of the President should be returned within a period of six months.

Qualifications

should

be

prescribed

for

appointment to the post of Governor who should be given fixed tenure of five years their framed functions.

with proper procedure being prescribed for removal. for Guidelines proper should also of be their discharge

A constitutional or legal framework should be of state governments.

provided for exercising powers for dismissal

Federal balance of power needs to be maintained and the Inter-State Council should be strengthened.

Financially, the Commission recommended that there should be higher transfer of funds to the backward states.

Additional liabilities on states on account of implementing borne by the Centre. central legislations in the should terms be of

Conditions

specified

reference of the Finance Commission should be even handed between the Centre and the States, and the States should also be

involved in the finalization of these terms of reference.

Dual GST at the centre as well as the states should be implemented. Panchayati Raj institutions need of to be more

strengthened

through

devolution

powers and transfer of funds. The report has been circulated to all stake holders including state governments/UT administrations and Union Government ministries and departments. Finance Commission Article 280 of the Constitution provides for setting

up of a Finance Commission every five years which shall comprise of a Chairman and four members. 13th November, 2007 for making recommendations 13th Finance Commission was set up on

for distribution of tax proceeds between the Union and the States, the principles which should govern grant-in-aid and the measures needed to augment the Consolidated Fund of the State for next five years commencing from 1st April, 2010. The

Commission 2009.

submitted other that

its State this

report things share

in the in

December, Commission the net

Among

recommended 32%.

proceeds of shareable central taxes shall be Apart from the to Commission various also states recommended grant-in-aid

amounting to Rs.3,18,581 crores. Conclusion Institution of the Governor, use of Article 356 and sharing of finances have been the three However, n the recent past there has been no major trouble between the Centre and the States. This could be due to the evolution of machinery for consultation with states in matters of their interest. Politically, one of the reasons for this is the end the domination of one political party at the Centre and the increasing importance of regional parties who have their main stakes in their respective states. These parties would naturally want more power and resources to be allocated to the States and would oppose any move to restrict powers of important issues between the Centre and States.

the State Governments. The relations between the Centre and the States are now at a more even level indicating better cooperation between these two levels of Governments. Domestic Violence By Davendra Sharma

women at a lower level as compared to men who have taken recourse to a number of ways for continuation of this dominance. Domestic violence is inequalities as well as works to reinforce them by targeting the independence of women. Domestic violence can take various forms and can be physical, sexual or emotional. Although the problem women, the problem is much more common and is present in all societies though its prevalence varies from region to region. is not as visible as other kind of violence against one such way which is the reflection of these

Unequal power equations in the society tend to put

UN General Assembly in its resolution Elimination of domestic violence against women dated 22nd (a) That domestic violence is violence that occurs within intimacy; (b) That domestic violence is one of the most common and least visible forms of violence against women and that its consequences affect many areas of the lives of victims; (c) That domestic violence can take many different forms, including physical, psychological and sexual violence; (d) That domestic violence is of public concern and requires States to take serious action to protect victims and prevent domestic violence; (e) That domestic violence can include economic deprivation and isolation and that such conduct may being of women. Historical Perspective Perspective cause imminent harm to the safety, health or wellthe private who are sphere, related generally through between blood or individuals December, 2003 recognized

At no point in the Indian history have the women been given an equal status as compared to men. As domestic violence is a manifestation of this inequality, it has also been always in existence. One of the earliest references is contained in

Brahadaranyaka Upanishad, which says, If she does not give in, let him, as he likes, bribe her (with presents). And if she then does not give in, let him, as he likes, beat her with a stick or his hand, and overcome her, saying: With manly strength and glory, I take away your glory and thus she becomes unglorious. The position further deteriorated in medieval period with the status of women being made completely subservient to the men. This found reflection in the famous couplet in Ramacharitamanas by Tulsi Das, which compares women to a fool, an animal and a drum and justifies present continued all these years and has resulted in the situation wherein society has granted legitimacy to domestic violence. Causes of domestic violence their chastisement. The theory has

There are some cultural causes of domestic violence. Indian society considers a family as a Tradition also has clearly defined gender specific roles which make the women subservient to the male and gives a husband unrestricted right over his wife. Her respect and dignity is at the pleasure of her husband and he has the right to chastise her, even violently, in case of deviant private matter with male in control.

behavior. Some social customs like the dowry and higher social status of the husband and his family as compared to the bride and her family

are

also

the causes of men. the

of

domestic are of the

violence. Economically, dependent independence

most on forces

women lack bear to

This

cruelties as they do not have any option.

them

Low level of literacy and still lower level of legal literacy makes them unable to resist the husband.

There

enforcement agencies that domestic violence

is

general

perception

among

the

is not a serious matter and is an issue which should be settled within the family. This perception of the authorities prevents the victim from approaching the authorities as they feel that nothing would come out of it.

Despite

the

fact

that

all

the

women,

irrespective of their caste, creed, religion or status, face harassment and discrimination, they have not been able to organize themselves into political force. There

representation in politics is inadequate in terms of numbers and negligible in terms of women specific ideology. Legal Provisions Legal definition of domestic violence varies from

country to country. In India, domestic violence is dealt under Section 498-A of IPC which was brought in 1983, and the Domestic Violence Act, 2005. However, section 498-A is specific for dowry related cases only. This section defines cruelty as (a) any wilful conduct which is of such a nature as is likely to drive the woman to commit

suicide or to cause grave injury or danger to life, limb or health (whether mental or physical) of the woman; or (b) harassment of the woman where such harassment is with a view to coercing her or any person related to her to meet any unlawful demand for any property or valuable security or is on account of failure by her or any person related provides for fine and imprisonment up to three for the offending husband or his relative. However, it was soon realized that domestic to her to meet such demand. The section

violence is not limited to dowry cases alone and some legal provisions are required to give relief to the aggrieved. This resulted in enacting of The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005, as per which, an act, omission or constitute domestic violence in case it (a) harms or injures or endangers the health, safety, life, limb or well-being, whether mental or physical, of the aggrieved person or tends to do so and includes causing physical abuse, sexual abuse, verbal and emotional abuse and economic abuse; or commission or conduct of the respondent shall

(b) harasses, harms, injures or endangers the aggrieved person with a view to coerce her or any other person related to her to meet any unlawful demand for any dowry or other property or valuable aggrieved person or any person related to her by any conduct mentioned in clause (a) or clause (b); or (d) otherwise injures or causes harm, whether physical or mental, to the aggrieved person. security; or (c) has the effect of threatening the

The Act provides for appointment of Protection Officers assistance to the aggrieved person. It also provides for relief to the aggrieved in the form of protection orders in favour of the aggrieved person to prevent the respondent from aiding or committing an act of domestic violence or any other specified act, entering a workplace or any other place frequented by the aggrieved attempting to communicate with her, isolating any assets used by both the parties and causing violence to the aggrieved person, her relatives or others who provide her assistance from the domestic violence. person, and Service Providers for providing

An important difference between Section 498A of IPC and the Domestic Violence Act is that while Section 498A is a criminal law requiring higher degree of evidence through which the charges can be proved beyond reasonable doubt, the Domestic Violence act, 2005 is a civil law in which cases are scrutinized on basis of probabilities. Main intention of enacting the Domestic Violence Act, act as a supplement to Section 498A and not as its substitute. Magnitude of the problem National Crime Records Bureau maintains data for cases under Section 498A of IPC. As per this data, registered in the year 2011. Domestic Violence Act was enacted in 2005 and a total of 5,788, and 5,643 and 7,802 cases statistics were of registered under the Act, during 2007, 2008 registered cases do not present the correct 2009 respectively. However, 99,135 cases of this category were 2005 was to grant relief to the aggrieved and

picture as most of these cases are not reported

and recourse to the law is taken only in cases in which either the wife is independent and very much conscious of her rights or in cases where the cruelty becomes unbearable.

As per National Family Health Survey (200506), experienced spousal violence. Bihar has the highest percentage of spousal violence (59%) while Himachal Pradesh was lowest at 6%. Apart from this large percentage, another disturbing factor is that 55.8% of the women and 54% men accept the 39% of ever married women had

right of the husband to beat his wife for at least one specified reason, though the acceptance or rejection of this right of husband does not make any material difference as about one third of those women who do not accept the right of husband also face spousal violence. Impacts of domestic violence

Domestic Violence is a contravention and denial of the fundamental human rights to the women.

It adversely affects the health of the victim and can cause physical injuries and gynecological problems including unwanted

pregnancy and miscarriage.

Mental health of the victim is also adversely affected and can cause depression, fear, anxiety, low self-esteem, sexual dysfunction, and obsessive-compulsive disorder and post traumatic stress disorder.

Some cases can be fatal and lead to suicide, homicide and maternal mortality. Children who witness domestic violence show growth and behavioral problems. Such children relationships. find it hard to develop friendships or social

Male children who witness domestic violence are more likely to be the perpetrators on attaining adulthood while the girl children is This creates an intergenerational cycle of domestic violence. more likely to experience it in her married.

Steps required

Prevalence of domestic violence is due to the fact that it is rooted in the traditional concept of male superiority. As most of the women themselves fate. Appropriate laws can help by punishing the abusers and providing relief to the aggrieved. However, no law can suffice in a situation when such a large proportion of population is involved. It would require change in the mindset of the people as well as empowering women and making them more independent, confident and conscious of their rights. Caste System believe in this concept, they accept it as their

Caste or jati is the most characterstic and be loosely defined as a hereditary and endogamous

perhaps a unique concept of Indian society. It can group having an actual or supposed relationship with local hierarchy of such groups. The concept of caste has been deeply embedded in the Indian society. Its hold on the society is so strong that

a profession and occupying a particular position in

people could not change their caste even if they changed their religion. Their caste identity carried itself into their new religions and lower caste converts were usually treated with contempt. Caste system: Origin and evolution Concpets of varna and caste though inter-related are different from each other. The concept of varna originated in later part of Rigvedic period and divided the society Vis (priests), (the in four varnas or and of the Brahamans (warriors), Rajanya Kshatriyas

commoner)

Sudra

(servant). The varna system is based on a simplistic division of labour and took place in a tribal, pastoral and seni-agricultural society in which there was not much variety in economic activities. though Its basis was Purushsukta hymn of Rigveda, which postulating how the four varnas were

created did not say anything about heredity, endogamy or any other charactestic associated with it later. Concept of caste is a result of evolution of thousands of years. Its origin can be traced to

the increase in the number of professions in the later vedic age and the period thereafter. People following these professions tended to live together. Buddhist scriptures mention villages inhabited by smiths and carpenters. Some of these trades were organized into guilds. This could be the from Mandsor refers to a guild of silk weavers beginning of the castes. A 5th century inscription many of whose members were practicing other professions but were still members of guild. These members had retained their sense of being part of the guild despite giving up the profession. This characterstic resembles that of a caste and can basis. Some of the castes emerged from the tribes or foreigners who were assimilated in the Aryan fold. In course of time, notions of purity and pollution were attached to the caste making the system more rigid. Manusmriti written somewhere between 200 BC to 200 AD exahustively codified the laws governing the society and the caste system. It presented a highly compartmentalized society explain the formation of castes on occupational

highly

discriminating classes.

against The

the

lower continued

and to

depressed

system

increase its hold on the society and had firmly entrecnhed itself by the middle ages.

During this period one more development took place. In middle ages, we do not hear of villages or settlements of exclusively of one profession or caste. Instead there are references of villages in which members of all castes are living together giving rise Brahmans, artisans and other workers were given a part of harvest as per accepted tradition. This gave rise to the sell sufficient village economy in which the village community fulfilled all its needs from the village itself and there was no interaction with urban centre except for remitting the surplus. This pattern of village economy provided stability to the social structure and the caste system for thousands of years. The muslim rulers who ruled the country from the 12th century onwards did not or could not change the system because they did not have a better system to replace the existing one. However, all this changed with the advent of to jajmani system in which the

colonial

rule

who

brought

in

new

modes

of

production which altered the economic scenario which existed in the country for thousands of years.

Characteristics of caste system 1. Caste is an all encompassing concept. A caste not only signified ritualistic status, it also had economic and politcal ramifications. Higher castes had easier access to economic 2. Every caste considers itself different from others and rules have been provided for interaction with other castes. Each caste has placed certain taboos on its members. 3. Idea of purity and pollution are basic to the more higher pure while the lower distance ones caste system. Higher castes are considered are considered impure and polluting due to which castes maintain between lower castes. The distance to be maintained levels of castes. resources and political power.

depended upon the difference between the

4. Idea of pollution and purity was taken to extremeties resulting in the concept of untouchability and a group of society was

considered so impure that even their touch or shadow was considered polluting. In later periods some of these castes like the chandals had to strike a clapper when going into the city so as to warn the people of their presence. 5. Caste is hereditary and cannot be changed in the lifetime of an individual, not even if one changes his occupation. Hence the system did not have any hope for improvement of the lot of the lower caste in their present life. 6. Although, system did not have any hope for individuals, whole castes as a group could improve their social status by adopting practices of higher castes. This is called sanskritization. 7. Caste is also linked with food habits. Upper caste people particularly the brahamans were vegetarians. Categories of non vegetarian food were also different for different classes.

8. Caste is an strictly endogamous group. Inter caste marriages are frowned upon and are even now and are the main reason for honour killings.

Impacts of caste system 1. The system is discriminatory and

discriminates on the basis of birth which violates the concept of equality of all human beings. It adversely affected those belonging 2. The society also adversely affected as it lost oppurtunities to cash in on the potential of these people. 3. Professionally, it limited the options for individuals and professions. While individual did not have the option of following the profession of his liking, the profession also did not have a wide range of people to choose from. 4. Caste system degrades certain occupations particularly those involving manual labour. Even agriculture, which was surce of subsistence to the lower castes.

of everyone, was considered to be unsuitable for higher castes. This meant that those involved in actual production of goods and in the society. 5. The system adversely affected development of technology. Unlike the vedic period, when the chariot maker was an important part of the tribe, the artisans and craftsmen were placed at a lower level. Slowly, the system separated the intellectuals and teachers from actual workers and created a gap between the technology. academic and practical aspect of services could never get a dominant position

6. Concept of purity and pollution inclding a ban on crossing the sea restricted contacts with other cultures due to which the country could not keep pace with the developments outside the country. 7. Loyalty to the caste adversely affects any prospects of national unity. This was evident in the freedom struggle when the lower castes under Dr.Amedkar formed a seperate

pressure electorate.

group

and

demanded

seperate

Movements against caste system At no point in the history, the caste system remained unchallenged. First important challenge came in the sixth century B.C. with the growth of Budhism, Jainism and some other heterodox groups. However these religions reflected the power struggle between the brahmans, kshatiryas and the trading community. The toiling peasant, the labourer and other poor communities were ignored. In fact , the concept of ahimsa denigrates food gathering communities which depended on hunting and fishing. The concept was also applied to agriculture and later agriculture as it involved killing of lives by ploughing that adopted by brahamanic tradition. Next round of protest came up in form of bhakti movement which started from the middle of first millenium and continued well into the medieveal period. Saints propagating this movement laid Buddhism forbade monks to take up

and watering. Intrestingly, this view, was similar to

stress on devotion or bhakti as means of attaining salvation or reaching the God. These people believed in the equality of men and and rejected caste system. Alvars and Nayanar saints of South North and Namdev, Eknath and Tukaram India, Surdas, Tulsi Das and Mirabai in the in Maharashtra were some of e the important bhakti saints. However, these movements could not make a dent in the caste system mainly because the system, though originally religious and social was also linked to economic pattern of production and distribution and could not have been replaced in absence of a better system of production. The situation changed with the advent of the British. New of revenue settlements disturbed and the commercialisation also agriculture

existing agrarian relations. The british legal system

did not accept the discrimination on caste

basis as a result of which a number of lower caste people got jobs in the government, particularly in the army. Missionaries also imparted education to these groups. This created a sense of class consciousness among a section of these people

which translated into movements. Jyotiba Phule, Sree Narayan Guru and Dr.Bhim Rao Ambedakar were some of the important reformers during the British period who helped in raising consciousness struggle like Mahatm Gandhi were also aware of the plight of these people and supported the cause of their upliftment. Position after independence and current scenario After independence, the Constitution provided for equality of all citizens. of Untouchability and discrimination on basis of caste and creed were abolished. Consitution Indiaalso provides for positive discrimination in favour of these categories which came up in the form of reservation in legislature and government jobs. Special schemes have been provided for upliftment for these among these people. Other leaders of national

cateogories and special legal provisions have been provided for protection of these people from the discrimination from the dominant categories. Changes in economy have shattered the economic system which had supported the caste system for

so long. In urban areas, the caste has lost its importance in public life and survives only as an ethnic commercialisation of agriculture has ended the self suffecient village economy with the farmer now producing for the market. In such a condition, there is no possibility of supporting non agricultural groups. These people have also sources of employment are not got alternate that much group. In rural areas also, the

dependent upon the farming community. However, this does not mean that the caste system against and time to time we hear incidents of harassment or violence against these categories. An adverse fallout of the system is that the people have started voting on caste lines, and at times caste solidarity it takes precedence hoped over the objective assessment of the electoral candidate. However, can be that economic development and presence of progressive elements would bring an end to the caste system.

has ended. Lower castes are still discriminated

e-Governance functioning

In any society, there are three active bodies which are closely related to the development of egovernment, namely, government, business and citizens. The activities and business of government are performed and carried out around these three bodies. These activities mainly include interactions between government and government; government and business, and government and citizens. In an information society, the mapping of the interactions among the three bodies into the digital world constitutes the three primary directions of informatization of todays world, i.e., e government, e-commerce, and e-society.

Five Areas of ee-Government The interactions among the three bodies, i.e., government, business and citizens, are the basis areas of e-government. represents the same: for the formulation of five different but correlated The following diagram

Government to Government (G2G) This first area covers the interactions within government, including (i) the central government with local government at all levels; (ii) different government departments and agencies with each other; and (iii) government with its official staff and employees, etc. This area involves many administrative and managerial activities, such as: 1. Collection, processing and utilization of

fundamental information of the state and regions; for example, information on population, geography and resources.

2. Collection processes; economic safety, security.

and for

processing example,

of

managerial macropublic national

information for various government business management, national statistics, and planning,

defense,

3. Internal government management information systems; for example, financial, personnel, documents, assets, archives, etc. 4. Decision-making support systems and

executive information systems at different levels of government. Government to Business (G2B) This dimension is the one where government faces and directions, supports rules business. and regulations, It includes guidelines, policies,

procedures, etc., worked out by government in order to create a legal and favorable environment for business to carry on its activities and development. The activities cover 1. Industrial policies, regulations on import and export, registration for various purposes,

taxation, employment, social security, and so forth. 2. Various quality approval, authentication, etc. licenses for business permission,

The G2B activities are essentially the public services that government provides to business. The purpose is to formulate a good business and investment environment, and to create an equal and competitive market. This will assist enterprises, in particular, minor enterprises, to join in market competition and enter into international markets. G2B provides all the information services available from the government and does so online. Government to Citizens (G2C) This aspect is associated with government and citizens, covering the services that government provides to its citizens and residents. In many cases, it is a headache for citizens to deal with the government, as documents can be complicated and government departments overloaded. It often happens that citizens do not know whom to ask,

where to go, or what steps to take to get things done. Hence, the first service that government provides to citizens should be the provision of basic information, such as 1. What are the regulations, procedures, and administrative or managerial branches of Government on what matters? Where can citizens get the right information or the help 2. Information on public safety and community security, including what to do in natural disasters such as floods and fire etc. The services that government provides to citizens also include the public services, such as (i) schools, hospitals, libraries, and parks; and (ii) registration services including those for birth and death, marriage and divorce, drivers licenses, migration, and registration of vehicles to name but a few Business to Government (B2G) they need

The fourth area of e-government deals with the actions of business towards government. Activities in this area include 1. Payment of taxes due requested by laws and regulations. 2. Provision of data, information and statistics requested by government. 3. Bidding for government projects. 4. Providing goods and services to government. 5. Applying business. 6. Making business. Citizens to Government (C2G) The fifth area covers the actions that citizens take towards government. Activities in this area are similar to those of B2G above and include 1. Taxes and the variety of for government assistance and lobbies and appeals about difficulties faced in proposals to and improve suggestions its services for to

government

fees

requested/due from laws and regulations.

2. Forms

and for

information certain

requested business

by and

government

3. Penalties and other costs of public services. 4. Services emergency ambulance, 5. Theft and other forms of crime. 6. Proposals making. 7. This dimension of e-government will create a good channel for citizens to participate in national, regional, or local policy development It has the potential 8. To stimulate the establishment of new and partnerships between government and decision-making processes of government. and governance and participating recommendations in for good requested by citizens e.g., under fire, circumstances,

government services.

decision-

citizens. Through this channel Government

can better understand what citizens want in terms of better services and the achievement of good governance.

Governance: Indian Context

Literally, governance would mean the processes by which administration of a country is run. It would include the processes by which the rulers are decisions. In this condition, the concept of selected, take decisions and then enforce these governance is synonymous through some institutions with the Government and defining the

which carries out the function of ruling the state relationship of the citizens with these institutions. However, in recent years, there has been a great change in these relationships giving rise to a newer version, the concept means a shift from the broader meaning of the term governance. In its

state centric system to one in which non state actors like civil society, public institutions, market forces and international donor agencies play a vital role porcesses. United in decision making and implementation

Nation

Development

Programme

defines

governance as The exercise of economic, political,

and administrative authority to manage a countrys affairs at all levels. It comprises mechanisms, processes, and institutions, through which citizens

and groups articulate their interests, exercise their legal rights, meet their obligations, and mediate their differences. UNDP also defines good governance which is ----among other things, participatory, transparent and accountable. It is also effective and equitable. And it promotes the rule of law. Good governance ensures that political, social and economic priorities are based on broad consensus in society and that the voices of the poorest and the most vulnerable are heard in decision-making over the allocation of development resources. Thus, features of good governance participation, rule of law, effectiveness and equity. On the other hand, lack of awareness, absence of transparency and accountability, corruption, weak civil society and lack of strong institutions of governance are hindrances to good governance. Governance: Indian Context are accountability, transparency,

The administrative system in India was designed by the colonial rulers with the purpose of maintaining law and order and generation of

revenue. However, with independence, the concept

of the state changed to that of a welfare state which required a change in the system. Constitution of India grants separate powers and duties for the Executive (both political and administrative), independence, the situation though not entirely of gloom has nothing much to cheer about. Although, the country has achieved reasonable success on political front and has been able to maintain its free and fair, on other fronts, the position has not been that encouraging. Administration and delivery of services leaves much to be desired, despite Reforms Commissions, first in 1966 and second in 2005. Poor governance is an important reason for lack of equitable development in the country. Notably, UNDP in its Human Development Report for 2011 gives us a Human Development Index of .547 which is lower than the world average of the setting up of two Administrative democratic set up and the elections are generally Legislature and Judiciary. In 65 years after

.682. India is at 134th rank in a total of 187 countries. Interestingly, Sri Lanka has an index of .691 and is at 97th rank. Status of administration with respect to different parameters is as under: Accountability Accountability means that someone who has is responsible for doing a particular task can be also be held responsible for any lapse or wrongdoing. This is looked into by various agencies like CAG and other audit departments, CVC, CBI, Vigilance sections of departments and grievance redressal system started by various departments. However, despite these provisions we have fared quite badly on this account, main reason being the addiction of our administrative machinery to aspects of a task. Lengthy procedures mean more people for a particular task and when too many people are involved, it is difficult to fix specific accountability. The procedure to fix accountability is itself burdened with elaborate procedures, making possibility. any logical conclusion within a time frame, a remote the procedural

Transparency Transparency Earlier, the activities of the Government were shrouded in mystery and it was next to impossible to get any worthwhile information. In this aspect, the attitude of the Government has been positive. RTI Act, enacted in 2005, provided the common citizen, a tool to obtain information from a reluctant bureaucracy. Citizen charters are prepared by most of the departments which provide important information about aim and objectives about the department functioning. Cause of transparency has also been RTI Act has greatly increased as well as its general

greatly helped by technology. Online monitoring of its effectiveness. Almost all the departments have

their websites which provide information about the

functioning of the department. Some websites have interactive features wherein the people can know about the status of their cases. All this has considerably increased transparency in Government offices, though it does not mean that everything is transparent. There are no guidelines about what a departmental citizen charter or a website should

disclose. Many websites are not updated from time to time making the entire exercise futile. Participation India follows a democratic system of governance. Hence the political system is participative to that extent. However, efficacy of this participation is diluted to a certain extent by the tendency of the voters to vote on basis of caste, religion or region, thereby relegating the issue of governance to the background. As regards the participation in administrative governance, efforts have been made Panchayati Raj institutions. In urban to involve people in local governance through the areas, Resident Welfare Associations have been involved to a certain extent in some of the day to day activities. Views of trade organizations are also solicited in matters relating to a particular

profession. However, this is limited to consultation only and that too with organized bodies of the profession which may not present actual realities. Rule of law

Rule of law means a situation in which action is always taken as per the law of the land. This is one aspect in which the country has fared rather poorly. While there are elaborate laws controlling every aspect of governance, actual action is hardly as per law. Violations are frequent, mainly due to the inefficiency of the law enforcement agencies, unrealistic nature of the law and the attitude of the general public regarding the concerned laws vis--vis their conveniences and requirement. In urban areas traffic rules and municipal bye laws are two such examples where there is rampant violation. In government offices, the rules are regularly flouted either due to ignorance or some vested interests. Effectiveness /Efficiency This is the worst aspect of our administration and can be due to attitude of the employees as well as inbuilt problems in the system as a whole. Our administrative system has two important attributes, result centric and secondly it is based on a first it is procedure centric as opposed to being carelessness,

system of checks and balances. Procedures are extremely lengthy and the system of checks and balances has been taken to extreme stages in which the simplest of tasks like providing information from record is routed through a number of stages. This increases the time consumed and causes harassment to the common citizen. An important aspect in this regard, is the handling of its employees by its Government. At the lower and middle level, training and mobilization/sensitization programmes are rare and employee learns from his experience from the system. In this situation he is also prone to negative effects which have always been a part of the system. The conduct of the employees is governed through the Conduct Rules which hardly say anything about efficiency. All this negatively affects the efficiency of the Government. Equity Inequality and discrimination have been the two banes of Indian society and have also been a part of the administration. However, the Government has

been made some efforts to bring equity.

The

Constitution of India declares all persons to be equal. Untouchability, which was being practiced for long has been abolished by law. Reservation has been provided for hitherto disadvantaged sections of the society in the legislature and government jobs. Special schemes have been initiated for these effectively participate in the governing process. Corruption In the recent years, corruption has emerged as one of the biggest challenges to good governance. It is visible in all walks of life and at all levels, from a modest amount of a few rupees to scams amounting to thousands of crores. Corruption cases are mainly dealt under the Prevention of Corruption Act. CVC, CBI and departmental vigilance sections have been formed to prevent corruption. Despite this, it has not shown any signs of diminishing mainly because of lack of deterrent and its Corruption Perception Index maintained acceptability by a section of the society. As per by categories so as to enable them to

Transparency International, in the year 2011 India is at 95th rank among a total of 182 countries Civil society Till recently, the civil society in India was a passive spectator to the situation of the country. activism. This has been spearheaded by NGOs, who apart from assisting the Government in carrying out a number of programmes have also took up the issue of a transparent, accountable and corruption free Government. This activism was instrumental in persuading the Government to enact the RTI Act. Recently, some of these activists took up the issue of setting up of Lokpal, and although the movement could not achieve that goal, it was successful in bringing the issue of corruption at the centre stage. Steps for future The problem of poor governance has affected all the aspects of administration and improvement in However, recently, there has been an increase in

situation would need efforts from all stake holders, the judiciary, politicians, bureaucracy and the civil society and media. Some steps which could bring improvement are as under:

1. As Legislature and the political executive are highest level of administration it is necessary that efficient and honest persons are

elected to do the job. While it depends on the electorate, electoral reforms could go a long way in achievement this objective. These could Commission over the political parties as well as stricter screening of the candidates contesting the elections. 2. Powers need to be delegated to the local governments. Despite ushering of Panchayati Raj through 73rd and 74th amendments, these bodies are usually starved of resources and are always dependent on the state governments. 3. Attitude of the Government machinery should change from being process oriented to result oriented. Routine matters need not be sent include stricter control of Election

to higher levels and channels through which a particular work moves should be reduced to 4. Efficiency and integrity should be sole basis of assessment of a government employee. These need to be stressed upon by making necessary a bearing amendments on official in the work concerned should be rules, while frivolous things which do not have discarded. 5. Efforts should be made to increase the efficiency of employees by imparting proper trainings and adopting proper HR policies. government. 6. E-governance should be used not only in letter but also in spirit and departmental websites and other data should be regularly updated. 7. Civil society has been instrumental in Stress should be on a leaner and efficient minimum.

supporting a number of initiatives, including Right to Information, Grievance Redressal systems and Lokpal. The media has also played an important role in framing public

opinion. The activism needs to continue so as to build the pressure for more reforms. Corporate Responsibility Responsibility By: Davendra Sharma Governance and Corporate Social

Corporate Governance refers to the system by on behalf of the company managers to see that

which a company is run. It involves a commitment the company is managed in a legal, ethical and transparent manner. The concept is related to internal working in a manner so as to look after the interests of all the stake holders, customers, employees, investors, vendors, the Government and the society at large. On the other hand, corporate social responsibility (CSR) arises from the concept that the company is working in a society and hence needs to take some social responsibilities. Thus, it envisages action over and above legal obligations. The concepts of corporate social

responsibility and corporate governance are thus

different, but as CSR is a part of overall functioning of the company it is a part of corporate governance. Corporate Governance In India, the corporate sector is primarily

regulated by the Companies Act, 1956. Specific activities of companies are also regulated by the concerned Acts and Rules. However, these provisions were not able to prevent some malaises from creeping in the corporate world. An important issue that comes up in corporate governance is the conflict between the interests of the dominant shareholders and minority shareholders. This is evident in PSU where the Government is the majority shareholder, in MNCs where the foreign partner is the dominant shareholder and in

business houses where promoters occupy a dominant position either due to their majority share holdings or due to passiveness of major share holders like Financial Institutional Investors (FII). In such dominated by these dominant shareholders and cases, the Board as well as management is

interests of minority shareholders are ignored. Apart from this issue, there has been the issue of compliance of various provisions and transparency in Satyam Computers have amply exposed the functioning of the company. Scams like that in weaknesses of the system. This led to a demand for a more ethical and transparent corporate governance. In 2009, Ministry of Corporate Affairs framed some voluntary guidelines for corporate governance. Some of the important points of these guidelines are:

Companies should

should

issue their

formal tenure,

letter duties

of &

appointment to non-Executive Directors which specify responsibilities and remuneration.

There should be a separate demarcation between the duties of the Chairman and CEO. The roles and offices of both these offices should be separate as far as possible to create a balance of power.

A Nomination committee should be formed comprising of majority of independent

Directors. This committee should look after the appointment of Independent, Executive and non-executive Directors.

In case an individual is a Managing Director or whole time Director in a public company the maximum number of companies in which such an individual can serve as Director should be restricted to seven. This number holdings or subsidiary of public companies. includes private companies that are either

The Board should put in place a policy to specify attributes of independent directors such ability and understanding of financial matters. Independent Directors should give a detailed certificate of independence which should be placed in public domain. as integrity, experience, managerial

Independent Director should not have tenure inducted in the same company in any capacity

of more than six years and he should not be before elapse of three years. An individual should have not more than three tenures.

Independent Directors should be provided with adequate independent office and support

as well as the option and freedom to meet the staff of the company.

Remuneration

Board and key executives should be clearly

policy

for

members

of

the

laid down. The remuneration should have a fixed as well as a variable component and should Companies be linked should with have a performances. remuneration

committee having at least three members Directors and at least one independent Director.

majority of whom should be non executive

The Board should take up the responsibility of familiarizing Directors with their roles and responsibilities and for enriching their from time to time.

The Board should also ensure that Directors are provided reasonable resources and time in Boards discussions. to study the data and effectively contribute

The

Board,

its

audit

committee should

and

executive

management

collectively

identify the risks involved and put in place a critical risk management system.

The

Board

should

also

evaluate

the

performances of its own, its committees and put into place for ensuring compliance of individual directors. A system should also be

applicable laws. For every agenda item there should be attached an Impact Analysis on Minority Shareholders.

Every company should have at least three independent Directors. Chairman of

member audit committee with a majority of such committee should be an independent Director. All the members should have sound financial knowledge.

The audit committee should have powers to get back office support as well as obtain data and information from the company. The committee should monitor companys financial statements and financial controls as well as make recommendations regarding appointment and remuneration of external auditor.

External auditor should be independent from the company and a certificate to this effect should be obtained from him. Auditors may be rotated to ensure independence. Internal

auditors could also be appointed by the audit committee.

The companies should also take up secretarial audit. A system of whistleblowers should be

developed and such employees be granted adequate protection. Different Concepts of CSR International Standard Organization has released CSR guidelines as ISO 26000. These defines social responsibility as responsibility of an

organization for the impacts of its decisions and activities on society and the environment through transparent and ethical behaviour, that contributes to sustainable development, takes into account the expectations of stake holders, is consistent with applicable law and international norms of behaviour and is integrated throughout the organization and is practiced in its relationship. European Commission defines corporate social

responsibility as the responsibility of enterprises for their impact on the society and to fully meet

their

corporate

social

responsibility,

enterprises

should have in place a process to integrate social, environmental, ethical, human rights and consumer concerns into their business operations and core strategy creation in of close collaboration value for with for their their their other

stakeholders, with the aim of maximizing the shared and owners/shareholders

stakeholders and society at large as well as adverse impacts. In India, there has been a tradition of charity by

identifying, preventing and mitigating their possible

businessmen. However, the concept of corporate social responsibility is different from charity in the sense that while charity means giving away some part of the profit for social causes, CSR requires incorporating the desired values in the functioning of companies. In this aspect, concept of CSR is still at a very nascent stage. Ministry of Corporate Affairs issued Voluntary Guidelines for CSR, 2009 which have been superseded by National Voluntary Guidelines on Social, Environmental &

Economic

Responsibilities

of

Business,

2011.

Salient features of these guidelines are as under: 1. Businesses themselves accountability. 2. Businesses should provide goods and services throughout their life cycle. 3. Businesses should promote the well being of all employees without any discrimination. 4. Businesses should look after the interests of all stake holders a especially fair be marginalized sections and differences if any should be resolved manner. 5. Human promoted and businesses should not even be third party. 6. Efforts should be made to protect and restore sensible and optimum use of natural resources and checking and preventing pollution. the environment. This includes rights should respected and in just, and equitable that are safe and contribute to sustainability should with conduct and govern and

ethics,

transparency

complicit with human rights abuses by the

7. Businesses when engaged in influencing public and regulatory policy should do so in a 8. Businesses should support inclusive growth and equitable development. 9. Businesses should engage with and provide value to their customers and consumers in a responsible manner. Companies Bill, 2011 The Government has introduced the Companies Bill, Act, prohibit auditors 1956. Among other aspects, the Bill, of of responsible manner.

2011 which if passed will replace the Companies proposes to tighten raising of money from public, insider and trading, annual the ratification concept strengthens

independent Directors. The bill also proposes that

all companies with net worth of Rs.500 crores or more, or turnover of Rs.1000 crores or more or net profit of Rs.5 cores or more shall constitute a CSR committee of the Board and shall earmark 2% of average profit of last three years for CSR activities. Reasons for not doing so will have to be

specified in the annual financial statements of the company. The bill seeks to bring more ethics and transparency effectiveness can be judged after its passing and implementation. Cyber Threat in the corporate world but its

Cyber space is considered as 5th Global Commons after sea, air, space and outer space. Cyberspace is the life and blood of the internet and has become most important in terms of information sharing and processing. There has been an unprecedented rise in the number of cyberattacks on the critical infrastructure across the world. Clandestine and undetected attack on

critical infrastructure by non-state actors and nation states can cause serious disruption and can even cripple economy spreading anarchy and disorder in the target countries. American theorist Joseph Nye has divided Cyber threats into four different categories:

1. Cyber War: It is characterized as the unauthorized invasion by a nation state into the systems or networks of another aiming to disrupt those systems. A specific target is to slow down if not curtail the military system of the target state. China officially spends about US $ 5.5 million per year for strategic hacking. The Red Hackers Alliances is known to render services to Chinese Government. On similar lines Pakistan has also started using Cyber warfare. The Pakistan based group H4TRCK has hacked various Indian defense websites in recent past. According to The New York Times, STUXNET by Isreal was the biggest weapon used against Iran to mitigate its nuclear program. 2. Cyber Espionage: This is done by the nations to steal the sensitive information of the hard to discover since the target systems remain functioning. Earlier this year, a highly sophisticated attack called Flame was discovered in Russia, Hungary and Iran. Flame had been copying documents, recording

target country. These attacks are generally

audio etc and was passing them to the controlling systems. 3. Cyber aimed at ordinary citizens across the globe. These have impact on the lives of ordinary internet users. Cyber Crimes includes imitation, websites can also pornography, 4. Cyber stalking, personality includes It Crime: Cyber Crimes are generally

phishing, plagiarism etc. Terrorism: It planning

spreading extremist propaganda, recruiting terrorist, involves website attacks. hacking of critical networks and however the technical difference

between a Cyber War and Cyber Terrorism

is that the former involves nation states while the latter involves non state actors like terrorist groups etc. Tackling Cyber Threat: Indian Context In India, the present day Cyber Defense is insufficient approach of the governmental agencies in this and far from satisfactory. The

regard can be best described as ad hoc and

piecemeal. In the present structure about 12 stakeholders are involved in protecting the Cyberspace in India. The nodal agency which deals

with the Cyber threat in India is Indian Computer Emergency Response Team. However since the stakeholder ministers involved are 12 in number, this leads to duplicity of functions and multiplicity of ineffective and full of red tapes. commands, which can make any agency

The following are the recommendations to tackle Cyber threats more effectively: 1. There is a need to build lawful interception capabilities to monitor electronic communication, including encrypted communication in the real 2. A fully empowered national head for cyber security should be appointed backed by a legitimate structure that specifically lays down roles and responsibilities of public and private 3. A National Threat Intelligence Centre should be established within Computer Emergency sector stakeholders. time.

Response Team i.e. the present nodal agency dealing with Cyber threats. 4. A center for excellency for best practices in Cyber security should be established 5. Within defense forces, Cyber command should be set up fully equipped with defensive and offensive weapons and capabilities in Cyber 6. To address the shortage of cyber security manpower, a competency framework should be implemented requirement. 7. Inventory of critical information infrastructure should be drawn upon to help handle the cyber-attacks. Armed Forces Special Power Act (AFSPA) to assess security skill espionage

Armed Forces Special Power Act has become the issue of controversy in the last few years. The Human right activists and organizations, citizens of Armed forces, Central and State Governments,

the states where it is applicable and various other stakeholders have divergent views about the Act. Various Human right activists, NGOs, citizen forums etc. consider it as draconian and jeopardizing forces consider it as an human rights and civil liberties. On the other hand Armed essential instrument for maintaining the internal security and combating insurgencies and proxy wars against the Union of India.

AFSPA: History To deal with grave the situation arising in various parts of the country immediately after the partition of the country in 1947, the Government of India issued four Ordinances as follows: 1. The Bengal Disturbed Areas (Special

Powers of Armed Forces) Ordinance, 1947 2. Assam Disturbed Areas (Special Powers of 3. East Punjab and Delhi Disturbed Areas (Special Powers of Armed Forces) Ordinance 4. United Provinces Disturbed Areas (Special Powers of Armed Forces) Ordinance Armed Forces) Ordinance

These Ordinances were replaced by the Armed Forces (Special Powers) in 1948. It was a temporary statue which was initially enacted for the period of 1 year however this remained in power till 1957. The present Act (AESPA) was enacted by the Parliament in 1958. The Act was initially applied to the State of Assam and then erstwhile Union Territory Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram, of and Manipur. After the formation of new States i.e. Arunachal Nagaland the Act was aptly revised to bring new

states in its purview. In the year 1990, the Act was extended to the state of Jammu and Kashmir as well. Manipur, however, withdrew the Act from some places against the wishes of the Central government in August 2004. Provisions of AFSPA Under this Act the Central and State governments where the Act is applicable as Disturbed Area.

are empowered to declare any part of the state

The disturbed area status is given in serious situations to help the civilian administration. It provides operating in those designated areas. The following armed forces in disturbed areas: 1. In a disturbed area a military officer can fire upon an unlawful assembly of five or more people if the need arises or even for illegal possession of fire arms. 2. The military is free to use force even law. 3. No arrest and search warrants are required for any operation as per the provisions of the 4. Armed forces can destroy the residences only on the suspicion that the terrorists or insurgents are hiding. Arguments in favor of AFSPA Armed forces and Defense Ministry are strongly in favor of continuing the AFSPA in the North law. causing death to perpetrators as per the legal immunity to the armed forces

inter alia are the special powers conferred to the

Eastern States and in Jammu and Kashmir. The strongest argument given in favor of AFSPA is that even after more than five decades of independence, there exists formidable threat to countrys internal security. The armed forces operating in disturb areas require such legal immunities to with the insurgents and terrorist group, which many a time have cross border support of powerful clandestine agencies.

The scale of militarization of the current internal conflicts cannot be underestimated in India. In Jammu and Kashmir alone, the Indian Army has since 1990, recovered over 80,000 AK series rifles; over 1,300 machine guns; over 2,000 rocket launchers; some 63,000 hand grenades and 7 million rounds of ammunition (Source: Times

of India editorial). During this period the Indian

Army has lost 5,108 officers, JCOs and jawans concerted operations and eliminated over 20,000 terrorists. In such circumstance, the ordinary civil laws would be incapable to tackle the situation. terrorists, a large proportion of these were foreign fighting Pakistan's proxy war. The Army conducted

After 9/11, the US and its allies have waged a war against terror. The UN Security Council resolutions have called for legislative reforms by countries to combat terror. These are resolutions that are binding on member states. In response the countries like the USA, UK and European Union states which are considered as champions Human Rights have enacted stringent anti-terror laws to include preventive detention, control orders and warrantless searches. After 9/11, these laws were made even more stringent and included provisions to track funds and tap phones. The US Patriot AFSPA. Law is far more stringent than the

Arguments against against AFSPA The Act has seen mass protests especially in Manipur and Jammu and Kashmir. On 10 September 2010, a protest against the Act in Kashmir turned violent. In Manipur, Irom Sharmila Chanu is on a hunger strike since 2 November 2000 demanding the repealing of the Act from the state.

After the widespread protests after the 2004 rape and murder of Manorama Devi in Manipur, the Central government appointed a five-member Justice Act. B P Jeevan Reddy to review committee under former Supreme Court judge the The committee in its report recommended

the repealing of the Act. Second Administrative Reform Commission has also supported the view that AFSPA should be repealed. Many of the state governments also wanted to repeal the act in various areas where also favored the repeal of the Act, but is a phase wise manner. Many human rights organizations such as Amnesty International and the Human Rights Watch (HRW) have condemned human rights abuses in Jammu and Kashmir armed forces such as "extra-judicial executions", "disappearances", and torture; the "Armed "provides impunity for human rights abuses and fuels cycles of violence. Forces Special Powers Act", which the normalcies have returned. Union government has

Article 21 of the Indian Constitution guarantees the right to life to all people. It reads, "No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedure established by law." Under section 4(a) of the AFSPA, which grants armed forces personnel the power to shoot to kill, the constitutional right to life is violated. Under the Indian Penal Code, at Section 302, only murder is punishable with death. Murder is not one of the offenses listed in section 4(a) of the AFSPA. Moreover the 4(a) offences are assembly of five or more persons, the carrying of of which are punishable with life imprisonment under the Indian Penal Code. Conclusions Its a fact that legal immunities and extraordinary powers in the hands of any agency in general and in the hands of armed forces in particular are Human Rights violation and keeping civil liberties at a hostage on the pretext of disturbed area that detrimental to human rights and civil liberties. weapons, ammunition or explosive substances, none

too

for

more

than

five

decades

cannot

be

accepted by any civilized society and a country with democratic credentials. Nonetheless, the other important fact that cannot be ignored is related to the internal security of the country, this issue becomes further complex as the insurgents andterrorist are sponsored by foreign countries and sanctuaries with state of terrorist infrastructure. In order to deal effectively with such situation the art

definition of key phrases, especially "disturbed area" must be clarified. The declaration that an area is disturbed should not be left to the arbitrary subjective opinion of the Central or State Governments. It should have an objective criterion which must be judicially reviewable. Moreover, the declaration that an area is disturbed should be for a specified amount of time, no longer than six months. Such a declaration should not persist without legislative review. Armed forces should not be allowed to arrest or carry out any procedure on suspicion alone. All

their actions should have an objective basis so that they are judicially reviewable. All personnel acting area should be trained according to the UN Code of Conduct. Corruption By: Davendra Sharma in a law enforcement capacity in the disturbed

Corruption: Meaning Corruption can be defined as an illegal gratification in any form, taken by a public or private official to grant favors to an individual or entity. It is a transnational phenomenon affecting all the countries. Concerned over the seriousness of the issue, UN General Assembly on 31st October, 2003 adopted

UN Convention Against Corruption. The convention lays elaborate guidelines on various aspects of corruption including conduct of public officials, confiscation of property of the corrupt, framing appropriate laws and international cooperation. India

ratified the same on 9th May, 2011.

signed the Convention on 9th December, 2005 and

Although corruption is prevalent in almost all the countries in varying degrees, developing countries have a higher rate of prevalence. However, apart from its prevalence, In India a more corruption is visible in all walks of public life. worrisome fact is that despite being a legal and moral crime, it has gained social acceptability and does not invite contempt from the people. As per Corruption Transparency countries. Dynamics of Corruption In India corruption is of two types, collusive and coercive. In the first case, a private person colludes with the public servants to obtain some illegal benefits, in lieu of which the public servant also receives some gratification. This formulates a nexus between the giver and the taker in which both of these benefit at the expense of public Perception International Index (TI), maintained in the year by

2011 India is at 95th rank among a total of 182

resources. category.

Recent

alleged

scams

like

2G,

Commonwealth and Coalgate scams come under this

However, it is not just limited to high end deals between top businessmen and politician or bureaucrats but is in fact present in every nook and corner. Everywhere, small shopkeepers, public transporters, other businessmen and even common people pay bribes for benefits like concealment of turnover, Sometimes, using bribe or is encroaching paid or to public escape space, activities. from unauthorized construction similar

punishment or penalty. In all such cases, some people benefit from corruption and if we consider the society in This totality, group the does percentage not feel is much substantial.

disturbed by corruption and in a way has helped in transforming it from a crime to a social practice. In the second case, bribe has to be paid by a citizen to avail those facilities (goods and services) out of the greed of unscrupulous officials who use which are his right. Coercive corruption arises solely

a number of tactics such as harassment and forgery to extract money from people or to siphon off the money or resources meant for the people. This kind of corruption usually affects the poor people and is mostly seen in welfare schemes and basic services like ration card, voter card, driving license etc. Reasons for corruption

Greed and lack of ethics are the most important Society in general suffers from the lack of cause of voluntary corruption.

morality and a large number of people tend to use money power to gain benefits or avoid inconveniences.

Administrative procedures are complex and time consuming and if we consider loss of man days for following up some work in a Government office, paying of bribe is cheaper. Poor people, who are always hand to mouth do not have much option and prefer to pay bribe to avoid repeated visits and harassment.

Political loyalties of the people are formed not on basis of merits of a candidate but on the basis of religion, caste or region. For the political class, this has dispensed the need of being honest. As administration is headed by political executive, this lack of honesty and integrity percolates the downwards and adversely affects administrative

machinery.

A large number of people are poor and ignorant about their entitlements and rights. This allows the unscrupulous officials to indulge in corrupt practices.

Our administrative services do not reflect professional attitude. Relationship between a senior and a subordinate tend to become informal and difference between professional and personal life gets blurred. A senior is considered to be the head of the family and is paid respect as such. Giving gifts to a senior on festive occasions is widely accepted as a social courtesy.

On his part, the senior treats his subordinate

as young adult and supports him wherever

required. It is due to this feeling that the annual report of the employees, especially at lower level are prepared in a most routine manner in keeping of with the tradition of not harming his career prospects irrespective unprofessional and corruption.

accepted This

his

performance. hampers

attitude

objective

decisions and leads to inefficiency, delays There is lack of a deterrent. Corruption cases are punished in two ways. First is the initiation of criminal proceedings under the Prevention of Corruption Act and second is by way of departmental proceedings. The procedure of criminal justice is lengthy and time consuming. Till then, the employee remains under suspension and gets or As regards the departmental proceedings, these can be speeded up and the services of the employee can be terminated but this rarely so in practice. Vigilance departments which handle these cases also handle cases of bonafide mistake or procedural lapses and

3/4th of his salary without doing any work.

always overburdened with this work. Due to this pressure, these departments can not focus on corruption cases which tend to get delayed.

Impact of corruption

It negates the rule of

law.

Individuals

become as powerful as to make the laws irrelevant. As a result common citizen starts losing faith in the system.

Although corruption affects all section of the society, the vulnerable and marginalized sections are hit the hardest as corruption eats into their meager resources. They are also not able to get proper benefits of the schemes specifically designed for them.

At economic front, it reduces the chances of a level playing field which prevents foreign capital from coming into the country.

Money earned by corruption cannot be used legitimately. This generates black money which is either used in wasteful expenditure or to finance illegal business activities.This money is

also used to influence the voters at times of elections and hence vitiates the electoral process.

The prospect of making easy money by corrupt means lures criminals into politics which leads to criminalization of politics.

When corruption is present at higher levels, it changes the budgeting pattern. Higher allocations are made in those sectors in which there is more possibility of indulging corruption. These fields include real estate and defense procurement. Fields which do not have such possibility like health and education are ignored and receive lesser allocations. in

Machinery to prevent corruption

Central Vigilance Commission (CVC) is the primary anti corruption body at the centre. However, it is only an advisory body and actual power to punish erring officials lies with the concerned government. Individual

Ministries as well as the State governments have their own vigilance setups.

Field investigations and criminal cases under the Prevention of Corruption Act are dealt by CBI at the centre and various Corruption units at states. However, as CBI functions under the Government, allegations of partisan politics have often been made and a demand has also been raised to make it an autonomous body. Anti-

CAG and other audit departments conduct regular audit of the departments to detect irregularities in functioning of departments. tool to expose the misdeeds

In the last few years RTI has become a potent of officials. Its pressure has forced the officials to be more prudent and cautious in their functioning.

Each department has its Grievance Redressal Mechanism which can be utilized by the citizens to exert pressure upon the non functioning officials. This is an option for getting the work done without paying bribe.

In some cases, certain services have been brought under Service Level Agreement in which an official has to complete specified task in a fixed number of days. Failures to do so would invite penalties upon the concerned official.

CVC has drafted a National Anti Corruption Strategy covering all aspects of corruption.

What ought to be done? 1. All the above steps can be helpful in tackling

coercive corruption or in those cases which come under third party scrutiny. However, these are not likely to make any dent in most cases of collusive corruption for which initiative has to come from the society itself. People need to shun corruption even if it means temporary loss due to some facilities being withdrawn or some penalty being paid.

2. Political parties need to show strong will to tackle corruption. However, this is easier said than done and will only be possible when the

parties feel that corruption is an important issue in the elections. 3. On the administrative front, functioning of Vigilance departments need to be improved. Apart from strengthening these departments, an important step which needs to be taken is to separate corruption cases from those which have come up due to some bonafide mistake of the employees or some procedural cases. 4. Recruitment, transfer and posting of Government officials are a very important aspect of administration and require complete integrity and transparency. An official getting a job or a posting through corrupt means can never be expected to be honest. Therefore, first step should be move to remove corruption and discretion in these matters. 5. Administrative reforms are also required to eliminate corruption. Procedures should be made simpler and transparent. Laws and rules which are no longer relevant should be repealed and discretion should be eliminated. lapses. This would help speeding up corruption

Citizen charters should encompass all the activities of the department along with flow chart for every work. Movement for Lokpal Since last year, there has been a strong demand for an Ombudsman, Lokpal with an elaborate infrastructure. Its supporters presented it as a one stop solution for all problems relating to governmental inefficiency and corruption. After The initial success, the movement fizzled out.

reasons are not far to seek. Movement was based in cities and was primarily supported by the urban middle class. Lower class did not participate in the movement, not because they are not harassed by corruption but probably due to lack of trust in the organizers of the movement. As regards the middle class, collusive corruption takes precedence over coercive corruption. For example, a small retailer, while having a grudge against taxation, police and municipal officials for alleged collection also understands that following all the rules would be difficult. It is difficult to buy a bigger shop

but it is easier to extend his shop to the pavement which provides him extra space at a pittance. uncomfortable while paying small amount of bribe is cheap and convenient. This has hindered the development of strong anti corruption feelings in the urban middle class and consequently resulted in corruption movement in India cannot succeed unless decline of the said movement. Any anti Following of rules is expensive and

it develops an alternative model of governance covering all aspects of administration. Creating an institution or enhancing penalty for the corrupt officials are too simplistic solutions and are not likely to suffice.

Ensuring Food Security

From 1947 onwards, achieving food security for all has been a national goal. Jawaharlal Nehru articulated this goal by emphasizing everything else

can wait, but not agriculture. Food security is now

defined as physical, economic, and social access to balanced diet, clean drinking water, environmental

hygiene, and primary healthcare. Unfortunately, in spite of numerous government schemes and safety nets, under and malnutrition remain widespread in our country. Children and women suffer the most. We have now legal rights through Parliament Approved Legislation in the fields of education, information, and employment. Currently, there is an ongoing Security Bill which will confer on every Indian the legal right to food. To achieve sustainable food security, the following attention: exercise to pass the National Food

three dimensions of this problem need concurrent

1. Availability of food, which is a function of production and where absolutely essential, import

2. Access to food, which is a function of 3. Absorption of food in the body which is a and healthcare. For increasing the availability of food, several steps have been taken such as the following : 1. Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana with an outlay 2. Naitonal Food Security Mission with an outlay 3. National Horticulture Mission with an outlay of Year Plan period There are many other schemes dealing with different areas of production, such as soil healthcare, crop protection, and irrigation. In spite of all these schemes our agriculture is still very vulnerable to the behaviour of the monsoon. of about Rs. 6,000 crore of Rs. 25000 crore purchasing power and employment

function of clean drinking water, sanitation

Rs 10,363.46 crore during the 11th Five-

Challenges 1. Stagnation in Indian agricultureagriculture- Today,

yields in India for almost all crops are stagnant and lower than other countries. Indian 26.89q/ ha while that of major wheat producing countries was wheat yield in 2003-05 was

64.49q/ha.

Production of pulses decreased from 14.28 million tonnes in 1990-91 to 13.38 million 2. Small tonnes in 2004-05 and marginal land holdingsholdings- Nearly

60% of the farmers on an average own 0.4 hectares, while another 20% on an average hold 1.4 hectares. This puts the population of small and marginal farmers at about 80% of the total. policy

3. Hunger and poverty: The international food research institute, Washington

has

placed India in the 66th position out of 88 countries for global hunger index. India ranks below all other South Asian nations, except Bangladesh; Kenya, Nigeria,

Cameroon and Sudan fared better than India. 4. Food wastage: Food grains worth billions get spoiled due to lack of storage facilities with the Food Corporation of India. It is no less than a sin to waste such huge quantities of food grains when millions in the country remain calories of many others is much below the minimum necessary for their survival. unfed and their daily ration of It

necessitates looking for alternatives to Public Distribution System. The use of food stamps 5. Little accountability in investment in agriculture developed 72 varieties of field crops. By 2001 the figure was reduced to 35. Still those developed 20 years ago. varieties are popular that were research and education: In 1997, ICAR can be such alternative.

6. Climate change: Threat of climate change looms large over Indian agriculture. This is the temperature will reduce the duration of due to global warming. A 10c increase in wheat and rice in north and western India

by a week. This will result in reduction of rice yield by 4 to 5 quintals per hectare). The corresponding decrease in yield of the wheat will be 4 to 5 million tons. 7. Dry land agriculture: Dry land is home to more than 450 million farming people. It contributes 42% of total food grains especially coarse grains, 75% of pulses and oilseeds and 40% of wheat. Climate change would expand dry land by 11%. 8. AgroAgro-Infrastructure: We still are lacking in the for desired soil infrastructure for providing

irrigation to the cultivable areas, technology and moisture infrastructure for storing perishable products, road connectivity for bringing perishable products in the market at the earliest, chain of cold stores at the village level, small scale industries for value addition and harvesting structures for conserving water. water

conservation,

Ensuring food for all: Paradigm shifts desired 1. Promoting Farming system system approach: We have to abandon the old concept of a crop centered green revolution and substitute it with a farming system centered evergreen revolution to produce more from the available integrates enterprises like fishery, poultry, livestock, horticulture and others within the biophysical and socio-economic environment of the farmer to make it more profitable. 2. Strengthening Public Distribution System: System land, water and labour. Farming system

Public Distribution system needs immediate reform. It needs to be strengthened. To avoid the rotting of food grains in open, community grain storage banks should be people could get subsidized food grains established at the village level from which the against food coupons. The management of

these storage banks should be decentralized to the local level with the active monitoring of PRIs. The ambit and scope of safety net programmes such as Mahatma Gandhi National

Rural Employment Guarantee Act, Integrated Child Development Scheme, Mid Day Meal, and National Old Age Pension Scheme should be broadened to benefit more and more. to dramatically improve rural 3. Thrust on Food processing: processing It has potential livelihoods, opportunities and employment and bridge rural urban divide. Our share in the international country is extremely low i.e. 6% as compared to 60-80% in developed countries. 4. Institutional reforms: reforms Consolidation of holdings policy for small, marginal farmers to avoid further fragmentation and a proactive landless labourers through trade is just 2%. Level of processing in the

and

innovative

mechanisms like cooperative farming, contract farming need to be devised. The extension system of the country has to reorient itself to the changing needs of the farming community. 5. Provision of inputs: Supply of inputs such as farmers sowing, also need implements control and for timely seeds and fertilizers need top priority. Small weed post harvest

management. Public and private sector seed agencies should be revamped to ensure seed production and distribution both qualitatively more critical for dry land areas. 6. Removal of barriers to interstate trade: India being a founder member of WTO is supposed to undertake further economic reforms in interstate and inter country tariff and non tariff barriers, abolition of restrictions on trade, opening future markets and protecting Patent rights. At the same time it will have market through quality produce. 7. Right to food: The universal declaration of Human rights of 1948 asserts in article 25(1) that everyone has the right to a to improve its competitiveness in the world and quantatively. Timely supply of inputs is

agriculture. It will have to remove all the

standard of living adequate for the health

and well being of himself and his family, including food .Hence there is an obligation to respect, protect and fulfill right to food of every citizen of India. The National Food

Security (NFS) Bill is in the process of becoming an act. National Food Security Bill

It seeks to cover about 67.5% of India's 1.2 billion people, expanding an existing food of India's poorest people who receive about 4 million tonnes of grain every month through licensed "fair price shops". It is not clear if the proposed law will subsume the existing quota to avoid overlap. subsidy scheme that covers about 180 million

About 70% of Indians live in rural areas, forming the core voter base of political parties. Nearly 75% of the rural population, or 630 million people, and 50% of urban people, or 180 million people, will be eligible to receive grains at cheaper rates.

The beneficiaries are divided into "general" and "priority" households with the latter recognised as the more vulnerable group but yet. The bill identifies 46% of the rural

yardsticks for this have not been decided

beneficiaries and 28% of urban beneficiaries as "priority" households. About 40% of India's population lives below $1.25 a day.

The "priority" group will get rice at a fixed 3 rupees a kg, wheat at 2 rupees a kg and coarse grain at 1 rupee a kg. The general category, both in rural and urban areas, will get grains at half of the price the government sets for payment to farmers.

The annual requirement for rice and wheat under the proposed act will be at least 45.6 million tonnes, calculated on a monthly outlay of 3.8 million tonnes. India's rice and wheat inventories at government warehouses on September 1 stood at 56.3 million tonnes, more than double a target of 26.9 million tonnes. Inflation has stayed stubbornly high over the past year despite overflowing as rice and wheat are not to blame for high food prices. granaries, showing that Indian staples such

Criticism of Bill

The central government retains the power not only to set the time frame but also to modify most entitlements and specify the sharing of costs with state governments.

Also,

there

are

several

provisions

for

replacement of food entitlements with cash transfers, on the central governments own terms.

There is limited provisions for children, three groups the (priority, very general basis of

A problematic division of the population into and such excluded),

classification is unscientific

Fiscal concerns- while the government is not

able to meet its fiscal deficit targets doubts are being raised how would the government in such a scenario would be able to comply with FRBM act. Thus the sustainability of the act is being questioned.

The government has proposed the bill without resolving the twin questions of: who exactly is considered poor and what are the

constituents of a nutritious diet? Moreover, providing rice or wheat is insufficient to tackle malnourishment. By excluding essential food items like pulses, oil, sugar, the government has severely limited the scope of the Bill in countering acute malnourishment in the country.

Furthermore, there has not been a sincere improving the public distribution system.

effort to include ways of overhauling and

government provided 35 kg of rice or wheat at Rs.3 per kg rice and Rs.2 per kg wheat. The National Food Security

Under the Antodaya Anna Yojna Program, the

Bill

provides 25 Kg rice or wheat at Rs.3 per kg. This clearly implies that in the future, the poor will pay more for less food grains. Conclusion The challenge of meeting the food requirement of an ever increasing population can only be met by practicing sustainable agriculture, protecting natural resources from being degraded and polluted and

using production technologies that conserve and enhance the natural resource base of crops. We need to look into the potential green revolution areas of Eastern Uttar Pradesh, North Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa, Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh, which have been neglected so far. Without them, the battle for food security cannot be won. Some targets of opportunity in agriculture ahead. The threat of food insecurity should be given the topmost priority by the legislature and pass an effective legislation so that malnutrition, hunger deaths can be minimized. Steps should be taken to ensure that the purchasing power of the disadvantages section should be strengthened. Genetically Modified (GM) crops: Potential and Controversies by Amit Kumar Verma have been exploited, many more difficult ones lie

Crops

What are GM

Genetically

modifying or altering the genetic material of the crop plant by the process of genetic engendering or recombinant DNA technology. In this process a selected gene is transferred from one organism into another, also between non-related species to achieve a desired trait in the later. Example to clarify the definition

modified

crops

are

made

after

major threat to cotton cultivation. In order to achieve endotoxin producing gene from a bacterium Bacillus was transferred plant. and the into the cotton Thus insect resistance in cotton plant, an

Insects have been a

thuringiensis (BT)
incorporated

genetically modified cotton plant became able to produce repelling the endotoxin in its GM tissue cotton thereby that insect attack.

permanently produces this toxin has been claimed to require lower quantities of insecticides in specific situations. In 1994, delayed-ripening Flavr-Savr tomato became the first GM food crop to be produced and consumed. Today the four main commercially grown GM crops are RR soya beans, BT maize, BT cotton and oilseed rape GT 73. Scientists are also looking to develop GM versions of other crops, including rice (Golden rice) brinjel (BT brinjel) etc. Initially it started to solve the problem of food crisis and increase productivity. However after a decade and half of its commercialization the safe use of GM crops are still under debate among different sections of the intelligentsia including biotechnologist, toxicologist, environmentalists, socialists, politicians and business community.

Impact Since the recorded commercialization of GM crops global area of transgenic crops till

in 1996 there has been ~87-fold increase in the 2010 (ISAAA). In 2010, there were 29 countries

including 19 developing and 10 industrial countries growing GM crops. The top six countries in order of total area under GM crop cultivation are USA, Brazil, Argentina, India, Canada, China, etc. (ISAAA). Use of GM crops has been reported to have significant benefits. Biotechnology used in the first generation of GM crops has provided farmers with some alternative crop management solutions pesticides resulting in

to

Higher crop yield by resisting insects and herbicides Increased farm profit by reducing pesticide cost Flexible storage capacity

Second generation modifications are targeted to provide traits such as enhanced nutritional characteristics that are of benefit to consumers (not yet commercialized). Examples include:

Rice enriched with iron, vitamin A(Golden rice) and E, and lysine Potatoes with higher starch content, and inulin Edible potatoes vaccines in maize, banana and

Despite numerous current benefits and future promises, there is a multitude of concerns about the impact of GM crops on human health, environment and MNC-Farmer-Government relations. These are all interdisciplinary and complex issues. impacts are highlighted below. Some of the possible health and environmental

Health impacts

Inherent toxicity of the novel gene and their products

Probability to introduce unintended allergens and other anti-nutrition factors in foods The potential for unintended effects resulting from alterations of host metabolic pathways

Environmental Impact

Likelihood of the foreign gene (transgene) to escape from the GM variety into wild varieties.

Susceptibility of non-target organisms (e.g. insects which are not pests) to the toxic gene product.

A faster induction of resistant insects Loss of biodiversity due to profit oriented GM crop farming

Interest of Multi National Companiess (MNC) and Private Players Monsanto produces more than 90% of GM crops

worldwide. Companies such as Syngenta, Bayer Crop Science, Dow and BASF make the rest. Biotech MNCs like Monsanto claim that GM crops

are a cure for both food insecurity and climate change the claim that has been heavily criticized by environmental and social activist like Vandana has been succeeded to attain an unacceptable influence over national and international agricultural and food policies in many countries across the globe. Moreover due to intellectual property rights over its GM seeds it is rapidly moving towards a total domination over the global seed and food supply. Critics of these MNCs claim that GM crops are neither in the interest of farmer/consumer nor in the interest of environment but in the interest of Company introduced Roundup to Monsanto's own the MNCs itself. In 1995, Monsanto Shiva. However due to its monopoly market Monsanto

that have been genetically modified to be resistant herbicide Roundup. Thus a

Ready (RR) soybeans

farmer has to buy both GM seeds for soybean and herbicide Roundup form Monsanto to get higher yield. Monsanto grew up as a chemical-pesticidefertilizer 20th century. Today when the whole world is producing company since early

witnessing

negative

impacts

of

fertilizer

and

pesticide usage Monsanto is trying for regulatory clearance for its GM products in various countries, in order to maximize profits from the GM seed business. The more area that is converted into GM crops around the world, the greater the price per share and the more Monsanto will benefit. This increasing influence of giant seed and biotechnology corporations on agricultural and food policy has raised many socio-economic and political debates. Corporate control of seeds has been widely viewed by critics as threatening food security and food sovereignty i.e. control of domestic food production. In many countries like Australia, India and UK the assumption that biotechnology is the way of the future food security has resulted in large amounts of government funds being invested into developing GM crops often in partnership with biotech

corporations. Huge amount of production levies and subsidy are granted to introduce biotech MNCs in to the local agricultural market.

Issues related to farmers Farmers are the major stakeholders of GM crops but we hardly observe any systematic effort to ascertain the opinion of farmers. They purchase GM seed by paying high price on the expectation of very high yield i.e 30-40 % and reduction of V ST - EPW article) but the ground reality is expenditure on pesticide (David G Shorie, SAI Y something different. On not getting desired high yield it is very difficult to manage the financial burden that cause due to high input cost of GM life end-up under the trap of debt. 1. Contractual issues-The contracts that seed companies require that buyers of their GM seeds sign when obtaining those seeds may disadvantage farmers. Contracts aggressively protect the biotechnology company's rights to the seeds, frame the context within which disputes may be settled, and limit the liability of the company. seeds and excessive use of fertilizer and there

2. Limited rights to retain and reuse seedThis provision prohibits growers from saving seed and/or reusing seed from GM crops. In effect, the provision requires growers of GM crops to make an annual purchase of GM seeds. 3. An additional concern is that GM crops could gradually difficult 4. Cultivation of BT GM crops lead to the introduction of resistant pests within two three crop seasons which leads to use of more and more pesticides expensive in successive seasons. 5. Purchasing these inputs forces many small farmers into a cycle of debt as noticed in Indian scenario. access to non-GM seed becomes increasingly displace conventional crops as

Recent Controversies Cotton Bt and Brinjal Bt in India

Controversy over BT cotton causing farmer suicides

In 2002 the Indian government approved the sale of BT Cotton, the first GM crop to be legally grown in India. BT Cotton includes genetic

material from a bacterium that kills boll worms, a harmful pest. Pro-GM advocates claim that these crops are more environmentally and economically sustainable because they decrease the need for chemical pesticides. In the mean time, a string of farmer suicides shows that, for farmers, this controversy isn't merely academic--it's a matter of life or death. Transnational activists groups such as Shiva's, as well as much of the mainstream media, blame high farmer suicide rates on the introduction of GM cotton. In 2009, high prices of BT Cotton were blamed for forcing farmers of the district Jhabua into severe debts when the crops died due to lack of rain.

Controversy over BT brinjal

BT Brinjal is a transgenic brinjal developed by collaboration with the US-based transnational,

Mahyco (Maharashtra Hybrid Seeds Company) in Monsanto by inserting a gene cry1Ac from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis into Brinjal. The Genetic Engineering

Approval

for commercial release in October 2009. According to GEAC BT Brinjal would reduce farmers dependence on pesticides and enable higher yields. Giving in to intense opposition from NGOs and several states, the Union government On February 9, 2010, decided to freeze the introduction of BT Brinjal in India till independent scientific studies established health and environment safety of the product to the satisfaction of both public and experts. Threat of contamination India is largest producer of brinjal and it has privilege of country of origin. Being a highly cross pollinated plant there is high chance of contamination with other varieties of

Committee (GEAC) India had cleared BT Brinjal

brinjal. There is also fear and apprehension about gene flow and biodiversity loss. Reliability of safety test Brinjal is an item of our daily consumption. So people are very cautious about its safety test. Critics have been raised about concern on safety test. Brinjal BT belongs to the plant species Solanaceae which contains several natural toxins that can be resurface when metabolism is disturbed. The kind of test done so far is not specific and stringent enough to detect toxin. Loss medicinal property of brinjal and labeling issues were also highlighted recently. Conclusion Despite the current uncertainty over GM crops, one thing remains clear. This technology, with its potential varieties, is simply too valuable to ignore. However there are some valid issues to be addressed before their commercial introduction. Proper long term cost benefit analysis needs to be done along to create economically important crop

with analysis.

environmental

and

health

safety

These issues should be resolved and

decisions must be based on credible, sciencebased information.

The monopoly of the biotech MNCs in the seed and agri-biotech business should be checked by this sector. Finally, policies regarding GM crops should be based on an open and honest debate involving a wide crosscross-section of society including every stake hoBiodiversity hoBiodiversity Conservation in India government promoted research and development in

Biodiversity supports ecosystem services including air quality, climate, water purification, pollination, and prevention of erosion. It indicates the health of our planet. Since the biodiversity affects every living being on this planet and to a great extent is influenced by the human activities, the responsibility nations and communities. In this context the to protect it must be a shared goal of all the

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) (signed in 1992) was inspired by the world community's growing commitment to sustainable development. It represents a dramatic step forward in the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the use of genetic resources. India was one of the early signatories to the UN CBD. Prior to CBD, the following were the legal provisions to conserves the Biodiversity. 1. Indian Forest Act, 1927 2. Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 3. Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 Subsequent to becoming a party to the CBD, India has taken the following steps towards maintenance of biodiversity. India passed the Biological Diversity Act in the year 2002. The act mainly addresses access to genetic resources and associated knowledge by foreign individuals, institutions or companies, to

ensure equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the use of these resources and knowledge to the country and the local communities. A National October, 2003 as per the provision of the Biological Diversity Act, 2002. India approved National Environment Policy (NEP) in 2006, and drafted National Biodiversity Action Plan (NBAP) in consonance with the NEP. The National Biodiversity Action Plan was approved in November 2008 to enhance natural resource base and its sustainable utilization. Biodiversity Authority was set up at Chennai on 1st

In the recent past, India has taken the following steps in the direction of biodiversity conservation. 1. India has recently ratified the Nagoya

Protocol. The Nagoya Protocol would contribute to fair and equitable sharing of benefits accruing from utilization of genetic resources countries and their local communities and would act as incentive to biodiversity-rich to conserve and sustainably use their biodiversity.

2. India hosted the 11th Conference of Parties (CoP-11) to the Convention on Biological Diversity. Conference since the launch of the United Nations Decade of Biodiversity in 2011. 3. At the CoP-11, India has launched the Hyderabad Pledge and announced that our Government will earmark a sum of US$ 50 million during Indias presidency of the This is also the first such

Conference of Parties to the Convention on Biological institutional Diversity to strengthen for the mechanism biodiversity

conservation in India. India will use these funds to enhance the technical and human mechanisms 4. Many to attain the Convention have capabilities of our national and state-level on been Biological Diversity objectives. realigned development to provide schemes biodiversity-related

benefits for example the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme now aims to create legally mandated green jobs for every rural household.

5. India has tried a unique approach for the protection of traditional knowledge by establishing a Traditional Knowledge Digital

Library. This database has 34 million pages of information in five international languages in formats examiners. easily This accessible Library by promotes patent the

objectives of the Nagoya Protocol on the issue

of protection of codified traditional knowledge systems such as the Ayurveda. Since then, because of this database, over 1000 cases of bio-piracy have been identified and over 105 claims withdrawn or cancelled by patent offices.

lder. Capital Punishment: Punishment: Should it be abolished?

Capital Punishment: Meaning Punishment can be defined as suffering, loss, pain or penalty inflicted upon an individual by a legal authority, as a consequence of certain acts of commission and omission. Punishment has two

aspects. First is utilitarian in which punishment is used as a tool for increasing happiness of the society wrongfulness of his crime as well presenting the punishment as a deterrent to both the criminal and the society for not repeating the crime. Second aspect is retributive which serves as a consolation to the aggrieved or his kin that the criminal has been adequately punished. Capital punishment is by pointing out to the criminal the

the ultimate punishment in which life of a criminal is taken away by a legal authority under a process established by the law. International Scenario Although, UN Universal Declaration of Human

death penalty, Article 5 of the said declaration prohibits torture or cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment. Activists have been arguing that death penalty is cruel and inhuman and hence covered under this article. The Second Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, adopted by

Rights does not say anything explicitly about

the UN General Assembly in 1989, provides for the total abolition of the death penalty except in times of war or imminent threat of war. Protocol No. 6 to the European Convention and for the Protection of Human Rights Fundamental

Freedoms ["European Convention on Human Rights"] 1982 and The Protocol to the American Convention on Human Rights to Abolish the Death Penalty, 1990 provide for abolishing death penalties except in times of war. Protocol No. 13 to the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, 2002, provides for the abolition of the death penalty in all circumstances, including time of war or of imminent threat of war. Presently, 95 countries have abolished

capital

punishment completely, while 8 have retained it only and wartime crimes. 35 countries have abolished it in practice as they are believed to have a policy

in exceptional circumstances such as military law

or practice of not executing people. 58 countries have retained the penalty for crimes like murder. Indian Legal position

Article 21 of the Constitution of India provides that No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedure established by law. Thus, power to award capital punishment is inherent in the Constitution. However, judicial pronouncements state that the penalty has to be imposed only in special circumstances. In Bachan Singh Vs. State of Punjab, the Apex Court held that punishment was to be only in the rarest of rare cases. However, defining rarest of rare has been left to the discretion of the Court though some guidelines were set which included consideration of both the aggravating and mitigating factors. In Machchi Singh vs. State of Punjab, the Apex Court, while accepting that the death penalty can be imposed in some cases, has opined that it should not be so in every case but only in exceptional circumstances. However, the from case to case. Recently, the Supreme definition of the rarest of rare has differed Court has held honour killings to be the rarest of rare. Arguments for abolition of Capital Punishment

Arguments for abolition of death penalty have centered around human rights and wrongful executions. Following arguments have been put forward for abolishing the death penalty:

1. Capital punishment is the ultimate denial of 2. It human rights and right to life. is cruel, inhuman and degrading

punishment in whatever form it is given. Like torture, it is extreme physical and mental assault justified. on an individual and cannot be

3. The penalty is discriminatory and is used disproportionately against deprived and marginalized sections of the society as well as for eliminating political opponents. 4. The penalty cannot be reversed. As there is process, there is always a possibility of execution of an innocent. 5. It denies the criminal an opportunity to amend himself and also denies possibility of rehabilitation and reconciliation. always a possibility of error in the judicial

6. It is a symptom of culture of violence and not a solution to it. Arguments for retention of Capital Punishment Arguments for abolishing death have centred on person. Right of the State has been the primary concern in such activism. However, most of the crimes are against individuals which due to legal procedure are taken up by the State. The demand for abolition of death penalty ignores the plight of the victim. the states authority to take the life of the

1. Death penalty, in no way means denying a fair trial to any accused, which is a must in every judicial system. 2. Right to life in respect of a criminal has to be balanced with the right of the victim to get appropriate justice. 3. In most of the cases of death penalty, the life of victim has been taken away by the criminal. In some cases, this is without any provocation or excuse. Protecting the life of a criminal in such cases would place him at

an advantageous position as compared to the victim. It would appear that the state while criminal. failing to save an innocent citizen is saving the

4. Since ancient ages, punishment has been used as a deterrent for crime. Conclusive studies are lacking because such studies centre consider those who have deterred from crime due to punishment and have not committed any crime. Another reason for its not being a sufficient deterrent is that it is used very sparingly. executed since 2004. In 2011, there In India no one has been on the criminals. These do not

were more than 34000 murders but total number of death penalties awarded during the year was about 110. The number is too 5. It has been criticized as a symptom of violence but it comes only into play after an act of extreme violence by the criminal which should justifiably be punished. 6. Abolition of death penalty has an inherent danger of compassion taking a leading role in small to act as a potential deterrent.

the entire criminal justice thereby tilting the balance in favour of the criminal. While on one hand this dilutes the deterrent aspect of the crime, on the other, the victim or his relatives may resort to punishing the criminal themselves by taking the law into their own hands. Should India retain or abolish capital punishment? Continuation or retention of death penalty in a country depends on the circumstances of the country. As per data available with National Crime Records Bureau, number of total crimes registered under IPC has increased from 6, 01,964 in 1953 to 23,25,575 in 2011, thereby showing an increase of about 286%. Similarly, number of murders has increased from 9802 in 1953 to 34,305 in 2011 and showing an increase of about 250%. However, highest increase has been in the cases of rape. NCRB started collecting data about this crime since 1971 when the number was 2487. In 2011, the figure is 24,

206, thereby showing an increase of 873%. Thus state of crime has been far from satisfactory. One reason that has often been attributed to the spiraling crime is that our law is soft on criminals. The stress has been more on the reforming the criminal rather than punishing the criminal in a way feminist organizations have linked the so as to act as a deterrent. In fact some of the sharp increase in number of rape cases to the lack of deterrent and have demanded death penalty for this crime. The demand may not be completely wrong considering the nature of the crime which is committed for no other reason except that the perpetrator has the strength to dominate the victim at that point of time. In India the conviction rate is less then 10%, corruption in judiciary and crime investigating agencies is rampant, criminal judicial redressel process is very slow and complex and witnesses often turn hostile because of various pressures. The countries which are forerunner in abolishing the Capital Punishment have entirely different

conditions when it to criminal justice vis-a-vis those presently prevailing in India. Apart from this, India because of it's unique diversity faces higher threat in terms of internal security. Thus, the preconditions

to

abolish

Capital

Punishemnt does not prevail in India in the current a law abiding citizen and right to life of the innocent must take precedence over the right to life of a criminal. If otherwise, it would render

scenerio. First right to a life of dignity must go to

the state useless and would give rise to Vigilante upon the responsibility of dispensing criminal

justice in which individuals would themselves take justice. National Investment Board

The proposal of National Investment Board (NIB) is included in the 12th Five Year Plan against the backdrop of sluggish growth that Indian economy has encountered in past few years. The NIB is proposed by ministry of finance to speed up the

investment decisions in the government. NIB will act as a final body for clearing big investment proposals after which no ministry will have power to raise objections. It is proposed that NIB would be headed by the Prime Minister and have ministers from key ministries such as finance, and law and justice as its members. The stated purpose of the NIB will be to take over the process of granting licenses, permissions and approvals whenever the competent authorities fail to act in time. This is intended to prevent adhocism emerging from autonomous functioning of ministries and to fix responsibility for inordinate delays in obtaining all the approvals / clearances required for implementation of the project. The proposed functions of NIB The following are the proposed functions of NIB: 1. The Board would prescribe timelines for the different types of approvals from different line ministries

2. NIB would enforce the time lines for the decision making. If the line ministry or the department fails to take any decision within would be escalated to NIB 3. NIB would identify the key projects that needs to be implemented in the time frame 4. NIB would facilitate mechanism for clearance of such projects that have been delayed 5. The NIB would have overriding powers and the decision of NIB would be binding on all the ministries 6. In the case of delays due to inter-ministry disputes, the decision of NIB would be final. the prescribed time limit, then the issue

Need for NIB The clearance for the big infrastructure projects in India is marred by red tapeism with multiple departments and agencies as stake holders in decision making. NIB is noteworthy against the milieu of the twisted web of permissions required for a project. For example, over 65 clearances/permissions are required for a thermal

power project at three different levels - federal, state and local. There are 17 ministries at the central level that directly or indirectly look after infrastructure projects. They are road transport, railways, drinking water and sanitation, power, urban development, atomic energy, renewable energy, shipping, civil aviation, communication and IT, housing, water resources, rural development, environment, institutions industry and commerce, heavy

industry, coal and mines. With three more central involved with clearances Planning Commission, the finance ministry and the Prime Minister's Office (PMO) - we get 20 clearance gateways in New Delhi.

Arguments against NIB Various ministers in the UPA II government in general and ministry of environment in particular have raised objections against the proposed structure of NIB and its overriding powers. The presence of Prime Minister in the NIB along with the key minister would make it no less than a Super Cabinet with overriding powers which would

be capable enough to put pressure on ministries, department and agencies. There is also a chance that NIB could encroach upon or influence the bodies, thus going against the decision making of state governments and local principle of federalism. Delhi based NGO Centre for Science and

Environment (CSE) has categorically criticized the proposed structure of NIB by quoting the official data of government. According to CSE, NIB would destroy regime, the which existing instead environmental needed regulatory more

reforms. CSE noted that project rejection rates for forest clearances were a mere 6% and that of environment clearance an almost negligible 0.1%. The data released by CSE showed that 8,734 projects had been granted forest clearance and 1.98 lakh hectares of forest land diverted for development in the 11th Plan. The pace of forest land diversion had doubled during period. These clearances accorded included 119 coal mining forest clearance, diverting 31,500 projects

hectares of forest land the highest number cleared in any five year Plan since 1981. Conclusion The Development V/s Environment debate is the core issue involved with the proposed structure of NIB. Its a fact that red tapeism, bureaucratic projects in India which are crucial for the higher growth trajectory. Nonetheless, a fast track mechanism of single window clearance for important infrastructure projects as envisaged by proposed NIB is vital step but it should not happen at the cost of environment. Fast track clearance of big infrastructure projects would facilitate lop sided growth and would be ecologically unsustainable if the rights of local communities and the environmental regulations are ignored. Thus NIB should confine itself to mitigate red tapeism, arbitrary delays in decision making and enforcing timeline for the implementation. apathy and corruption delays the infrastructure

Media in Indian Democracy By Davendra Sharma

Freedom of Press and Media in not metioned

explicitly in the Constitution of India, as per Article 19(1) (a) of the Constitution of India, all citizens shall have the right to freedom of speech and expression. This fundamental right is also applicable for media. However, this freedom is not absolute, as Article 19(2) also speaks of power of the state to frame laws for imposing reasonable restrictions in the interests of the sovereignty and friendly relations with foreign States, public order, decency or morality, or in relation to contempt of court, defamation or incitement to an offence. In a democratic form of Government, media is an important tool available to the people against the power of the state and is usually referred as the fourth estate of democracy along with executive, legislature and judiciary. integrity of India, the security of the State,

Information to "Infotainment" The advent of electronic media has completely changed the scenario of reporting. Now we have 24x7 news channel beaming news from all over the country. However, like any other technological development, it has its own merits and demerits. While constant availability of news in visual form is a positive development, the flip side is that due to the nature of the medium and due to cut throat competition, the channels do not get enough time to verify a number of news and hence errs at times people. Earlier media use to be a source of information only. It was expected that media would impart neutral information. However, with the advent of private Electronic media this paradigm completely changed. Few major factors which influenced the role of media are: 1. The role of media changed from giving neutral information to shaping public opinion. There is nothing wrong in shaping public which adversely affects the rights of a number of

opinion however the anomaly arises when the public opinion being infulenced without proper 2. The another prominent factor which has influenced the character of media to a great exteant is the role of Market Forces. Media Channels like any other business entity are is owned by the Corporate Houses with the goal to maximize in the shareholder's revenue is wealth. Since media the verification of facts.

propotional to the incidence of eye balls and number of audiences, thus a rat race has started to bring in "Sensetionalism" through "Breaking News" to capture maximum eye (i.e. Information + Entertainment) is apt to describe the altered role of media. In order to telecast the "Breaking News" at the earliest at times facts are not properly verified and/or delibrately manipulated to create sensetion. Some of the controversial issues about the balls. Thus media the word "infotainment"

electronic media are as under:

Media trial In many cases, the electronic media has shown stories on basis of allegations leveled against a person or on the basis of legal proceedings. While media claims that they are reporting a factual position, the effect of such a broadcast is that a verdict by a Court of Law. In October, 2005, Naresh Pal, an employee of Pusa Agricultural Institute was accused by his niece of raping her. She called a media channel which promptly aired the news. The accused committed suicide along with his wife. In his suicide note he stated that his niece has made allegations of rape against him although he was impotent and he was ending his life as he cannot face the humiliation. This incident shows the lack of responsibility on part of media channel by not verifying the facts before broadcasting the news. Courts have taken an adverse view in the matter though the Supreme Court in a recent decision refused to frame guidelines for media reporting for the person is considered to be a criminal prior to

court cases. In a recent judgment in September, 2012, a Constitution Bench of five judges said when there was conflict between two rights - right to dignity and right to presumption of innocence guaranteed under Article 21 and right to free speech under Article 19 - the right to free speech must give way to right to life as in India, the right under Article 19(1) (a) was not an absolute one. To protect the rights of accused, the Court evolved the Doctrine of Postponement in which the higher judiciary could impose a temporary freeze on the reporting of a case under trial. Matters relating to security concerns During the terrorist attack on Mumbai, the media beamed live images of various encounter sites and action being taken by the security forces. This live coverage gave the terrorists important information about the movement of the security forces, which the terrorists used to their advantage. This action Justices Aftab Alam and C K Prasad said that was criticized by the Supreme Court. A bench of the

The shots and visuals that were shown live by TV channels could have also been shown after all the terrorists operations were over. But in that case, the TV programmes would not have had the same shrill, scintillating and chilling effect and would not have shot up the TRP ratings of the channels." Social Responsibility The content of news channels has invited criticism and it has been alleged that these channels are airing programmes with the sole aim of increasing TRP. Subjects like films and cricket are were neutralized and the security

prominent subjects and if these prove insufficient in increasing the TRP, then excerpts of soap operas channels of the same group are roped in to improve the TRP. Obviously, this is at the expense of serious issues facing the country. Apart from this, most of the channels broadcast programmes about astrology or some other mysterious methods to solve the problems of people. At the time of every major festival or a solar/lunar eclipse we can see and reality shows from entertainment

a host of gentlemen trying to guide people to prosperity or to save them from disaster. Needless to say, these solutions do not have any scientific or scientific and rational approach. Sting Operation Sting operations are the most controversial aspect of TV journalism. Some of these like Operation Westend, exposing corruption in defense procurement and Operation Duryodhana about MPs taking money for asking questions in the Parliament, have done a great service to the nation by exposing wrong people. However, many of these are done to give a boost to the TRP without any consideration for ethics. In the year 2007, a TV channel conducted a sting operation about her a of school teacher girls Uma for Khurana, accusing providing logical basis. This does not help in developing a

prostitution. Violence erupted near the school after a violent mob and her life was barely saved. She was arrested, suspended from her job and faced

the news was aired. The teacher was attacked by

extreme humiliation. Later on it was proved that the sting operation was fake and was at the behest of some colleague of hers who wanted to settle personal scores. Although, the reporter was later arrested and faced criminal trial and the TV channel was banned for a month, the incident raised serious ethical issues. Few years earlier, a TV channel conducted a sting operation to expose casting couch in the film industry in which film star Shakti Kapoor and Casting couch is more of a moral issue than a legal one. This raises questions about the rights of media to probe the questions of individual morality, which is a matter of individual perception and differs from person to person. Another question that arises is, whether the TV channel had any previous knowledge of casting couch being TV actor Aman Verma were supposedly exposed.

practiced by these two. If not, then what was the basis of selecting those two people who were themselves at the margin of film industry? At the end of the day, nothing concrete came out of the sting as no person was charged for any illegality.

As the regards the existence of the practice in film industry, despite the fact that the industry does not boast of high standards in sexual morality, the channel proved nothing, as it could not bring out any instance in which film roles were given on this basis. However, this did create a sensation and TRP of the channel must have definitely shot up during the period. Regulation Government of India sought to regulate the media by setting up an independent regulatory authority, under a proposed law The Broadcasting Services Regulation Bill, 2007 which was amended in 2008. However, this met stiff resistance from the media which favoured self regulation. Hence, News Broadcasters Association was formed and News Broadcasting Standards Authority was set up in 2008. The authority has laid guidelines for general reportage as well as specific guidelines for a number of issues like security issues, sting operations etc. The guidelines include the aspect i.e. Broadcasting Regulatory Authority of India

of accuracy in reporting, impartiality neutrality and fairness, Law & order and crime and violence, good taste and decency, privacy, national security, supernatural, occultism & paranormal, childrens operations. Present Status However, the guidelines are not exhaustive probably because of the fear of affecting the independence of the media. These guidelines leave interests, racial & religious harmony and sting

the field open for interpretations. Guidelines say that reporting should be in public interest, but leaves it open to the media channels to have their own opinion about public interest as per their convenience . Secondly, there is no transparency about conducting sting operations. Recently India TV has conducted a sting operation about six umpires being involved in match fixing. Website of the channel states that six umpires agreed to give favours refused, though he also talked of taking money in black for assignments. The moot point is, how in lieu of money, while the seventh

did the channel zeroed in on these seven persons. Did the channel had any knowledge about any match fixing done by these umpires earlier, if yes , what was that and if not how did the reporter knew that these particular umpires are in between murky deals. Apart from this, the contents of most of the news channels reflect a great taste for populism which diverts attention from main issues. paper. Government regulation of media would be very unfortunate as would deprive the society of a very powerful tool. However, to maintain its independence, the media will have to self-regulate itself not only in letter but also in spirit and would ethics and morality which it so strongly demands from other sections of the society. be required to have same standards of professional Apparently, self- regulation has remained only on

Gender Issues and woman empowerment

What is Gender? Gender and Sex?

What is is difference between

Gender is a social construct. Its different from sex which is a biological identity. Sex is innate, universal and however gender is a value laden and normative in nature which men and women learn through natural. Sex per se is a value neutral concept;

socialization process. Therefore gender enforces some roles which are primarily governed by social, economical, cultural and political milieu. In nut shell gender roles are those rights, duties, responsibilities and actions which the society envisages men and women to perform. Patriarchy: Meaning and Implications

Word Patriarchy is derived from the Greek word Patr meaning father. Oxford dictionary defines patriarchy as a form of social organization in which the father or the eldest male is the head of the family. Thus in Patriarchal system the gender role envisages male as the primary authority figure, who is central to all social organizations, and where fathers hold authority over women, children, and privilege, and entails female subordination. The roles in society and gender inequality All the tasks performed in the society can be broadly categorized into three categories as follows: 1. Productive Roles 2. Reproductive Roles 3. Community and social management Roles The productive corresponds to the tasks and activities which are tangibly paid like crop production, processing, marketing, wage employment and so on. The reproductive roles refer to the activities which are unpaid such as child rearing, property. It implies the institutions of male rule and

household involves

chores roles like

and

home

management participation,

etc. social

Likewise the Community and social management roles activities etc. political

Values are traditionally attached to these roles, differently for men and women. It has been traditionally seen that patriarchal societies assigns such roles to the women, which reinforces their dependence on men. For instance the reproductive roles like child rearing, home maintenance are traditionally assigned to women. On the other hand manufacturing etc were supposed to be suitable and fit for males. The deliberate values attachment to different roles the productive roles such as crop production,

have created differential access between men and women to the resources, to decision making and to accrue the benefits related to between men and women. As a result women are at disadvantageous These position vis--vis men in the patriarchal societies. gender inequalities makes women

marginalized and leave them with less control than

men over their bodies and their lives. This unequal status of woman is odious to human dignity and violates human rights as well as basic tenet of equality.

Implications of Gender Inequalities The following are the implications of gender

inequality: 1. The financial crisis, food crisis, wars,

conflicts and disasters (both man-made and natural) across the globe have had severe impact on have women become vis--vis more their vulnerable male to

counterpart. 2. Women poverty, malnutrition, illiteracy, disease and domestic violence. 3. According to National Commission for women, in India, a rape is committed every 54 minutes, a dowry death every 92 minutes, cruelty every 33 minutes. molestation every 26 minutes and act of

4. In India even after stringent laws, 45% of girls are still married before the age of 18 5. 48 out of 187 countries had no women in ministerial and apex decision making positions. 6. Only 8 countries across the globe have more than 30% of representation of women in their political institutions. Reasons for Gender Inequality 1. The physical strength of men is superior to years.

that of women. The agriculture and warfare were the two major activities in the history from which the mankind has gradually evolved. Since both these activities require physical strength as a result traditionally men have an edge over the women. This has been manifested through political, cultural, economic and social agencies.

2. The gender inequality is considered legitimate by religion and social customs as well. For instance the law givers like Manu etc have been very stringent towards the women.

3. Dependency pregnancy is inequality. Gender and Market

of

women

on

males

during

also

a reason for gender

The effect of market and media on the condition of women has been mixed. On one hand where market and media have been forerunner in

advocating the tenets like equal opportunity, equality and women emancipation, one the other hand the there is a flipside to this as well. Media is engaged in shaping the women to fulfill the needs of the market, and not as an end citizen. As a result the womans body is highlighted as a commodity and treated as a sex object. This has put the women to the further disadvantageous position in the society. Women Reservation Reservation Rationale The prima-facie question that arises in our mind when it comes to women reservation is that when

the state and constitution of India are champions of principle of equality and equal rights, why should there be reservation of on the basis of sex? This pertinent question can be answered by looking into the history and the intention behind the reservation policy. The history is testimony of the fact that women have men been marginalized by the and the agencies deliberately

associated with them. The laws, norms, customs, religion, social behavior as well as institutions are all influenced by the patriarchy and have put women to a disadvantageous position vis--vis men. In past the women have been institutionally deprived of education, property rights and decision making, thus they have been made backward educationally, economically and socially. Thus it would be principally and morally incorrect to treat them at par with their male counterparts. If the modern tenet of equality and merit is applied blindly ignoring the history its very natural that women would be further reservation for the women should be seen as a corrective measure to bridge the gender gap which discriminated, however indirectly. The

exists because of the history. Thus reservation policy for women should be seen as a means which is directed towards a desirable end, that is gender equality.

Critical Mass Mass theory and political engagement Many scholars have recommended that unless

women constitute a Critical Mass of at least

33% of those engaged in decision making, their presence makes a little difference to the outcomes of governance. Noble laurite Amratya Sen put forth the issue of citizenship in the context of gender equality. He but to mean entitlements, rights, responsibilities and agency. Women Reservation Bill Women's Reservation Bill or the Constitution defines citizenship as not only the right to vote

(108th Amendment) Bill, is still a pending bill. all seats in the Lower the Lok Sabha and state

The bill proposes to provide 33.3% per cent of

legislative

assemblies

shall

be

reserved

for

women. Rajya Sabha passed it on 9 Mar 2010. Various small political parties have stalwartly opposed the bill because of the apprehension that many of their male leaders would not get a chance to fight elections if seats are reserved for women. Critics also argue that reservation in present form would therefore causing further discrimination and underrepresentation to the poor and backward classes. The larger issues related to Reservation Bill 1. Whether it is the number of women that matters or those who are capable to bring transformatory vision and practices into formal politics? 2. How to ensure that the elected women remain in politics and stay committed to the feminist agenda of equity and justice? only help women of the elitist groups to gain seats,

Gender related Indicators Sex Ratio: Sex Ratio is a term used to define

number of females per 1000 males. Sex ratio of

India as per the census 2011 is 940. According to census 2011, Kerala accounts for highest sex (1084) ratio while Haryana has lowest sex ratio (877) among all the states. Among the Union territories Pondicherry (1038) has highest sex ratio while Daman and Diu (618) has the lowest. Maternal Mortality Rate: It is defined as the while pregnant or within 42 days of

number of maternal deaths per 1,00,000 live birth termination of pregnancy . In India the MMR is

301 per 1,00,000 live births. This is very high in comparison to regions like North Europe, where MMR is 4 per 1,00,000 live births. The National Rural Health Mission envisage reducing

MMR to 100 per 100000 live births, while Millennium Development Goal aims to reduce it 109 per 100000 live birth by 2015. Strategies to reduce MMR

1. To place a high priority on maternal and child health services and integrate vertical 2. To give attention to care during labor and delivery, which is the most critical period for complications 3. To provide community-based delivery huts which can provide a clean and safe delivery rooms in hospitals for high risk mothers 4. To improve the quality of maternal and child care at the rural community level 5. To improve quality of care at the primary health care level programs (e.g., family planning)

place close to home, and maternity waiting

Infant Mortality Rate: It is defined as the number of infant deaths (one year of age or younger) per 1000 live births. According to World Bank, World 1000 live birth in the year 2010. Gender Development Index (GDI): The GDI is Human Development Index. It addresses

Development indicators, IMR in India is 48.2 per

considered as the gender-sensitive extension of the

gender-gaps in life expectancy, education, and incomes. Gender Empowerment Index (GDI): The Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) was designed to measure whether women and men are able to actively participate in economic and political life and take part in decision-making.

Gender Parity Parity Index: The Gender Parity Index measure the relative access to education of males

(GPI) is a socioeconomic index usually designed to and females. In its simplest form, it is calculated as the quotient of the number of females by the number of males enrolled in a given stage of education (primary, secondary, etc.). Constitutional and legal mechanism to safeguard woman rights Fundamental Rights 1. Article 14 envisage rule of law and equality before law

2. Articles

discrimination on the basis of sex. This article allow state to make special provisions for women and children relating to employment.

15 prohibit

state

from

any

3. Article 16 envisions equal treatment in matter 4. Inferred Article 21 tends to prevent sexual harassment at the workplace. In Vishaka Vs State of Rajasthan (1997) case, Supreme Court held that onus to prevent sexual harassment at work place lies on employers or person in charge. 5. Article beings. 23 prohibits trafficking in human

Directive Principle of State Policies 1. Article 39 (a) calls for equal pay for equal work. 2. Article 42 directs to provide maternity relief. Fundamental Duties Article 51 (A) envisages the duty of every citizen

to renounce practices derogatory to women.

Other legal Provisions 1. 73rd and 74th constitutional amendment acts reserve 33.3% of seats in local bodies for women 2. Domestic Violence Act 2005 3. Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961 4. Pre-Conception 1994 5. Indecent 1987 Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act, 1986Sati (Prevention) Act, and Pre-natal

Diagnostic Techniques (PC & PNDT) Act,

National Commission for Women The National Commission for Women was set up as Commission for Women Act, 1990 to: 1. review the Constitutional and Legal safeguards for women 2. recommend remedial legislative measures 3. facilitate redressal of grievances

statutory body in January 1992 under the National

4. advise the Government on all policy matters affecting women The Commission consists of 1. A Chairperson, committed to the cause of women, to be nominated by the Central Government. 2. Five Members to be nominated by the

Central Government from amongst persons of ability, integrity and standing who have had experience of unionism, management of an industry potential women, womens voluntary in law or legislation, trade

organizations

(including women activist ), administration, economic development, health, education or 3. A Member-Secretary to be nominated by the Central Government Tiger Conservation: Latest Issues social welfare.

parts of Asia, although it has greatly reduced in the last 50 years. Tigers are still found in a wide variety of forests, including drydeciduous, moist-deciduous, evergreen, riverine, and mangrove. Tiger, being at the apex of the food chain, can be considered as the indicator of the stability of the eco-system. For a viable tiger population, a habitat should possess a good prey base, which in turn will depend on undisturbed forest vegetation. of the entire eco-system and apart from tigers, Thus, 'Project Tiger', is basically the conservation

The geographical distribution of tigers spans large

all other wild animals also have increased in number in the project areas. Project Tiger is a wildlife conservation project initiated in India on April 1, 1973 aimed to protect the Royal Bengal Tigers. The 9 tiger reserves established in the beginning of Project Tiger were:Manas (Assam), Palamau (Bihar), Similipal (Orissa), Corbett (U.P.), Kanha (M.P.), Melghat (Maharashtra), Bandipur (Karnataka), Sunderbans (West Bengal). Ranthambhore (Rajasthan) and

CoreCore-Buffer Strategy In the 1970s, under Project Tiger, 9 tiger reserves were set up in different geographies. Each reserve had human settlements in them, which brought enormous pressure on the reserves and the conservation programme. Thus the first Task Force, in an attempt to restrict human activity within the reserves, devised the Core Buffer Strategy. The Core and Buffer areas in the tiger reserves were defined as: 1. The core areas were designated as banned 2. The buffer areas were subjected to conservation oriented land use. The idea was to preserve the core areas of the Tiger Reserves and isolate them from the human nonetheless the human activity was allowed in the buffer areas. Some Important facts about Tiger Conservation activity, by relocating people from the core areas, a

national park and all human activity were

1. From

nine

tiger

reserves

in

1973,

it

expanded to 39 tiger reserves in 2010 2. The recent All India Tiger Estimation 2011, highlights the achievement of Project Tiger by showing that viable tiger population exists only in Project Tiger areas, while outside populations are highly depleted 3. Project Tiger has saved the endangered tiger from extinction, and has put the species on an assured path to recovery by improving the protection and status of its habitat 4. The Project has contributed towards several intangible environmental benefits to society, such as absorption of carbon improvement of micro climate, rainfall and river flow 5. While conserving the flagship species, the plants and animals from extinction 6. The local communities are benefiting from eco-tourism apart from eco developmental inputs in fringe areas Project has saved several other species of dioxide,

National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) The NTCA has been constituted under the Wild Life (Protection) by Amendment the of to Tiger Project Act, Task is Tiger 2006, Force to so as of that recommended 2005. An statutory strives

objective authority

NTCA

provide

compliance of its directives becomes legal. NTCA to streamline scientific modules of conservation and co-opt communities as responsible stakeholders. The Authority lays down standards and guidelines for tiger conservation in the Tiger Reserves, apart from National Parks and Sanctuaries. It provides information on protection measures including future conservation plan, tiger estimation, disease surveillance, mortality survey, patrolling, report on untoward happenings and such including future plan for conservation. Communities as responsible stakeholders Tiger and other wildlife cannot be protected by excluding local people. The local communities have to be treated as important stakeholders rather other management aspects as it may deem fit,

then deploy

a threat to the tiger conservation. The local workforce in protection. In all,

Governments endeavour all along has been to approximately 24 lakh mandays are generated around Rs. 24 crore (excluding matching 50% share given by States) under Project Tiger. Many non-tribals), Pradesh, local tribes constitute such local workforce (besides e.g. Baigas, Gonds in Madhya in Gonds in Maharashtra, Chenchus

annually with 50% central assistance amounting to

Andhra Pradesh, Sholigas in Karnataka, Gujjars in Uttarakhand and Irulas in Tamil Nadu to name a few. The deployment of such local tribals has been fostered/encouraged in the last two years. Counting Tigers Knowing the exact number of tigers is the pre condition for conservation, policy making and bench marking. Traditional way of estimating the tiger population was by counting the footprints or pugmarks using accurate camera traps are used for counting of the Tigers. Off late more accurate methods

tigers. In 2007-08 when the methodology to

estimate the tiger population was changed (from pugmark counting the to camera traps), it of was tiger realized that previous estimates

numbers in India may be hugely optimistic.

2010 National Tiger Assessment Report Recently in March 2011, the report of 2010 National Tiger Assessment was released. The report suggests an estimated number of 1,706 tigers in 2009 -10.The main findings of the current tiger census are as follows. 1. An estimated number of 1,706 tigers are present in the country. The tiger population 1,875 with an average of 1,706. The world has about 3500 tigers, of which 60% 2. This is a 16% rise in numbers in comparison to the previously recorded number of 1,411 in 2006. are now in India. range for 2010 is between 1,571 and

3. Indias tiger population is stabilizing and even thriving in many big reserves. Recent developments 1. The Centrally Sponsored Scheme of Project Tiger was revised in August 2011. Its allotment was stepped up for the XI Plan to Rs. 1216.86 crore, especially to support the States for securing inviolate space for tigers 2. Creation of the Kawal Tiger Reserve in 3. Giving in-principle to five new tiger reserve, viz. Pilibhit (Uttar Pradesh), Sunabeda Ratapani (Orissa), (Madhya Pradesh), Andhra Pradesh,

Mukundara Hills (including Darrah, Jawahar Sagar and Chambal Wildlife Sanctuaries) (Rajasthan) Nadu), 4. In-principle approval for use of CAMPA funds towards village relocation from core areas, (iv) completion of e-surveillance project in Corbett, and 5. Launching M-STrIPES monitoring protocol. and Sathyamangalam (Tamil

6. The Special Tiger Protection Force (STPF) has been raised and deployed in three tiger reserves, Tadoba-Andhari (Maharashtra) and Pench (Maharashtra). 7. The Government has provided central assistance (100%) to Odisha for raising this force in Similipal. Action is awaited in this regard from Corbett Ranthambhore (Uttar Pradesh). 8. A bilateral arrangement has been recently formalized conservation. China 10. A within with Bangladesh on tiger (Rajasthan) and (Uttarakhand), Dudhwa viz. Bandipur (Karnataka),

9. Delegations are interacting with Nepal and the framework on of existing bilateral arrangements. conservation cooperation sub-group has with been constituted tiger/leopard for

the

Russian

Federation,

which has met recently Supreme Court order: Banning tourism in core areas

Concerned about the fact that the tiger is on the verge of extinction in India, the Supreme on tourism in core areas of tiger reserves. The Court in July 2012 has imposed an absolute ban

court orders were in the light of the failure of state governments to segregate core and buffer (peripheral) areas in their reserves, the court ordered that the core areas be kept out of bounds for tourists till it finalises guidelines for the buffer or fringe areas. The debate Various critics, activitists and NGO's have raised the following pertinent issues with respect to the ban of tourism in the "Core Areas" 1. In many of the tourism areas, the tigers are breeding at an excellent rate. Thus to treat tourism as a threat to the tiger population lacks merit. 2. Tiger tourism takes place in not more than 10 out of 41 reserves in the country, Therefore to consider tourism as real threat such protected areas. Tourists can now enter only

for the dwindling tiger population cannot be justified. 3. Tiger tourism provides direct employment and livelihood options for the local population. The money is also pumped into the local economy indirectly through tourism. 4. A ban on the employment options of the local might put extreme pressure on the forest ecosystem. There is also a chance that in local communities might indulge into nexus with poachers etc. Conclusion Its a fact that due to tiger tourism, the pressure on various forest ecosystems has intensified for to mushrooming of large number of resorts etc around the tiger areas. However an absolute ban in the Core areas would create more problems than the solutions. The need of the hour is to regulate the tiger tourism rather then an absolute ban. The approach example in the case of Corbett National Park due the absence of viable livelihood options the

should be to convert ecotourists into "Wildlife ambassadors" who can create a lobby for conservation and indulge into advocacy for same. Recent Development Related Related to the Core Areas: Supreme Court lifted the ban on the tourism in the Core areas of the tiger. The Court in July 2012 had come up with such ban. Universal Health Coverage

What is Universal Health Coverage? Universal Health Coverage (UHC) refers to equitable access for all Indian citizens, resident in any part of the country, to affordable, accountable, appropriate health services of assured quality as

well as public health services addressing the wider determinants of health, with government being enabler and guarantor. 65th World Health Assembly, 2012 held in Geneva considered Universal health coverage as the

single most powerful concept that public health has to offer. Health indicators in India: One of the poorest in the world

India has one of the unhealthiest populations in the world. In our country about 79% children are anemic, 45% are malnourished and more than 50% children are underweight. India accounts for 25% of child mortality in the world. The Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) and Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR) in India are very high and so iS the number of un-institutional deliveries. The lifestyle diseases like hypertension, diabetes and cardiovascular diseases are also increasing in India. Need for Universal Health Coverage The right to good health is of paramount

importance. Its sad that we the worlds most populous democracy, cant guarantee that to our citizens. India has the most inequitable healthcare scenario feasible. India currently is facing the challenge of escalating cost of private health care.

The high insurance premiums are not affordable by the bulk of population. The cost of most of the life saving drug is also witnessing an upward trend. The government spending on healthcare is grossly inadequate in India. It spends about 1% of the total GDP on healthcare. This has led to very high out-of-pocket expenditure for the general public. This means that 78% of all spends on healthcare are out-of-pocket and 72% of this is on drugs alone. Its estimated that 39 million are forced into poverty every year because of these spends. Other Issues in India related to Public Health: The following are the other issues which are related to the Public Health in India:

1. About 10 to 25% of the drugs available in 2. There is a strong nexus between doctors and drug manufacturers/sellers. Doctors get tangible benefits by prescribing the drugs manufactured by a particular company. the market are spurious.

3. India does not have appropriate code for Medical shops selling Schedule drugs without 4. The prescription of the doctor rights of respected. 5. The billing of the patients in the private hospitals are very often non transparent. 6. There is a huge urban-rural divide in terms of quality health services. More than 50% of rural population does not have access to quality health services. 7. In states like Uttar Pradesh, the high level corruption cases are reported out of the funds of National Rural Health Mission India. 9. Doctor to Patient ratio is very inadequate in India, country. 1:300 10. The geographical presence of Medical is very unevenly distributed in Colleges it This ratio as prescribed by WHO is is about 1:1700 in our 8. The health infrastructure is very poor in patients are often not

South India. The presence of these colleges

India. About 80% of these are located in

is very low in North and North Eastern part of the country. 11. constraint Brain Drain is that the one of the major country is facing

regarding the doctors from the premium Indian institutions like AIIMS 12. At present Public Sector provides health care facilities to only 22% of the total population.

Suggestions for Universal Health Coverage in India: The following are the recommendations of the High Level Expert Group formed by Planning Commission for UHC.

1. It is essential to ensure availability of free essential medicines by increasing public spending on drug procurement. An increase in spending from present 0.1% to 0.5% of GDP essential drug and reduce out of the pocket expenditure. 2. The government must use general taxation as the principle source of health care would ensure universal access to

financing- plus deductions for the health care payers. from salaried individuals and tax

3. There should be no fees for use of health care services under UHC. 4. Majority of the health care spending should go for primary health care, curative services at primary levels, screening for risk factors at population level. 5. All Government funded insurance schemes should, over time, be integrated with UHC system, and a system of National Health 6. A National Health Package offering essential health services must be designed as part of citizen entitlement. 7. The government must facilitate well defined service sector as delivery provider under partnership and government with private as Entitlement Card must be introduced.

purchaser

strong

regulation,

accreditation and supervisory framework. 8. In urban areas to rationalize health services and focus on the health needs of poor.

9. To establish National Health Regulatory and Development Authority to regulate and monitor public and private health care providers with powers of enforcement and redress. 10. Train enough health care providers and

workers to achieve WHO density of at least 23 health workers per 10,000 population. Khap Panchayats By Davendra Sharma

Since ancient times, Indian society has been divided into a number of castes, each of which has its own code of social customs and traditions. This code was enforced through a body of caste elders just as the social behavior in respect of a village was controlled by village bodies or panchayats. In earlier times, the legal authority i.e. the King had neither the resources nor the inclination to interfere in internal matters of castes due to which these caste panchayats attained a

sort of independence and authority. However, with the advent of modernity and penetration of legal system in the rural society, these caste panchayats lost their prominence in most of the castes. However, in some cases it has survived to this day. Jats of Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh are one such community where such caste panchayats, known as khaps hold considerable influence. Some Important facts about Khaps Jat community has organized into clans based on their gotras. These are known as Khaps. Some of Rathi and Kalsiyan Chauhan. An the important Khaps are Baliyan, Ahlawat, Tomar, umbrella organization of all the Khaps is known as Sarv Khap. Khaps have existed since ancient times and their tradition claims that they fought a number of invaders to protect the country.

Presently, the Khaps do not have any legal status but exercise immense influence because of the communitys strong belief in traditions. The Khaps have positioned themselves as defenders of the

traditional social system particularly with respect to the choices of marriage. Institution of marriage in rural Hindu communities Almost all the upper and middle caste rural Hindu communities follow three basic rules in marriage. First is the caste endogamy, meaning everyone will marry in his own caste. Second is the gotra exogamy, meaning one will not marry within his gotras for the reason that members of a common gotra are descendants from a common ancestor and hence are therefore, brothers and sisters. Hence, in traditional sense, same gotra or sagotra marriages are treated as incest and not accepted by the society. Third one is the village exogamy as in rural societies of Hindi heartland, inhabitants of a village are treated as brothers and sisters. There is common saying in these areas that daughter of any person in the village irrespective of his caste is the daughter of whole village. This concept has also been extended to adjacent villages whose boundaries touch the village. Hence, marriages between boy and girl of same village or

adjacent villages is again considered incest and not acceptable to the society. Legally, these restrictions do not find any place in the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955. However, most of marriages in our country are arranged one, in which these rules are generally followed primarily for the sake of tradition and also due to the fact that these do not bring any harm to anyone. In fact, the third restriction i.e. village exogamy has to a certain extent helped in protecting girls in villages from sex-related crimes. However, as these restrictions do not have legal sanctions, individuals tend to violate these restrictions which brings adverse reactions from the rural society and as some of these violations, border on incest in traditional terms, the reactions from the family are also not favorable.

Position Position of Khaps on marriage Khaps have pitched themselves as defenders of tradition and have taken strong position against the violation of these restrictions. They have also demanded amendment in the Hindu Marriage Act,

1955 to bring such relationships in the category of prohibited relationships. However, society is a dynamic concept and not a static one; hence ancient practices of a particular social group have to seen in relation to the present reality and future trends. Ideally, a society should move from inequality to equality and from societal control to individual freedom along with a realization on part of the individual that freedom does not harm the social fabric. If these restrictions are seen in this context than it would be evident that restriction on inter caste marriages would be against the concept of equality as well as individual freedom, and hence any such restriction may not be in overall interest of the society. However, as far as sagotra marriages are concerned there is no question of social inequality as matter pertains to the same caste. Individual freedom can be said to an issue, but then it can be argued that no society gives absolute freedom in conjugal relations. In every society, certain relations are prohibited from conjugal relationship on the basis of customary traditions. In the instant

case these groups demand that this prohibition be extended to cover gotra and village. As regards the village exogamy, the concept has nothing negative and in fact places all the girls of the village irrespective of their caste at the same level and provides the only aspect of equality in an otherwise unequal society. However, the Khaps have taken up the issue in the wrong way. Instead of taking up their demands in a democratic and legal way, bullying and crime have been resorted to and in some cases, boys and girls who have violated these cases, families of these young people restrictions have been tortured and killed. In some have themselves participated in the crime. This is a worrisome and condemnable aspect. The Supreme recent case has taken a view that such killings come under the category of rarest of the rare and hence attract death penalty. As, view of the Supreme Court is the law of the land, some other courts have also awarded death penalties in a number of such cases. The negativity on behalf of Court has taken a note of the situation and in a

Khaps has given them a very bad image and has made any fruitful discussion on their demands impossible. Position of Khaps on other issues The mentality of present Khap leaders is feudal

and patriarchal and is specifically discriminating

against women. Areas under influence of these khaps have been notorious for female feticide and are characterized by low sex ratio. As per Census, 2011, sex ratio in Haryana is 877 which However, some elements of change have started appearing. Recently, in July this year, representatives of about 100 khaps joined in a mahapanchayat held at Bibipur village of Jind that this be treated as murder. One more welcome step at this Panchayat was the participation of women, some of whom shared dais with other Khap leaders. Recently, khaps have been in news due to reaction of one of its leaders on the recent incidents of district to condemn female feticide and demanded

is much below the national average of 940.

rape in Haryana. One of the Khap leaders, Sube Singh Samain, President of Samain Khap, suggested that marriageable age of girls should be lowered to 16 years to avoid such incidents. This has been condemned by all as it should have been without doubt. The issue was considered in the Khap mahapanchayat held on 13th October, 2012 in Sonepat, in which the proposal to reduce marraigeable age did not find favor, though the concerned leader stuck to his stand saying that this was his personal opinion. In this meeting the Khaps again reiterated their demands for amendments in the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955. Conclusion Over the years the Khaps have been demonized for their patriarchal and feudal attitude and it is not entirely wrong. However, mere criticism of Khaps is not sufficient. More importantly, the intention should be to find a solution. For, this we need to understand that Khap is not about a few individuals. It is about a mindset deep rooted in the traditions of the society. In order to change

this

mindset

for

good

it

is

necessary

to

understand the mindset as well as those traditions which have generated such a strong commitment that people kill their own children to protect the tradition. It needs to be considered whether there is a gap between the thinking of common man and the policy makers and intellectuals, and if yes what are the ways of bridging the gap. This requires an objective assessment of social aspects discussion of Khap has about dominated been takes areas, lacking place as only which the in unfortunately since Khaps

emotionally charged atmosphere. Panchayat held at Bibipur in July and more recently at Sonepat gives us some hope as it indicates that a section among the Khaps wants to more justified and humane. The incidents may be just a small step, but it shows us the path. Unfortunately, the media and the intellectuals have not been able to capitalize on this starting as the primary interest has been in criticizing the Khaps and not in finding a solution. This negativity needs to be shed and efforts should be made by the

Government, media and intelligentsia to support these progressive elements and to initiate a sensible discussion on the demands of the Khaps. Koyoto Protocol

Need of a global warming protocol In 1992, countries joined an international treaty, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate do to limit average global temperature increases and the resulting climate change, and to cope with whatever impacts were, by then, inevitable. By 1995 countries provisions They in realized the launched that Convention negotiations emission were to Change, to cooperatively consider what they could

reductions inadequate.

strengthen the global response to climate change, The Kyoto Protocol legally binds developed countries

and, two years later, adopted the Kyoto Protocol. to emission reduction targets. The Protocols first commitment period started in 2008 and ends in 2012.

The Kyoto Protocol The Kyoto Protocol is a protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC or FCCC), aimed at fighting global warming. It is an international agreement linked to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate is that it sets binding targets for 37 Change. The major feature of the Kyoto Protocol industrialized countries and the European community for reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions . These amount to an average of 5 % against 1990 levels over the five-year period 2008-2012.The major distinction between the Protocol and the Convention is that while the Convention encouraged industrialised countries to stabilize GHG emissions, the Protocol commits them to do so.

Recognizing that developed countries are principally responsible for the current high levels of GHG emissions in the atmosphere as a result of more than 150 years of industrial activity, the Protocol places a heavier burden on developed nations

under the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities. The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005. The detailed rules for the implementation of the Protocol were adopted at COP Marrakesh Accords. The Kyoto mechanisms Under the Treaty, countries must meet their targets However, primarily the through Protocol national offers measures. them an Kyoto 7 in Marrakesh in 2001, and are called the

additional means of meeting their targets by way of three market-based mechanisms. The Kyoto mechanisms are: 1. Emissions trading - known as the carbon market 2. Clean development mechanism (CDM) 3. Joint implementation (Jl).

The mechanisms help stimulate green investment and help Parties meet their emission targets in a cost-effective way. As of September 2011, 191 states nave signed and ratified the protocol. The only remaining signatory not to have ratified the protocol is the United States. Other United Nations member In

states, which did not ratify the protocol, are Afghanistan, Andorra and South Sudan. December 2011, Canada denounced the Protocol. Under the Protocol, 37 countries (Annex I four greenhouse gases (GHG) (carbon dioxide, groups of gases (hydrofluorocarbons by them, countries) commit themselves to a reduction of

methane, nitrous oxide, sulphur hexafluoride) and perfluorocarbons) produced

two and all

and

member countries give general commitments. At negotiations, Annex I countries (including the

US) collectively agreed to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions by 5.2% on average for the period 2008-2012. This reduction is relative to their annual emissions in a base year, usually 1990.

Since the US has not ratified the treaty, the collective emissions reduction of Annex I Kyoto countries falls from 5.2% to 4.2% below base year.

Emission

limits

do

not

include

emissions

by

international aviation and shipping, but are in or CFCs, which are dealt with under the 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer. The benchmark 1990-emission levels accepted by the Conference of the Parties of

addition to the industrial gases, chlorofluorocarbons,

UNFCCC

(decision 2/CP.3) were the values of global warming potential calculated for the IPCC Second Assessment Report. These figures are used for comparable C02 equivalents (C02-eq) converting the various greenhouse gas emissions into when computing overall sources and sinks. The Protocol allows/or mechanism several (CDM) flexible and joint

mechanisms, such as emissions trading, the clean development implementation to allow Annex I countries to meet

their GHG emission limitations by purchasing GHG emission reductions credits from elsewhere, through financial exchanges, projects that reduce emissions countries, or from annex I countries with excess allowances. Each Annex I country is required to submit an annual report of inventories of all anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions from sources and removals from sinks under UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol. These countries nominate a person (called a designated national authority) to create and manage its greenhouse gas inventory. Virtually all of the non-Annex I countries have also established a designated national authority to manage its Kyoto determines which GHG projects they wish to propose for accreditation by the CDM Executive Board. Annex I, Annex II and Developing countries Annex I countries (industrialized countries and economies in transition) which have ratified the obligations, specifically the CDM process that in non-Annex I countries, from other Annex I

Protocol have committed to reduce their emission levels of greenhouse gasses to targets that are mainly set below their 1990 levels. They may do major operators within their borders. These operators can only exceed their allocations if they buy emission allowances, or offset their excesses through a mechanism that is agreed by all the parties to UNFCCC. Annex 11 countries (developed countries that pay for costs of developing countries) are a sub-group of the Annex I countries. They comprise the OECD transition in 1992. Developing countries are not required to reduce emission levels unless developed countries supply enough purposes:

this by allocating reduced annual allowances to the

members, excluding those that were economies in

funding

and

technology.

Setting

no

immediate restrictions under UNFCCC serves three

it avoids restrictions on their development, because emissions are strongly linked to industrial capacity

1. they can sell emissions credits to nations whose operators have difficulty meeting their.emissions targets

2. they get money and technologies for lowcarbon investments from Annex II countries. Developing countries may volunteer to become

Annex I countries when they are sufficiently developed.nThere are 41 Annex I countries with European Union, and 23 Annex II countries.

Turkey was removed from the Annex II list in 2001 at its request to recognize its economy as a transition economy. These countries are classified as developed countries, which pay for costs of developing countries. Indias per capita C02 emissions are much lower countries even if historical emissions are excluded. Nevertheless, India has already taken a number of actions on voluntary basis with own resources in pursuance of a sustainable development strategy. Like adoption of the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) in 2008 which has both

(1.52 C02 tons) than those of the developed

mitigation and adaptation measures an announcement of a domestic goal of reducing the emission intensity of its GDP by 20-25 per cent of the 2005 level by 2020 is a noteworthy measure. Emissions trading An emission trading is a market-based approach used to control pollution by providing economic incentives for achieving reductions in the emissions of governmental body) sets a limit or cap on the pollutants. A central authority (usually a

amount of a pollutant that may be emitted. The limit or cap is allocated or sold to firms in the form of emissions permits, which represent the right to emit or discharge a specific volume of the specified pollutant. Firms are required to hold a number of permits (or carbon credits) equivalent to

their emissions. The total number of permits cannot exceed the cap, limiting total emissions to that

level. Firms that need to increase their emission permits must buy permits from those who require fewer permits.

The transfer of permits is referred as a trade. In effect, the buyer is paying a charge for polluting, while the seller is being rewarded for having reduced emissions. Thus, in theory, those who can reduce emissions most cheaply will do so, achieving the pollution reduction at the lowest cost to society. There are active trading programs in several air pollutants. For greenhouse gases, the largest is the whose European purpose Union is to Emission avoid Trading dangerous Scheme, climate

change. In the United States, there is a national market to reduce acid rain and several regional markets in nitrogen oxides. Carbon emissions trading Under the UNFCCC, countries are permitted to use a trading system to help meet their emissions targets. In principle, a country may allocate permits quantity of greenhouse gases. If permits are only issued to a level equal to or below the assigned amount, then a country should meet its Kyoto to individual companies for the emission of a certain

commitment (assuming that the measures of its emissions are accurate). If a country is incapable of meeting its target, it can buy permits from countries that are under their targets. Similarly, companies within a country that prove more able to reduce their emissions are allowed to trade excess permits to other, more polluting, enterprises. Carbon Finance Carbon finance is a new branch of Environmental finance. Carbon finance explores the financial implications of living in a carbon-constrained world, a world in which emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases (GHGs) carry a price. Carbon Foot Print A Corbon foot print measures the total G.H.G emissions caused directly and indirectly by a person, organisation, event or product. The corbon foot print consider all six of the Kyoto protocol greenhouse gases. A corbon foot print mesured in tonnes of corbondioxide equivalent (tCO2e).

Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM),

defined in Article 12 of the Protocol, allows a country with an emission-reduction or emissionlimitation (Annex commitment B Party) under to the Kyoto an Protocol emissionimplement

reduction project in developing countries. Such projects can earn saleable certified emission reduction (CER) credits, each equivalent to one tonne of C02, which can be counted towards meeting Kyoto targets. The mechanism is seen by many as a trailblazer. It is the first global, environmental investment and credit scheme of its kind, providing a standardized emission offset instrument, CERs. A CDM project activity might involve, for example, a rural electrification project using solar panels or the installation of more energy-efficient boilers. The mechanism stimulates sustainable development and emission reductions, while giving industrialized

countries some flexibility in how they meet their emission reduction or limitation targets. India and CDM As on 31 December 2011, 776 out of a total of Executive Board are from India, which so far is the second highest for any country in the world. China leads with 1790 registered projects and Brazil has 200 projects registered. Also, as on 31 December 2011, the National CDM Authority (NCDMA) has accorded host country approval to than ' 364,034 crore. These projects are in the sectors of energy efficiency, municipal fuel solid switching, waste, industrial processes, and renewable energy, 2160 projects facilitating an investment of more 3797 projects registered by the CDM

forestry. If all these projects get registered by the CDM Executive Board, they have the potential of generating 711 million certified emission reductions (CERs) by the year 2012. At a conservative price of US$ 10 per CER, it adds up to an overall inflow of approximately US$ 7.11

billion in the country by the year 2012 if all the projects get registered. As on date CERs issued to Indian projects are 124 million. Delhi Metro Rail Corporation (DMRC): Worlds first rail network to be registered under the CDM scheme: The DMRC is the worlds first rail network to be registered at the UNFCCC under the CDM scheme. The DMRC registered two (also called projects till date, namely: Regenerative Braking has a)

Emission Reduction by Low GHG Emitting Vehicles registered on 29.12.2007 and b) Metro Delhi, India (also called Modal Shift Project) registered on 30 June 2011. It is expected that around an average 41,160 CERs per annum for next 10 years will be generated from Regenerative Braking Project and around an average of 5, 29,043 generated from the Modal Shift project. Joint implementation The mechanism known as joint implementation, defined in Article 6 of the Kyoto Protocol, allows CERs per annum for next 7 years will be project)

a country with an emission reduction or limitation commitment under the Kyoto Protocol (Annex B Party) to earn emission reduction units (ERUs) from an emission-reduction or emission removal project in another Annex B Party, each equivalent to one tonne of C02, which can be counted towards meeting its Kyoto target. Joint implementation offers Parties a flexible and cost-efficient means while the host Party benefits from of fulfilling a part of their Kyoto commitments, foreign investment and technology transfer. Common but differentiated responsibility The UNFCCC adopts a principle of common but differentiated responsibilities. The parties agreed that: 1. The largest share of historical and current global emissions of greenhouse gases originated 2. Per capita emissions in developing countries are still relatively low; in developed countries;

The share ofSchedule ofSchedule Tribes in India By Davendra Sharma

Concept of tribe needs to be understood as a stage of social evolution which preceded the state and civilization. These are those groups which have

either been left behind in the course of civilization or have been pushed to the margins by the expansion of the state. A tribe, as a social group is closed and endogamous. The society is largely or relationship. Economy is simple and self egalitarian and tribal authority is based on kinship sufficient, without much division of labour. Usually, the tribes have geographical affiliations and have a deep religious, cultural and emotional bonding with their habitat.

Schedule Tribes: Indian Context In Indian context, tribes consist of those social groups which do not fall under general pattern of classification. Such tribes have existed since ancient times at the margins of Hindu civilization.

However, these margins have been fluctuating and vague. The classification is difficult due to the concept of caste and the fact that differences between the caste and the tribe are again vague though term tribe is usually associated with the people living in hills and forests. In view of the poor condition of these groups, a view developed that these should be given some preferential treatment. This required their classification.

Although, a tribe has no where been defined in the law, as per the Ministry of Tribal Affairs, essential characteristics of a tribe are primitive development, geographical isolation, distinct culture, shy of contact with community at large and economically backward. Article 342 of the Constitution of India provides for notification of such groups as Scheduled Tribes which are listed in Sixth Schedule of the Constitution. Presently, more than 500 such groups have been recognized as Scheduled Tribes out of which 75 have been identified as Particularly Vulnerable important facts about Indian tribes are as under: Tribal Groups or Primitive Tribal Groups. Some

Tribal people account for more than 8% percent of our total population and occupy about 15% of the area. scheduled tribes out of which 75 have been identified as Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups or Primitive Tribal Groups.

Presently

there

are

more

than

533

This population is spread in various parts of the country, Most in though of the concentration ST population that states is is are and uneven. Madhya the seven

concentrated Gujarat,

Pradesh,

Rajasthan, Two

Maharashtra,

Jharkhand Punjab

Orissa, and

Chhattisgarh.

states,

Haryana and three UTs, Delhi, Puducherry and Chandigarh have no ST population.

groups.

Indian Tribes are from different racial Tribes of Andaman & Nicobar

Islands are believed to be Negritos, those like Mundas in Central India are Australoid; tribes of North East and Himalayan region are Mongoloid while Brokpas in the Himalayan region are of Caucasian origin.

Big tribes like Gonds and Bhils number in millions while some like Great Andamanese number less than hundred.

Some of these like the Gonds and Meenas have, in the past ruled over extensive territories.

Relations with the mainstream Although such secluded tribes have been a part of Indian society since ancient times, the mainstream does not seem to have taken a favorable view about them though they were not treated as low as been the difference in religion and untouchables. Main reason for disliking must have the unwillingness of these societies to assimilate in Hindu religion and culture. Tribal represented an antithesis to the Brahman and hence invited neglect and contempt in Brahamnic traditions, not withstanding the fact that knowledge of Brahmanic scholars about these tribes was extremely limited. However, due to large size of subcontinent and no pressure of population, there was no cause of friction. Mostly, the tribes were left to themselves

and were free to practice their own religion and culture as well as to use their habitat for their livelihood like hunting and gathering, grazing and shifting cultivation.

However, situation changed during colonial period. The British administrators had no idea about living conditions of these tribes. Whatever little

knowledge they got, came through Brahmanic and Sanskrit traditions which held negative views about the tribes. This coupled with the desire of colonial administration specifically insensitive approach to these sections. A the rights of forests in the state to maximize profits, led to a

series of Forest Acts was enacted which rested thereby restricting the traditional rights of the tribal people. This shattered the economic base of the tribes. In an economy which was only at selfsustainment levels, the effects were devastating. Economic problems led to increase in usury and moneylenders and contactors made profits at the expense of simple tribal people.

This led to a series of revolts out of which Santhal and Munda revolts were prominent. The revolts were brutally crushed and exploitation of the tribal people continued. As a result, these groups which were already backward sank into deplorable conditions, which made necessary some positive discrimination in their favour. Isses with Schedule Tribes

Land alienation has been the most important problem being faced by the tribal people. This had started in the colonial period itself with the enacting of the Forest Acts and opening of mines in tribal people areas. Expansion of railways came at a heavy cost to the forests. All this caused destitution and displacement among the tribal people. During the period moneylenders became

active in tribal people areas and started usurping land of the tribal people resulting in land alienation at an unprecedented level.

Land alienation has continued in the post independence period in the name of

development projects, though the Government is more conscious about the humanitarian and rehabilitation aspects.

Tribal economy is essentially intended for self sustainment. Primitive technology is used for production which does not have much profit earning capacity. As a result large numbers of tribal people live below poverty line. In 2004-05, percentage of urban and rural population below poverty line was 16% and 16.1% for general people while for tribal people it was 39.9% and 47.2%.

Status of education differs from tribe to were also lagging behind in literacy rate which in 2001 was 64.84% for all social groups and 47.1% for ST. Drop out rates

tribe. However, as a group, these tribes

are high for a number of reason one of which is that medium of instruction different from the tribal language and the curriculum neither suits their needs nor is comprehensible to them.

is

Health is another cause of concern among these groups. Water borne diseases and

malnutrition are rampant leading to deficiency diseases. In 2005-06, infant mortality rate, which was 48.9 for other population was 62.1 for STs. Child mortality rate STs. Legal provisions and Governmental Governmental Interventions Constitutional safeguards have been provided for stopping exploitation of these people and to ensure equality are listed below.

which was 10.8 for others was 35.8 for

Seats are to be reserved for them in legislature. Further, 7.5% of the government jobs have been reserved for Scheduled Tribes.

Certain

areas

have

been

notified

as

Scheduled Areas. This allows the Government to frame certain regulations like restriction on transfer on land and regulation of money lending business in such areas.

Forest Rights Act was enacted in 2006 as per which forest dwelling scheduled tribes and other traditional forest dwellers were

granted certain rights in forests. The said act has recently been amended in 2012 for its effective implementation and removal of impediments.

Many

schemes

under

Ministry

of

Tribal

Affairs have been started which included establishment of schools, girls & boys hostels and vocational training institutions in tribal people areas. Schemes have also initiated for providing scholarship for ST students at various levels.

been

A comprehensive scheme has been launched for welfare for Particularly Vulnerable Tribal people Groups.

National

Scheduled

Tribe

Finance

and

Development Corporation has been formed at the Centre with the similar structure in the states/ employment generating schemes/projects and U.Ts. for providing support for

for providing training to the tribal people. The corporation sanctioned more than Rs.192 crores during the year 2011-12.

National Commission for Scheduled Tribes was established in 2004 for enquiring into the

specific complaints as well as monitor the rights and safeguards of the tribal people.

Tribal

Federation of India Limited (TRIFED) was set in 1987 for the purpose of creating market for tribal people products. TRIFED established India and exclusive has showrooms also taken for up tribal other people products under the name Tribes

Cooperative

Marketing

Development

promotional activities. Conclusion An important question that always arises in context of tribes is that whether extreme these ends. should A be assimilated or preserved. However, both these situations course would to provide them capabilities by way of represent better

a better standard of living and modern education so that they can themselves decide the future course. The policies of the government are intended in this direction with support both to the TRIFED as well as promoting modern

traditional ways of production through organizations like

education. Although, some progress has been made, gap in the Human Development Indicators show that much more needs to be done for which consistent efforts are required.

global emissions originating in developing countries will grow to meet social and development needsPlanning: needsPlanning: changing contours and the future

The making of major economic decisions what and how much is to be produced, and to whom it is to be allocated by the conscious decisions of a determinate authority, on the basis of a

comprehensive survey of the economic system as a whole is known as Planning. In simple words, Planning means strategy for the achievement of certain desirable goals in diverse sectors of the economy within a specified period

with a view to make best possible use of the limited available resources. Imperative Planning Vs Indicative Indicative Planning Imperative planning is a type of planning where all economic activities and resources of the economy operate under the direction of the state. There is complete control over the factors of production by the state. The entire resources of the country are used to the in a ma nner to fulfil the targets of the plan. In indicative planning the private sector is neither rigidly controlled nor directed to fulfil the targets and priorities of the plan. The state provides all types of facilities to the private sector but does not direct it, rather indicates the areas in which it can help in implementing the plan. Centralized Planning Vs Decentralize Planning Centralized planning is based on the top down approach where a central authority is the supreme decision making body. The principle problems of the

economy what and how much to produce, how and for whom to be produced etc are decided and directed from the above by this authority. The control and regulation. On the other hand, decentralized planning is plan is formulated by the central planning authority in consultation with the different administrative units of the country. The central plan incorporates plans under the central schemes, and plans for the states under a federal set-up. The state plans incorporate district and village level plans which are formulated at the respective levels. Rolling and Fixed Plans In a rolling plan, every year three new plans are made and acted upon. First, there is a plan for the current year which includes the annual budget and the foreign exchange budget. Second, there is a plan for a number of years, say three, four or five. Third, a perspective plan for 10, 15 or entire planning process is based on bureaucratic

based upon the bottom up approach. Under it, a

20 or even more years is presented every year in which the broader goals are stated and the outlines of future development are forecast. In contrast to the rolling plan, there is a fixed plan for four, five, six or seven years. A fixed plan lays down definite aims and objectives which period. For this purpose, physical targets are fixed along with the total outlay. Planning in India: The changing contours in post reform era After independence India adopted the centralized and imperative planning. Planning commission was formed in 1950 and a state led development strategy was formulated. In this strategy the government was seen as the principal actor in development, strict control was exercised over sector was ensured by means of investment in the heavy industries and important industries were reserved for the public sector. The private sector private investment, dominant role for the public are required to be achieved during the plan

was strictly regulated trough various bureaucratic controls. The trade policies were also inward looking social through a tight control over the imports. For the sector the trickle-down theory was deemed fit. The economic policy of the country underwent a sea change in 1991 and the country adhered to the if path the of liberalization, is required privatization in the era and of globalization. In this context there was a debate liberalization or privatization. Critics of Planning were of the view that Planning wouldnt allow the markets to function efficiently and properly, thus would retard the growth. The debate of Planning V/s No-planning was settled in the favour of Planning but with an altered role i.e. from Imperative Planning to Indicative Planning. The following are the reasons to adopt the Indicative Planning:

and import substitution was

encouraged

Planning

The

markets

inherently

are

not

people

friendly. It is through an efficient framework

of the state this non-friendliness towards the people can be checked and curtailed.

The market would be unwilling to enter into those sectors and ventures where returns are not lucrative. Thus state has to essentially take care of these sectors. These sectors include infrastructure, rural health and education.

the

State through Planning should provide legal framework and macroeconomic policies relating to trade and commerce, exchange rate, interest rate etc.

In our country still the bulk of population cannot afford goods and services at the market rate. The government interventions are required for emancipation of this population.

Decentralized Decentralized Planning in post reform era In the post reform it was realized that one of the major reason behind failure of various developmental schemes was inadequate and inappropriate address to the local issues. It was realized that the

centralized planners and planning agencies were not able to capture the local aspirations and need. As programme suffer from leakages could not produce the desired impact. Thus the need for decentralized planning was realized. Reasons

result

the

developmental

schemes

and

India is the homeland of 125 crore people. The size of few states and their population are countries. Through centralized planning it is the needs and aspirations of the people. even greater than various European

practically impossible to efficiently Plan as per

In order to ensure optimum utilization of the resources and to attain the desirable level of growth that is inclusive, the participation of people is essential. So a bottom up approach in planning is essential.

The decades of centralized planning failed to produce the desirable impact on the unprivileged and weaker sections of society. Thus the strategy requires a change. the

Arrangements for decentralize Planning in post reform era The following arrangements are made in the post reform era to facilitate the decentralize Planning:

73rd and 74th constitutional amendments are landmark in terms of the decentralize Planning. These amendments give constitutional status to the institutions of decentralize Planning. Article 243 D and 243 E talk about formation of district Planning committee and metropolitan Planning committee respectively.

Likewise Article 243G and 243W gives constitutional status to Panchyat Planning unit and municipal Planning unit.

The

11th and 18 subjects under 12th Schedule urban local bodies respectively. Hurdles in decentralize Planning

legislation

for

29

subjects

under

of the constitutions are given to Panchyat and

In spite of the constitutional amendments and the realization of the need for the decentralize Planning, the Planning in India has continued to be predominantly centralized in nature. Thus the

Planning in India is structurally decentralized but are the hurdles which have made decentralize planning in India a mere facade:

continue to be functionally centralized. centralized The following

Although the local Planning bodies have been given constitutional status, the higher Planning bodies like Planning Commission and State Planning Commission are free to reject or modify the planning proposals from the local bodies even without consultation with them.

The local Planning bodies are financially not viable and are dependent on the higher level bodies.

The subjects allocated to the Panchyat and urban local bodies are not properly devolved by the most of the state governments.

Planning

Commission

and

National

Development

Council (NDC) Planning Commission though is a non statutory as well as an extra constitutional body which was 1950. It is the advisory body for formulating development directives of the National Development Council formed as the result of the executive order in

plans and policies of the country under the (NDC). It explores and allocates resources for economic development and works as a central agency for monitoring and evaluation of development plans, policies and programs.

for

The National National Development Council is the apex body decision making and deliberations

development matters in India, presided over by the Minister, the Union Cabinet Ministers, and Chief Ministers of all States or their

on

Prime Minister. The Council comprises the Prime substitutes,

representatives of the union territories and the members of the Commissions.

The functions of the Council are: 1. To prescribe guidelines for the formulation of the National Plan, including the assessment of resources for the Plan; 2. To consider the National Plan as formulated 3. To consider important questions of social and economic policy affecting national development; and 4. To review the working of the Plan from time to time and to recommend such measures as targets set out in the National Plan. The Planning Commission formulates the plan which is sent to the NDC for its approval. After the approval from NDC, the plan is put before the parliament for the approval. However it is a general practice that it does not require voting but only a general consensus is made. are necessary for achieving the aims and by the Planning Commission;

Loopholes in the structure and function of Planning Commission The following are the loopholes in the structure and functions of the Planning Commission:

The Planning Commission has absolute freedom to reject or modify the proposals from the lower level planning bodies. This has made decentralize planning as mere an eye wash.

Planning extra

Commission is constitutional

non statutory which at

and times

body

overshadows various statutory and constitutional bodies as well.

Planning

Commission

encroach

into

the

subjects which are in the list of state governments and local bodies.

Since Prime minister and cabinet ministers are present in the Planning Commission, it involves in certain executive functions as well.

Few critics have termed it as Supercabinet also because of the presence of the Prime minister and the cabinet ministers.

Many decisions in the Planning commission are driven by politics rather than by technical expertise.

Suggestions to make Planning Commission more effective

The Planning Commission should be divested of its executive function, so that it may concentrate on the planning and evaluation functions

The number of members should not be more than seven and term of the office should be five years

Ministers should not be appointed as members of the Commission. The Prime Minister has to be closely

associated with the working of the commission without being its chairman

The

future

role

of

Planning

Commission

in

21st century

The Planning Commission needs to play a State, market and civil society in order to accelerate the pace of development. synergizing role among the three actors i.e.

The Planning Commission needs to act like a facilitator and create the level playing field in order to attract investment and divert it to the diverse sectors and regions.

Infrastructure, social sector and agrarian sector Planning resources. are three areas for which to the Commission needs mobilize

The agenda of environment protection and Climate change should be addressed by the Planning Commission, however without compromising on the growth.

Censoring the Social Media

propaganda to induce communal disharmony have "Should there be control over the social media by the governmental agencies"'? This initiated when the government blocked more than 300 items on the Internet, including Twitter handles, Facebook pages, YouTube videos, blog posts, pages of certain websites, and in some cases entire websites. These items have were blocked as they were accused to contain the hate

The use of Social Media in the recent past as a

given birth to a new debate in the country, i.e. debate

speech that posed a threat to communal harmony in the country These web sources have been alleged of posting edited images and videos of earthquake victims and falsely claiming that the images were of Muslim victims caught in recent ethnic conflict in Indias northeastern Assam state and in Myanmar. A number of the images were reportedly uploaded from Pakistan.

To understand the issue properly the two terms need to be clarified i.e. "What is Social Media?" and " What is Hate Speech?". What is Social Media? The best way to define social media is to break it down. Media is an instrument on communication, like a newspaper or a radio, so social media would be a social instrument of communication. Social media is different from the traditional media as is a two-way street that gives the users the ability to communicate too.

The attribute that distinguish Social Media from the traditional media is its ability to give an equal opportunity to every community member for content creation. For example in the traditional media like newspapers, radio, Televisions there is no or limited scope for a common man to contribute, while in the case of social media every user can media has converted a common man from the consumer of content to the consumer as well as producer of the content. contribute in terms of content. Thus the social

What is hate speech? Hate speech is a term for speech intended to degrade person or group of people based on their race, gender, age, ethnicity, nationality, religion, sexual orientation, gender identity, hair disability, language ability, ideology, social class, occupation, appearance (height, weight, color, etc.), mental capacity, and any other distinction that might be considered by some as a liability. In law, hate speech is any speech, gesture or

conduct, writing, or display which is forbidden because it may incite violence or prejudicial action against or by a protected individual or group, or because it disparages or intimidates a protected individual or group. The debate The debate initiated in India after the large scale ethnic violence in Assam, when as a propaganda, social media was used to mobilize Muslims across the country to incite violence on the people from the North East in general and Assam

in

particular

who

were

accused

of

targeting

Muslims in the ethnic violence. forged images and video

To make the content was

propaganda "effective" on the social media, some manipulated. The panic that resulted from such content and subsequently from mobile text messages threatening communal retribution caused massive exodus of the North Eastern migrants from South Indian cities of Bangalore, Hyderabad and Chennai recently in August 2012. They feared that Muslims would answer the false reports with attacks of their own. This was the first time the Internet and mobile-phone technology have been used to create fear in a community.

To counter this propaganda on the social media, governmental agencies blocked various items on the internet. This media, freedom of expression, and the control of the Government on the social media among others. Opinions are divided on where there should be control over the social media or not. Censoring of Social Media: Arguments Against has sparked a debate on social

1. The traditional media is gradually losing its credibility as it has become mouth piece of authoritarian regimes and big corporate houses. The cases of "Paid News" have become very rampant. The "sensationalism" and "Breaking News" have become new buzz word for the traditional media. Thus social media has become much more democratic and reliable source of information. Censoring of Social Media would thus curb its democratic credentials. 2. Authoritarian governments often shut down social networks. If democracies do the same, they are also curbing freedoms. 3. If the curbing of the Social Media is institutionalized, the Governments of the day will find it very easy to block the social media Government content policy, which actions is critical etc. of The the

government can use it as an instrument against the political opponents. 4. In India, there are growing tendencies of intolerance like banning of books, arrival of writers, work of art etc. The archaic

Sedition laws of colonial regime are frequently slapped against the thinkers, artists etc. The cases in points are Binayak Sen and Aseem Trivedi. The curbing of social media would give fillip to intolerant tendencies of these kind. Censoring of Social Media: Arguments For 1. Freedom protected of by speech article and 19 expression (1) of is the

constitution of India, but under article 19(2) freedom of speech and expression in the

"reasonable restrictions" can be imposed on interest of "the sovereignty and integrity of India, the security of the State, friendly relations with foreign States, public order, decency or morality, or in relation to contempt of court, defamation or incitement to an offence. Since there are reasonable restrictions on expression of every kind, the 2. The Social Media cannot be an exception. essence of Social Media is

democratization of content that is created by

user. However, the propagagnda like hate speech and manipulation of content, images and videos is itself against the democratic credentials of the Social Media. Thus reasonable restrictions are required. 3. False rumours can spread like wildfire and sow panic. Tweets about gunmen attacking schools in Mexico allegedly led to 26 car crashes some time back. The same was true in the case of mass exodus of people from North East from South Indian cities fearing attack by Muslims. Thus there should be mechanism to curb rumours and propaganda which harm the social fabric. Conclusion Right to expression is not an absolute right in any country including India and is subject to reasonable restrictions. The same must be applicable for the Social Media. The essence of Social Media is democratic content that is created by users, there other media. must be reasonable restrictions on this like any

In this information age when the Acts like Right to Information are legitimizing citizens to acrrue the information, the Social Media must follow this trend. However there must be some restriction on the flow on "wrong" or "manipulated" information which can be detrimental for the society and its socio-cultural frabric. The government should come up with the objective definition of the "restricted with the same. There should not be any scope of "discretion" and "arbitrary actions" by the governmental agencies. India does not even have a national cyber-security policy. We do not have any plan of action, should this kind of emergency happen again. India needs to have its own cyber army of cyber warriors. Caste and Politics and objectionable information" and laws to deal

Caste is a social concept indicating divisions in the society while politics is a political concept regarding governing the society. The two have never existed

in separation of each other, reason being that politics cannot exist in vacuum and needs a society to work upon. Whenever, there are changes in one of these aspects, the same are likely to affect the other. After independence, the country

adopted democracy which was a new form of Government and brought in a new kind of politics. This change in politics affected the caste system both the social as well as political front. Changes are inevitable during any kind of transformation, but it is also necessary that those changes which are harmful to the society are discarded by exhibiting necessary political will. In India, caste system is a very complex one, with a large number of vertical and horizontal alignments and in order to understand the impact of relationship between caste and politics, we need to first understand both of these concepts. Indian Caste System Traditional Hindu society has been divided into four varnas. Out of these, apart from the Brahmans, and itself got affected leading to changes at the

the other three varnas and those outside the pale of the varna system are further sub divided into castes whose numbers run into thousands. Caste system in India has the characteristics: 1. Caste is the functional unit of the social system and at times functions independently of the varna. marriage It is a closed and group having endogamy following

practicing

certain ritualistic status. 2. Although some castes were formed by way of assimilation of other tribes or sects, the primary basis of formation of caste was division period. of labour and must have been influenced by shrenis or guilds of ancient 3. However, in due course of time the caste became hereditary and did not change with the change of profession. For example, a number of Rajputs took to farming but have still retained their Kshatriya status. On the other hand, taking up of military service by

members of lower caste did not improve their social status. 4. Caste has been the subject of maximum loyalty. While there have been the instances there are no instances of individuals moving up the social ladder separately from their 5. The system had such an impact that it carried of lower itself even when even in the individuals and changed their religion and we have instances castes Muslims Christians. Muslims are divided into Ashraf (exalted or high born and having foreign descent) and Ajlaf (inferior or low born and mostly Hindu converts who mostly retained their professions). Similarly caste status was retained by some Christian groups in South India and also by Christians converted by Portuguese in Goa. 6. Dominating status of particular caste does not depend on its vertical position in the caste hierarchy. As economy was and to a certain extent is still agrarian, land holding caste. of upward mobility of castes as a whole,

determined which caste would dominate a village or a region. The caste holding most of the agricultural land of the village was the dominant caste of the village. A group of villages having same dominant caste formed a region dominated by a particular caste. 7. This domination was disliked by other castes in varying degrees, however as the resources were in the hands of the dominant caste, earlier days. 8. With the advent other of other avenues became of more employment, castes hardly anything could be done about it in

independent and starting protesting against tried to maintain their domination. This

the dominant caste which on the other hand resulted in social tensions and polarization 9. In a number of large regions, different castes had different pockets of influence. This led to competitions between these groups as well. For a number of decades after independence, Brahmans and Rajputs fought for political domination in eastern UP, situation along caste lines.

changing only when backward classes and dalits came to the forefront pushing both these communities to the background. Politics of Uttarakhand is still influenced by the struggle of domination between Brahmans and Thakurs.

Indian Politics Politics is the art of acquiring or retaining the authority to rule, hence the desire to rule is the most prominent desire of a politician. Although, there have been idealistic exhortations about what a good ruler ought to do or not to do, a pragmatic view of politics has been outlined by Machiavelli in his book The Prince which came up in the renaissance period in Europe. He had no doubts about the selfishness of the individual and

according to him good or evil are only means to an end that is acquiring and retaining political power. In a democratic set up like India, political power had to be acquired through elections and to win elections; one had to be popular among the people.

As caste was an important social reality, it could not have been ignored nor was it desirable to do so. A large section of the society had been discriminated for long on the basis of caste and it was required that social justice should be done in respect of these castes. It was expected that effects of newly found political power and democratic process would percolate down gradually further towards a casteless society. However, it did not go that way and at some Machiavellian politics raised its

leading the country towards social justice and

stage,

head.

Instead of walking towards social transformation, the political establishment contended itself from the electoral loyalty of a caste or a number of castes. In due course, a patron-client relationship was adopted in which the leader gave favors to those castes which supported him. This put an end to the process of social transformation as most of the benefits were likely to go to the dominant community. Society merged with polity and those

oppressed or harassed by one of these could not go to the other as both had become the same.

This led to a reaction from other castes which also organized themselves on caste lines and made a bid for political power. Impact of using caste in politics This has made the political parties complacent as more easily by taking the support of the dominant caste or forging an alliance between castes. 1. This has deepened the fissures in the society and has escalated social tensions. 2. This has also hampered the growth of a national perspective due to which local issues 3. A number of political parties have grown up which represent only a particular caste or combination of castes. For example, BSP is a party of Dalits, RJD and SP are perceived to represent the Yadavs while RLD UP. 4. This hampers the objective assessment of a politician. This has helped the political parties is supposed to represent Jats in Western take precedence over national issues.

they now understand that elections can be won

in

fielding

candidates

with

criminal

and

dubious credentials as support of electorate is based not on merits but on the caste of the individual. 5. This has hampered development of pressure groups on occupational grounds. For example, farmers all the over the country suffer from same kind of problems i.e. lack of credit, improper marketing facilities , lack of modern techniques like soil testing etc. and lack of infrastructure. However, the farmers despite being the largest occupational group have not been able to unite as a pressure group because they can be easily divided by playing the caste card. 6. Politicalisation of castes tends to bring political power to the caste system which is a remnant of outdated and backward looking feudal system. This strengthening of caste system prevents social reforms. An example is the opposition of some of the caste based parties to the Women Reservation Bill. Future

Democracy governing

ensures process

public through

participation a system

in of

the adult

franchise. However, in order to successful, it is

also imperative that this political equality is matched by social and economic equality. This needs efforts from both the political class and society. While the political class needs to be firm in its approach, efforts of some politicians for taking undue benefit the electorate. Efforts from intellectuals, media and other social organizations can go a long way in forming public opinion in this regard. Action need to be directed towards supporting the people suffering from the evil of the caste system but the system in itself needs to be done away with. 3. Naxalism of the situation should be out rightly rejected by

Naxalism: Meaning and Rise Naxalism refers to the ultra left movement that Communist Movement, the porotagonists of

took birth from the Sino-Soviet split in the Indian this

movement

denied

to

follow parliamentary democracy and believe in the tenet that Power flows from the barrel of the gun. The word Naxalism comes from Naxalbari , a small village in West Bengal , where a leftist section of Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI(M)) directed by Charu Majumdar and Kanu Sanyal led a militant peasant uprising in 1967, trying to develop a "revolutionary opposition" in order to establish "revolutionary rule" in India. Naxalist Movement is also referred to as Left Wing Extremism.

The 1st wave of Naxal movement started in May 1967 in Naxalbari area of West Bengal when local landlords bashed a peasant over a land dispute. The Naxalites made a conspiracy against the landlords for the upliftment of the poor farmers and escalated the violence. It quickly spread into parts of Bihar, Srikakulam District of Andhra Pradesh, Koraput in Orissa and some other areas Majumdar was greatly Communist inspired by where the peasants were tortured by landlords. Mao He Zedong, a Chinese Revolutionary.

encouraged the Indian peasants and lower classes to follow their path and put an end to the that present structure of state in India has the hegemony of the rich section of the society thus it perpetuates the opression. In 1967, Naxalites organized the All India Coordination Committee of Communist Revolutionaries (AICCCR), and later separated from CPI (M). Violent uprisings were structured in various parts of India. In 1969, AICCCR gave birth to Communist Party of India (Marxist-Leninist) movement called Naxalism. marking the start of a government and upper classes that he believed

Marxism, Maoism and Naxalism: The difference Marxism emerged as a strong ideology in the reaction against the capitalism and the onlaughts of the Industrial Revolution. As a result of the Industrial Revolution the society in Europe got divided into two class i.e. the Capitalist and the workers (also called proletariats). After the Industrial Revolution the Capitalist class had acess to all resources while the condition of working class became vulnerable and marginalized. The working class was severely exploited by the Capitalist Class during that time, as there were no labor laws or institutions for the advocay of the working class Marxism as an ideology envisage a classless society in which the political power is hijacked by the working class or in the words of Marx dictatorship of the Proletariats. Marxism as an idology does not hesitate class. Maoism is the Asian or Chinese version of the Marxism. Asian societies did not witness the the use force and/or other voilent methods to grab the political power by the working

Industrial Revolution similar to the extent and effect as in the case of Europe. Thus, in Asia the Capitalist Class and Working Class were not so prominient as in the case of Europe. The major difference in the demography between Asia and Europe was that majority of population in Asia was rural and had an agrarian base. Thus while Marxism is applicable in the case of urban working class, the Maoism talks about the peasants and landless agriculture labours. While the Marxism envisages dictatorship of Working Class the Maoism envisions the dictatorship of rural peasants and agriculture labour. The common features between classless society and no hesitation for the use of voilent methods to grab political power. Naxalism is the Indian version of Maoism. Since it started from the Naxalbari district of West Bengal, thus it has been named so. both of them is that their goal is same i.e. a

Demands: The Red Corridor Naxalism became a full blown movement since called the Red Corridor or the Compact

1967, carving out a separate zone altogether Revolutionary Zone (CRZ), stretching from Andhra Pradesh to Nepal covering states of Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Odisha, West Bengal, Jharkhand and Bihar . A lot of demands have been put forth by the extremists, including demands of separate states, disintegration of many boundaries, lifting up bans and implementation of acts. All these demands are an effect of discontent that this section of the society has with the current system and polity. According to the report of an expert Extremist Affected Areas, it has been observed that there are a lot of similarities in these affected districts. These include substantial tribal population, a significant area under good quality forest cover, rich mineral reserves like coal, bauxite and iron ore. Also, all these districts have large administrative units and are located at trijunction areas of different states. On the basis of group on Development Challenges in

these similarities the report suggested the problem in the following context Condition of adivasis, dalits and women: The dalits and the adivasis form majority of the supporters of have surfaced due to years of inequality, lack of opportunities, grievances governance, cultural low education, with and the movement. Their unrest and rebellious instincts political self land land and

marginalisation. In case of dalits the list of go further absence excise of forest policy, political policy,

related issues, multifaceted forms of exploitation, humiliation, forced marginalisation, from land, alienation, evictions

displacement. Subjugation of women is also one of the reasons behind popular unrest in the rural hinterlands. These disparities have led to many demands like waiving off all private loans taken by sector, equal property right act for the community, reservation for women in the private women, stringent punishment to those who exploit or try to hurt tribal sentiments.

Access

dwellings for centuries have been declared as

SEZ): Forest

to

basic

areas

resources which

have

(forest

been

land, their

reserved to cater to the various industrial needs. This has led to popular unrest. Land acquired for SEZ etc. had similar impact leading to demands like autonomy for tribes, implementation of 1/70 Act etc, revision of Land ceiling Act. Labour, Wages and unemployment: Unemployment and

insecure livelihood have also caused dissatisfaction and rage among the youth making them demand World Bank and MNCs to protect small and medium size industries. Displacement and rehabilitation: Displacement caused by development projects like large irrigation, mining projects without any arrangements for replacement is another problem faced by this section. This requires proper implementation of Rehabilitation and Resettlements policy(R&R) The process of adjudication: Justice delayed is reservation in private sector, scrapping deals with

justice denied. The statement fits in context of

disputes and cases that are never settled on time which compels them to continue their faith in illegal peoples court of the extremists. This has resulted in demands like lifting ban on CPI(M), also many undue parties. Environmental degradation: Mining activities prevalent demands like lifting up cases against

leaders of mass organisations and revolutionary

in these states have led to complete disruption of their lives due to destroyed land and water resources. effect of tourism industry and other types of intrusion in the tribal lands. This compels them to demand autonomy, demand for integrated plans etc. Political marginalisation of SC and ST: SC and ST different problems rights with regard political and Degradation also includes adverse

confront

to

exercising

entitlements.

Discrimination and dominance by the so-called contest. For ST lack of financial resources inter alia other reasons is a hindrance. upper class makes it difficult to caste or

Infected States and Districts The Naxalite movement in 1967, started from a

small village on the tri-junction of India, Nepal and what was then East Pakistan. It spread like a wildfire to different parts of the country. The movement had a dramatic phase for about two years from the formation of the CPI (ML) in 1969 till the end of 1971. These early attempts were however easily crushed by the Government of India through police action. Following Charu Mazumdars death in 1972, there were divisions and fragmentations in the movement which were followed by various ups and downs. Tracking the current phase, starting from 2001, has been marked by a conscious attempt to militarize the armed component of the party - the Peoples Guerrilla Army with a view to launch attacks on the state apparatus. After this, the Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India, classified thirteen states of the Union, namely, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Uttar

Pradesh,

West

Bengal,

Kerala,

Karnataka,

Haryana and Tamil Nadu as being infected by the Naxalite Movement. In 2009, Naxalites were active approximately across 180 districts in ten states of India. In August 2010, after a full year implementation of the National IAP program, Karnataka was removed from the list of Naxal affected states. In July 2011, the number of Naxal affected areas was reduced to 83 districts across nine states however this included a proposed addition of 20 districts made by other state governments. Although by December 2011, the

National

Government reported that the number of Naxalite related deaths and injuries nationwide had gone down by nearly 50% from 2010 levels but still scheme, the state governments continue to demand an increase in the number of districts affected by Naxal violence. The Indian government has been struggling to curb the whole Naxal Movement. under the Security Related Expenditure (SRE)

Salwa Judum Salwa Judum, a local militia, was born in Bastar, Chattisgarh, in the year 2005 with an objective ended up crushing was the socio-economic to crush the menace of Maoism. Ironically, what it aspirations of the villagers. Local tribes were mobilised to be up in arms against the atrocities of the Naxal movement. Villagers were forced to relocate from their places of stay to the so-called relief camps. The living conditions and crimes were so fierce that these camps could have been easily regarded as concentration camps for refugees. The tribes that were displaced were appointed as Special Police Officers with an honorarium of Rs 1500 to combat Naxalism. In this context of Naxal insurgency, complete lawlessness and violence had occurred. Refusal to relocate had drastically grave consequences like on-the- spot killing or even burnt alive as those individuals were assumed to be Naxals. Having been uprooted from their houses in such a terrible manner, the relief camps incidents of gang rapes had become more frequent had no relief to offer. Women were molested and

than ever in the worst affected regions of Dantewada and Bastar. In many villages, any resistance to associate with Salwa Judum was dealt by burning of house and property and extensive use of arson. In other words, institution of Salwa Judum had resulted in widening the gap between democratically exercising authority and infringement of human rights on a huge scale. A PIL was filed by Professor Nandini Sundar, former bureaucrat EAS Sarma the and Salwa historian Judum Ramachandra Guha against

where it holds it responsible for 537 murders, 99 rapes, 103 cases of arson and burning 644 villages.

On 5 July 2011, Justice Sudershan

Reddy and Justice SS Nijjar delivered a land mark order. SC announced a ban on Salwa Judum and declared illegal and unconstitutional, the appointment of tribal youth as Special Police Officers by the Chhattisgarh Government to counter Maoist violence. According to the SC, there was violation of Article 14 and 21 of the Indian Constitution that guarantee equality before the law and protection of life and liberty. It has directed

the Chhattisgarh government to immediately cease and desist from using SPOs, in any direct or indirect counter-insurgency activities, to recall all SPOs who have made themselves Naxal targets by assisting the forces. Strategy to combat Naxal menance The government is faced with a huge challenge of combating Naxalism and to ensure that the infected areas come back to normal conditions. The government has took to a stern attitude towards the Naxalists, where no talks with them will be facilitated until the Naxalists call quits on the trail of violent activities they have been started, in various parts of the country, the government ignored the gravity of the issue rendering it as a mere law and order problem. But as the movement strengthened and showed its ugly face, it was very late. The government realised that simultaneous actions needed to be taken on a lot of fronts from then on. The plunging in for years. Initially, when the resistance firearms issued to them, and provide protection to

government has launched the Police Modernisation Scheme under which it has been trying to ensure that modern arms and ammunition is made available to the CRPF as numerous instances have been registered where the Naxalites were found better equipped with light machine guns and Improved Explosive Devices (IEDs) while our policemen were reportedly ammunition. Central Para Military Forces have been deployed by the centre to states combating the Naxalite Insurgency. Another major step is the training of the soldiers and policemen with Guerrilla warfare, a technique Naxalites adopt and are adept at. having old and outdated

While strengthening the police on one side, the government has been focussed on bringing about areas in order to provide proper socio-economic development in the Naxal infested employment opportunities to the locals so that lesser number of people resort to violent means. In fact Andhra Pradesh government came out with the surrender doing fairly well. West Bengal has also announced and rehabilitation policy for the Naxalites which is

a Naxal surrender program similar to the one in Andhra. The revision of the Security Related Expenditure (SRE) Scheme in 2005 covers the budget for all these policies. Presently 76 districts in 9 states which are badly affected by Naxal activities are covered under this scheme. Efforts are being made to form local resistance groups against Naxal violence by training the individuals to fight against Naxalites. Provisional Armed Constabulary in Uttar Pradesh, Greyhounds in Andhra Pradesh and COBRA are some Special Task Forces constituted to deal with the issue. Recruitment of more than 14,000 personnel has been done for the special task force. Salwa Judum was one such movement initiated by the Chattisgarh Government where local tribal people were involved, but was eventually banned by the Supreme Court of India owing to numerous defects of the program. This growing trouble of Naxal insurgency, which has spread its tentacles to a lot of states, needs to be addressed collectively by all the state governments in tandem with each other. Plans for Anti Maoist Centres, equipped with

helicopters and guarded by CRPF officials, at the borders of states affected by it are already in motion. The government has also constituted an 'Empowered Group of Ministers' to counter the problem of Naxalism headed by the Home Minister and select Chief Ministers. The Communist party of India has also been banned under the Unlawful Activities Reserve Battalions is being done in order to enhance the security network of the states. The institution of all these committees and acts is Prevention Act. Institution of Indian

a fairly simple task as compared to effective implementation of the same and bringing about the required change in the prevailing scenario Conclusion Its a fact that the Government of India has off late realized that problem of Naxalism is not just a law and order problem. The causes and root of this problem is dimensions complexly like socio-economic interwoven with the development,

inequalities, unbalanced regional development and

policies

which

encourage

exclusion

and

marginalisation. Its also ironical that that some of the fundamental principles of Indian constitution and Naxalite movement coincide which each other like equality and socialism. Its also a fact that fruits of socio-development and globalisation in India have been distributed there projects are in like an uneven fashion. the Moreover examples wherein

developmental

mega

infrastructure

projects and setting up of industries particularly in tribal hinterlands have further marginalized the local population. In such scenario the one of spontaneous reaction could be feeling of alienation from the mainstream. However the component and the tendencies to destabilize the settled democracy as a result of this alienation cannot be justified at any cost. The government has to adopt a multi prong strategy for the solution to this problem. The use of force in the affected areas cannot achieve this alone; it also requires a synergy between various Nepal is the good example for Indian government agencies of the central and state governments. violence

as well as Naxalites where the Maoisst have agreed to be a part of parliamentary democracy. This should happen in India but for that the engaging by strengthening the institutions like democracy in affected areas has to be made more Panchayati Raj and making development schemes more inclusive.

Political Parties

Difference between Political Party and Pressure Group

A political party is a group of people sharing same political ideology and trying to implement its ideology by contesting elections and trying to form the Groups of people having similar political ideologies but not trying to have a share in political power do not come in the category of political parties and are known as pressure groups. Hence the intent to acquire political power is the primary basis of government or having a share in the political power.

forming any political party. In India political parties are classified into national parties, state parties and registered unrecognized parties. As per data seven national parties, thirty four state parties and 392 registered (unrecognized) parties contested the last Lok Sabha elections. Pre Independence Political Scenario Spread of modern education in the colonial period created an educated class which resented British present in Indian society. First half of 20th century was not only a period of freedom struggle against the British, but was also a period of in the second half of the 19th century. Hitherto other sections of the society. intellectual and social awakening which had started rule as well as the inequalities and discrimination maintained by the Election Commission of India,

neglected sections started asserting themselves like Everywhere organizations were being to voice the concerns of various sections of people. These organizations represented with the colonial regime for the

welfare of their groups and wherever possible

participated in the limited democratic process that started under the British rule. Our freedom struggle was not the effort of one organization and involved a number of organizations which had different ideologies. However, the differences were not so apparent because primary British rule. Thus at the time of independence Indian political scenario was as diverse as the country itself. There were rightist groups like Hindu Mahasabha and Muslim League, leftist parties like Communist Party of India and centrist party like Socialist Party who were somewhere in between centre and left. Still others were caste and region based like Scheduled Caste Federation founded by Dr.Ambedkar and J & K National Conference. Out of these Indian National Congress was the biggest political unit and claimed to represent all sections of the society. Post independence situation like Indian National Congress. There were others

goal at that time was independence from the

This diversity of ideologies carried itself into the political arena even after independence. This was due to the fact that overthrowing of British rule did not automatically improve the position of the people or did not create the society which the individual groups wanted the country to have. Different visions of the society and difference on ways of achieving these goals created friction among the groups and even before the first general elections, two cabinet colleagues of Nehru formed separate political outfits. Shyama Prasad Mukherjee founded Jan Sangh while Dr.Ambedkar revived Scheduled Caste Federation. Multiplicity of ideologies and parties can be judged from this the did fact not that affect first the Lok Sabha of had the

representations from 27 political parties. However, functioning Government as the INC had dominant position and comfortably formed and run the Government.

However, situation changed with the passage of time. Smaller groups based on caste, religion and region started improving their tallies which

adversely affected the prospects of the national

parties particularly the Congress. Present scenario is that no political party can likely form the national government on its own. This has resulted in alliances with two national parties Congress and BJP as dominant parties and allies joining one alliance or the other as per political convenience. The reasons for decline of Congress as a national party vis--vis the growth of smaller parties focusing on specific social groups or regions have to be seen in the social context. India is a country with diverse culture and socio economic conditions. This does not augur well for a national party which thrives on a national culture. For a national party to succeed, it needs to have an electorate which gives precedence to national issues and has faith in freedom movement, INC under Mahatma Gandhi However, after independence, the national leadership. During the course of

did make efforts to develop an integrated society. party preoccupied itself with governance perhaps under the impression that legal measures will suffice to solve social problems and lead to an egalitarian society or perhaps the issue was just ignored as

alignments of voters on basis of caste and religion was considered sufficient to win the elections. Whatever be the reasons, Indian society did not move towards integration. This gave a chance to the casteist and regional parties who are more vocal on specific issues and have drawn the electorate thereby reducing the chance of any national party whosoever. Indian National Congress (INC) INC is the oldest and largest political party which

was formed in 1885. It was at the forefront of the freedom struggle and attained the nature of a mass movement under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. Although, it is said to be a centrist party, it is centrist with a tilt towards the left. It also claims to be an all inclusive party and representing all sections of the society. After independence it was the main political party and comfortably won first five elections in all of which except the fourth Lok Sabha it got more than a two third majority. However, it lost power in sixth general elections only to regain it in the seventh and then

the eighth general elections. However, since then, its depleting numbers have been forced it to form alliances. In the present Lok Sabha, though being the largest party, it has 205 members out of a allies for forming and running the Government. The party is also in power in a number of states like Rajasthan and Maharashtra. The party has been led by the members of Nehru Gandhi family and dynastic politics, has often been accused by its opponents of having an anti state approach in federal matters and appeasement of minorities. An important example which is often given is that of Shah Bano case in which a decision of the Supreme Court was over ruled by a way of a Constitutional amendment as the same was considered to be interference in the Muslim Personal Law. Other accusations are regarding imposing emergency in 1975 and its role in anti Sikh riots which took place in 1984. In the recent past, corruption has also been a prominent allegation against its Government. Bhartiya Janata Party total of 542 making it heavily dependent on its

BJP is the main opposition party having 114 members in the current Lok Sabha. Its history dates back to pre-independence days when Jan Sangh was founded by Shyama Prasad Mukherjee. parties to form Janata Party. However, in 1980, the members from erstwhile Jan Sangh moved out of Janata Party and formed Bhartiya Janata parties and formed Government at the centre. It is perceived as a right wing Hindu party though it has never openly advocated extreme right tendencies and has tried to project itself as an all inclusive party. However, the party has earned disrepute among the Muslims for its alleged role in Babri Masjid demolition and more recently riots against Muslims in BJP ruled Gujarat. Presently the party is in power in a number of states including Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka and Goa while in Bihar, it is a partner in the Government with Janta Dal (United). Left Front Party. It formed an alliance with other regional In 1977, Jan Sangh merged with other opposition

Left Front is a group of political parties with communist ideology. CPI is the oldest party having launched a number of campaigns including an armed rebellion in Telengana region against the Nizam of Hyderabad. In the first general elections CPI emerged as the second largest party after Congress. The Party split in 1964 and the new faction named itself as CPI (Marxist). CPI (M) is presently the biggest party in the left front. The Left front has been in power for long periods in the Kerala, West Bengal and Tripura. Left Front is committed to Communism and is opposed to liberalization and globalization. At national level it has positioned itself strongly against BJP. been formed in Tashkent in the year 1920. It

Although, it had supported Congress many times, it withdrew support from the Congress led UPA in Front has 24 members in the current Lok Sabha. 2008 over the nuclear deal. Presently, the Left

Samajwadi Party, Rashtriya Rashtriya Lok Dal, Rashtriya Dal

Janata Dal, Janta Dal (United) and Biju Janta

These are regional political parties which have originated from Janata Dal. Their influence is limited to a particular state or even particular part of the state. While SP and RLD are based in Uttar Pradesh, JD (U) and RJD are based in Bihar and BJD is based in Orissa. All of these parties are a part of one or the other alliance at the national level but have also maintained their independence and identity. These parties claim secularism and social justice to be their ideological planks. One would wonder if ideologies are same then why such parties should not merge to form a bigger national party supporting the cause of socialism and secularism. However, this has been prevented due to personal ambition of its leaders. Out of these Samajwadi Party has the largest presence in the current Lok Sabha with 22 members while JD (U), BJD, RLD and RJD have 20, 14, 5 and 4 members. Shiv Sena and Akali Dal Both these parties are similar in their ideology in the sense that both are based on regional and

religious considerations. Shiv Sena has stressed on its Hindu ideology as well as the concept of Maharashtra identity while the Akali Dal has its roots in Sikh religion and was formed in 1920 as a political wing of Shiromani Gurudwara Prabandhak Committee (SGPC). It has claimed to be the primary representative of the Sikhs and is primarily based in Punjab. Presently Shiv Sena has 11 members in the current Lok Sabha while Akali Dal has 4. At the national level both these parties are a part of National Democratic Alliance led by BJP. DMK and AIADMK Both these parties are based in Tamil Nadu and owe their origin to the anti Brahman and Dravidian self respect movement which started in the state in first half of the 20th century. The movement led to formation of Justice Party in 1917 which became Dravid Kazgham in 1944. A faction under more Dravid Munnetra Kazgham in 1949. In 1972 one split took place and C.N.,Annadurai separated and formed

M.G.Ramachandran

formed All India Anna DMK. Thus there is no basic difference in the ideology of both the parties. These parties have completely dominated the political spectrum in Tamil Nadu and have also convenience. Presently DMK has 18 formed alliances at national level as per their and AIADMK 9 members in the current Lok Sabha. Bahujan Samaj Party This party was founded by Kanshi Ram in 1984 as a party of dalits. After him the party was led by Mayawati. The party has achieved reasonable UP, it is slowly making inroads in other states as well, making its presence felt in the recently held elections in Uttarakhand. The ideology of the party is upliftment and empowerment of dalits. Earlier, the party kept aloof from upper castes. However, later it was realized that in Uttar Pradesh, where sectarian feelings are quite strong, a single social group may not be sufficient to ensure victory. Hence, in 2007, the party made efforts to woo upper caste electorate particularly the electoral success. Although its influence is mainly in

brahamans and was responded favorably resulting in victory for the party. However, the party lost the elections to SP in 2012 though it is still the 21 members in the Lok Sabha. Trinmool Congress and Nationalist Congress Party Trinmool Congress is a breakaway faction of the Congress led by Mamta Banerjee. The party is based in West Bengal. The party claims to have a pro-poor, secular and socialist ideology. The party was earlier part of the BJP led NDA but later on shifted to UPA led by the Congress. Recently the party has also withdrawn from UPA on the issue of bringing FDI in retail and some other issues. NCP is also a breakaway faction of the Congress which separated due to the objection of its leaders to Sonia Gandhi becoming the leader of the party. The party has secularism, social justice and federalism as its ideological planks. The party is in alliance with the Congress both at the Centre as well as in Maharashtra. However, in Kerala it is in LGF which is opposed to the second largest party in UP. Presently the part has

Congress. Presently TC has 19 while NCP has 9 members in the current Lok Sabha. Telugu Desam Party TDP was founded by the Telugu film star

N.T.Ramarao in 1983. The party claims its vision as safeguarding the interests of Telugu speaking people and to provide a welfare state on the basis of social equality and justice. Politically the party can be said to be a centrist and regional party. It had varied amount of electoral success and had formed Government in Andhra Pradesh in 1983 and 1994. Presently, the party is headed by N. Chandrababu Naidu and has 6 seats in the current Lok Sabha. Future Course When seen from a national perspective, political scenario at in India is confusing one perplexing. Allies at national level are competitors state level and allies in state are competitors in the other. This makes alliances appearing to be a mere survival strategy having

and

little concern for the ideological aspects. Relegation of ideological aspects to the background is a matter of concern, but a matter of much grave concern is the electorates acceptance of this situation. This brings in the social aspect. In a democratic setup, politics is a part as well as product of the society and hence is a reflection of the mandates show the people in different corners of the country have different aspirations and can take precedence over a nationalist feeling. Unless these different social and regional groups become more understanding and adjusting about the need of other groups, the quality of politics is not likely to have much improvement. Kudankulam Nuclear Plant: Issues social realities. The fractured political

Kudankulam Nuclear Plant has become a theatre of dispute as governmental agencies and the local population takes the diametrically opposite stands on related to the nuclear plant. If we examine the the issues related to the desirability and safety

issue and

critically, it could be concluded that

core issues in this conflict are related to the trust deficit pertaining to the governmental agencies rather than with nuclear technology per se. Nuclear Technology: Desirability in India India's share of nuclear power plant generation capacity is just 1.2% of worldwide nuclear power production capacity, power making producer. it the 15th power largest nuclear Nuclear

provided only 3% of the country's total electricity generation in 2011. The nuclear power in France the country. In an energy deficit country like India, which envisages being a superpower and the growth engine of the world with the growth rate trajectory in double digits, the potential of nuclear energy cannot be ignored. There are shortcomings and environmental costs associated with almost every source of energy generation. For example the conventional fossil fuels contributes about 75% to the total energy mix in

create huge inventories of green house gases which are primarily responsible for the global warming. Environmental including externalities like large scale rehabilitation that too of marginalized local communities like tribal population have put these project under scrutiny and in the domain of public debate. Wind power has its own environmental concern, especially on migratory birds. The solar power is expensive and depends upon the availability of rare earth metals. Likewise there are issues related to nuclear technology especially as well like exposure to in the extraordinary situations and social cost of hydro power

radiation like

disaster, the issues related with nuclear wastes etc. However with the application of regulatory framework along with fool proof technology, nuclear energy can be one of the safest sources of power case in point as despite the magnitude of the disaster, the age of the plant, improper handling and inadequate safety features there is no report residents. of the lethal dose of radiation from the local generation. The recent example of Fukushima is a

The trust deficit The core issues of the local communities related with Kudankulam revolves around the trust deficit with the governmental agencies. To a great extent these fears and the trust deficit of the local community are valid; moreover the way government, community have further acerbated the issues rather than resolving them. To understand the complexities of this issue, it is essential to understand the way government has tackled the case of civil nuclear plants in the past and the changed paradigms off late. Before 2008, the entire Indian nuclear power sector was put behind the iron curtain of secrecy. The international agencies and agreements related to nuclear energy were also concerned primarily with the issue of preventing proliferation and were silent on the safety of the plants. The situation changed after India and US signed the nuclear deal and obtained the required exemptions from the Nuclear Supply Group. The Indian civilian nuclear power its agencies and experts have tackled the local

program threw red carpet for the participation of foreign players. As a result the debate related to the civilian nuclear power came in the public domain engage the local communities as the stake and required for the governmental agencies to holders.In the Kundankulam active engagement with the local communities had only started after to the plant was ready for operations. The incidents in the past like the way victims of Bhopal Gas tragedy are dealt with by the governmental agencies has given valid reasons to the local communities to distrust government. The manufacturer of is the

Kundankulam by

plant, an

Atomstroyexport,

protected

intergovernmental agreement between India and Russia, which absolves the manufacturer of any kind of responsibility in the case of a disaster. This agreement is probably inconsistent with the Indias domestic laws and the judgments of the Supreme court. The operations in the nuclear plant would also have the severe impact on the local fisher folk

community. The disaster management plan related to the local communities has till date remained a secre , despite several RTIs by the activist the government has kept it secret.

The Madras high court in its recent judgment while refusing to halt the project has highlighted the many benefits it would bring to the local communities. The track record of implementation such post facto benefits governmental schemes is extremely poor in India and is marred by evils like bureaucratic apathy. corruption, nepotism, red tapeism and

Japan and France, the champions of the civil nuclear energy have officially announced their departure from the nuclear energy dependence after the Fukushima incidence.

The behavior of the governmental agency and the officials perfectly exemplifies the orthodox top down approach which is authoritative not democratic and have full faith in the technical knowledge of bureaucracy treating local as ignorant, irrational and lacking in capacity to understand the

complexities of the issue. The government also feels that to instigate the local community there is the hand of foreign players. The Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB) is the nodal agency that is responsible for the nuclear safety in India. Nonetheless recently the agency was criticized by the report of Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) for not preparing a nuclear safety policy despite having the mandate to do so since 1983. Solutions The following can be the viable solutions to avoid such kind of conflicts in the future: 1. An independent regulatory mechanism along the lines of the Nuclear Safety Authority (ASN) in France, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) in the U.S should be constituted to deal exclusively with the issues related to the nuclear security. This agency, although appointed by the government should

be independent, free of political control and corporate influence. 2. The entire process of engaging with the local communities has to be institutionalized through laws and setting of autonomous bodies. 3. The public engagement process should start much before the operations start in the plant and should continue throughout the life of the nuclear facility. 4. A project, socio-economic which plan focuses to on accompany training the and

education, financing and long term planning for the employment with the local communities should be undertaken. 5. Detailed activities keeping in mind the unique Indian challenges like lack of literacy must be planned beforehand for the local communities. Migration: Issues in India By: Davendra Sharma

Human migration is the movement of humans, either

individually or in groups, from one geographical region to another. The phenomenon is as old as human history and almost all the present day migration. Migration could be due to a number of causes which could be economic, social, political or environmental. Military conquest of one region by the other was one of the most important causes of migration in earlier period of history. Migration, apart from affecting the migrating group or the individual, affects both the region of the origin as well as the region of migration. Indian Context India like most other countries has seen a lot of and contributed to its diversity. Military conquest was the main cause as well the mode of migration in earlier days which brought Indo Aryans, Sakas, Arabs, (Mughals) into Afghans, India. Turks Internally, movement and Turk-Mongols of societies owe their existence to some kind of

migration which has deeply influenced its culture

Marathas into Central India after conquering part

of the area is an example of this kind of migration. Others causes of migration included natural calamities like famine, trade & employment, religious missionaries and desire of the rulers to mainly artists and scholars. In the present day, migration through conquest or due to natural calamities is no longer practiced. However, changed socio-economic conditions have led to continuous migration from one region, which has also been facilitated by improvements in modes important reasons for migration are as under:

bring some an individual or group of individuals

of transport and communication. Some of the

In

the

present

day

context,

economic

reasons are most important cause of migration both within the country as well as outside the as these provide better country. More developed areas attract people employment opportunities. However, this kind of migration is controlled by pull and push factors.

In

cases,

where

the

difference

in

opportunities is less, pull factor comes into

play and the person weighs the benefits of economic developments with the problems he would face in migration. Due to this migration is comparatively less in numbers and involves a higher percentage of skilled Migration of people to Mumbai for working in film industry or to Bangalore for working in IT industry is an example of this kind of migration.

workers.

Migration due to pull factors also comes into play in case of migration outside India. Professionals and skilled workers as well as those unskilled workers, who can afford travel expenses and legal formalities, move to other countries for better opportunities.

However, minimal,

in

areas

where factor

development becomes

is

push

more

important. Here, people do not have much

option in their region and are forced to migrate due to these compelling situations. In such cases, the migration is higher and has a higher percentage of unskilled workers. Migration of unskilled or semiskilled labour from Bihar and eastern U.P. to Mumbai and

Punjab migration.

are

examples

of

this

kind

of

Urbanization has resulted in development of

towns and cities which have emerged as centers of trade and commerce and have higher prospects of employment. Apart from this, these centers also have better infrastructure and facilities. This has led to both push and pull factors.

large scale migration to these centers due to

Rural to urban migration has

also been

forced by situations prevailing in rural areas. Larger families and continuous division of agricultural land has reduced the size of agricultural land holdings, average land holding size in the country being reduced to about 1.3 hectares. In some of the states like Uttar Pradesh the size is below one hectare. This has increased pressure on land and large or even an average family. This has forced the people to migrate to urban areas.

agriculture is no longer able to support a

Social causes are also an important cause of migration among which marriage is the biggest

cause of migration. However, as most of this movement is within the same region and same social background, it does not have much impact on the socio-economic conditions.

Casteism is another important factor. In our society, caste system is not only an alignment of social groups; it is also linked with economic and social power. Those at the

lower end are discriminated and are more inclined to migrate to urban areas where the caste system is virtually non existent in public life giving them the opportunity to participate in the society on more equal basis.

Migration is also caused by conditions like insurgency and riots. Wherever such conditions arise, people tend to migrate to safer areas. As per Internal Displacement Monitoring Committee working under Norwegian such internally displaced people. Refugee Council, India has more than 5 lakh Migrants from Jammu & Kashmir form the bulk of these migrants, while others are from the North Eastern states, Gujarat and Orissa.

Migration can also be caused by conditions outside the country. India is also home to a number of refugees from other countries. As Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) they numbered about 2 lakhs in 2011. Majority of them are from Tibet, Sri Lanka and Afghanistan. Apart from this, illegal migrants country in large numbers and are a cause of concern. from the neighboring Bangladesh enter the per data compiled by United Nations High

Impact of migration Migration affects all concerned, the individual, region from where he is migrating and the region to which he is migrating. The effects like causes are again social, political and economical. Some of the effects are as under: 1. When a person migrates due to push factor, his region is relieved of the responsibility of providing employment to one person. Although, the family faces some problems due to non availability of one working

member, these are compensated by better earnings he sends home. Apart from benefitting the family, this also benefits their region as earnings are spent there. 2. However, when a person migrates due to pull factor, his region loses one person who is in demand in his own area. This negatively affects the human resources of the area. As most of these people are skilled qualified, the loss is substantial in terms of human resources, though this is partly set off by the remittances received, particularly those received from overseas. Incidentally, remittances sent to India account for 3% of Indias GDP and form a substantial share of the net domestic products of Kerala, Punjab and Tamil Nadu. 3. In competes wherever the with migrating the the jobs region locals are for the jobs immigrant and the and

scarce,

competition brings in resentment, resulting in social tensions. 4. In urban areas, where the migration is more and uncontrolled, this brings pressure on land

and infrastructure. One of the unpleasant aspects of this kind of migration is the 5. In areas where the number of migrants is higher, political aspect comes into play as these people could be potential source or threat to the political domination of a political party. This has resulted in the issue being politicized. A recent example of this is Indian migrants for almost every problem of the city, though the majority of migrants in the city are from Maharashtra itself. A more unpleasant example is from tribal areas where the immigrants are seen as a threat to their traditional culture as well as political dominance. Such situations have sometimes acquired militant overtones which are not in the best interests of the country. 6. Migration also brings changes in the behavior and attitude of the migrant. This is more prominently observed in the migrants from rural to urban areas. While on hand he is apprehensive in the new place he also comes Mumbai, where some politicians blame north growth of slums.

into contact with new values and norms like delayed marriage, smaller family and importance of education. beneficial to the society. 7. Problems of internally displaced persons are more complex as migration has been due to the violent behavior of another section of the problems are also psychological. They are not able to come to terms with the reality and the inability of the state to protect them in their homes. On the other hand, refugees problems of economic survival in an alien land as well as preserve their national identity. Conclusion Migration is an important social phenomenon and has played an important role in shaping our culture and heritage. It is neither feasible nor desirable to stop migration. However, it is also true that migration forced upon people has brought from other countries like Tibet face to twin society. Apart from economic problems, the Gradually these

ideas percolate to his native place which is

innumerable miseries to them. Therefore, an ideal situation would be creating conditions where no one is forced to migrate for any reason whatsoever. This condition can be achieved by removing disparities in economic development and by removing social discriminations. As regards tensions between the locals and the migrants, it must also be understood that while giving a job or getting a job is a personal matter, every human being is entitled to a life of respect and dignity in any corner of the world and unless he has done something against the law of the land, he needs to be given that respect and dignity.

The Informal Sector By Davendra Sharma

Informal Sector: Definition

The informal or the unorganized sector can be broadly defined as a sector engaged in economic activities which do not fall under the category of modern industrial activities. The Workers Social Security Act, 2008, defines unorganized sector as an enterprise owned by individuals or self employed workers and engaged in production or sale of goods or providing any kind of service whatsoever, and where the enterprise unorganized worker has been defined as a home based worker, self employed worker or a wage worker in the unorganized sector or a worker who is not covered by any of the labour laws. employs workers, its number is less than ten. An Unorganised

Although, the sector has been termed as informal, it is the primary source of employment and provides employment to more than 90% of the labour as well as makes substantial contribution to the GDP. The sector displays diversity in the nature of trades as well as in the economic condition of the people involved in such activities. At the higher end are shopkeepers who are the employers and the small entrepreneurs, contractors and retail are

comparatively well off while at the lower end are the workers of these units, wage earners, rickshaw pullers etc. who can barely make the ends meet.

Characteristics of Informal Informal Sector While submitting its Second Report in the year 2002, the National Commission on Labour has devoted one chapter to the unorganized or informal sector. The Commission does not seem to agree with the definition given above and points out that the informal sector is too vast to be defined by way of a conceptual definition although its

characteristics can be identified. Some of the important characteristics are as under: 1. Organizations, both in terms of number of people involved and level of management are of lower level. 2. Labour relations are either on casual basis or relations. kinship including family labour or personal

3. Small

amount

of

capital

with

business

expenditure indistinguishable from household 4. Easy entry and exit from the business and free mobility within the sector. 5. Use of indigenous resources and labour intensive technology. 6. Long working hours and lack of employment security. 7. Lack of support from government. 8. Generally a low wage and low earning sector. 9. Has a high percentage of migrant as well as 10. 11. 12. women workers. child labour. Piece rate payment, home based work Some kinds of work are seasonal which and contractual work is prevalent. means there would be no work for some part of the year. 13. unions Workers are not organized into trade which adversely affects their The sector is a prominent employer for expenses.

bargaining power.

14.

Health hazards exist in a number of

occupations. Relations between the formal and informal sector The informal sector does not exist independently of the formal sector. It is linked to and in some case dependent upon the formal sector. depends on the organized sector for raw materials and other capital requirements and for marketing facilities etc. In a large number of cases informal sector does the actual production of goods for the formal sector through a channel of outsourcing. On the other hand, a large part of the formal sector, particularly the industries, has started hiring labour through a contractor, which is largely informal in nature. Issues related to informal sector 1. The sector provides low wages which at times are even less than the minimum wages prescribed by the Government which makes the life of the worker quite difficult. It

2. As organizations have small capital, they are not able to provide proper facilities at the work place leading to health problems to the workers. 3. The workers do not have any social security to fall back in times of need. 4. As the units do not have sufficient capital, they usually resort to illegal cost cutting a cheap labour and avoiding of legal. 5. As these units are not covered under any labour laws, employees do not have facilities like PF and ESI which are available to workers of the organized sector. 6. As the workers have low wages they are not able to afford proper housing due to which the migrant labour resorts to living in slums. Incidentally, a number of such informal units Dharavi house thousands of such units. 7. These units do not have proper waste disposal facilities and hence are a cause of environmental concerns. are located in slums. Bigger slums like measures which include hiring of children as

8. In some cases, particularly in rural and tribal, this sector faces problems due to depletion of resources like forests etc. Efforts of the Government Although the sector is huge both in terms of contribution to the GDP, it is

participating people and also in terms of its extremely heterogeneous with each group having its own problems. Due to this and also due to the fact that the workers are not organized into trade unions or associations, the sector did not get similar benefits accruing to workers of the

organized sector. However, situation has tended to improve in the last few years and a number of schemes have been launched for benefit for this sector, some of which are as under: 1. Minimum Wages Act, 1948

provides

for

prescribing minimum wages for unskilled and skilled workers in some of the unorganized sectors. Minimum wages are revised from time to time.

2. Welfare funds have been established for some specific categories of unorganized workers like beedi makers, miners working in mines other than coal mines and for cine workers. A number of welfare measures like granting of scholarships to children of these workers and sanctioning of subsidy for construction of houses, have been taken up.

3. National Scheme for Welfare of Fishermen and Training and Extension was launched in the year 1991-92 with the objective of providing standard, basic to amenities, provide improving & life social economic

security and to improve the knowledge and skills of the fisherman. 4. The Building and Other Construction Workers

(Regulation of Employment & Conditions of Service) Act, 1996 has been enacted to regulate the working conditions, safety & compensation. 5. National Commission for Enterprises in the Unorganized Sector was set up in the year 2004 to look into the problems faced by the health measures and payments of wages and

enterprises

in

the

unorganized

or

the

informal sector. The Commission has submitted reports on a National Policy of Vendors, Unorganized Sector Workers Bill, Framing social and security creation for of a unorganized national Legislation for minimum conditions of work and workers, fund for financing of enterprises in unorganized sector unorganized sector.

6. Handicraft Artisans Comprehensive Welfare Scheme comprising of insurance as well as health insurance was launched for benefit of artisans. Major part of the premium is paid by the Government while a small is paid by the name beneficiary. Handlooms A similar scheme was

launched for the handloom weavers under the Weavers Comprehensive Welfare Scheme.

7. The Unorganized Sector Social Security Act was enacted in 2008. The Act defines unorganized sector as well as unorganized worker as provides for framing social security schemes for the unorganized sector as well

as formation of National and State Level Boards. 8. The Government has launched a scheme Rashtriya Swasthya Bima Yojana (RSBY) effect from 1st April 2008. The with

scheme provides smart card based health insurance up to Rs.30, 000/- to BPL families. Premium of the insurance is paid jointly by the Central Govt (75%) and State Govt (25%). 9. Aam Aadmi Bima Yojana (AABY) has been started for providing insurance cover for the head of the family or earning member of a rural landless household. The scheme provides for Rs.30, 000/- in case of natural death, Rs.75, 000/- in case of accidental death and permanent disability and Rs.37, 500/- in case of partial disability. Premium State Governments. 10. National has Rural been Employment launched Guarantee to provide Scheme amount is shared equally by the Central and

employment of a minimum of 100 days to any rural household willing to do public work.

11.

Indira Gandhi National Old Age Pension

scheme has also been launched to provide old age pension to all citizens which are 60 years of age and living below poverty line. 12. Government of has providing enacted legal a National a

Policy on Street Vendors in 2009, with the objective status, regulated mechanism, credit facilities and civic facilities to the street vendors. The Governments for enacting suitable legislations. 13. Among the State Governments, the Govt of Gujarat has set up Gujarat Labour Welfare Board and Cloth Markets & Shops Labour Board. These organizations are policy will serve as a model to the State

running a number of schemes for welfare of these people. Present Status Despite the efforts of the govt, the position of people satisfactory. The sector is heterogeneous in nature and many of the professions still lack adequate engaged in this sector is far from

legal

regulation

and

protection.

Apart

from

adequate laws, workers are usually unorganized and ignorant about their rights. Apart from a few organizations like Self Employed Women Association (SEWA), a trade union working primarily for women workers, associations Cine are Workers usually Union and National Poor Association of Street Vendors, trade unions and implementation of laws is another problem. Minimum nonexistent.

wages are rarely granted but the worker is forced to work for lower wages due to pressure of unemployment. Social security schemes like RSBY and AABY have helped these people to some extent but the relief under these schemes is highly inadequate. In the present providing adequate means of livelihood as well as adequate social security to all the workers in the unorganized sector is a challenge before the policy makers. scenario,

Issues related with Persons with Disabilities

As per Article 1 of the UN Convention on Rights of the Disabled, Persons with disabilities include those intellectual who or have sensory long-term impairments physical, which mental, in

interaction with various barriers may hinder their full and effective participation in society on an equal basis with others. The Disability Act, 1995 is more specific in its definition and defines hearing impairment, locomotor disability, disability as blindness, low vision, leprosy-cured, mental retardation and mental illness. All the conditions have also been separately defined to lay down norms on basis of which a person would be treated disabled but the data is not likely to be made available till the beginning of 2013. However, as per data collected by Census, 2001, the number of disabled persons in India is 2.19 crores which is about 2.13% of the total population of that year. Reasons of Disability as disabled. Census, 2011 has collected data on

Causes of disability could either be pre natal, post natal or could be related to factors or incidents related to grown up life. Some of the reasons are as under:

In India, main causes of blindness are, cataract, degeneration, and uncontrolled diabetes. refractive error, age related

Old age, ear discharge, other illness and injures are the main causes of hearing problems.

Paralysis,

disorder and injuries are the main causes for speech problems.

mental

illness/retardation,

voice

Home,

transport

and

work

site

related

accidents are the main cause of locomotor disability although some diseases like leprosy can also lead to this kind of disability.

Mental retardation can be caused by genetic disorders, medical problems during pregnancy or at the time of birth, higher age of mother at the time of pregnancy, iodine deficiency and malnutrition.

Malnutrition of children results in deficiencies of vital nutrients which can result in disability. Vitamin A deficiency can lead to effects mental growth.

blindness while Iodine deficiency adversely

Child labour is also one of the reasons of disability as illness or some injuries in hazardous work can lead to disability.

Disability can also be due to some diseases like musculoskeletal problems, heart disease and stroke, cancer, mental health problems and nervous system disorders like Alzihmers and Parkinsons disease. People of old age are more vulnerable to such kind of disease.

Problems faced by the Disabled

Problems faced by the disabled can be classified into architectural, communication and attitudinal.

Architectural

problems

arise

from

the

restricted mobility of the disabled as well as lack of infrastructural facilities like ramp,

railings,

signages such

and

accessible

shelves, the

switches, toilets etc. Lack disabled more dependent on others and negatively affects his confidence.

of

infrastructure

makes

Communication problems are a very serious handicap as for the disabled particularly visually deaf and dumb. Presently our communication is centered on language and speech but as the capacity of the disabled in these areas is restricted, they find it difficult to communicate with others. impaired, mentally challenged and

This affects their socialization, educational prospects and availability of information, which in turn affects their intellectual ability, employment, play, leisure and health.

These problems in turn affect self esteem, social respect and dignity leading to emotional instability.

Mental disability has problems of a different nature as capacity to learn is restricted in varying degrees. Such persons are

dependent upon others for their entire life and need care at every step.

All the types of disabled face discrimination. During childhood, the family does not pay much attention as it is felt that spending money on such children will not bring any benefit to the family. Discrimination is maximum in case of mentally disabled as they are regarded to be completely useless and a burden on the family.

These people are also discriminated in the field of education and employment. Disabled person is more vulnerable to abuse resist. Vulnerability is highest in case of mentally retarded persons particularly females, as the victim does even understand that he is being abused.

as he or she has a restricted capacity to

Legal Provisions & Organizations

Persons with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and Full Participation) Act, 1995, clearly defines disability as well

as provides for education, employment and creation of a barrier free environment for the disabled. The Act also provides for appointing of a Chief Commissioner of Disabilities with a mandate to redress the grievance related to deprivation of the rights of the disabled and non implementation of related laws.

National Trust for Welfare of Persons with Autism, Cerebral Palsy, Mental Retardation and Multiple Disability Act, 1999 provides for setting up of a trust for aforesaid category of the disabled. The objectives of the trust are to enable and empower the disabled to live as independently as possible and to provide support to live within the family, to extend support to registered organizations to support the disabled, to deal with problems of the disabled who do not own a family or have lost the family and to evolve procedure for appointing guardians and trustees if required. The trust is presently running many schemes for benefit of the disabled.

Rehabilitation Council of India was set up in 1986. However it was granted status of statutory body by Rehabilitation Council of India Act, 1992, which provides for setting of standardization and regularization of up of a Rehabilitation Council for the purpose rehabilitation services.

The Government is contemplating to enact a new bill The Rights of Persons with Disabilities Bill, 2011 which apart from other aspects lays more stress on the women with disabilities.

The Rights of Persons with Disabilities Bill, 2011: Analysis

The Bill is intended to bring the disability rights

discourses into the 21st Century in accordance with the United Nations Convention on the Right of Persons with Disabilities, which India has sign and ratified. The Bill correctly identifies that the detailed definition of disability in the bill is medical in nature, which means persons with disabilities are

considered patients at fundamental level. There are recommendations in the Bill to define disability in terms of social model. The Bill also envisages removing social barriers to make society inclusive rather then using medical interventions to achieve the same objectives. It is also recommended to give higher weightage during surveys for Below Poverty Line families and food insecure households. It is also recommended to provide preferential access to all poverty alleviation and social security allowances to the households with disabled members.

Some steps taken by the Government

The Government has reserved 3% of the jobs for certain category of disabled. Grant is provided of to the various Disabled disabled aids for and

purchase/fitting appliances. .

Under

Deendayal

Rehabilitation

Scheme, the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, provides grants to NGOs for providing facilities to the disabled.

Post matric scholarship is provided to disabled students. However, in respect of students with multiple disabilities and profound or severe for pursuing studies from IX Std. onwards. cerebral palsy, mental retardation,

hearing impairment, scholarship are awarded

An

employer

incentive

scheme

has

been

started in which the Government would pay the employers contribution of EPF and ESIC for three years in return for employment of disabled persons with monthly wage up to Rs.25000/- per month.

Funds

governments and other agencies for creating infrastructure like lifts etc to provide barrier free access to the persons with disabilities.

are

being

provided

to

State

Five Composite Regional Centres have been set up at Srinagar, Sundernagar (Himachal provide aspects research both of preventive rehabilitation and manpower and like pradesh), Lucknow, Bhopal and Guwahati to promotional education, development,

health, employment and vocational training, rehabilitation for persons with disabilities etc.

District Disability Rehabilitation Centres have been set up in many districts for providing rehabilitation services to the persons with disabilities.

A pilot project has been taken for creation of awareness on The prevention project and early detection and intervention of various types of disabilities. dissemination of information in rural areas through Anganwadi workers. envisages

A scheme for developing technologies for benefit of the disabled is being implemented through Research IITs, Agencies etc in Educational which and Institutes, Voluntary assistance is

Organizations

provided to such institutions for development of such technologies.

National Programme for Control of Blindness

provides services for prevention of blindness and for providing treatment to the blind and eye care facilities.

National Programme for Prevention and Control of Deafness is being run to prevent hearing loss, for rehabilitating the effected people

and for developing institutional capacity for ear care services. Conclusion Society has a very negative view about disabled people despite the fact that some of the disabled people have shown exceptional brilliance in various fields. Examples are Beethoven, John Milton, Stephen Hawkings, Helen Keller and Sudha Chandran. The disabled can also contribute to the society provided suitable opportunities are given to them. While the government and other organizations are doing their part it is for the society to give them sympathy and respect so that they are able to attain their full potential and give a life of dignity. Retail sector in India and F.D.I

The UPA II governemnt has recently given green signal to 51% FDI in the Retail Sector. The government's decision is no less then "bold" as

many colation partners within UPA II disagree with

this policy change. This article is an attempt to retail sector.

highlight highlight various various prespectives related to the FDI in

What is retail? What is difference between wholesale and retail? Retailing refers to the transaction of goods from the fixed location, between the sellers and end users (consumers). These

ansactions generally satisfy the needs of the thus are small in quantity. departmental stores,

tr

individuals or households for direct consumption, The kirana stores, malls etc are shopping

examples of retail outlets. The retail is different from wholesale in two ways: 1. In retail the transaction takes place between the sellers and buyer for the consumption, in case of wholesale generally the transaction takes place not for the consumption but for supply the goods to retailers. 2. Since retail satisfies the need of individuals or household its quantity is low, however in wholesale the bulk quantity is transacted. Few facts about Retail sector

the further business. Wholesalers generally

Retail trade is the second largest employer in India after agriculture; it comprises food and non-food sectors.

In India more than 1 crore small shopkeepers and more than 4 crore people depend on retail.

The sector contributes about 10% in GDP of the country

The food sector accounts for 70% of the total retail trade in terms of value. 95% of the retail trade takes place in the unorganized sector. The retail sector has witnessed 15% growth rate with indigenous capital There is no policy or framework which

focuses on retail sector The present status of FDI in retail sector

In September 2012, the UPA II has allowed 51% FDI in the retail sector. Since 1997, 100 per cent FDI is

permitted in cold chain infrastructure and wholesale (cash and carry). The big giants like Wal-Mart and Carrefour are presently carry).

operating in India in wholesale (cash and From January 2012 100% FDI is

permitted in single brand retail. Prior to this from 2006, 51% FDI in single-brand retail is permitted. It implies that foreign companies would be allowed to sell goods sold

internationally under a single brand, viz., Reebok, Nokia, and Adidas. In the past five years in single-brand retail only $44.45 million (Rs 231 crore) came to India, constituting inflows.

barely not

0.03% in

of

total Multi

FDI Brand

FDI

is

permitted

Retailing in India. FDI in Multi Brand retail implies that a retail store with a foreign investment can sell multiple brands under one roof. Recent controversy regarding the FDI in retail sector Committed to the agenda of reforms the UPA

government in November 2011 wanted to permit 51% FDI in Multi Brand Retailing in India. However, under the serve pressure from collation partners, farmer groups, traders organization and decision. various NGOs the government has to roll back its Various farmers group and traders

organization have vehemently opposed the permission of FDI in multi brand retail. However there is no

such

stiff

resistance

from

these

actors

for

permission of FDI in single brand retail and wholesale (cash and carry), where FDI is already permitted.

Views in support of permitting FDI in multi brand retail The supporters of FDI in multi brand retailing are of the view that this would facilitate huge investments in the retail sector. This would result agro-processing, sorting, marketing and front-end retail business. The protagonists of FDI also put forward the point that opening up of multi-brand retail for foreign investors would have a beneficial effect on food inflation by improving the supply chain and logistics. Since big giants like Wal Mart and Carrefour would enter the multi brand retail, which have plethora of professional experience and technological knowhow to streamline the supply chain. This would infuse efficiency in supply chain, thus benefitting

in creation of gainful employment opportunities in

both the actors at the extreme ends of th the e chain i.e. producers and end consumers. Those favoring FDI in multi brand retail are also of the view that permission of FDI

investments in the procurement infrastructure and post harvest management. chain and warehouses Post harvest wastage results in damage of

would

lead

to

and lack of procurement infrastructure like cold substantial amount of farm products. Precisely, the marketing of perishable agricultural produce needs retailing could fill this gap. In the present procurement system, the farmers a modern distribution system, FDI in multi brand

and producers are exploited by the middlemen and local agents. They have to travel a long distance to sell their farm produce; they are often compelled by agents and middlemen to sell their

produce on credit moreover the maximum share of value addition and profit goes into the pocket of middlemen and agents. Permission of FDI in multi brand retail would enable a procurement system, wherein the retail companies could directly procure from the farmers and producers. This would result into disintermediation of the agents and middlemen, thus producers can accrue the larger share in value addition and profits.

The flip side of FDI in multi retail branding The vehement opposition of FDI has come from the groups and organization of the small traders and kirana stores. According to these groups and organization the permission of FDI in multi brand retail would give a death blow to the livelihood of India small traders and especially the kirana stores. In more than 10 crore small shopkeepers and more than 40 crore people depend on retail. The permission of FDI in retail is foreseen as a threat to livelihood of these.

According to the critics FDI may prove beneficial only in the short run, however in the long run small farmers and producers would be forced to sell their produce at a lower rate. It is also held that permission of FDI would reduce the negotiating power of the producers and end consumers as the transactions would take place between asymmetrical actors, i.e. small producers and individual consumer with big multinational giants like Wal-mart.

There is an apprehension that multinational retailers would start selling food products sourced from abroad at a lower price and which could be of better quality. There are many rich countries which provide huge farm subsidies in their agriculture sector. Its very natural that indigenous farm products could not compete with products from those countries which are heavily subsidized. This accounts for dependence of more than 50% of population. It is also held that permission of FDI on the account of investment in procurement infrastructure could demolish the farm sector in India which

is a vague argument. Although FDI in wholesale trade was permitted in 1997, but no significant investment has happened at the back-end of the supply chain.

The permission of FDI in multi brand retail could also result into the monopoly of few big giants in this sector by crowding out the others through systematic predatory pricing. Predatory pricing

refers to a situation where new players come with initially lower the prices for the consumers, with the intention of creating a monopoly and raising prices later.

The domestic companies who have entered into modern trade are in the nascent stage. Opening up of multi-brand retail to foreign players could also prove detrimental for these domestic players.

It is also argued that there was no dearth of domestic capital and materials in the Indian retail market because of the supply chain established by unorganized players. Even in the absence of any policy framework retail sector in India showing an annual growth of 15%.

Conclusion Its an established fact that economic reforms

agenda is an irreversible process in India. Our country is a signatory of reform agenda of World Trade trade barriers to open up various sectors and treat foreign capital at par with the domestic. Thus sooner or later the permission of FDI in various sectors would be a reality and multi brand retail is no exception. The vehement opposition by various groups could only delay the process but cannot prevent it. But since the issue is related with the livelihood of millions in retail and farm sector, it must be dealt with utmost caution. Certain policy frame work and arrangements are required so that a win-win situation is designed. Organization which envisage dismantling

The arrangements should be such that the country not only accrue the financial and economic benefits manner that it facilitates This can the be but could also align the foreign capital in such a sociodone by economic development.

integrating into the rules and regulations for FDI

in multi-brand retailing certain inbuilt safety valves. The following are recommendations to deal with FDI in multi-brand:

FDI in multi brand retailing should be allowed in a manner that the effect of possible loss of livelihood can be analyzed and policy fine tuned accordingly. The alternative recognized for those who would be displaced. livelihood opportunities should be generated or

To ensure that the FDI make an authentic contribution to the infrastructure development and supply chain efficiencies, it can be predetermined that a certain fixed

percentage of investment should go in the back end infrastructure, logistics or agro processing units.

There should be strong regulatory authority (like TRAI in case of telecom) to protect the interest of small retailers so that the retailing giants do not resort to predatory pricing through unfair means. At the same time it or acquire monopolistic tendencies

should

be

ensured

that

the

rights

of

consumers be safeguarded. Extension of institutional credit, at lower rates, by financial institutions, to help improve proactive program for supporting small retailers to improve themselves. Ethnic movements in India By: Davendra Sharma efficiencies of small retailers; undertaking of

Ethnicity: Meaning Ethnicity means a cultural heritage which sets apart a group from the others. The characteristics could be ancestory, religion, language or cultural practices. Ethnic identity is a self consciousness among the people of a group about those cultural aspects which make them different from others. This also involves a sense of status in which these groups demand a status higher than or equal to other groups. When this identity or status is

threatened, it leads to mobilization of the group resulting in movement. Usually, the demands are positive for secession. Examples are demand by some groups inclusion in STs (positive movement for separate state like Uttarakhand and Jharkhand (autonomy) and armed struggle in north eastern states (secession). Ethnicity in Indian context India is a heterogeneous country in terms of race, discrimination, autonomy or

discrimination),

religion and culture and hence has a large number of ethnic groups. Although, the census of India does not recognize ethnic groups, as per CIA World Fact book, there are about 2000 ethnic groups in India. With this amount of plurality, some peripheral areas, in feel the that they of are of the ethnic groups, particularly the tribes living in being discriminated matter economic

development or their culture and traditions are being threatened. It is this feeling which has the country has seen from time to time. resulted in a number of ethnic movements which

Ethnic movements in North East Rise of ethnic movements in the north east have their roots in the colonial conquest of the area in the 19th century. Initially, the British followed a policy of non interference which was however soon changed. resented by the local tribes who started thinking that they are being marginalized. This resulted in a number of uprisings during the British period which were crushed by the British. Simultaneously, Christian missionaries were allowed in these areas. Association with the missionaries and spread of tribes. This awareness along with the sense of marginalization resulted in development of ethnic has resulted in a number of movements in the north east some of which are as under: Assamese Movement Assam movement started due to the fear among the Assamese people that influx of migrants from Bangladesh would change the demographic nationalism which has continued to this day. This education infused sense of self esteem among the Interference in local matters was

character of the state. All Assam Students Union was at the forefront of this agitation. During by election to the Mangladoi Parliamentary constituency in the year 1978, it was detected that a large number of illegal as and immigrants have was registered themselves in 1980 voters. This 1983 were protested by with stiff

AASU. Efforts of the Government to hold election resistance. Finally an accord was passed between met

the All Assam Sangram Gana Parishad and the Government of India in 1985 after which certain demands of agitators were accepted. In the meanwhile United Liberation Front of Assam (ULFA) armed struggle for an independent Assam. The outfit though not completely eliminated has since been substantially marginalized. Bodo movement Bodos are an ethnic community of Assam and constitute about 5.5% of the states population. Bodo movement is different from the movement of Assamese people and is perhaps the longest had also been formed in 1983 and started an

movement in North East. As early as 1930, one of their leaders had demanded a separate political set up for the tribal people of Assam. However, the demand was turned down first by the British continued. In 1993, the Assam Government formed the Bodoland Autonomous Council. However, agreement between the Government and Bodo Peoples Action Committee & All Bodo Student Union broke down due to non implementation of some provisions of the agreement. After another ten years of struggle, in a tripartite agreement between Bodo Liberation Tigers (BLT), the state Government and the Central Government, Bodoland Territorial Council was formed. Recently there has been widespread violence in Bodoland districts between the Bodos and Muslims reportedly on the issue of illegal migrants Nagaland Nagas have continued their struggle since the and later by the Govt. of India. The movement

independence under aegis of Naga National Council

(NNC) which was formed in 1946. It declared

independence of Nagaland. Armed struggle of NNC continued. In 1975, Shillong accord was signed between the Government and NNC inwhich the Indian constitution. This was resented by some Nagas and National Socialist Council of Nagaland was formed in 1980. In the same year it was divided into two factions each having influence in a number of Naga sub tribes. The demand of these of Greater Nagaland which would include all the areas where Nagas are residing. This has raised concern among other ethnic tribes of the region Manipur Meitei is the main ethnic group of Manipur and groups is independence from India and formation NNC agreed to renounce violence and work within

were rulers of erstwhile Manipur princely state became has a union territory an and armed statehood struggle

which was merged into India in 1949. In 1956 it was for granted in 1972. United National Liberation Front establishing been conducting an independent Manipur. Peoples

Revolutionary Party of Kangleipak and Peoples

Liberation Army are other outfits that are involved in armed struggle. Kuki insurgents want a separate state craved for them from the Manipur state.

Mizoram Mizos are an ethnic groups comprising of various tribes. During the later part of the British rule there were a number of uprisings against the British and as the old Chiefs supported British, movement was also against them. Consequently, a Mizo Union) was formed. Separation of Burma in 1937 and partition of India in 1947 imposed restrictions which were not accepted by the Mizo people. After, independence, Mizoram became a district of the Assam state. However, people were not satisfied with the Assam Government. political party Mizo Common Peoples Union (later

Introduction of Assamese as the state language created further dissensions. All these situations led to an uprising by the Mizo National Front in March, 1966. The uprising was suppressed. Later, the Government apart from military action also

granted amnesty to the insurgents as a results of which many of them surrendered. MNF violent struggle came to an end in 1986 after Laldenga signed the Mizo accord. Tripura Tripura was a princely state under the British and was merged with the Indian Union in October, 1949. Like many other states in North East, Tripura has also been facing the problem of migration. There had been a large influx of people had been reduced to minority. In a immigrants and as early as 1951, local tribal democracy, this also meant shifting of political equations. In 1943, the King of Tripura had earmarked about 2000 sq miles of area as tribal Regent Queen, about 300 sq miles of this area was thrown open for settlement of refugees. More of this land was opened up in later years. Local people felt marginalized and tensions start building up. Tribals formed an organization Tripura Upjatay Juba Samiti in 1967. In the same year, reserve. However, in 1948, in the time of the

Sengkrak, a tribal insurgent group came up. The Tripura Areas Autonomous District Council was created by an Act of Parliament formed in 1979. However, insurgent groups increased their activities and new groups like National Liberation Front of Tripura and All Tripura Tiger Force came up. Despite the action from the security forces, the problem is far from over. Other parts of the country Ethnic movements have taken place in other parts

of the country; however these movements did not lead to armed insurgency. By and large, these groups demanded rights within the Indian framework. Important movements of this category are as under: 1. A number of states and of demands have cultural for been states, creation guided of by

separate linguistic formation

three

factors.

Uttarakhand,

Recent

Jharkhand and Chhatisgarh has been result of movements launched by the hill people and the tribals.

2. In 1980s, Gorkhas living in Darjeeling area launched an agitation under Gorkha National Liberation Front (GNLF) for establishment of a separate state. The leader of the movment was Subhash with Gorkha Gheising. the Hill The in culiminated Darjeeling establishment Council movment of 1988.

However, in 2008, a new party called the Gorkha Janmukti Morcha again raised the demand for a Gorkha state, which led to signing of an agreement in April, 2011 for establishment of Gorkha Territorial Administration (GTA) which has been since been established. Elections have been held Janmukti Morcha has taken over charge as Chief Executive. 3. Movements for establishment of a separate Telengana state comprising of speaking areas, has been continuing since 1960s with varying intensity. As the state is to be carved out of the state of Andhra Pradesh, the demand is being opposed in Rayalseema and Coastal Andhra. Presently, Telugu recently and Bimal Gurung, leader of Gorkha

the movement is being led under the aegis of Telengana Rashtra Samiti (TRS) with K. Chandrashekhar Rao as the leader of the organization. 4. Recently Gujjar community in Rajasthan launched an agitation for inclusion in the ST category. However, the movement could not succeed primarily due to the opposition from among ST communities of the state. Conclusion Everyone wants to preserve his culture and the Meena community who are dominant

everyone wants economic development. There is nothing wrong in people asking for certain rights for their communities. However, problem comes when these movements turn violent. In order to avoid culture or language is not imposed upon. Efforts to impose Hindi in the southern part of the country have not evoked a favorable response. An individual has multiple social statuses in his various roles. In India some of these statuses such situations, it is evident that a particular

relate to caste, tribe, language and religion. Though these concepts hinder the development of a common nationality, they cannot be wished away. Therefore, concepts like propriety, patriotism and nationalism should be seen in context of these realities and utmost care needs to be taken so that these terms are not defined on basis of sectarian outlook. We need to develop a view of nationalism which simultaneously allows the individual to fulfill his obligations as member of other social groups. This would integrate ethnic identity with the national identity and help various groups in seeing their problems from a different perspective. Apart from the cultural aspect administrative and economic aspects are equally important. Development should be more equal and establishment must be more sensitive to aspirations of the people. Political establishment plays an important role in these matters. Apart from being controlling the Government it also has the maximum reach among the people. This should be used in a positive way and grievances should be immediately addressed to

so that people are not constrained to resort to other measures. SCSC-ST Promotion Quota Bill

The Bill at a Glance The cabinet committee of UPA II has given its assent to the Constitutional Amendment Bill which deals was with promotions in in public employment Sabha of Schedule Castes and Schedule Tribes. The Bill introduced the Rajya where pandemonium broke out during the discussion as leaders of Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) and stands. Nearly all the political parties (except Samajwadi Party) have agreed on the need for the same, thus there is by and large a political consensus on the Bill. However, the constitutional despite of the political consensus would be amendment Bill if passed in the present format vulnerable to the scrutiny of the judiciary since as Samajwadi Party (SP) took entirely different

there are complex issues like basic structure of the constitution, social justice, reservation and administrative efficiency interwoven in the Bill. Background Background of the Bill In public employments, since 1955 there was

provision for the promotions for SC/STs. Article 16 of the Indian constitution (which is also a Fundamental Right) deals with the Equality in Employment. Article 16(1) is related to of equality of opportunity, Article 16(2) deals with the special classification while Article 16(4) throws light on the affirmative action by the state. The quota for promotion of SC/STs since 1955 in public employments was based on the tenet of affirmative action as propounded by Article 16(4).

anti- discrimination, and Article 16(3) talks about

In the famous Indira Sawhney and Others vs Union of India Case, 1992 (also popularly known as Mandal Case), the Supreme court gave the judgment which declared the quota for promotion of any kind in public employment as unconstitutional. In this case the Supreme Court observed that

reservation of appointments or posts under article 16(4) of the Constitution is confined to initial appointment and cannot extent to reservation in the matter of promotion.

The government in order to counter-balance the judgment of Supreme Court in Indira Sawhney case related to the up in quota of promotions SC/STs Amendment came Act with 1995. of

77thConstitutional

This

constitutional

amendment inserted a clause 16 (4A) in the constitution which says: Nothing in this article shall prevent the State

from making any provision for reservation in matters

of promotion, with consequential seniority, to any

State in favour of the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes which, in the opinion of the services under the State. State, are not adequately represented in the
The Supreme Court judgments in the Nagaraj

class or classes of posts in the services under the

case and subsequent cases that have upheld the bearing on reservation in promotion for the S.Cs

and

S.Ts

as

envisaged

by

77th constitutional

amendment act. Nevertheless the apex court also held that if the state considers it necessary to provide reservation, including reservation promotion, it must show by data that the following conditions: 1. Compelling reasons 2. Backwardness 3. Inadequate representation in the services The court has also laid down the following in

conditions:

1. Exclusion of creamy layer 2. Efficiency Article 335 should not be compromised should not be of administration required by

3. 50 per cent limit should not be breached 4. Reservation indefinitely In nut shell the court held that the government could continue with the quota for promotion of SC/STs in public employment but subject to extended

reasonable guidelines which must be supported by the quantifiable data. Recent issues issues related to the Bill The issue came into the light when the previous Uttar Pradesh government headed by Mayawati provided reservation benefits for SCs, STs in promotions to higher posts in government jobs. The Allahabad High Court struck down the government decision. The Supreme Court on April 28, 2012 has upheld the High Court order and termed the state government decision as unconstitutional and done without any sufficient data. Thus the apex court has not termed the promotional quota of SC/STs per se as null and void but the reservation benefits by previous UP government as data. The proposed bill by UPA II seeks to amend at least four articles of the constitution to enable the government to provide quota in promotions to unconstitutional in the absence of any quantifiable

SC/STs. It seeks to remove the term "inadequate representation", mentioned in Article 16 (4) to

justify reservation in promotion and appointments, and also delink the term "efficiency of administration" from the claims of SCs/STs for jobs and promotions, mentioned in Article 335. Conclusion Nearly in all developing countries across the world there exists a tradeoff between social justice and efficiency (merit). India is no exception. The present controversy related to the promotion quota of SC/STs is also a manifestation of this trade off.

Reservation (in any form) must be viewed as a means to attain a larger goal i.e. equality in the society. Nonetheless parochial compulsions in the electoral politics have made Reservation as a goal and not just a means. Thus Reservation as a means to gain political mileage and not as an instrument to achieve the Meta goal of equality our society. would create more problems than the solutions in

Despite of the fact that there is a political consensus over this Bill, not just the critiques of the Bill but the topmost law officers of the Government are of the view that this Bill is very much vulnerable to judicial scrutiny. Any public policy (including this reservation Bill) which is not supported by quantifiable data is arbitrary in its character. Thus the Bill is passed in the present fabric but there are also high chances that parliament and judiciary as institutions can face the situation of grave disagreement. Politics and Economics behind Petroleum Products would not only create tensions in the socio-economic

The biggest hike in the petrol price in the history of India, in 2012 (although followed by some roll the UPA II government. Paradoxically, the decision of largest hike has come at the time when the moderating. This simply reflect the fact that politics (Petropolitics) rather than sheer economics international crude prices have been gradually backs) has evoked public outcry and criticism of

is the primary guiding force behind the pricing of petroleum products. Since fuel is a sensitive commodity in the economy as its pricing has explicit impact on the overall economy has in general merit. and inflation in the particular, thus administering its prices by political leadership some However, fundamental intend of such arrangement must be to safeguard the interests of vulnerable and marginalized sections of the society and to curb the inflationary trends. The recent decision of this biggest hike of the petroleum prices is no way related to the above noble intentions. On the other hand the aim behind such hike was to gain political mileage in the assembly elections. There are two major causes that are related to the petroleum prices

1. The price of crude oil in the international market 2. Value of rupee vis--vis other currencies

Apart from these two factors the taxation of the petroleum products also plays a vital role in determining its cost to the end user. The following taxes are involved in the distribution processes: 1. Excise Duty 2. Import Duty 3. Value Added Tax (VAT)

While the first two taxes belong to the Central Government, the third one goes into the exchequer of the State governments. Since the structure of VAT is different across the states thats why the price of petroleum products are priced differently in states. In order to understand this complex issue of pricing of petroleum products, it is essential to have a clear understanding of the value and supply chain of the petroleum products. The oil and gas industry is usually divided into three major components: though Upstream, midstream and downstream,

midstream operations are usually included in the downstream category. The upstream oil sector is also known as

the exploration and production (E&P) sector. The upstream sector includes the searching for potential underground or underwater oil and gas fields, drilling of exploratory wells, and subsequently drilling and operating the wells that recover and bring the crude oil and/or raw natural gas to the surface. The midstream companies and make money by these

fractionating,

transporting

marketing

natural gas liquids. The downstream oil sector is a term commonly used to refer to the selling and distribution of natural gas and products derived from crude oil. Such products include liquefied or petrol, jet petroleum fuel, diesel gas oil, (LPG), gasoline

other fuel oils, asphalt and petroleum coke.

The profits of upstream and midstream companies are almost insulated from the international price of

crude oil as well as value of rupee. It is the bottom line and under recoveries of downstream oil sector (OMCs) which are critically linked to these two factors. To understand the issues more clearly it is pertinent to understand two terms i.e. Import parity pricing and under- recoveries of OMCs. Import parity pricing and underunder- recoveries of companies or Oil Marketing Companies

OMCs

OMCs in

Import parity pricing is a pricing policy adopted by for their sales to domestic is

customers; as a

according to which price of the petroleum product the international market taken benchmark for the accounting purposes. It is set at the cost of the imported substitute good. Such price is set equal to the world price converted into the customer would bear if importing. This import parity pricing is closely linked to the under recoveries. Under-recoveries are a notional measure representing the difference between the trade-parity cost of refined product paid by OMCs rupee, plus any transport, tariff and other costs

and their realized sale price. It is the gap between the local price of fuel and what would have been the price if the fuel were imported. Mathematical expression:

Suppose the price of imported oil for retail is Rs X per liter on a particular day

The price incurred by the oil marketing retail is Rs Y per liter

company along with distribution cost for

The managed price at which it is sold than:

the end consumer is Rs M per liter,

liter

(XRs (X - M) = under recovery of OMC per (YRs (Y - M) = loss of OMC per liter Generally X and Y are different prices. Consider a case when X > M> Y in such OMC case the O MC would report the under

recoveries but actually it would be making profit.

In case of kerosene, oil companies suffer an under-recovery as well as a loss because the local retail price is much lower than the cost of crude oil. But sale of a product like petrol can still be very profitable at times, even if oil companies are reporting under-recovery of a few rupees a litre. It is argued that the procurement prices paid by OMCs (some of whom are vertically-integrated refiners) prices, as currently calculated meaning the actual effect of managed prices is less than that suggested by under-recovery figures. Sharing of underunder-recoveries The under-recovery burden is usually shared among the oil marketing and financials companies, the of the the oil upstream marketing However, companies government. are actually less than trade-parity

deteriorating

companies and the government restrict their ability to foot the rising bill. Equitable Burden Sharing

Mechanism (EBSM) is applicable for sharing of under-recoveries. Under this system, it was agreed that Indias upstream public oil companies

(Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC), Oil India Limited (OIL)) would shoulder one-third of the burden of under-recoveries. However off late the subsidy share of the upstream companies (ONGC and Oil India) and GAIL has rose from one-third to almost 38 per cent.

The alternatives to tackle the under recoveries There are various possible alternatives before the government to arrest the ballooning under recoveries of the OMCs. These are as: 1. 2. Raising retail prices; Reducing duties to keep retail prices

unchanged while transferring the benefits of the duty reduction to the OMCs; 3.

Generating revenues by taxing the super

profits of the oil companies that are involved in the production and export of crude at the current

high prices, so as to compensate the marketing companies; 4. Generating resources through additional

taxes on or lower tax concessions for India's high net worth individuals and the corporate sector, so as to pay for subsidies that protect the ordinary shock 5. Borrowing money to compensate the OMCs consumer against the effects of the global oil price

for their losses. How could UPA have handled it better? There was a considerable hike in the international crude oil price which even reached about $ 150 per barrel. This was coupled with the depreciating value of Rupee against the dollar. Therefore the hike or implementation of any of the alternatives recoveries of the OMCs. If UPA and its collation partner were so much concerned about the prices of the petroleum was inevitable because of the ballooning under

products, they must reduce the excise duty and the VAT rates across the country. Even if the government was of the view that price hike was best alternative to handle the situation, it must have not waited for the assembly elections to get over. Government didnt allow the OMCs to go for a price hike in the backdrop of assembly elections in the five states, by the time the government gave its assent for the hike, the deficit turned out to be so huge that country witnessed the biggest hike. NDA government too faced the similar situation and it hiked the fuel prices 33 times in six years. However the hikes were so tiny that they didnt invite the public outrage and media attention. Suggestions for tackling the issues The following can be the suggestions to tackle the issues: 1. The efficacy of the notion of under

recoveries needs to be questioned. Since India imports crude oil and not petrol or

diesel, but this concept takes into account the international price of diesel and petrol 2. The long-term target must be to bring the ratio of imported crude to total consumption down to the historical level, last seen in the 1980s and early-1990s, of around 65%. 3. We need to reduce bureaucratic delays in case of the policy related to exploration. Cairn, for example, has to waite for nearly two years to ramp up production in its Mangala oilfield. 4. We must encourage more joint ventures in exploring foreign oil and gas fields. ONGC and Videocon's fields in Mozambique, Brazil, East Timor and Australia should other to encourage Reliance sector Videsh's Russian investments in Sakhalin-I for accounting.

Industries (RIL), Essar, Adani and private exploration companies expand their global footprint

5. We must go for rationalization of duties and taxes on petroleum products.

6. Sustainable alternatives of petroleum products like bio fuels must be promoted 7. Different types of diesels should be used for trucks and luxury cars. It makes no sense to supply diesel at subsidized rate for the owner of a luxury diesel car. 8. It is high time that the railways also switched over to the use of 100% electricity for running the trains. 9. For transport vehicles CNG should be used, which is less polluting, on the one hand, and would result in liberating the goods transport sector from the use of diesel, on the other. Dalit Movements in India By: Davendra Sharma

crushed. The term is used to denote social groups who were not considered to be a part of the varna system in the Hindu society. This category mainly covers the castes coming under the

Literally, Dalit means oppressed, ground or

category of scheduled castes. In earlier times, these people were made to live outside villages and cities considered polluting. These groups were made to and their touch or even shadow was

perform lowly functions and were not entitled to education or any position of status and authority. This treatment was resented by these groups, which movements throughout history. However, the tone of these movements has differed from time to time. Middle Ages Orthodox Hindu to society the did not provide any has been reflected in a number of

opportunities

dalits.

However,

situation

changed with the advent of Muslim rule. A number of lower class people converted to Islam to avoid discrimination and oppression and for better opportunities. This period also witnessed the growth of bhakti cult. Most of these bhakti cult saints were non-Brahmin and many were from lower castes. Kabir, Raidas, Namdeo and Tukaram were some famous saints of this category. They rejected Vedic religion, disapproved caste system and used

vernaculars as their language. However, these movements failed to challenge the caste system primarily because of socio-political conditions of the time. However, these movements provided a philosophical base for the movements that were to come up in the future. Movements during colonial Period However, situation changed with the advent of Europeans, who considered the caste system as discriminatory and unjustified. The colonial period saw widespread changes in socio-political scenario of the country. After coming into contact with the idea of equality, a section of caste Hindus started opposing the discrimination against dalit communities. Arya Samaj, Brahma Samaj and Ramakrishna Mission were some such organizations. These organizations condemned caste based discriminations and started some activcities for betterment of dalits. However, after initial attachments, the dalits moved away from these organizations mainly because these movements failed to create a radical anti caste unity between the dalits and the middle

caste hindus. An important reason for this was that these organizations did never really challenge the varna system which was the basis of caste system. In the meanwhile things were slowly changing for dalits. British started recruiting some of these men in the army which improved their economic condition and instilled some measure of confidence in them. The education policy adopted social change. While state took over the task of providing education, it also ensured that education was secular and avenues was for provided these without groups. any With discrimination of caste or creed. This opened up educational by the British government was also favorable for

education arose consciousness about their status which resulted in a number of movements in different parts of the country. Some of these movements were:

First prominent movement of this kind was led by Jyotiba Phule who was an important social reformer. He laid stress on education and stated that lack of education was at the root of all problems of dalits. In 1848,

he started a school for untouchables and another one exclusively for women. In 1873, he founded the Satya Sodhak Samaj whose main aim was to liberate the lower castes from discrimination and oppression

Sree Narayan Guru, was a spiritual leader from the Ezahava community of Kerala. He rejected caste system and the superiority of brahmins. Subsequently, movement by Ezahavas led to Travancore Proclamation which allowed entry of all Hindus in all the temples of Travancore in 1936.

Adi Dharm movment started in Punjab in 1926. These people claimed that the untouchables were the real inhabitants of India and upper caste people came from outside and enslaved the original people. They believed in non-theistic notion of divinity and believed in equality of men. The movement bring awareness among the was active from 1926 to 1946. It worked to depressed classes in Punjab Due to the efforts of the movement, some of the untouchables were

listed in 1931 census as Adi-dharmis and not Hindus.

Adi Andhra Mahajan Sabha was formed in 1917. It resolved to call untouchables of the region as Adi-Andhras and took up the cause of nominating these people to statutory bodies, to admit their children to common schools and to dig separate wells for drinking water to these classes. The nomenclature of Adi Andhra was accepted by the government and some of its members were nominated to the Madras Legislative Assembly. The sabha was active till 1940.

Paraiyar Mahajan Sabha was formed in 1891 by Rettamalai Srinivasan. It became Adi Dravida Mahajan Sabha in 1893. The Sabha took up matters for upliftment of the dalits including reserving posts for them in the public services.

All Bengal Namsudra Association was formed in 1912. It demanded increasing of franchise by including the depressed classes and reservation of seats in Legislature. The

association

was

instrumental

in

bringing

awareness among untouchables in Bengal. Dr.Baba Saheb Ambedkar Dr. Ambedkar was the most important dalit leader mahar family which was considered untouchable. He completed his education in India though during it he was faced with discrimination at every stage. In 1913 he went to United States under a scholarship granted by the Maharaja of Baroda for post graduation at Columbia University. Later he also studied in London School of Economics and also at Grays Inn for study of law. After his return to India in 1923 he actively involved himself in the works relating to the welfare of depressed classes. He was supported in his activities by Shahuji IV, the rule of Kolhapur. In 1924, he founded Bahishkrat Hitkarini Sabha with the aim of promoting education and culture among the depressed upliftment. In 1927, he led the famous Mahad Tank Satyagraha for right of untouchables to take classes and to work for their

in India. He was born on 14th April, 1891 in a

water from the main tank. The movement resulted in burning of manusmriti. In 1930, he led a protest for entry of untouchables at Kalaram temple at Nasik.

Due to his prominence as a dalit leader he was invited to the second round table conference untouchables. The Government announced wherein he advocated separate electorate for the Communal Award on these lines. However, this was opposed by Mahatma Gandhi who went on fast in Yerwada between Dr.Ambedkar and Mahatma Gandhi which culminated in the Poona Pact, as per which the depressed classes will not claim separate electorate but will be granted reserved seats in the legislature. He founded the Independent Labour Federation in 1942 to contest elections. However, these parties could not taste much electoral success. The movement led by Dr.Ambedkar was somewhat different from the earlier movements. While many jail. Meetings were then arranged

Party in 1936 and All India Schedule Caste

of the earlier movements were reformative in the sense that they demanded equality within Hindu religion, his movement rejected the Hindu religion altogether and searched for alternatives. In accordance with these views he adopted Buddhism. Second difference was his stress on sharing of power, both economic and political. It was this thought that he demanded separate electorate for untouchables and despite all the odds was able to obtain reserved seats in the legislature. Sanskritization, Sanskritization, dede-Sanskritization and reservation Prof M.N Srinivas introduced the term

sanskritization in context to Indian society. The term refers to a process whereby people of lower castes practices and beliefs to acquire higher status. It collectively try to adopt upper caste

indicates a process of cultural mobility that was taking place in the traditional social system of India. Through this process, Srinivas found that lower castes in order to raise their position in the caste hierarchy adopted some customs and practices of

the Brahmins and gave up some of their own which were considered to be impure by the higher castes. Sanskritization has occurred usually in groups who have enjoyed political and economic power but were not ranked high in ritual ranking. Thus after gaining political and/or economic strength these groups tried to imitate certain rights, practices and rituals to gain upward social mobility. However off political late because of correlated reservation the and

mobilization

with

caste

identities, the trend has reversed. This trend is exactly opposite to sanskritization, thus can be termed as de-sanskritization. In the recent past, there has been a increasing tendency among backward in order to accrue the benefits of the reservation. The agitation by Gujjars in Rajasthan to claim the status of Schedule Tribe and by Jats in north western part of the country to exemplifies this novel trend. include them in the list of backward class truly various social groups to project themselves as

After independence independence After independence, Untouchability was abolished and equality of all citizens was established by law. Positive discrimination was also started in favor in these castes in the form of reservations in legislature as well as government jobs. Dalits continued their movements against caste discriminations which were supported by the law of the land. Due to these efforts, caste system has been considerably eroded in urban areas. In rural areas, despite considerable improvement, still there are areas where these communities are discriminated against. still

On the political front, success is more evident. Most of the political parties have prominent dalit leaders. An important step in this direction was formation of Bahujan Samaj Party in 1984. The party got varying amount of electoral success in Uttar Pradesh and became the largest party in 2007 and formed the Government. However, this success on the political front has resulted in more stress being laid on the political front for which ideological concessions are also made. Social aspect has receded to the background. As a result, social changes have been painfully slow and despite improvement in the lot of dalits, casteism still survives as a social as well aIssues aIssues with Slums in India By: Davendra Sharma

The term Slum covers a wide range of low income settlements with poor living conditions. In the traditional sense slums are those housing areas

which

were

once the

respectable, but have since declined as

original inhabitants moved to better parts of the city and the houses were subdivided and rented out to lower income people. However, in Indian context, the term denotes informal settlements which have come up in a number of cities in the wake of development and urbanization. The Slum Areas (Improvement and Clearance) Act, 1956, defines a slums as an area unfit for habitation, from damp, natural light and air, water supply, drainage and sanitary conveniences and facilities for storage, preparation and cooking of food and fitness being decided by repair, stability, freedom

for disposal of waste water. As per the said Act, such an area can be declared as a notified slum area. According to a UN Expert group, a slum is inadequate access to sanitation and characterized by inadequate access to safe water, other infrastructure, poor structural quality of housing, overcrowding and insecure residential status. Indian Context

In India, different states adopted different criterion for identification of slums. Even criterion adopted by the Registrar General of India and the National Sample Survey Organization were different. This hindered the assessment of correct magnitude of the problem

An expert committee was formed by the Ministry Alleviation assessing which it of in slum Urban July, Housing 2008 and for The Poverty correctly Committee for

population. five

submitted its report on August, 2010 in shortlisted variables normative definition. These are, types of

materials used for constructing roof and walls of houses, number of dwelling exclusive possession of the rooms in household,

availability of drinking water and its source, type of latrine and type of drainage facility.

As per estimates of the committee slum population in 2011 was around 93 million.

Reasons for growth of slums

Economic development in the country has been uneven, due to which rural areas do not have these areas have high rate of unemployment or underemployment due to which people in the villages are forced to migrate to cities for work. This phenomenon increased after took place. independence due to which rapid urbanization much employment opportunities. As a result

This resulted in a rapid increase in urban population. In 1951, 17.3% of population lived in urban areas. The corresponding and 31.2% respectively. For the figure for 2001 and 2011 are 27.81% last

decade growth areas.

itself rate of

(2001-2011), urban areas

decadal has been

31.80% as compared to 12.18% of rural As the infrastructure of the city did not increase at a similar pace, it could not provide proper housing and other resources to large number of migrants. Most of these migrants lacked resources and hence were forced to settle wherever they could. Influx of more migrants and internal increase in population swelled the size of slums.

Most

Government land. This happened due to lack of vigil on part of these agencies which allowed encroachment and squatting on their lands. Problems related to slums

of

the

slums

came

up

on

the

The inhabitants lack a security of tenure and are in constant fear of eviction. This prevents them from making investments in improvement of their dwellings. substantial

Most of the slums are on the Government land with ownership vesting in the concerned agency. The inhabitants do not have property rights over their houses. This causes

hindrance in obtaining basic facilities from civic agencies. Even if these are provided, these are never at par or comparable to other areas of the city.

Most of the houses are very small comprising of only one room for a household. These are shabbily built without any provision for natural light or ventilation.

Most of the inhabitants work as unskilled or semi skilled laborers and are usually below poverty line.

Unhygienic living conditions along with poverty create health problems. Large numbers of children are malnourished and respiratory these areas is the highest in the country. diseases are common. Child mortality rate in

Although government has made efforts to provide education to the children in the slums, enrolment rate is low and dropout rate

is high as poverty forces the family to send every child to work.

Inhabitants are prone to evils like alcoholism social, economic and health problems.

which results in domestic abuse and other

Efforts by the Government

The approach of the Government has been positive. In PDS, ration is given to the Below Poverty Line (BPL) families at lesser price as compared to other people. Support is also provided to the poor through Antyodaya Anna Yojana. This has helped in meeting the food requirements of the urban poor.

National Slum Development Programme was launched in 1996 for upgradation of slums and for providing basic amenities like water supply, roads, street lights, latrines etc. The programme was discontinued from the year 2006. Since the inception of the programme and up to 31-08-2006 an amount of Rs. 2496.18 crore was spent and about 4.58

crores of slum dwellers benefited from this programme.

Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal augmenting urban infrastructure and providing

Mission in 2005. The mission stressed on of basic services to the urban poor. It has four components out of which two i.e. Basic Services to the Urban Poor (BSUIP) and Programme are (IHSDP) are focused on development of slum areas.

Integrated Housing and Slum Development

One more scheme, Rajiv Awas Yojna was launched in June, 2009. It aimed at encouraging states/union territories tackling the problem holistically by bringing the existing slums within the formal system and enabling them to avail of the same level of basic amenities as the rest of the town, redressing the failures of the formal system that lie behind the creation of slums and tackling the shortages of urban land and housing that keep shelter out of reach of the urban poor. by

Apart from the problem of housing, a few schemes were also initiated for providing gainful employment to the urban poor. Nehru Rozgar Yojana (NRY), Urban Basic Services for the Poor (UBSP), and Prime Ministers Integrated Programme Swarna Urban (PMIUPEP) Jayanti Poverty were Eradication some such Yojana

schemes. These were later merged into Shahari Rozgar (SJSRY) in the year 1997. employment to the urban The key or

objective of SJSRY was to provide gainful unemployed underemployed through the setting up of self-employment ventures or provision of wage employment. Achievements

National

Sample

Survey

organization

conducted a survey of notified as well as non-notified slums from July, 2008 to June, 2009. As per this survey, in 64% of the notified slums and 50% of the non notified slums, majority of the dwellings were

pucca units.

For 95% slums, the major

source of drinking water was either tap or notified tube well. Only 1% notified and 7% nonslums did not have electricity

connection. About 78% of notified slums and 57% of the non-notified slums had a pucca road inside the slum. About 73% notified and 58% non-notified slums had a motorable approach road.

As per this report, sanitary conditions in the slums in terms of latrine facility during 2008-09 showed considerable improvement since 2002. Latrines with septic tanks (or similar facility) were available in 68% notified and 47% non-notified slums (up from 66% and 35% respectively in 2002). Underground sewerage existed in about 33% notified slums (30% in 2002) and 19% non-notified slums (15% in 2002).

Government agencies were collecting garbage from 75% notified and 55% non-notified slums. Among these slums, garbage was collected at least once in 7 days.

As on 30/06/12, 1031616 houses were sanctioned under the BSUP component of JNNURM. completed Out and of 227152 these 442616 were under were

construction. 245397 houses have already been occupied.

Similarly,

570503

houses

have

been

sanctioned under the IHSDP component of been completed and 130949 are under construction. 131454 houses have already been occupied. Conclusion The above said situation indicates that

JNNURM out of which 179132 houses have

the

approach of the Government has been positive and is also yielding some results. However, the efforts are more in the direction of curing the symptom than the disease. The real problem lies in the lack of opportunities in the rural areas which pushes the rural population to the cities. Unless, this trend is stopped the problem of slums will be hard

s an important political phenomenon. Criminalization of Politics in India India By: Davendra Sharma

In a democracy, the elected representatives are responsible for governing the country; therefore, it is of utmost importance, that the people who enter the field of politics have a clean image and high moral character. However, the current trends reflect otherwise. As per a report prepared by last Lok Sabha against elections them. had Out of criminal these ADR India, 15% of the candidates contesting cases 608 pending

candidates have criminal cases of serious nature. These candidates were fielded by almost all the major political parties and a large number of such candidates contested as independents as well. The above said report also states out of 543 elected pending against them. candidates 162 have criminal cases

Entry of such people in our legislature is a cause of grave concern and needs serious consideration. This criminalization of politics is a result of nexus between criminals and the politicians. However, people of this country will also have to share some responsibility for electing these people. While on one hand this destroys the sanctity of our political institutions on the other it emboldens the criminals law enforcement agencies. It is usually said that people vote for criminals out of fear. The factor might have some impact in small elections like local bodies election, but it is nearly impossible to terrorize the electorate of a state assembly or parliamentary constituency. This is evident from the fact that mafia dons who have tried to gain political power independent of the established political parties, have either completely failed or have been severely restricted. Increased importance of criminals in the political arena is due to a combination of several factors which have social, political and legal dimensions. to carry on their activities without any fear of the

Social aspects related to Criminalization of politics 1. Since ancient times, Indian society has been torn by the differences of caste and creed. This has resulted in fragmentation of the society. 2. These differences were also reflected in the world of crime. In earlier periods, the

functioning of dacoits of Chambal ravine showed similar patterns where gangs were formed on caste basis. These were stated to have sizeable communities. support An example from their of this respective is the

erection of a temple in the honour of Dacoit Man Singh in his native village as well as the support some other dacoits like Phoolan Devi 3. A number of present day mafia dons have retained functioning. the casteist nature of their However, this has been possible have got from their communities.

only in rural areas where the differences on the basis of caste and creed are still strong. In urban areas, efforts of mafia dons to enter political world have not received much

public support. Political outfits, floated by dons like Haji Mastan and more recently Arun Gawli have hardly scenario of the country. made any impact on political

4. However, in rural areas where the differences of caste and creed are still strong, feuds and rivalries exist between various social groups. This gives the local don a chance of community. 5. On the other hand the establishment has not been able to instill confidence among people at large. processes are long, expensive and cumbersome which the common man wants to avoid. These are favorable situations for development of an extra legal authority and wherever possible mafia themselves as protector of their communities and tormentor of the rivals. This grants them acceptability and support from their community and if the community is large enough in numbers, the support can lead to a victory in elections. dons have filled the slot posing The administrative and judicial

presenting himself as a protector of the

Political aspects related to Criminalization of Politics 1. Period of freedom movement was also a period of social churning. Leaders participating in freedom movement also had a vision of the society they wanted the country to have. These responsibility and when they acquired political responsibility into the arena of politics. 2. However, slowly, with the change of generation, a new breed of politicians came up which gave concentrated on winning elections. 3. At this stage, the political fraternity realized that differences of caste and creed among the people could be utilized for electoral gains. Thus started the practice of selecting dominant electoral candidates on basis of up the concept of social responsibility and leaders also realized their social

leadership, they carried their concept of social

community of the constituency. 4. However, mere selection of the candidate not being sufficient, support from the influential persons of the community including the

strongman was also required to win the support of the community. 5. This provided a foothold to the local don who muscle resources. power as well as could garner some votes and also provide financial Such people had always wanted

the support of the ruling establishment as it would bring them acceptability as well as safety from the law. Thus, a nexus, favorable to both was created. 6. In the initial stages, the criminal was subservient to the politician. With the growth of time, the politician became more and more distant from the public and hence relied more and more on the divisive politics and hence required the services of the local don more often. 7. This resulted in the increased clout for criminals who now understood that instead of supporting a politician to get elected, it was more beneficial to get themselves elected as this would give them a direct control over administration.

8. As a result political parties started giving tickets to such candidates. The menace has now increased to such an extent that more than 25% of candidates fielded by both the national parties i.e. Congress as well as BJP have criminal cases pending against them. Legal Aspects 1. Section 8 of the Peoples Representation Act, 1951 bars a convicted person from contesting elections. However the limitations of this law are evident in number of tainted candidates contesting elections. 2. As the tainted candidate is usually quite resourceful and is in a position to influence the establishment, proving of charges and hence conviction becomes difficult. 3. Lengthy legal procedures delay the conviction only to the advantage of the criminal. 4. System of forming a political party and contesting elections is extremely easy in India which has led to mushrooming of parties and independents. Criminals have taken advantage

of this system. Whenever, such a candidate is denied ticket by any major political party, he would threaten to either float his political outfit or contest as an independent candidate. This increases the bargaining power of the tainted candidate vis--vis the political party. 5. The Election Commission has suggested that the Peoples Representation Act should be amended to provide that any person who is accused of an offence punishable by

imprisonment for five years or more should be disqualified from contesting election even when trial is pending, provided charges have been framed against him by the competent court. As a precaution against motivated cases by the ruling party, it was to be provided that only those cases which were filed prior to six months before an election alone would lead to disqualification Commission disqualified as proposed. It was also suggested that persons found guilty by a of from Enquiry should also stand The contesting elections.

suggestions are yet to be accepted.

Impact of criminalization

A criminal is on the wrong side of the law and hence cannot be expected to make positive contributions to the legislative or administrative process

It brings a sense of futility among the administration particularly the police administration and demoralizes them

Presence of tainted candidates in the law making institutions creates embarrassment for the country as well as the people

Rise of a criminal to high levels of powers has an adverse effect on the society. The immunity and success of these people lures more and more youngsters to follow in their footsteps. This brings in degeneration of moral values in the society.

Stand of political parties: Politicians and political parties take a stand that that the charges are politically motivated. They also contend that the candidate fielded by them has not been proved guilty. This argument is based on the accepted legal principle that every man is

innocent till proved guilty. The logic is correct from an individualistic point of view, but it is expected that a political party would give precedence to the larger public interest. The question is; will a politician having criminal case pending against him, be able to gain confidence of the people of the country. The answer would be no. Therefore, it would be prudent if the politcal parties refrain from taking a call on the innocence of such candidates and give a thought to their social responsibilites. Solutions for Criminalization of Politics 1. Amendments Commission in suggested Peoples by the Election Act

should be implemented.

Representation

2. There should be strict control on formation of political parties and independent candidates. This would restrict the bargaining power of 3. Administration the tainted candidates. in general and police

administration in particular should develop a

people friendly approach and image so that people develop confidence towards the legal 4. Justice institutions. Deleivery system should be

strengthened so as to provide speedy justice. While on one hand this will increase the faith of the people in the system, on the other hand it will result in speedy trial of tainted candidates. 5. Political parties also need to understand that their compromising with principles for petty electoral gains is not in the larger interest of the country. The parties need to develop a consensus about not fielding such candidates. 6. This nexus has thrived on the fragmentation of the society. Social organizations should try to remove feeling of rivalry between groups. This will lead to an objective assessment of the candidates and will remove the tainted candidates from the political scene. Regionalism By: Davendra Sharma

Regionalism means a political ideology focused on has a long tradition of regional kingdoms. In fact,

the interests of a particular region. Indian history

periods

of

imperialism,

regional

barring a few kingdoms

have

dominated the scene in India. This resulted in development of different languages and cultures in different parts of the country giving each region a separate linguistic and cultural identity. This diversity in cultural identities has sometimes manifested itself in political movements for one reason or the other. While no one could have any objection in people feeling pride in their culture or seeking more development and autonomy for their

region, in some cases the idea has been taken too far resulting in negative effects on national unity and integration. Growth of regional politics Earliest political movement having regional traits was

the demand for a separate Dravid Nadu which 1920s. Although, the demand for separate Dravid

was raised by non Brahman Tamil politicians in Nadu was later dropped, the movement resulted in growth of Dravid Munnetra Kazhgam (DMK) as the major political force in Tamil Nadu. However, regional differences did not come up during

freedom struggle as the primary goal of freedom fighters was to attain independence. During this period, even the Indian National Congress was in support of formation of states on linguistic basis, though after independence, the Congress

government was not comfortable with the idea considering it to have adverse impact on national integration. After independence, the first demand for

creating a state on linguistic basis came from

erstwhile Madras Presidency where the Telugu speaking people started an agitation for creation of a separate state. Potti Sreeramlu lost his life on fast-unto-death in support of this demand. This led mass protests which forced the Government to accede to the demand. Later a State Reorganization Commission was 15th December, 1952, after 52 days of a

appointed on whose recommendations, 14 states and 3 Union territories were created, mostly on linguistic considerations. Since then, many more states have been created from time to time either on linguistic or on socio-economic consideration. Increase in consciousness of regional identities has led to growth of regional political parties and regionalism has firmly entrenched itself as a political reality in Indian scenario. Present situation In the last few decades, regional parties have considerably strengthened their position. A number of states like UP, Bihar, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Punjab are either being ruled by

regional parties or by coalitions in which the regional party is the major partner. Growth of these parties has seriously dented the prospects of the national parties. In the last two decades none of the national parties has been able to form a national government on its own and has to resort to alliances and coalitions. This has brought in the era accepted the situation and now attach great appear to have an upper hand. In the case of present UPA II government the rollback of Rail budget by erstwhile railway minister Dinesh Trivedi, vote against Sri Lanka on the issue of human rights, policy paralysis in the case of FDI in to NCTC are the examples of collation pressures. retail sector and issues related of coalition politics. National parties have

importance to their coalition partners who at times

Reasons for growth of regional tendencies 1. Regionalism is inherent in India because of its cultural and linguistic diversity. Each region has its own history and culture. People of these regions take pride in their culture

and language and want to preserve and support it. 2. National understand the aspirations of people. Their leaders laid stress on nationalism and national integration without integrating these concepts with the cultural diversity of the country. This alienated those people who wanted their language and culture to prosper. 3. National parties have not given due Usually, political parties have failed to

considerations to their state units.

state leadership is selected keeping in view the politics at the national level. Most of the times, election of the leader by MLAs is a mere formality, the decision having already been made by the central leadership. 4. Even after that, the state units of these parties do not have reasonable independence. Regional interests are sometimes compromised the country. This projects state leaders of national parties in poor light vis--vis the leaders of regional parties who are not subject to any control and also do not have for political expediency in some other part of

any political compulsion arising out of political expediency in other areas. 5. Sometimes policies of the National government fuel regionalism. People in Southern states have been apprehensive of Hindi being

imposed upon them. This was one of the factors for the growth of regional parties. 6. During the course of development, some areas got preference, while others neglected. People from these areas felt that the situation can improve if people from their region are at the helm of affairs. 7. There has been inter-region movement of people. Sometimes the original inhabitants of threatened by the immigrants. 8. Some of the local leaders have exploited the feelings of the people to gain political power. Being localized, these people also have advantage of taking up the issue of only a particular region and hence can be more vocal in their tirades. For example, MNS can speak against north Indians in Mumbai the region feel that their domination is being got

because it does not have to fight elections in north India. Positive impacts 1. By way of supporting local language and culture, it helps to preserve the cultural diversity of the country. 2. Its greatest benefit is in the field of education. Imparting primary education in the local language has greatly helped in increasing literacy levels.

3. States have also adopted their local language in their functioning which has made the common 4. People man from more less comfortable developed that and the have administration more people friendly. always related is removed region. Negative impacts alleged regions they are

being discriminated against in the matters to development. when local This grudge the people govern

1. The world in which we presently live has considerably changed in the last few and decades. Improvements regions. Inter in technology interactions

liberalization have opened up communities and region have substantially increased and no region can survive in isolation. Regionalism, while laying stress on regional aspects tends to overlook this important factor. 2. There is a very thin line between respect for ones culture and belief in superiority of ones culture. Experience has shown that this thin line has often been violated due to narrow and sectarian approach. 3. In its extreme form, regionalism results in separatist movements like ULFA movement in Assam, Khalistan movement in Punjab and exhortations from various groups having a

other separatist movements in north east.

4. At the political front, growth of regionalism has brought in coalition politics. This has diluted the ideological base of the political parties and also affected the functioning of the Government.

5. Sphere of influence of some of the regional parties is coterminous with the areas of domination of a particular caste. In such cases the ideology of these parties becomes casteist in nature and is not conducive to social integration. 6. Regionalism increases the magnitude of disputes between states because of the emotive aspect. Dispute over sharing of water of Kaveri River is one such example where problem was compounded due to regional tendencies. Conclusion Every concept is as good or as bad as the people implementing it. Regionalism can play a vital role in preserving the cultural diversity of the country and disparities in development. However, if uncontrolled, it can also become the cause of national disintegration. To stop the situation from going to that extent preventive measures need to be taken, some of which are as under: can also be of great help in removing regional

1. National parties should keep in view the cultural diversity of the country and give due 2. National parties should groom local leaders. State units should be given freedom in taking their own decisions including election of leaders of State Legislature parties. 3. More autonomy should be granted to the local administration. 4. Economic development should be more even and discrimination should be avoided. 5. The conduct of political parties should be regulated more strictly and strict action should be taken against those political parties region. 6. While genuine problems of the people of a region should be sympathetically taken care of, miscreants creating law and order problems should be dealt with more strictly. Population Policy Policy of India By: Davendra Sharma who spread hatred against people of other recognition to local traditions and culture.

Population is defined as the total number of humans living in an area. Size of population of a country has always been a subject of debate. There is no set formula for determining ideal size of a times that while a very low population of a state would not be able to sustain itself due to lack of manpower, a very high population will have to ideal struggle with the availability of resources. Thus an size of population will depend on the population, although it has been felt since ancient

resources available in the country. However, as rate of increase in population is higher than rate of increase in resources, it is necessary to limit the population of a country so as to be able to provide a decent life to all the citizens with the available adopted. Population of India As per 2011 census, India has a population of about 1.2 billion with an annual growth rate of 1.64% which makes us the second most populous resources. This requires a population policy to be

country next only to China. Our population density which was 117 persons per square km in 1951 has now increased to 382 persons per square km. Such a huge population creates pressure on the land, drinking water, housing and natural resources and the availability of arable other infrastructure. India still has a large number of people below poverty line and its position in other social indicators like literacy, health services etc. is also not very comfortable. Rapid increase in population is one of the major factors responsible for this situation. In the last decade itself (2001-2011) we have added 18.1 crore people to the population of India which is almost equal to the population of Brazil (19.07 crores) or Pakistan (18.4 crores) which are 5th and 6th most populous countries of the world. This increase in population absorbs the results of most of our increasing the per capita availability of resources. The size of population and high growth rate had economic achievements and is a major hindrance in

been a cause of concern even during the British period. The Government had set up a Committee in

1943 to conduct a survey on Indian Health System. The Committee was called The Health Survey and Development Committee. The Committee submitted its report in 1946 in which it devoted one chapter to the problem of increase in population recommending thereafter the spreading of the knowledge of birth control as far as the limitations imposed by the peculiar circumstances of the country will permit.

After independence, the matter was taken up in the five year plans wherein family planning was treated as a part of the health programme. A National Population Policy statement and a Policy Statement on Family Welfare Programme were prepared in the year 1976 and 1977 but the policy of 1983 emphasized the need for achieving small family norm through voluntary participation. The policy set an objective of achieving replacement levels of total fertility rates (TFR) i.e. a TFR of 2.1 by 2000. However, as a need was felt for a National Population Policy an expert group under Dr.M.S.Swaminathan, was set up in 1993 to same could not be implemented. National Health

prepare a draft of the policy. The Committee submitted its report in 1994. The Report basically related population growth to the basic needs, democratic decentralization, gender issues and the 'Statement on National Population Policy eco-system. These features were incorporated in prepared by the Ministry. National Population Policy National Population Policy was announced in the year 2000. The policy took note of the fact that the growth in population was due to the large size of the population in the reproductive age, high fertility due to inadequate availability of contraception, high wanted fertility due to high infant mortality rates and most of the girls marrying below the age of 18. Some of the important objectives of the policy were as under:

Provide

care infrastructure with emphasis on basic reproductive and child health care.

contraception

facilities

and

health

Access

to

information

of

birth

limitation

methods and availability of totally free choice to citizens for planning their families.

Bring TFR to the replacement levels by 2010. Achieve a stable population by 2045. Reduce infant mortality rate to below 30 per 1000 live births. Reduce maternal mortality ratio to below 100 per 100,000 live births. Promote delayed marriage for girls not earlier than age of 18 and preferably after the age of 20.

Universalisation

of

primary

education

and

reduction in the drop out rates at primary and secondary levels to below 20% both for boys and girls.

Support to be provided to state governments as per requirement and availability of infrastructure.

Involvement of Panchayati Raj institutions for coordination among activities of different agencies, supervision of health care related

infrastructure like Primary Health Centre and

Aanganwadis participation.

and

ensuring

community

The policy projected population of the country on March, 2011 to be 117.89 crores.

Targets and achievements As per census of 1951, crude birth rate (CBR) was 40.8, Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) was 146, crude death rate 25 and total fertility rate was 6. Data for the year 2009 and 2010 indicates birth rate to be about 22, death rate 7.4, infant mortality 50 and TFR 2.6. These figures would indicate that the country has made substantive progress in population management since 1951. However, when we see it from the perspective of the targets set by the National Health Policy and National Population Policy we find that our current population is much higher than projections made under the National Population Policy. Similarly, with respect to TFR, National Health Policy targeted replacement levels by 2000 and National Population Policy targeted these levels by 2010, but the figure for the year 2009 is 2.6, which is again

much higher than the target. At this rate we may take another 10 years or so to achieve this level of TFR. National Population Policy sets the target of

achieving a stable population by 2045, that is, after 35 years of achieving the replacement level. The projections appear unrealistic considering the example of China which attained replacement level of total fertility rate in 1990. However, its population is still growing and is expected to achieve peak level only in 2050 after which it will stabilize or gradually decline. Thus, in China, peak level is expected to be achieved after 60 years of achieving replacement level of fertility rates. As India, does not have such a vigorous population control policy as China, time taken by India is likely to be much higher and its population is likely to stabilize only in the later part of this century. Reasons for underachievement The above said data indicates the many of the targets set by the National Population Policy have

not been achieved. The reasons could be as under:

Unlike China, we have resorted to voluntary participation in population control measures; hence efficacy of these measures would depend on the ability to convince people to have a smaller family. This makes, literacy 2011, Kerala, which has the level a very important factor. As per Census, highest literacy rate of 93.91%, has a very low annual growth rate of .48% while Bihar which has lowest literacy rate of 63.82% has a high annual growth rate of 2.26%.

Poverty is another important factor. In such families, an additional child is treated as a potential earning hand and hence birth of a child is not discouraged.

In a number of areas particularly in remote areas, adequate health and birth control facilities are not available without which the people cannot adopt family planning measures.

Social factors also play an important role. Traditional Indian society prefers early

marriage of girls which means that a married woman has more years of reproductive period. This is an important factor in increasing fertility rate and leads to growth population. Future prospects There is no shortcoming in our population policy; the problem is with its implementation. Population growth is intrinsically linked to economic and social upliftment and target of a stable population can only be achieved if there is a drastic improvement in literacy levels, availability of health care and family planning facilities and implementation of poverty removal measures. Impact of Climate Change on India by Amit Kumar Verma in

Climate Change has imposed a formidable challenge

to the planet in the 21st century. The explicit and implicit impact of the Climate Change would have

effects on the multiple dimensions of the human life and biodiversity. It is estimated that the developing and the underdeveloped countries would suffer most because of this climate change because of high marginalized population which is most vulnerable to climate change. This article is an attempt to highlight the possible impact of climate change in Indian context. Impact on Climate and Rainfall In recent years, due to climate change aberration in weather and rainfall is conjectured in the form of floods, droughts, unpredictable cold waves, heat waves and in exceptionally several heavy single including day three downpours in India. Heavy precipitation events have culminated consecutive inimical floods in three major metro cities in the same year, i.e., Mumbai in July 2005, Chennai in October 2005 and again in December 2005 and Bangalore in October 2005 blemished Indian economy. corrosive

As per the experiment made by Lal et al in 1995 by using the data European Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) and Hardley Centre Atmospheric Model Version 3 (ECHAM) in response to increase of Greenhouse Gases (GHG) it is conjectured an increase in rainfall of the order of 2mm/day in South India and decrease of 1 and 1.5 in North and Central India respectfully. There is a significant decrease in rainfall observed in three meteorological subdivisions - Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Kerala in recent years. Similarly some conspicuous events that occurred in recent years are gruesome drought across India in 2002, extremely cold winters in 2002 and 2003, and January 2005 in the north, unusual floods in the Rajasthan desert in 2005, abnormal temperature in January and February in 2007, and 23 per cent rainfall deficiency in the 2009 monsoon season etc. On agriculture

Climate is one of the palpable and rudimental factors for agricultural production. Change in climate parameters like temperature, precipitation,

soil moisture and sea level affect adversely on agriculture, such as changes in crop and livestock yields as well as the economic consequences of these potential yield changes. Agriculture is the single largest entity of Indian economy as it contributes to 20-30% of total gross GDP and it also provides 68% employment of grain production whereas Wheat accounts for one total workforce. Rice forms 43% of the total food

third. But both rice and wheat yield could be declined with climate change as per study made by IPCC in 1996 and 2001. As 65% of the net sown area of 143 million hectares in the country lack irrigation facilities wholly reliant on rain fall for crop growth. Similarly, in India, the most negative and crucial effects are foreseen in dry land areas ,arid and semi-arid areas, especially for those who are completely dependent on rain fed, non-irrigated agriculture. According to A K Singh, deputy director-general, Natural resource

management of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), medium-term climate change predictions have projected the likely reduction in crop yields due to climate change at between 4.5 and 9 per cent by 2039.

According to the research made by P.K. Agarwal et al at ICAR in 2009, the projected implications of climate change on Indian agriculture can be:

Increase in CO2 to 550 ppm increases yields of rice, wheat, legumes and oilseeds by 10-20%.

A 1 degree C increase in temperature may reduce yields of wheat, soybean, mustard, groundnut, and potato by 3-7%. Much higher losses at higher temperatures.

Productivity of most crops to decrease only 2100.

marginally by 2020 but by 10-40% by

Possibly

some

improvement

in

yields

of

chickpea, rabi maize, sorghum and millets; and coconut in west coast.

Less loss in potato, mustard and vegetables in north-western India due to reduced frost damage.

Increased droughts and floods are likely to increase production variability Considerable effect on microbes, pathogens, and insects Increasing sea and river water temperatures are likely to affect fish breeding, migration, and harvests

Increased

water,

shelter,

and

energy

requirement for livestock

Animal distress due to heat; effects on reproduction Loss of 1.5 million tons of milk by 2020 Imbalance in food trade due to positive impacts on Europe and North America, and negative impacts on us.

According to the study made by Sushil K Dash, the vulnerability of crop yield to climate change is dependent affected affected plants as well as the ability of the socio-economic systems to cope with changes in yield and frequency of droughts or floods. Majority of farmers in India grow crops at sub-optimal level of management without using the lack of institutional support and inadequate forward and backward linkage. So it is really dubious situation to assess the implication of climate change on agriculture production in India. optimal amount of fertilizer and pesticides with the on the physical response of the

Impact on diseases and disasters Climate change has also an implication on health in several ways. The diseases formed due to climate change may be due to climate enabling or climate supporting the disease carriers.

Infection due to bacteria Due to the intensification of water quality issues

and temperature rise, many water-borne diseases along with diarrhoea, cholera are increasing in recent years. Water contamination due to increase give rise to pollution and hence infection by E.coli and Salmonella and other food poisoning bacteria occurs. Respiratory diseases Due to the increase of surface ozone concentration and high temperature, the quality of air gets deteriorated occurred. . VectorVector-borne diseases due to global global warming According to Bhattacharya (2006), due to the warmer and wetter climes, particularly in breeding seasons give further rise to increase of mosquito as a result of which Asthma, in heavy rainfall and rise in temperature further

cardiovascular and respiratory diseases likely to be

range and that leads to Malaria and Dengue like harmful diseases. The following table suggests the baseline impact of Global Warming on Climate related diseases in South East Asia including India. Malaria Reduction in by 2020 (000) Tropical Cluster Dengue Total

years of life lost

2060

474

211

2745

per capita GDP x 2 (% of GDP)

Adjusted for

0.86

0.20

0.09

1.15

change results in 0.43 50 % reduction in health gains

GDP if climate

% impact on

0.10

0.04

0.58

Disaster Disaster and hazards due to climate change include cyclones, typhoons, global warming, Green house effect, Rise of Sea level and other manmade and natural disasters. They will be felt most and most vulnerable section of the society poor, women, elderly, and children.

On growth and development Growth and development are different jargons used in Economics. Growth only stipulates quantitative approach whereas development accounts for both quantitative and qualitative approach. Being a developing economy, Indias economy is surging

ahead in a faster rate. But as far as the socioeconomic status of the majority of the population is concerned it shows a gruesome picture. To achieve a sustained and equitable we should improve the socio economic status of the most vulnerable section of the society mostly women and child as they are nearly two thirds of our population. There are several environmental factors that are closely linked close to eleven million children worldwide is to the welfare of women and children. Each year estimated to have died from the effects of disease and inadequate nutrition. The constitution of sovereign socialist secular democratic republic and secure to all citizens its fundamental rights. The unique feasible solution to intensify the human development index is through massive economic growth and development which can only be achieved through industrialization. However, on the verge of development industrialization pre-supposes the crucial need of higher carbon emissions. As a result of which we can infer that the development process of a nation and the carbon emissions go in same direction. Though India is contributing only India resolves to constitute India into a

3-4% of global carbon emissions, still it needs to control and limit over green house gas emission to ensure for sustainable economic growth. Similarly we should consider the implication of climate change on economic growth of our country. There is a chance of large annual losses on society due to catastrophic climate change.

However, there is a less probability of such events to occur far into the future. The other impacts of climate change in the context of bio diversity, agriculture, rain-fall, forest affect the Indian economy indirectly. to India should risk. adapt new strategies mitigate this The biggest

challenge is to avert climate change by reducing the emissions dramatically. But it is not easy as every individual may contribute carbon emission on the way of maintaining his or her lifestyle. To reduce the risk of carbon emissions, industries should bring change in the technology to enable energy conservation and thereby ensuring the lower risk of carbon emission. Similarly country should adopt policies to provide generic and feasible solutions.

HIV/AIDS: Indian Context

By Davendra Sharma

AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome) is a disease caused by HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) infection which affects our immune system. However, every HIV positive person is not an AIDS patient. An AIDS patient is one in whom CD4 T having AIDS are prone to a number of infections, which become life threatening due to failure of immune system. Usually there is long time span of about six to ten years or even more between getting infected and surfacing of disease. HIV is usually transmitted by unsafe sex with an already infected person, contaminated blood helper cell count is less than 200 cells/uL. People

transfusions/hypodermic needles and from mother to child during pregnancy, delivery or breast feeding. Origin of the disease is unknown though it is mostly believed that the virus had existed in African primates like chimpanzee from where it got

transferred to some of the African tribes who came in contact with these primates. Every epidemic needs certain conditions to spread. In case of AIDS these conditions became available in working population, breaking up of the later part of the 20th century. Migrant traditional societies and changes in sexual behavior of the people provided suitable conditions for the growth of this disease. The disease is more dangerous than other epidemics because till date no cure or vaccine has been developed for this disease; therefore the disease can only be prevented but not cured. Situation in India First case was detected in India in 1986 among patients rose sharply till 2002 but after that the number has been stable and even shown a little decline in the last few years. As per Annual Report of National Aids Control Organization, though India is a country with low HIV prevalence, it has third largest number of patients living with

female sex workers of Chennai. The number of

HIV/AIDS. As per HIV estimates for the year 2008-09, 23.9 lakh persons were living with this infection at an adult prevalence of .31%. These died of HIV/AIDS during the year. Six states which have prevalence rate of above 1% have been categorized as High prevalence states. These states Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Manipur and Mizoram and total cases. Four categories of persons have been targeted as High Risk Groups(HRGs) which are Female Sex Workers, Men who have sex with men, Transgender and Injecting Drug Users. HIV is transmitted from these people to ordinary population through bridge population which comprises truckers and migrant workers. About 86 percent HIV incidence in the country is from unprotected sex. Perinatal transmission of the infection is 2.72 percent, whereas 2.57 percent HIV infection is due to transfusion of infected blood or blood products. Though HIV transmission through injecting of are Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, estimates also tell that about 1.72 lakh people

between themselves these account for 57% of the

needles is only 1.97 percent of overall prevalence, it is the major route of the infection transmission in the north-east region. Measures taken by the Government 1. Consequent upon the detection of first case in 1986, National Aids Committee was constituted in the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare. With the increase in the number of patients in the next few years, a need programme. was felt Consequently, to develop National a specific Aids

Control Programme (NACP)-I was launched in 1992 and an autonomous body, the National Aids Control Organization (NACO) was formed to implement the programme. Presently NACO is the Nodal Agency for dealing with matters relating to HIV/AIDS at the national level while at the state level State Aids Control Societies have been formed to shoulder the 2. In the first phase of NACP stress was laid on development of infrastructure. 685 Blood responsibility.

banks and 40 component separation units were set up. 504 STD clinics were also set up with the help of government hospital and medical colleges for treatment of sexually transmitted diseases. HIV sentinel surveillance system was also initiated to detect cases in the high risk groups. NGOs were also involved though mainly for the purpose of awareness generation. 3. During the second phase of the programme, new initiatives were taken through NGOs with specific focus on high risk groups and bridge population. Behavior Change Communication, management generation schools and programme about was extended schools These interventions included

of STDs and condom promotion. Awareness to were 93000

covered in this phase. 101 Anti Retroviral

Treatment (ART) were set up in selected hospitals in which 47,693 patients were treated. An important development was the constitution of National Aids Council, chaired by the Prime Minister and represented by 31 ministries and 6 high prevalence states.

4. The third phase of the programme was launched with the objective of stopping and reversing the spreading of HIV by adopting the strategy of prevention, care & support and treatment. It was recognized that as prevalence of infection is more in the high risk groups and majority of the population is free from infection, prevention by creating awareness about the risk factors is the best way for stopping Further, the also spreading of disease. understanding this the

needs of the Patients Living with HIV and AIDS (PLHA), ART facilities were made those who need them. 5. As a result of these concerted efforts, the problem has been slowly but steadily on the decline. Over the years the number of newly infected persons has come down from 2.71 lakhs in 2000 to 1.21 lakhs in 2009. Due to disease surfacing many years after infection, number of annual deaths reached the highest figures of about 2 lakhs in the year 2006 but has declined since then and available free at public health facilities to all

is 1.72 lakhs for the year 2009. Similarly, number of PLHAs touched a maximum of 26.05 lakhs during the year 2003, but 2009 being 23.9 lakhs. Problems faced by HIV/AIDS patients patients 1. The disease surfaces after a considerable time after the infection. During this period the patient knows nothing about the disease and no treatment is taken for the same. Usually the treatment is started when the disease has already done considerable harm. ART does reverse the damage already caused to the body, it only slows further degeneration. Arthur Ashe was an American Tennis player. He was the only black player to have won Open heart Wimbledon, US Open Ashe and got Australian during a Championships. surgery in has also declined since then the figures for

infected with HIV during blood transfusions disease was detected in 1988 on account of 1983. The

his illness. He died from AIDS related pneumonia in 1993. 2. During this period of latency, the infected person transfers the infection to his spouse and sometimes to the children born during the period. This strains mutual relations and brings more agony to the family. 3. Patients are usually discriminated by the society. The discrimination comes from a number of factors. First and foremost is the limited knowledge about AIDS. Many people believe that the disease is contagious and they can get infected by routine activities infected person. 4. Some private hospitals are reluctant to treat such patients due to the risk of getting infected. Even if the treatment is provided, it is so costly that the patients, who are mostly from poor backgrounds, are not able to afford it. 5. AIDS affects people at the time when they are in prime of their productive capacity. like touching, sharing food etc. with an

This adversely affects the well being of the family. 6. As the disease spreads mostly through sexual contact with an infected person, people consider the patient as immoral and treat him with contempt and ridicule. 7. The patient lives in constant fear of death. This coupled with contempt and discrimination makes him prone to psychological disorders which adversely affect his life. Challenges in eliminating HIV/AIDS 1. It is said that prevention is better than cure. In the case of HIV/AIDS, prevention is the only cure. Anti Retroviral Therapy can increase only reduce the impact of the disease but cannot cure it. Following steps can help in the prevention of this disease: 2. Awareness generation and information dissemination about the practices which can cause HIV infection should be taken up on a large scale so that proper information is available to the public.

3. Blood Banks should be regulated and it must be ensured that every unit of blood is screened preference avoided. 4. Female Sex Workers, Men who have sex with men and Transgender are High Risk Groups due to unsafe sex However, vulnerability many and of these adverse practices. for should HIV. be For given obtaining to voluntary blood,

donors and professional donors should be

are forced to circumstances.

indulge in these activities because of their Welfare schemes for these groups need to resort to these practices for their living. 5. HIV screening for pregnant ladies should be made mandatory and if found positive necessary steps should be taken to prevent the child from being infected. 6. Illegal drug are the main cause of HIV transmission through injecting drug needle. This is important in case of India as we are situated between two drug producing regions, Golden Crescent and Golden Triangle and

be taken up so that they are not forced to

also have some local production. Strong action needs to be taken to stop entry and 7. Proper sex education should be provided in schools so that the students are aware of risks involved in indulging in such activities. circulation of these drugs in India.

Secularism, Communalism and Fundamentalism By: Davendra Sharma

Secularism Secularism means not connected with religion. When referred in relation to a Government it means separation of Government and the religion. The term was first used by the British writer George Holyoake in 1851, although the idea of secularism is much older. It is also in a way related to developments during the Renaissance period in Europe, when the European society moved

away from the control of the Church and adopted humanism as its primary doctrine. It is important to understand that Secularism is independent of religion and not opposed to it. In this sense it is different from atheism which does not believe in any religion. Secularism is build on two principles, first that there is secondly, independent of religion. the plurality of religions activities and are governmental

Secularism in Indian Context Traditionally, India has always been a multi religious country and its inhabitants have been by and large tolerant of other faiths. However, prior to the British period the concept of secularism as such was non-existent and religion and politics were considered inseparable. The religion of the ruler was the primary religion and religious tolerance with respect to other religions varied from time to time. With the advent of the British, the Indian society came including in contact secularism, with modern though western the colonial ideas

administration did not incorporate this in their

functioning.

Communities

were

recognized

as

religious entities and personal laws were codified for this could be their policy of divide and rule. on basis of religious traditions. One of the reasons

During the course of freedom movement, leaders of the Indian National Congress realized the like India. After independence, this approach was clearly reflected in the Constitution which advocated equality of all citizens and prohibited discrimination on the basis of religion, caste or gender. Rights to practice, profess and propagate any religion as well as to manage religious affairs have been included as fundamental rights in the constitution (Article 25 & 26). Further, Article 28 prohibits giving of religious instructions in an educational institution wholly maintained by State funds. Some safeguards have been provided for minorities like not be discriminated in admission in an educational institution and their rights to establish and run educational institutions. Later on, the word secular was also included in the Preamble of the Constitution by the 42nd amendment. These importance of secularism in a diversified country

provisions would indicate, the intention of the founding fathers of the Constitution was to establish a state which did not discriminate on the

basis of religion. Alongside, it was also felt that in due course of time various communities will shed their differences and synthesize into an enlightened and unified society which would offset the fragmentation of the society created by the is reflected in Article 44 of the Directive Principles which asks the state to form a uniform civil code. The Indian view of secularism differs from the western view which is based on Ceaser and God theory and completely separates religion and politics. On the other hand, the Indian view does British by enacting various personal laws. This view

not separate government from religion; it endorses similar treatment to all religions. For instance France recently banned veil which is wear by Muslim women in public considering it as a religious symbol, on the other hand Indian government proactively facilitates Haj and Amarnath Yatra.

This approach might have been necessitated by the situation at the time of independence. Indian society, unlike the medieval Europe, had not seen movements like Renaissance which would have prepared the ground for completely separating religion from polity. Many of the social evils were also rooted in religions. These factors necessitated government interference in religious matters. Fundamentalism Fundamentalism can be defined as an ideology

advocating strict adherence to a religious doctrine and also advocating a sense of contempt for the people who do not follow these principles. It is anti modern and tries to evoke a utopian past mentioned in the religious scriptures by criticizing the modern scientific advancement based on logic. It is opposite of secularism as it generally leads to development of a narrow and sectarian view. This ideology came up as a reaction to the secular movements which arose during the British period. Fundamentalism reflected itself in formation of religion based outfits like Hindi Mahasabha and

Muslim League. Muslim League took its agenda to a feverish pitch which resulted in partition of the country. However, in the independent India, the Indian populace has by and large not accepted these ideologies although their presence has been felt in the country from time to time. Communalism According to famous historian Bipin Chandra

Communalism consists of three stages one following the other. These stages are as: 1. The first bedrock of communal ideology says that people who follow the same religion have common secular interests i.e. common political, social and cultural interests. second that tenet political, of states 2. The communal and ideology cultural

social

interests of one religion are dissimilar and divergent from the interests of the followers of another religion. 3. The followers are communities of different seen to religions be or

mutually

incompatible, antagonistic and hostile.

Difference

Communalism

between

Fundamentalism

and

There is a very thin line that differentiates fundamentalism from communalism. The ideology of communalism tries to mobilize the people of similar religion by making them belief that their secular interests are similar on the other hand the secular interests of the followers of other religion are different. Fundamentalism derives political principles from a

sacred ancient text. It tries to evoke a utopian past mentioned in the sacred religious text at the cost of modern structures, institutions and rights. One of the defining characteristics of fundamentalism has been that adherents often see to the exclusion of others. Both fundamentalism and communalism are harmful promote narrow is and sectarian more views. harmful However to the

themselves as the guardians of the truth, usually

for the socio-cultural fabric of a society as they fundamentalism much

modern societies. As it is anti-modern, anti liberal,

anti democratic and is against scientific and technological advancements. It tends to destroy modern institutions and rights of people associated with them which they have acquired with over the ages. On the virtue of this they want to install traditional structures and institutions mentioned in the sacred text which are mythological and not even historical. Secularism v/s Fundamentalism It has been said that in view of the revivalism in religions, secularism does not have a future in the up as a reaction to secularism as there was no fundamentalism in traditional societies. However, it must be understood that in traditional societies, the socio-economic structure which provide the resources necessary to continue his rule. Hence, religion was inseparably related to political powers. Any concept, which could have threatened this arrangement and the consequent socio-economic structure, would not have been allowed to exist or religion granted legitimacy to the ruler as well as country and also that the fundamentalism has come

would have been pushed to the fringes like the materialistic used in philosophy traditional of Charvaka. Therefore, about though the word fundamentalism may not have been societies, rigidness religious matters, which is prime characteristic of fundamentalism, had always been a part of these societies. As regards the future of secularism in India, it can only be said that if a future does not exist for secularism, it will have to be created. Fundamentalism, owing to its sectarian and outdated outlook does not have the ability to deal with the problems of a multi religious modern society. The present scenario The policy of selective interference in religious

matters has given mixed results. Following this policy, the Government has been able to interfere in some of the religious matters and mitigate effects of social evils rooted in religion, including discrimination on the basis of caste and gender. from lower castes and women. This has helped to improve the lot of the people

On the other hand, interference in some religious matters while leaving the others untouched has led to heart burning in those communities who think India still serves as an identity for its followers and hence is a very sensitive issue. In these situations, the communal elements find it easy to whip up passions and create discord in the society. The resulting tensions have been reflected in a from time to time in which thousands of people have been killed and many more have been rendered homeless. It has also been reflected in the attacks on some of the Christian missionaries on the pretext that they are involved in religious conversion, most notable such case being the burning alive of an Australian missionary Graham Staines and his two sons aged 10 and 6. Such incidents reflect the level to which the malicious propaganda has affected some sections of our society. The recent clashes in Assam and its reaction in whole country in general and south India in particular is also the burning example. number of communal riots that have taken place themselves to be at the receiving end. Religion, in

Apart from these communal forces, the problem has been compunded by the attitude of some political parties who instead of downplaying or resolving potential issues, try to act as defenders of one religion or the other; the hidden agenda being short term electoral gains. This has further increased the sense of alienation among sections of majority as well as minority communities. Such politicians do not understand that by their

rhetorics, they do not espouse the cause of the faith they wish to defend but only benefit those forces who intend to disrupt the secular social ethos of this country. Promoting Secularism Communalism differences essentially differences, and fundamentalism religious and be have always

threatened the secular structure of a society. The between socio-cultural which can communities sometimes solved by are have mutual

economic manifestations. However, these are mere dialogue or by timely administrative interventions.

These do not and should not be allowed to result

in communal tensions. This requires a number of steps some of which are as under: 1. Stress should be laid on education. Right to Education should be effectively implemented to grant education to all. 2. Syllabus taught to students should be secular and inquisitive temper. This will give the people the ability to understand the difference between truth and propaganda and will develop a broader vision about the society. It is pertinent to mention that Development of scientific temper has been included in the Constitution in Article 51A as a part of our Fundamental duties. 3. Electoral reforms should be carried out and Election Commission be given more powers to regulate the functioning of political parties. 4. Judiciary should be geared up to provide speedy justice particularly in those cases which have a social implication. Civil suits in the Babri Masjid case were filed as early as 1949 and 1950. Had the cases been and should result in development of scientific

speedily decided then, the situation which arose later might have been avoided. However, the delay in deciding the case gave some people ample time to make the issue a national one resulting in immense loss of life and property. Society should understand the importance of

secularism. People need to accept from their heart that India is a multi religious country and peaceful coexistence in the only solution. It must be understood that religion is essentially a connection connection between an individual and the Almighty and hence, is essentially a matter of individual preference. This should not spill out in pChild pChild Labor

Child labor can be defined as employment of children in economic activities. As per definition of UNICEF children in the age category 5-11 are considered to be involved in child labor activities if during one week preceding the survey they did at

least one hour of economic activity or at least 28 hours of domestic work. For the age group 12 to 14 years the criterion is 14 hours of economic activity or at least 42 hours of economic activity and domestic work combined. As per statistics of UNICEF about 12% of the children in India are engaged as child labor. These children work in many sectors including agriculture, manufacturing of these occupations are of hazardous nature. Reasons 1. Poverty is the most important factor units, domestic households and other sectors. Some

responsible for prevalence of this practice. A large number of families live below the poverty line, and even a substantial percentage of those above poverty line find it difficult to make both ends meet. In such a situation, the family finds it difficult to send the child to school and prefers that he supports the 2. Another important factor is the large size of families. Poor people in India are uneducated family as an earning hand.

and hence do not understand the importance of family planning measures. This results in bigger families which increases the financial burden and forces the family to send its children to work. 3. A child worker can be engaged at much lower wages than an adult. This comes handy for a number of entrepreneurs who see this as a cost cutting measure. This is facilitated by poor implementation of labor laws which allows these businessmen to indulge in such activities. 4. Social structure is also an important factor. Some communities and groups, which have centuries, are not able to comprehend the importance of education. They feel that sending their children to school would be of economic and social status. This view is strengthened by the attitude of a number of upper category people who do not want such children educated. to go to school and become been at lower end of the social ladder for

no use as education will not change their

Legal provisions for child labor 1. The Constitution of India, in Article 24, provides that no child under the age of 14 years shall be employed to work in a factory, mine or in any other hazardous employment. 2. In Article 39 under the Directive Principles of State Policy, it has been stated that children should be given opportunities and facilities to develop in a healthy manner and in conditions of freedom and dignity. 3. Factories Act prohibits employment of children below the age of 14 years in factories and also regulates the conditions of employment of persons in the age group 15-18 years in these units. 4. The Mines Act prohibits the employment of any person below 18 years in mines. 5. In order to make a comprehensive study on the issue of child labor, the Government formed the Gurupadswamy committee in 1979. The intrinsically related to poverty and as long as Committee felt that child labor is

poverty continued, it would be difficult to

completely eliminate child labor. Therefore, the best course would be to prohibit employment of children in hazardous areas

and to regulate their employment in others. On the basis of the recommendations, the Government enacted the Child Labor (Prohibition & Regulation) Act, 1986. 6. The Act defines a child as a person who has not completed 14 years of age and prohibits employment of such children hazardous occupations specified in schedule to the Act. Initially the schedule contained 6 occupations and 13 processes. The schedule has been reviewed from time to Presently, the list contains 18 occupations and 65 processes. 7. The Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection) of Children Act of 2000 prohibits procuring or employing a child in any employment or in bondage and hazardous provides time. in

punishment for the same. 8. Right of Child to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009 provides for free and

compulsory education to all children from 614 years. Other Initiatives of the Government 1. The Government formulated a National Child Policy in 1987. The policy outlined an action plan with three components. First aspect was regarding strict enforcement of the labor laws including the Child Labor Act. This included updating of the list of hazardous occupations by including additional occupations safety of the children. Second aspect was focusing on general development and covering needy people under poverty was alleviation to start programmes. Third aspect identified as detrimental to the health and

projects specifically targeting child labor.

2. National Child Labor Project (NCLP) scheme was launched in 9 districts. The scheme envisaged running of special schools for child labor withdrawn from work. In these schools, these children were provided formal/non

formal education along with vocational training

as well as a cash stipend of Rs.100/which was increased to Rs.150/- with effect from April, 2011. The scheme is being gradually extended to more and more districts and presently covers more than 250 districts. 3. A similar scheme (INDUS) was run in cooperation with the Department of Labor, USA which also covered 21 districts.

However, the scheme which was launched in 2000 was only for 8 years and has ended in March, 2009. An estimated 1,03,152 child rehabilitated under this project. 4. Another ILO Project workers have been rescued and

named

Converging

against Child Labor has been launched with support of US Department of Labor which will cover (Bihar, two Jharkhand, districts each Gujarat, in five Madhya states

Pradesh and Orissa). 5. Other schemes like Sarv Shiksha Abhiyan, Mid Day Meal Scheme, Integrated Child Protection Schemes and other similar schemes are also Scheme, Rural Employment

being implemented for welfare of children and poverty alleviation. 6. India is a member of International Programme being run by the International on the Elimination of Child Labor which is Labor

Organization. 7. In districts which have not been covered by these rehabilitation activities are being carried out through various NGOs. Impacts of Child Labor 1. During his childhood, every child expects to live under care of his parents and acquire knowledge and skills which he can put to use in his adulthood. However, a child labor, on account of devoting his time and energy acquire these skills and is not able to achieve his full potential. This goes against the individual as well as the concept of a welfare state. towards his work does not get opportunities to specific schemes welfare and

2. Every economic system needs educated and trained personnel who are competent to handle various jobs related with economic

activities. Child labor defeats this purpose as a child labor is not able to acquire education and other training to meet the requirments of the present day world. Hence apart from being loss to the individual, the practice of child labor is also a loss to the society. Future action India has a number of laws prohibiting and regulating child labor. Enforcement activities are also carried out under these laws in which children are rescued and culprits punished. However, this can only help the children who are trapped in the system. work It cannot do anything about of circumstances which force the children to go to and stopping new recruitment child labor. Apart from strictly implementing these laws, we will have to create conditions in which the parents have the willingness as well as the capacity to send their children to school. For achieving this the

target, poverty alleviation programmes should be implemented in the right earnest so as to reach the targeted people. Our education system would also need to be geared up so that the children are encouraged to go to school and there are no dropouts. However, it must be understood that such kind of problems need sustained efforts over a period of time. ILO has prepared a roadmap for elimination of worst form of child labor by 2016. The roadmap involves Governments, NGOs & Civil Society, International Organizations as well as other partners. society. Let us hope that these steps will eliminate the problem of child labor from our

ublic domain and effect the rights and privileges of other people. Urbanization: Issues and ImpactRural development: Changing paradigms and approaches

Since

development has been at the topmost priority of the

independence

the

agenda

of

rural

government

and

its

various

development have been adjusted according to the political ideologies.

agencies.

The

paradigms

related

to

rural

economic policies, contemporary challenges and the

After 1991, the country adhered to the agenda of liberalization, privatization and globalization. The country witnessed the roll back of the state and the void created by this roll back is envisioned to society. This roll back of the state be filled by private players (market) and civil and augmentation in the role of market and civil society has resulted in change in the paradigms and approaches in almost every sphere, including rural development. The other formidable challenges of the 21st century like climate change and ecological and approaches. The article underlines the changes that have taken place in the paradigms and approaches pertaining to rural development. This is done by a comparative analysis of the paradigms and approaches in pre and post reform era. From 1947 1947 to 1991 During this era although the strategies related to degradation have also influenced these paradigms

rural development witnessed the alteration as per

the requirements and the political ideology. However commonality during this period was the fact that the onus of rural development was assumed to be the sole responsibility of the government and its various agencies. Thus any attempt by market or civil society in this direction was seen as an act of philanthropy. 1950s and 60s Soon after independence the importance of rural development was realized. The community based approach was adopted and the Community Development context. Program (1952) were and National and

Extension Scheme (1953) were launched in this These programs inclusive extensive in nature as the entire requirements at Development Officers (B.D.Os) aided by

a Block level were taken into account. The Block the extension officers were given the responsibility to implement different developmental schemes at the ground level.

Community development program (CDP) and National extension scheme (NES) failed to create the desired impact. The bureaucratic approach failed thus could not produce the desired impact. In 1957, Balwant Rai Metha committee was appointed with the aim to examine the working of CDP and NES. The committee recommended to evoke local peoples participation and involvement,

decentralization and peoples participation in the rural development through elected representative. Pt Nehru, the then prime minister, took special interest and more than 2 lakh Panchayats were created. However this initiative received a setback after the death of Pt. Nehru in mid sixties. Moreover the faced acute food crisis during this period thus the focus shifted from decentralization and peoples participation to increase the food the centralizing tendencies. production. Thus the period observed ascendency in

Late 1960s and early 70s It was realized that the programs and schemes related to the rural development benefitted most, the upper section and elites in society. The vulnerable and marginalized section of the society could not accrue the benefits of these schemes and remained in the yoke of the deprivation. Therefore the Target based approach was

adopted in the late 1960s and early 70s. The schemes and programs which targeted weaker section and specific area were launched during this period. Thus following important programs were launched during this period:

Command Area Development Program Desert Area Development Program Draught Prone Area Development Program Small Farmers Development Program Marginal Farmer Development Program

These programs also failed to produce the desired impact. Duplication, overlapping, lack of proper coordination among different agencies, top down

approach, red tapeism, bureaucratic apathy, lack of political will and paucity of pressure from the below were the major factors responsible for the failure. Late 1970s and early 80s By late 1970s it was realized that a holistic and multi-prong approach was required to address the of targeting different sectors was considered development was adopted. In this agenda of rural development. The earlier approach parochial and thus an integrated approach for rural context Integrated Rural Development Program (I.R.D.P) was launched in 1978. In order to ensure coordination between different agencies and avoid duplication, officer. However the issues like bureaucratic apathy, lack below could not be eliminated which resulted in the inability of these programs to achieve the desired impact. District Rural Development Agency

(D.R.D.A) was set up to be headed by district

of political will and paucity of pressure from the

Developmental paradigms in post 1991 era The 1991 reforms have created a paradigm shift in the approaches related to the development in general and rural development in particular. The following are the major features of the changed approach towards rural development.

From bureaucratic to network approach

Before the 1991 the government was considered to be the only actor responsible for the rural development. However with the roll back of the as the prominent actor which should contribute to the rural development. Thus in the pre reform where only the government through its various and responsible for the rural development, in the the responsibilities of the multiple actors i.e. state, market and civil society. The state, market and civil society has different strengths, thus it is envisaged that they should adopt the role in the developmental process as per their strengths and agency and bureaucracy was considered capable state; market and civil society are also considered

post reform era the rural development has become

complementing each other. Thus a synergy between the three actors is envisioned in order to accelerate the pace of rural development in the post reform era.

From centralization to decentralization and making democracy more engaging

The thrust in the post reform era is to move towards decentralization and making democracy more engaging by evoking peoples participation at all levels. The 73rdamendment of the constitution, which gives constitutional status to Panchayati Raj Institutions, could be seen in this context.

From bureaucratic approach to PPP and CPPP

To accelerate the pace of rural development and local resources in accountable and transparent manner, the thrust is on engaging communities also Public Private Partnership (PPP) model in the public private partnership projects. Thus should change to Community Public Private Partnership (CPPP) model. The recent incidents of Nandigram

for equitable distribution of the benefits of the

and Singrur have further accelerated the need to incorporate this approach in rural development.

From Outlays to Outcomes

In the post reform era the approach of rural development has shifted from outlays to outcomes. Outlays refers to the procedures, structures and functions required to achieve a desired goal, while Outcome refers to the final desired goals. For particular area is then, creation as of example if low literacy rate is a issue in a educational Outlay were while made infrastructure Earlier the considered

enhanced literacy rate of the area is the Outcome. accountable for only the Outlays, but not the Outcomes as well. The best example of this approach Livelihood is recently designed not National the Rural proper Mission. Thus just governmental agencies

approach has shifted to make them accountable for

implementation of the various schemes and program but their desired impact on the society has gained prominence.

From hardware to hardware cum software approach

In the pre reform era the hardware approach was adopted for rural development. As per

this

approach the setting up of physical infrastructure and institutions like schools, hospitals etc were considered most important for the development. However in the post reform era it is realized that hardware approach of setting up physical infrastructure and institutions is necessary but not sufficient for the rural development. Thus the quality of goods and services delivered by these structures, their ease of access, human skills involving these institutions etc have now gained equal importance. Therefore the shift is from hardware approach to hardware cum software approach which now focuses not merely on the physical existence of structures but also on their interaction with the society and delivery quality of goods and services by them.

From

rural

development

to

sustainable

rural

development
In the 21st century century the climate change and ecological degradation that until and has also influenced the development paradigms of rural development. It is now realized unless the rural paradigm incorporates the dimension of environment protection it cannot continue to exist exist for longer duration. Thus keeping in mind the interests of the present generation as well that of the forthcoming generations the concept of sustainable rural development has gained wide acceptance. Development of Schedule Tribes By Varun Kappal and Mudit Sood

Who are Schedule Tribes?

The government of India has recognized certain ethnic groups and named them as Scheduled Tribes (STs) although the term Schedule Tribe per se has not been defined in the constitution. These ethnic groups are ofte often n categorized by the Indian government as being indigenous. Scheduled Tribes are also identified as the most socially and of special protection from their exploitation. The criterion followed for specificat specification ion of a community according to Ministry of Tribal Affairs, as scheduled tribes are indications of: economically backward group of people and in need

Distinctive culture Geographical isolation Shyness of contact with the community at large Backwardness

The article 275 (1) promises grant-in-aid for promoting the welfare of the STs and for raising the level of administration of the Scheduled

Areas. The Articles 330, 332 and 335 stipulate reservation of seats for STs in the Lok Sabha and in the State Legislative Assemblies. Regional Concentration of the the ST Population in India

According to the latest statistics, there are almost 68 million people belonging to the Scheduled Tribes in India. These people make up to around 8% of the total population of the country. This comes to almost 50% of the total tribal population in the world. The ST population can be divided into almost 675 communities spread across mainly the forests and hilly regions of the country. STs can be found in all the states except for

Haryana,

Punjab,

Delhi,

Chandigarh

&

Pondicherry. According to the 2001 Census, the highest state concentration of the population can be found in Mizoram (94% of population), Nagaland (88%), Meghalaya (85%) & Arunachal Pradesh (63%). In the Union Territories, Lakshadweep has the highest concentration with 93% of the total population coming under ST followed by Dadra Nagar Haveli with 79%. Apart from these regions, Madhya Pradesh has an ST population of 23%, Orissa 22%, Gujarat 15% & Assam & Rajasthan with 12% each. Reasons for Backwardness Despite the protection given to them, the

scheduled tribes are considered as the weakest

& the most backward sections of our Indian society. This view is based on the common socioeconomic & socio demographic factors like illiteracy, poverty, etc to name a few. 1. Illiteracy: Illiteracy Illiteracy is one of the main

reasons for the backwardness of the STs. As the population of the tribe is mainly concentrated in the

remote interiors of our country like in forest areas, they remain isolated. Therefore, their accessibility to education is limited. The National Policy on Education (1986) made a special commitment to improve the educational status of the ST population. Participation of parents & guardians in the activity of the schools is getting increased through programs like Sarva Shiksha Abhiyaan which is society. However, the gap between the literacy rates of the STs and also the general population is not only persisting but also widening despite the development programs initiated by the government. The literacy rate of the STs was around 29% in 1991 and at the same time the literacy rate of the general population was around 52%. 2. Poverty: Poverty The percentage of ST population

increasing the importance of the education in their

living below the poverty line is around 45% in the urban areas & 34% in the rural areas according to the data released by the Planning Commission in 1999-2000. The reason for increase in the poverty levels in the rural areas is because a large number of STs are landless with no productive

assets

and

with

no

access

to

sustainable

employment & minimum wages. 3. proper Lack of infrastructure & adequate primary health facilities, the ST population,

health facilities: facilities Because of the inaccessibility to especially the weaker sections of their society like Indigenous women are malnourished and

the women & the children suffer the most. their dietary intake is not adequate to compensate for their heavy physical work load. The level of female mortality is very high and serious health problems pregnancies are neglected because of lack of awareness and also the lack of accessibility to proper health facilities. The National Health Policy (1983) emphasizes the urgent need for improving the tribal health especially through detection and treatment of endemic and other diseases specific to STs. The infrastructure facilities like roads, electricity etc is also limited in the tribal areas because of which the accessibility to those areas where the services exists also becomes very difficult. like menstrual disorders, STD, and unwanted

Plans and Programs for Development of Schedule Tribes

Ministry of Tribal Affairs continued to implement various Schemes/programmes aimed at welfare and development of Scheduled Tribes. An Overview of the activities of the Ministry is as follows: 1. Special Central Assistance to Tribal SubSub-

Plan: SCA to TSP) Plan (SCA TSP

The Ministry of Tribal Affairs extends special central assistance to the TSP States and Union Territories and also to North Eastern States of Assam, Manipur and Tripura as an additional grant to these states/UTs. These grants are basically meant for family oriented income generating

Scheme in various TSP areas to meet the gaps, which have not otherwise been taken care of by the State Plan. 2. Vocational training Centers in tribal areas

The scheme aims at upgrading the skills of the tribal youths in various traditional/modern vocation depending upon their educational qualification,

present economic trends and the market potential, which would enable them to gain suitable employment or enable them to become self employed. The scheme provides 100% grant, and is implemented through State Governments, UT Administration and NGOs. The scheme prescribes fixed financial norms. No construction cost is provided. The proposals by NGOs are required to be routed through State Government. 3.

Tribe girls in low literacy district

Strengthening education among Scheduled

It is a gender scheme of the Ministry. The scheme aims to bridge the gap in literacy levels between the general female population and tribal women, through facilitating 100% enrolment of tribal girls in the identified Districts or Blocks, more particularly in naxal affected areas and in areas inhabited by Primitive Tribal Groups (PTGs), and reducing drop-outs at the elementary level by creating the required ambience for education. The scheme recognizes the fact that improvement of the literacy rate of tribal girls is essential to

enable them to participate effectively in and benefit from, socio-economic development. The scheme covers 54 identified districts in 12 States and 1 Union Territory where the ST population is 25% or more, and ST female literacy rate is below 35% or its fractions, as per 2001 district, other than aforesaid 54 census. In addition, any other tribal block in a identified districts, which has scheduled tribal populations 25% or above, and tribal female literacy rate below 35% or its fractions, as per 2001 census, are also covered. The scheme also covers PTG areas and gives priority to areas affected by naxalism. The scheme is implemented by nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and autonomous societies of the State Governments/Union Territory. The government has also passed the Indira Gandhi National Tribal University Bill, Bill 2007 that seeks to establish and incorporate a teaching and affiliating

University at Amarkantak in the State of Madhya Pradesh to facilitate and promote avenues of higher

education and research facilities for the tribal population in the country. 4. Village Grain Bank Scheme

This Scheme provides Grants for establishment of Village Grain Banks to prevent deaths of STs villages facing or likely to face starvation and also to improve nutritional for standards. building The Scheme facility, provides funds storage specially children in remote and backward tribal

procurement of Weights & Measures and for the

purchase of initial stock of one quintal of food grain of local variety for each family. A Committee under Chairmanship of village Headman runs the Grain Bank thus established. 5. Scheme of development of Primitive Tribal

Groups (PTGS)

Based on pre-agricultural level of technology, low level of literacy, declining or stagnant populations, 75 tribal communities in 17 States and 1 Union Territory of Andaman & Nicobar Island, have been identified and categorized as Primitive Tribal

Groups

(PTGs).

The

scheme

covers

housing,

infrastructure development, education, health, land distribution/development, cattle development, social security, insurance, etc. 6. Chhatisgarh Tribal Development Programme agriculture development,

Many state government programs have been taken up. One among those is the innovative CTDP. The objective of the programme would be to develop and implement a replicable model that ensures house hold food security and improves livelihood population based on the sustainable and equitable use of natural resources. The goal of the programme is to promote sustainable improvement in the food and livelihood security and general quality of life of the target group. opportunities and overall quality of life of the Tribal

Constraints in Tribal Development There are innumerable constraints responsible for lower pace of tribal development process than desired. Some of the major constraints are:

the source of livelihood for STs but there exists an intricate relationship between STs and forests in forest Eco-systems. The depleting forest

(i) Destruction of forests: forests The forests are not only

resources are threatening imminent food security for a good portion of the tribal population. (ii) Lack of awareness: awareness There exists lack of

awareness among tribal population about various developmental programmes launched by Government of India and States, resulting in their exploitation. (iii) Protection of Tribal Rights & Concessions: Concessions The have been given numerous but rights and

STs well

concessions under various statutes of central as deprived of the benefits arising out of such apathy of enforcing agencies. Conclusion Over last few decades, in spite of several as State Governments they remain

statutory provisions due to their ignorance and

programs and schemes initiated by the government,

there hasnt been sufficient alleviation in their living conditions. This is much more so in case of those who till date live in forests and are cut off from the society both economically and socially. The access to government programs is also much more for those who are closer to the society as such, and thus reachable. It has also been seen that these STs have better access to services like television and mobile phones thereby opening them up to the outer world. They are today better educated, better aware of various government programs and schemes and developing at a good rate. While for those in remote areas, government finds it difficult to penetrate and even when they manage to, it takes much more time to sensitize and mobilize their society, thus delaying their process of development. Under these conditions, it has programs and schemes need to be created and implemented, a 90 degree growth trajectory kind of expectation can be too idealistic. Thus, all the efforts need to be focused for the emancipation of STs that will witness a slow, but a much needed steady growth of STs. to be accepted that while development

Immoral Trafficking

In common parlance, immoral trafficking means trading of human beings for illegal purposes, usually prostitution. The Immoral Traffic Prevention Act, lays penalty for procuring or attempting to procure, inducing, taking or attempting to take a person from of prostitution. Evidently the Act addresses the issue trafficking specifically with respect to prostitution. The definition adopted by the United Nations Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking In Persons, Especially Women and Children is more general and includes human trafficking for purposes other than prostitution. However, the UN Global Report on Trafficking in Persons, 2009 reports that trafficking for sexual exploitation is the most common category comprising about 79% of the total cases globally. Dynamics of the trade one place to another for purpose of

Prostitution is as old as the human civilization itself and is sometimes termed as oldest profession of requires continuous inflow of females and sometimes children, both male and female. Some of this demand is met from the children of those already in this profession but major percentage comes from the new entrants which are brought into the trade through human trafficking. This kind of trafficking recruitment, movement and exploitation. India is a source, destination and transit country for such kind of trafficking and every year thousands of girls, mostly minors are procured from within the country as well as from neighboring countries like Nepal and Bangladesh to meet the to some other countries, which obviously requires cross border movement. Once in the clutch of the perpetrators, the victims are subjected to extreme atrocities and violence till they completely submit to the new pattern of life to an extent that some of demands of brothels in India as well as for transit can be said to take place in three stages, the world. In order to continue, the system

these victims become perpetrators and help in recruiting other victims. Important factors 1. Poverty is the most important factor although it is not the sole factor. Due to poverty some low as Rs.3000/- to Rs.5000/-. Others fall an easy prey to false offers of jobs and marriages. 2. Illetracy and lack of access to education and schools is one more reason for the parents and vicitms traffickers. 3. Lack of employment oppurtunites also forces some of the parents to send their children to far off places. 4. Some of the parents feel that by sending a girl or a child, they are saving him or her from the poverty which they themselves are facing. Risks involved are seen as a survival strategy. falling into the trap of the of the families sell their girls for amounts as

5. In the Indian society, less value is attached to a girl child and she is often seen as liability, as apart from bringing her up, expenditure is also to be incurred on her family. 6. Data complied by various agencies and NGO shows that most of the victims are minors, average age of victims being 10 to 14 as it is easy to lure and coerce. 7. Trafficking has now evolved into an organized crime and has been identified as fastest profitability weapons. next Network of only these drugs criminals and is growing criminal industry in the world with years. This age group is extremely vulnerable marriage which is a substantial burden on the

interstate and sometimes international, making it very difficult to deal with the problem. Legal provisions Human Trafficking is illegal in most of the

countries of the world. As far as India is concerned, prostitution, which creates the demand

for immoral trafficking is not illegal, although activities cannot be carried out in public places. However, the Indian law completely bans human trafficking. A number of legal provisions have been made in this regard which are as under: 1. Fundamental Rights guaranteed under the Constitution provide for Right exploitation. forced labour. 2. Section 366B provides for punishment for countries. 3. Section 372 and 373 provide for punishment for buying or selling a minor girl 4. Immoral Traffic Prevention Act has been specifically enacted to deal with the crimes relating to prostitution and immoral trafficking. The Act defines elaborately defines various terms and offences related with the crime and prescribes punishment for procuring any for prostitution. importing girls for prostitution from foreign Article 23 of this

against

Section

specifically prohibits human trafficking and

victim for prostitution as well for exploiting or facilitating exploitation of the victim. 5. An Prevention Act has been moved to augment the provisions of the Act. These proposed amendments specifically define the offence of trafficking Among in persons provisions, as well as other the amendment offences related to exploitation of the victim. other amendment to the Immoral Traffic

empowers the Government to set up an authority for preventing and combating human trafficking. Other Initiatives by the Government and other organizations

Suppress

India is a signatory to the UN Protocol to Prevent, and Punish Trafficking in

Persons,

Especially Women and Children as well as the SAARC convention against human trafficking. This has helped the government to combat cross border trafficking and has provided important data as well as expertise for preventing trafficking and rehabilitation of the victims.

In the Government of India, the Ministry of Woman and Child Development is the Nodal Ministry for looking after the issues related to

women and children. Similar such departments have been formed in the States and Union territories. These departments alongiwth cooperation from other departments have taken a number of steps for preventing human trafficking and rehabilitation of the victims. Some of these steps are as under:

1. A National Action Plan to Combat Trafficking & Commercial Sexual Exploitaiton of Women protocol has been formulated for various and Children was formed in 1998 and a operations for child victims of trafficking. 2. Anti Human Trafficking Units have been set up in various states which work in cooperation with the NGOs. which under 3. An important scheme being run is Swadhar which shelter homes are maintained to provide shelter to the women in difficult circumstances including those who are vicitms of trafficking. These homes are run with the support of NGOs.

4. Some

of

the

states

i.e. and

Delhi, Himachal

Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Punjab, Chandigarh, Pradesh have formed Zonal Integrated Police Network for sharing information about crime and crminals. This network contains modules about missing and found childrens as well as 5. The Government has also recognized the fact that one of the most children is their of important and factors hence These leading to the trafficking in women and vulnerability these specific programmes have been launched for empowerment programmes Integrated groups. like Child Sarv Siksha Abhiyan, Awareness missng persons. Uttarakhand

Protection,

Programmes and Conditional Cash Transfer Schemes for girl child are expected to also provide some incentive to parents.. The path ahead increase the litracy & awareness levels and

Strategy for prevention of trafficking has to be multi dimensional including stricter laws and their successful implementation, capacity building among them strong enough to understand and resist the attempt of traffickers, rehabilitations of victims and a proper regulation of the sex industry. These things are easier said than done. The attitude of the law enforcement agencies, particularly at cutting edge level, is not sympathetic to the victims due to which the victims at times prefer to keep distance from them. This seriously hampers the implementation of relevant laws as well as the government agencies. Capacity building is a long term concept as apart from the economic aspect it also needs a change in attitude of the families as well as the society so as to create an environment in which the women are treated as equal to men and not seen as liabilities. Apart from economic upliftment, which the government is trying to provide through a number of welfare programmes, this education at all levels. would also require proliferation of proper rehabilitation programmes as victims do not trust the poor and vulnerable sections so as to make

Problems of third Gender

Every society in the course of its evolution has set certain patterns of behavior expected from a males or a females. This expected behavior is the basis of the concept of gender. Gender Identity has been defined as a persons sense of self as a male or female in the existent social context. This is different from the Sex Identity which depends on the biological physiology of an individual. In most of the cases, the individuals confirm to the socially accepted behavior and can be classified as to be of either male or female gender. However, there are certain individuals whose behavior may not confirm to accepted social patterns. Apart from these there is also a category of people whose sex identity does not clearly fall into male or female sexes. This included eunuchs, hermaphrodites and intersex people. All such kind of people are referred to as third gender and usually comprises of males who exhibit feminine behaviour in varying degrees and vice versa.

Historical background The third gender has always existed in the human society including the Indian civilization. Sanskrit, which is one of the oldest languages of the world, recognizes three genders male, female and others. Ancient as kinnars who litrature were refers considered to a these category people of

demigods alongwith gandharvas (male) and apsaras (female). There are also references to them in the epics as well as Kamasutra wherein they have category). been referred to as being of tritya prakriti (third

However, these people did not fit into family system which was based on procreation and was the basis of every society including the orthodox Indian society. Due to this, they were despised by the ancient law makers, Manusmriti mentioning them alongwith outcastes (Manu smriti 3.150, 9.201 and 203). This led to marginalization and seclusion of these groups although they still enjoyed

some prestige as being possessor of some magical powers who could ward off evil. However, during

the colonial period, they were perceived not to be in conformity with the British concept of public decency. This resulted in their inclusion as a criminal tribe in the Criminal Tribes Act of 1871 and led to their harassment and further

marginalization. Although these provisions have since been repealed, the discrimination and exclusion of these groups has continued unabated. Present Status In India, these people are generally known by the term hijra, though some other names are also the country. They live in groups are

prevalent in South India and some other parts of of guru and chelas. comprising inducted New members

from among the young boys who have run away from those who want to express their

homes, are victims of some kind of exploitation or feminine sensibilities. These groups remain in seclusion from the society and have their own customs and practices. The Nations Development Programme in one its briefs present day hijras are a marginalized group. United

has pointed out their exlusion from social, economic and political participation and has expressed concern about their sexual and mental health. performing at ceremonies, begging or sex work. A number of them can be seen on the roads asking for money from the people and threatening them with obscene gestures if not obliged. Present Problems Third gender is the most marginalized section of the Indian society having the least social value. some of which are as under: 1. Third gender in India faces a crisis of recognition of their gender identity. This further translates into a number of legal issues such as change of sex, same sex 2. In the Indian society, third gender is at lowest rung even among the marginalized groups. This category is subjected to extreme discrimination in every field of life marraiges, child adoption, inheritance etc. They are currently facing a number of problems

Deviod of oppurunities, they earn their living by

whether it is health, education, employment or social acceptability. 3. Due to discrimination the third gender people are not able to receive any formal education. Even if some of them may want to be educated, the schools are reluctant to take them. 4. These people do not have any employment prostitution which further hardens opportunities and have to live on begging and the attitude of the society. 5. In prostitution, they face similar atrocities like other victims or even greater as even in that than other sex workers. 6. These people are also discriminated by the bureaucracy. They were granted voting rights only in 1994. Many of the official forms still recognize and exhibit only two genders. This has prevented them from being benefited from a number of schemes available to other citizens. Future trends profession, they are placed at lower level

A number of national and international organizations are waking up to the problems of the third gender, although the initiative being taken by these organizations is usually a part of the overall intervention for sex workers. The United Nations Development special Programme In has one of recognized its briefs, these the people as one of the Target Groups needing organization has recommended better health care facilities for these groups corrosponding to their specific needs, clarifying and the status of sex reassignment surgery gender transition, attention.

implementing stigma and discrimination reduction measures and opening up of existing social schemes for needy members of this group. Despite the abovesaid position taken by UNDP,

specific programmes for this community are rare, though a beginning seems to have been made in some areas. Tamil Nadu state government has constituted a Transgender Welfare Board which will look into the problems of this community and take steps for their welfare. However this is more of an isolated step than a general phenomenon and

many more such steps are required. It seems strange that when we are working for removing discrimination for all other groups like women, dalits and minorities this all group, which is most left marginalized untouched. In this scenario, it is heartening that the issue has been actively taken up by some of the members of the community as well as by some NGOs. Some members of this community have contested and won elections, prominent among them of the Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly from 1998 to 2003. This in a way indicates the starting of a change in the attitude of the society towards this gender. However, this should not be taken as a usual practice as third gender in India still faces the highest level of discrimination and unless the society changes its mindset justice cannot be granted to these people. Ethnic Violence in Assam being Shabnam mausi who was an elected member of should have been

The recent ethnic violence in lower Assam followed by the mass exodus of 400,000 people of four districts is the manifestation of the undercurrents political, social, economic and cultural realities. The violence took place between the Bodo and alleged Bangladeshi Muslim immigrants districts in and around Bodoland with their roots complexly interwoven in harsh

in four

Territorial

Administered Districts (BTAD). The epicenters of the violence were Kokrajhar, Chirang and Baksa districts in the (BTAD), as also Dhubri district, which is outside the cluster.

The series of violence in Assam are part of the bigger problem Citizenship Issue. Involvements of power politics, socio-cultural identities along with the land rights have further acerbated the issue. The Bodo vs Muslim propaganda has also inflicted collateral damage to the life, property and human rights of the Indian Muslims who have been settled in the region since generations. The illegal immigrants from Bangladesh

Various eastern and northeastern states in general and Assam in particular, has witnessed large scale illegal immigrants from Bangladesh. The history of this immigration could be traced back in 1971 when erstwhile East Pakistan freed itself from the yoke of Pakistan and as a result Bangladesh as an independent nation came into existence. India which was at war with Pakistan ideologically and otherwise supported the formation of this new nation. As a result India did not object the huge influx of Bangladeshi citizens in the border districts. It was estimated that between two to three million immigrants from Bangladesh were kept in the relief camps that were organized by the government of India. After the normalcy returned to their native places, some proportion of immigrant population however still remained in India. The porous borders between the two countries and difficult as well as inaccessible terrain have resulted in unchecked immigration from Bangladesh.

in Bangladesh most of these immigrants returned

The fundamental reasons behind the immigration are grossly economic. The immigrants are in the search opportunities which are relatively better in India vis--vis Bangladesh. Nearly all of the migrants from Bangladesh are unskilled and thus indulge into petty jobs in the unorganized sector. They usually live in deplorable conditions and have access to sub standard food and shelter. Immigrants bear the high risk while crossing the border illegally; they are most vulnerable to natural calamities and diseases and have to face discrimination and exploitation to administration. In spite of this they do not prefer return. This could suggest the level of destitution and appalling human development indices in Bangladesh. Implications Implications of illegal immigration Illegal immigration is one of the foremost threats to national security. It can change the demography of the destination to a great extent. This is one of the ground realities in Assam, especially in the from local population as well as of livelihood and gainful employment

districts which share border with Bangladesh. According to an Editorial in a national newspaper by an eminent civil servant it has been alleged that out of the 27 districts in Assam, 11 of the 2011 census figures, religion-wise, them are going to be Muslim majority districts once are published by the census authorities. It has been noticed that to a large extent, government land in the char areas and lands earmarked as grazing grounds have been systematically appropriated by illegal migrants, in collusion with the district and local administrations.

Today, most of the districts along the IndoBangladesh border are devoid of government lands or large grazing grounds, which were once an asset to the local communities and farmers. The systematic grabbing of government lands and the steady encroachment of denuded forest areas by illegal immigrants and non-indigenous communities have created serious differences among the local indigenous populations.

Immigration also results into conflicts related to identity and culture. Various centers in Assam which use be the epitome of the Ahom culture and produced various intellectuals have now witnessed encroaching immigrants. Political appeasement and vote bank A natural question that arises at this juncture is that if illegal immigration hampers the national building process and has detrimental impact on socio-cultural fabric, why there is lack of political will to address the issue?

The answer to this question is quagmire in vote bank politics. Various political parties view illegal in democracy. Political influences in collusion with local administration help the immigrants to acquire vital documents like Ration Card and Voter identity cards. In the absence of any biometric identity in immigrants to be Indian Citizen. As a quid pro quo with the votes of these immigrants they are able to grab the political power. the country, these two legitimize the claim of illegal immigrants from the parochial lens of number game

Issues

Districts

in

Bodoland

Territorial

Administered

There are certain issues related to BTAD which have resulted in escalation of violence to such a large scale and mass exodus. In BTC, non-Bodo and minorities allege

discrimination in political representation. The power sharing arrangement in the Bodo Accord (2003) is heavily biased in the favor of Bodos. This has alienated the minorities and non Bodo population. power by minorities and non-Bodos result in clashes and even violence of high magnitude. The BTC was formed in 2003 after militancy and armed struggle by Bodos demanding the separate state. The Bodo Accord arrested the militancy but it failed to mitigate the circulation of illegal arms to Bodo youths. Thus an asymmetrical power sharing arrangement and possession of illegal arms by the Bodos have further escalated the trust deficit in the region. Any attempt to be assertive in terms of political

Suggestions Political parties should give priority to national interest over parochial political mileage by not adopting a soft approach towards illegal immigrants. The technology must be used (as in the case of illegal immigrants from the Indian citizens. Pending cases related to illegal immigration in various courts and tribunals should be disposed of quickly and within a definite timeframe. New power sharing arrangement in BTC should Bodos and minorities must be ensured. The circulation of illegal arms to Bodos must be contained and curtailed. Reservation for women By Davendra Sharma

Isreal) in the border districts to segregate the

take place. The appropriate representation of non

The

73rd

and

74th

constitutional

amendments which came into force in the year 1993, were aimed at strengthening of local bodies i.e. panchayats in villages and municipalities in towns and cities. An important step taken through these amendments was reservation of one third of seats in these institutions for the women. Taking cue from the successful implementation of these provisions, a number of governments made several attempts to enact legislations relating to reservation of women in other legislative institutions but unfortunately, these could not see the light of the day. The present pending bill is one more attempt by the present government in this direction. The bill was moved as the Constitution (108th

Amendment) Bill (Women Reservation Bill) in May, 2008. Historical context and need of reservation for women

though not exactly equal to the men, was fairly

In ancient India, the position of women,

respectable. However, changes started occurring from the early centuries of the first millennium and situation worsened with time. A woman in the medieval India was a completely no like subservient education. personality, Inhuman with kind sati dependent of and

independence and no access to resources and practices female infanticide were widely practiced with the

sanction of religion and law and the lot of women was truly deplorable. Things started changing with colonial occupation. Although the British rule was harmful to India, its positive aspect was that the traditional Indian society was brought into contact with the modern world. This introduced into the Indian society, the concepts of liberty and equality. The issue was also taken up by a number of social reformers of the period. As a result, some of the upper class families opened up to new ideas. Women from these families took advantage of the situation and started liberated women even actively participated in the freedom struggle. However, this phenomenon was acquiring education. Some of these

restricted to only a few urban high class families and the ordinary woman was still as hapless as her medieval age counterpart. Earlier Legal Provisions The leaders of the freedom struggle

and founding forefathers of the constitution had an

idea of the problems being faced by Indian women and hence a number of provisions were provided in the Constitution of India to improve their position. Right to equality was incorporated as a fundamental before law, prohibition of discrimination including that based on gender and equality in the matters of public employment. Article 39 under the Directive Principles of State Policy provides that means of livelihood and that there should be equal pay for equal work for both men and women. Apart from these, a number of laws on crime against women, prohibition of social evils and inheritance ameliorate the condition of women. laws have been framed by the legislature to right with Articles 14-16 providing for equality

both men and women have equal rights to adequate

However, all these Acts were intended to provide relief to the women from the discrimination she faces in her every day life. These did nothing to provide her the share in authority and power which had for long been kept out of her domain for reasons other than the merit. Such an act came in the form of the 73rd and 74th constitutional amendments which provided that in panchayats and local bodies one third of elected seats as well as one third of the seats of chairpersons shall be reserved for women. Reservation for women in Lok Sahba and State

Legislative Assemblies

The successful implementation of reservation in panchayati raj institutions and the corresponding results as well as demand from a number of quarters led the Government to bring in the present bill for reserving seats for women in Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies. The bill was introduced in May, 2008 in the shape of features of the bill are as under: Constitutional (108th Amendment) Bill. The salient

1. One-third of all seats in the Lok Sabha and the state legislative assemblies are to be reserved reserved seats is to be determined by such authority as prescribed by Parliament. 2. One third of the total number of seats reserved for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes are to be reserved for women from these groups. 3. Reserved seats are to be allotted by rotation to different constituencies in the state or union territory. In case the number of seats in a state or union territory is less three, three elections. 4. Reservation of seats for women is to cease after 15 years from the commencement of the Amendment Act. Opposition to the bill The bill has been opposed by some people. the seats are to be reserved in a cycle of for women. The allocation of

These include non-political as well as political ones. Primary argument from non-political people relates to

the efficacy of reservation as a tool for achieving the objective of social equality. They argue that reservation stigmatizes a group and participation of parties follow a norm for fielding women can be achieved otherwise if the political appropriate number of women candidates. Exponents of these ideas point out that a number of countries, irrespective of their economic status, have a much larger representation of women in their legislatures. setups. The countries which have higher However, this needs to be seen in different social representation of women are either those countries where their traditional societies have not laid as much restrictions on women or are those countries where the societies have benefited from the renaissance movement centuries ago. In these countries the women are comparatively free, a situation which is lacking in the Indian context. The opposition from the political parties is more explicit and has mainly come from the regional Bihar. The primary argument is that this will only benefit women from elite backgrounds who do not political parties based in UP and

truly

represent

the

womenfolk

of

India.

To

understand this opposition we need to understand the nature of Indian polity, particularly that of the Hindi heartland. Politics in this area has always been a male bastion with the females playing second fiddle to their male counterparts. Electoral politics is also heavily influenced by caste and religions. Women reservation, being gender based has a potential to transcend these boundaries which may adversely affect the present political alignments. Further, some of the political parties are more set up in the traditional mould and have not groomed enough women leaders who could contest elections in constituencies reserved for women and hence such parties would be at a loss if this bill is implemented. However, this approach can hardly be said to be rational. There has been one more ground for opposition which relates to rotation of reserved seats. It has been said that the rotation of seats would imply that the reserved seat would change in each election and there would be no incentive for a traditional electoral base. These parties have

anyone to nurture a constituency as he or she may not be able to seek re-election from that constituency. This argument seems to be valid and needs to be looked into by the legislature. Present status & Future The bill was introduced in the Rajya Sabha on May 6, 2008 and referred to the Standing Committee on Law and Justice. The standing committee submitted its report on December 17, 2009. The bill was moved in Rajya Sabha on March, 8, 2010 and was passed on March 9, 2010. Lok Sabha has not as yet voted on the bill. The present stalemate is apparently due to political compulsions which are also like to continue and unfortunately, there are no signs of the bill being passed in the near future. Sex Selective Abortions By Devendra Sharma

In Indian context, sex selective abortion (female foeticide) means aborting a foetus for no other reason than its being a female. This practice is in itself it not much old, having become prevalent only after the use of advanced medical techniques for determining the sex of a foetus. However, it has its roots in the grim and brutal practice of female infanticide in which the girl child was killed immediately after birth.

Economic factors and poverty Social practices are usually influenced by economics and this is no exception. The traditional Indian society attaches more importance to a son as he is the source of income for the family. On the other hand, a daughter is a liability as she has to be married off and given dowry which puts substantial financial burden on the family. Apart from this, any investment made on a girl is not likely to benefit the family as after marriage, she lives with her parent-in-laws and no financial benefit is accrued to the parents. As a sizeable percentage of our population lives in poverty, birth

of a girl child brings extra financial burden which the family tries to avoid. However, paradoxically in present context the most performing states in India in terms of macroeconomic indicators have registered the worst sex ratio. In contrast to this the sex ratio is no or limited access to the medical facilities. Patriarchal and Feudal Society In a patriarchal and feudal society like relatively better in the Tribal population which has

ours, more value is attached to a son, who is

supposed to continue family lineage. Only he can conduct the last rites of parents and only he can girl has no such religious or social utility. When the girl grows up, she has to be given in marriage. As per social norms, the grooms family was considered superior and the girls family had to offer prayers to ancestors. On the other hand, a

unwillingly accept their superiority. This hurt the pride of many people, including many tribes in Punjab and led them to consider girls as a

potential source of their indignation which they wanted to avoid at any cost. Female infanticide, a forerunner to female

foeticide

access to pre natal sex determination technologies prior to 1980s, unwanted girl child was

As the people in India did not have

immediately killed either by feeding some poisonous things or by not feeding at all. This practice of killing a girl child immediately after birth is called female infanticide. The problem has been amply documented during the colonial rule. The British detected the problem in 1789 when one of their officers, Jonathan Duncan, Resident of Benares, discovered female infanticide. Soon it was noticed that the practice was prevalent in many areas of North and West India. Initially the British tried to solve the problem through social and religious manifestations, but when these methods failed to control the situation, Female Infanticide Prevention Act was brought in 1870 to prevent such killings. However, that some families were practicing

the evil practice could not be eradicated and the bias against the girl child has continued up to this day. Present situation In the later decades of the 20th

century, Aminocentesis test, which was supposed to be used to determining foetal sex. This was

be used for detecting genetic disorders, came to further facilitated by the increase in use of sonography by which sex of the foetus could be child could be killed even before it was born. Easy availability of these facilities coupled with unethical attitude of a number of professionals from the medical fraternity resulted in large number of sex selective abortion. Many of those people, who were earlier not resorting to female infanticide due to not being able to kill their own children or out of the fear of punishment for doing a murder, were now appropriate indulging legal in provisions female foeticide. as well Lack as poor of determined more easily and then the unwanted

implementation

of

existing

laws

has

further

compounded the problem. Declining Sex Ratio Ratio Most important impact of this practice has been witnessed in the decline in sex ratio which is the number of females per thousand males. Sex ratio in India has steadily declined since the beginning of 20th century. As per census of 1901 the sex ratio was 972 which declined to 933 in the year 2001. As per 2011 census the ratio is 940 females per thousand males which though shows a marginal improvement from 2001; is still much lower than the global average of 984. It is all the more alarming as some of the most populous states like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar have sex ratios much lower than the national average, the figures being 908 and 916 respectively. Surprisingly, Delhi which is the national capital and has better facilities infrastructure has a very low sex ratio of 866, in terms of education and medical

less than even that of Haryana, which is notorious for gender inequality and has a sex ratio of 877. This is an alarming situation. In the long run, low sex ratio would lead to changes in the marriage patterns and family systems. Men are likely to suffer as there will be fewer brides to marry which would mean that men will have to delay their marriage and some of them will have to forego their marriage altogether. The families of those who marry late will have higher requirements as they will have less number of years to fulfill their responsibilities. Those who do not marry at all will have to be adjusted in their parental families which will affect the family pattern. Women also do not stand to gain in this scenario, as they will face greater pressure for marrying and having a family at an early age which will affect their career prospects. This may also lead to trafficking of women as some of the men may resort to marriage by paying money to the families of poor girls. Thus the situation will not benefit anyone but will result in loss for all.

Steps for prevention Female foeticide is a discrimination based on gender and is also the denial of Right to Life to the girl child. Section 312 to 315 of the Indian Penal Code relate to such kind of offences and provide for imprisonment and penalty for the offenders. However, the magnitude of the problem led the Government to enact the Pre Conception and Pre Natal Diagnostics Technology (PCPNDT) Act, 1994, which lays elaborate guidelines for doctors centres capable of pre-natal sex determination. The Act also provides for imprisonment and fines for persons involved in sex determination. The Act is implemented by the Appropriate Authorities and Advisory Committees and Boards constituted under the Act. The Act was made stringent by the amendments in the year 2002. However, punishments under the Act are few and rare, primary reason being the poor implementation of the Act. Although the Act was made in the year 1994, the corresponding rules were notified running ultrasound or other diagnostic

in the year 1996, after a delay of about two years. Even after this, the Act was not implemented properly. The Appropriate Authorities,

Advisory Committees and Boards were not timely constituted in all the states due to which no action could be taken. This was noted by the Honble Supreme Court in its judgment passed in the year 2003 in the case of Centre for Enquiry into Health and Allied Themes (CEHAT) & Others Vs Union of India. In the judgment, the Honble Court directed the Government to implement the Act with zeal and vigour. Present situation is that requisite authorities have been notified in the states; this has no doubt provided a legal framework for implementation of the Act. However, the punishments under the Act could be that the act of sex selection is done with the consent of all concerned leaving no quarter for complaint from any side. As such, the legal provisions do not appear to be have made a dent in the problem. are few and rare, although, one of the reasons

Simultaneously, it has also been realized that the problem is essentially a social and cultural one and only legal provisions may not suffice. Considering government organizations, have been creating this aspect, the government as well as some non awareness on this subject through media and other campaigns. Some specific schemes like the Laadli Scheme are also being run by the Government in which various incentives are given to the girl child and schemes is to make people aware that girls do not bring a higher liability than boys and if given a chance, can rise to same heights as the boys. Future Sex ratio as per census of 2011 is 940 and her parents. The objective of these campaigns

which is a slight improvement from 932 as per

census of 2001. However, this should not be a cause for happiness or complacency as sex ratio in the child population in age group of 0-6 years has declined from 927 in the year 2001 to 914 in the year 2011. This would mean that despite all the aforesaid efforts, problem has persisted and

needs much stricter measures. One such measure could be enacting laws for putting this crime in Apart from this, we also need to remove gender parents to desist from this practice. Food Security and Public Distribution System the category of murder and dealt accordingly.

bias from the society as only this will encourage

Food security refers to a situation that exists and economic access to sufficient, safe and

when all people at all times have physical, social nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life, says an FAO report State of Food Insecurity in the World, 2001.

It is now well recognized that the availability of food grains is necessary but not a sufficient condition to ensure food security to the poor. It is also necessary that the poor have sufficient means to purchase food. The capacity of the poor to purchase food can be ensured in two ways by

raising the incomes or supplying food grains at subsidized prices. While employment generation programs attempt the first solution, the PDS is the mechanism for the second option.

There are several ways in which food security can be improved. The strategies constitute several policies. India's strategies in this regard comprise economic targeted growth, direct anti-poverty distribution programs, system

which include wage-employed and self-employed programs, public (PDS) nutrition-based programs and provision of health facilities. India has a

large

program

of

public

food

distribution, mainly food grains, through a network of Fair Price Shops (FPS), both in rural and urban areas. The program has evolved with the twin objective of providing incentive prices to the farmer for a sustained supply of food grain and subsidizing its consumption. Until the seventies the focus of food distribution program was urban and the food deficit areas. The welfare focus of the program assumed importance during the eighties

and coverage extended in rural areas, first in the south Indian states and later all over India. However, due to the mounting costs of subsidy, targeting was more focused during the nineties, in 1997. The program covered poor households as the target group, generally, and tribal and drought prone areas, universally. The Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS) was introduced in June, 1997. It envisaged that the Below Poverty Line (BPL) population would be identified in every State and every BPL family would be entitled to a certain quantity of food grains at specially subsidized prices. While BPL population were offered food grains at half the economic cost, the APL, who were not to have a fixed entitlement to food grains, were supplied grains at their economic cost. Thus, TPDS intends to target the subsidized provision of food grains to poor in all areas unlike RPDS, which laid stress on all in poor areas. Issues with Public Distribution System first, with the revamped public distribution system

1. poverty

The most important issue related to the estimates of various institutions and

TPDS is identification and definition of poor. The organization differ remarkably. A slight change in the identification criteria of the poverty line can have huge implication on a large number of families. According to the critics the definition of poor in India numbers are abhorrently underestimated by the government agencies under the pressure of ballooning food subsidies. 2. The second issue after identification and has severe limitations and the official

definition of poor is that of proper targeting. In many states the cases of fraudulent BPL ration cards are rampant. As a result the genuine poor are unable to get benefits of this system. Several empirical studies, based on PDS purchases, have shown that the poor were not benefiting much from the PDS. In a study on the effectiveness of the PDS in reaching the poor, Parikh (1994) says that poorest 20 per cent households through PDS 'the cost effectiveness of reaching the

cereals is very small'. For every rupee spent, less than 22 paisa reach the poor in most states 3. The large scale diversion and black

marketing of PDS food grain is also a pertinent issue that this system is facing. 4. The quality of the food grain supplied

through the PDS is also inferior in quality and low in nutritional value. Thus even in a very few pockets where the leakages are absent the malnutrition among the vulnerable section of society is not arrested. 5.

In the PDS large quantities of grains are

procured from one part of the country to the

other, stored in warehouses and moved to other parts. There are high storage and transportation losses. Also the existing centralized system is a major hurdle in ensuring availability in various remote pockets. 6. The availability of cheap rice and wheat at

PDS outlets has dissuaded many a rural households from trying food that is grown locally out of the

environmental and socio-economic condition in a given area. Measures for strengthening strengthening the Public Distribution System 1.

insecurity

The

should

proportion be

identified

of

population

with

with

Planning

food

Commissions poverty ratio. The Planning Commission should make appropriate adjustments in the method of BPL identification that would enable the States to limit the size of the target group in the neighborhood of its own estimates of people with food insecurity 2. Families, who do not have a secure source

of regular income, should be included in the BPL list, irrespective of their income. This would benefit a large majority of the poor, particularly, those with economic insecurity. The Planning Commission in its study conducted between 2002 to 2005 found that many daily-wage earning families have current income levels were above the Planning Commissions Poverty Line. been left out of BPL category because their

3.

Since the BPL identification survey is

critical to the success of TPDS, it is appropriate that this be carried out with the assistance of reputed agencies such as the NSSO and State level research /survey institutions. The database should be then computerized for effective monitoring and regular updating. 4. A major cause of diversion of food grain is

non-availability of food grains, as per allocation, at FCI based depots or State Agency's distribution centers. Hence, in FCI based depot (which is generally present in each district) six months' stock, as per allotment, should remain. At present, it has been instructed that stocks for three months should be kept, but in many districts three months' stocks are not present. If there is sufficient availability of stocks, on one hand food grain will be made available, as per allotment, and on the other hand, diversion will be checked and food security will be strengthened. 5. The involvement of local bodies in overseeing

the functioning of PDS is, generally, nominal/non-

existent in most states. A committee should be formed among members of each Municipality/Gram Panchayat, effective functioning of Fair Price Shops. 6. which should be responsible for

Composition of food grains offered, through

PDS, in different States should give due weight ages to local preferences, in terms of cereals and their varieties, wherever feasible. Various studies have revealed that variations in such preferences, significantly, affected their decision to buy food grains from the PDS. 7. A large majority of the BPL cardholders do

not lift or lift only part of the ration quota during the harvest and sowing seasons in rural areas, as many of them receive wage payment in kind and also because market prices during harvest season are low. This seasonal pattern varies across states. Thus, it is necessary to accommodate such lifting pattern into the delivery schedule of PDS to minimize leakage and diversion. Two major reasons for diversion of food grains are, (a) the PDS outlets are run by individuals

and, (b) they are unviable. Regarding (a), it is proposed that the retail PDS outlets be handed over to cooperatives or institutions like Mahila Nagrik Banks, Regional Rural Banks, etc. These organizations will not be solely dependent on PDS for their existence, as is the case with individuals and even in many cases Self Help Groups and Consumer Federations. Such organizations would be able to cross-subsidize the PDS operations through other profitable operations Microfinance: Issues and future in India

Microfinance

is

one

sector

about

which

the

perception of common man, policy makers and public media has witnessed peaks and valleys in short span of time. The sector was perceived as Messiah for unbankables due to its unprecedented success in South Asia. Many social scientists and various political and business leaders looked at it as a panacea for poverty stricken vulnerable and marginalized section of the society. There was a

strong advocacy to replicate the model across the third world countries. In India the Microfinance was extended to remote areas with high euphoria, and as a model which was perceived to reduce poverty through profits. It was seen as a win-win model for financial institutions as well as for the bulk of population which does not have access to financial institutions. However within a short span of time microfinance institutions were perceived to be blood sucker of the poor. They were soon looked upon not only as anti developmental but also as a neo avtar of moneylender of pre independent era who use to charge exorbitant rate of interests and adhered to coercive methods for the recovery. If we critically examine this sector the reality of this sector lies some where in between messiah of poor and neo avtar of coercive moneylenders. To understand the realities of this sector we must understand the basic issues in the model which resulted in its disgrace. The following were the issues with model in India:

1. In the absence of any regulation various Microfinance Institutions (MFIs) started charging very high rate of interests from their clients. Although its a fact that involves greater high risk administrative in the cost absence disbursement of loans in the rural areas and of

collaterals. Thus it is impossible to deliver

the credits in rural population on an interest rate at par with their urban counterparts. However, the profit motives of result many MFIs eclipsed rates the and developmental goal of the sector. As a exorbitant interest opaque policies were rampantly practiced. 2. MFIs deviated from the principle of disbursing the loans for the productive purpose success of Microfinance model rests on the fundamental principle of lending for the productive purposes. In order to expand the clientele base various MFIs ignored this basic tenet and started leading to debt cycle. The

lending for non productive purposes as well. 3. Overleveraging was also one of the major error which MFIs indulged into. Multiple borrowing from various sources resulted

into indebtedness much above the credit wroth of the clients and finally resulted 4. Leakage in the form of ghost loans and fraudulent loans by the staff of MFIs was also one of the major flaws in the model. 5. In order to collect the loans the MFIs adhered to coercive practices which at Since this financial model is complexly interwoven psychological result of into these socio-cultural methods as well, and was of the dimensions Large times were extra legal and even illegal. into bad loans.

counterproductive.

number

suicides in Andhara Pradesh was the manifestation of this fiasco.

In order to deal with these issues, on the recommendation of Malegaon committee, Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has come up with the regulations. In order to regulate the interest rates by MFIs, RBI has put a cap on the lending rate of MFIs at 26% per annum and a margin cap of 12 percent over their cost of funds, whichever is lower. In order to tackle the issue of overleveraging, RBI has now laid down a rule that only two MFI can lend to one borrower and both together cannot provide loans beyond Rs 50,000. The Information Technology is authentic overleveraging. also being of used to borrowers create an to prevent data base

The legislation and regulations by RBI have to a great extent addressed the flaws in the sector. Since the sector along with the financial inclusion is based on social capital as well, it can play a big role poverty poverty elevation, empowerment and sustainable development. Aviation Sector in shambles

The debate over bailout for Kingfisher, earlier bailout of Air India from the taxpayers money and the recent strike of pilot by the government carrier are the manifestations that aviation sector of India is flying abysmally low.

Its ironical that while the industry is witnessing a double digit growth rate in the passenger traffic, the shrinking bottom lines. The purpose of this article sector is facing. There are a number of complex issues which are responsible for the ill health of the aviation sector. The following are the list of issues, which inter alia are considered most important in this context. Airlines companies are complaining about

is throwing some light on the issues which the

High taxes The Air Turbine Fuel (ATF) is marred by high taxes, opaque import policies and cartelization by few public sector companies. As a result the ATF is taxed absurdly high in India. This increases the operational costs and thus shrinks the bottom line. The declining value of rupee

Since

the

ATF

needs

to

be

imported

the

declining value of rupee has also ballooned up the fuel cost for the airline companies. Loopholes in the Air Navigation Services Airport Authority of India (AAI) controls the Air Navigation Services in the country. The AAI has latest equipments and training. As a result long delays are rampant before landing of aircrafts wherein they fuel. The number of landing per hour in major airports in India is far below the international standards. Irrational System pricing through Computer Reservation hover for long duration burning not invested off late into technology up gradation,

The Central Reservation System (CRS) based on irrationality. This system is based on assumptions

econometric modeling has introduced an element of and unknown that often leads to under pricing of tickets below operation cost especially when the demand goes down. The exactly opposite happens

in the case of high demand wherein the ticket prices go excessively high. Price sensitive consumers and excessive competition Although there is double digit growth in the passenger traffic in the past few years but the consumers are highly price sensitive and with the entered into the services as a result the ticket prices have gone down vis--vis past decade. liberalization of the economy multiple players have

By Davendra Sharma

A rural settlement can be defined as a settlement in which most of the population is engaged in centre agriculture or allied activities. Similarly, an urban

can be defined as a settlement in which most of the population agriculture or allied activities. Census of India, municipality, municipal corporation or a cantonment board; or all other places having a population of at least 5000, 75% of the main male workers being engaged in non agricultural pursuits and population density of at least 400 per sq. km. Urbanization is the movement of people from rural to urban areas resulting in a concentration a is engaged in activities other than

2011 defines an urban unit as one having a

of

population in urban areas or cities. In economic

terms, it is also the movement of people from agriculture based communities to other communities which are generally larger and whose primary trade, manufacturing and allied economic activities are centered in Government, activities. Urbanization is a multi dimensional process which not only involves changes in place of residence and economic activities but also results in changes in the migrants belief, attitudes and behavior patterns. Urbanization in India Urbanization in India has a fairly long history dating back to the periods of Indus Valley Civilizaion. Urban centres grew up in various periods of history including the medieval period. During the British period urbanization was primarily governmental requirements or for facilitating trade outside India. However, these centres were limited and most of the population resided in villages. As per 1901 census only 10.8% of the population lived in cities. As per 1951 census, the figure was 17.3% while in the year 2001, 27.81% of for

the population lived in urban areas. Census of 2011 puts the percentage of urban population as 31.16%. These figures indicate that the pace of urbanization has increased after independence. While in first half of the last century, the increase in population was only 6.9%, the corresponding figure for the second half of the century was about 10.5%. The speed has been even faster in this century as an increase of In this decade, for the first time 3.35% has been registered in a single decade. since Independence, the absolute increase in population is more in urban areas that in rural areas. The growth rate of population in rural areas as compared to 2001 census has decreased from 18.1% to 12.2% (a decrease of 5.9%) while in the urban areas the growth rate of population has increased from 31.5% to 31.8% (an increase of .3%). Although, some of this increase could be due to more settlements being categorized as urban, nonetheless, these figures quite clearly indicate the rapid pace of urbanization in India. Causes of Urbanization

Urbanization involves movement of people from rural to urban areas. This can be of two types. First type is due to the pull factor in which the people are attracted towards the city for a better quality of life. Second type is the push factor in which the people move from villages to cities to avoid the poor quality of life in villages. Though, migration both these types in varying proportions, the push factor has dominated the scene in Indian context. Over the years, the increase in population has decreased the size of average agricultural land holdings and a quite a substantial number of them have been reduced to such a level that these cannot support a family. This reduction in land holdings employment opportunities at the local level. In such in abject poverty or has to migrate to some industrial centre to look for a job with which he of the reasons for this movement. Members of the lower caste, apart from being economically deprived could sustain his family. Caste system is also one was not matched by increase in from the village to cities is usually a combination of

a case, the impoverished farmer has either to live

are

also

socially

harassed

lot

in

rural

India. People from this community did not have any incentive to live in villages and they move out to This kind of migration due to push factor is the urban centers at the first available opportunity. driven by non availability of opportunities in rural areas and possibility of getting a job in urban areas. As cities offer more possibility of getting a job in comparison to the smaller towns, such cities. Some migration has also taken place due to the pull factor. In earlier days, land was source of wealth and status. However, since the beginning of the last century and particularly after independence, there has been substantial growth in trade and industry. These activities are usually members of the landed gentry carried out in urban areas. Consequently, many shifted their economic activities to these more profitable areas and shifted to cities. Some people also migrated due to availability of better infrastructure in cities. migrants avoid small towns and come straight to

Impact of Urbanization Urbanization is usually seen as an indicator of development as it indicates that more and more people the are case engaged in India. in secondary The or tertiary while economic activities. Unfortunately, this has not been prioritizing industry has failed to maintain its Government,

equitable geographical distribution. This has created some industrialized pockets which require more and more workers while the rest of the country lacks reasonable urbanization in employment India has opportunities. been lopsided The and

therefore has come with a lot of problems. The push factor has created an exodus from the villages. As no systematic effort was made to develop industries in smaller towns which could provide employment to these people, this group landed in cities which were not geared up to provide even basic facilities to these people. First requirement of these migrants was accommodation and when the city could not meet their demands,

slums came up in cities, in which people lived in extremely pathetic conditions. As per draft mission document of National Urban Livelihood Mission under the Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation, population residing in urban slums has been estimated at about 93 million. As per data provided by Census, 2011, exclusive room for living, while 32% live in one room house. About 29.4% of the urban population does not have access to tap water and 18.6% do not have latrine facility within the house. 7.3% of urban population still does not have access to electricity. This aspect of urbanization can hardly be accepted and brings with itself a host of economic, social and environmental problems. The migration which takes place due to pull factor mainly comprises of people who though well off in villages, visualize better infrastructure and facilities in cities and move there for a better quality of life. This kind of migration does not have 3% of the urban population does not have an

any adverse impact on cities but this drains the village of the skilled and educated population. Issues related to Urbanization in India

The pace of urbanization is very uneven in India centers. In all the bigger urban areas are growing with much faster pace vis--vis the middle and smaller areas. and biased in the favor of big

There is lack of coordination between various governmental international agencies, research organizations, This lead to overlapping and duplication. departments and agencies,

local bodies and nongovernmental organizations.

There is paucity of dedicated cadre for city management along with the leadership deficit. A study conducted in Karnataka revels that in rural areas for 380 persons there is an elected representative. However in urban centers there was 1 elected representative per 3400 persons.

Solutions

Development of infrastructure in cities is one aspect of the solution. However, administration of the cities has been entrusted to municipalities, which do not have the expertise or the resources to deal with the rapidly changing scenario. There is hardly any stress on long term planning. Their financial powers are also limited as the sources on which they can levy tax are very limited. This will have to be looked into by the Government because will have to rise to the occasion. There is also the need to enhance the peoples participation in this regard. Popular and democratically elected entities on local level like Ward Committee and Area Sabha analogous to gram Sabha can be alternatives. Therefore apart from developing infrastructure in cities it is also important that alternative employment is generated in the villages itself or in other words balanced regional development can be the viable solution. This could be done by if the cities are to improve, their local governments

developing agriculture based small scale industries.

Further, industries making use of local resources and expertise should be developed in small towns. This would help these towns to absorb those people who could not gain employment in villages. This would ensure a more even development as well as a better quality of life in both rural and urban areas. Proper coordination among various agencies working in the urban areas to avoid duplication an enhance coordination would also ensure proper planning and implementation. A new professional and specialized cadre of City Managers should be created like doctors, engineers etc in order to solve the issues related to the cities. New and scientific taxation system in order to

augment the finances of the local urban bodies should be designed to make the urban bodies financially viable. The taxation systems like Unit Value System in case of Delhi and Congestion Tax in case of Hyderabad and other options like Ahmadabad and Indore can made be feasible. Municipal Bonds for instance in the case of

5. Right to Education: Verdict of Supreme Court

The recent verdict of the apex court confirmed the constitutional validity of the Right to Education Act. As per the Act, all the educational have institutions

neighborhood who belong to Economically Weaker and Disadvantageous Sections. The Apex Court said that this will be applicable to all aided, private and minority schools who are getting grants from the

to reserve 25% of seats for the children of

government. For the schools not getting government grants (unaided), it will apply to private schools but not to minority institutions. Thus the only category of the educational institutions which is outside the ambit of this Act is unaided minority institutions. The Debate The provision of 25% of reservation was contested by the Society for Unaided Private Schools and Independent Schools Federation of India. There viewpoint was based on the following logic: 1. The mandatory reservation of 25% of seats in the unaided private institutions would undermine their right to run educational institution without the state's interference. 2. The obligation to provide free and compulsory education as per Article 21(a) should be on the government and not on the private schools which ought to be kept completely outside the purview of this Act drain their scarce resources 3. The reservation for poor students would

4. There were also apprehensions that inclusion of 25% of children from the Economically Weaker Section could result in mental trauma and inferiority complex

The above logics can be refuted on the following grounds:

1. Its true that unaided private institutions does not get any direct monetary benefits from the government, however the implicit benefits resource and other amenities are dependent on state. 2. The education institutions must be the sites of social integration. They must be based on 3. In the principle of inclusion and not exclusion. the era of liberalization autonomy profits, must when the like land, availability of human

government has rolled back in various sectors and given to and optimum accrue to the also private social be institutions obligations

shared by the private institutions.

integration

4. As far as drain of resources is concerned, the government has agreed to pay pre learner institutions. Its a fact that in about 65% the fees charged from the parents is less than the pre learner cost accrued by the government. Thus the real issue of the the private institutions. 5. Its ironical that the logic of mental trauma and inferiority complex is not given by any group from the Economically Weaker and Disadvantageous Sections. However, these logics are given by the elite parents and private schools. Also according to the Act the children from the Economically Weaker and Disadvantageous Sections are to be admitted first. At such a tender age there is no sense of discrimination of any kind in the children. in the school in the nursery or up to class resource loss is confined to just 35% of cost to these private unaided

private unaided schools across the country,

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)

It is an international organization that coordinates United Nations environmental activities, assisting developing countries in implementing environmentally sound policies and practices. It was founded as a result of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in June 1972 and has its headquarters in the Gigiri neighbourhood of Nairobi, Kenya. UNEP also has six regional offices and various country offices. Its activities cover a wide range of issues

regarding the atmosphere, marine and terrestrial ecosystems, environmental governance and green

economy. It has played a significant role in developing international environmental environmental science conventions, and promoting and information

illustrating the way those can be implemented in conjunction with policy, working on the development and implementation of policy with national governments, regional institutions in conjunction with environmental implementing projects. UNEP has aided in the formulation of guidelines and treaties on issues such as the international (NGOs). UNEP has also been active in funding and environment related Non-Governmental Organizations development

trade in potentially harmful chemicals, transboundary air pollution, and contamination of international waterways. The World Meteorological Organization and UNEP established the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1988. UNEP is also one of several Implementing Agencies for the Global

Environment Facility (GEF) and the Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol, and it is also a member of the United Nations Development Group. Responsibilities of UNEP 1. Promoting international cooperation in the field of the environment and recommending appropriate policies. 2. Catalysing action to address major environrnf ntal threats. 3. Monitoring the status of the global environmental information. 4. Facilitating the coordination of United Nations activities on matters concerned environment gathering and disseminating

with the environment, and ensuring, through cooperation, liaison and participation, that their activities take 5. Helping upon request, environment ministries and other environmental authorities, in particular in developing countries and countries with economies environmental policies. 6. Helping to develop international environmental law. 7. Providing expert advice on the concepts and instruments. 8. Developing regional programmes for the environment. The major results of UNEP 9. International arrangements to enhance environmental protection and policy advice to governments, multilateral organisations and others to strengthen environmental protection and incorporate activities should include: development and use of environmental in transition, to formulate and implement environmental considerations into account.

the environment into the sustainable development process. 10. scientifically sound forecasts to support decision-making and international consensus on the main environmental threats and responses to them. 11. environmental matters within the United Nations system. 12. Greater public awareness and capacity for environmental management and effective national and international responses to environmental th Article Index More effective coordination of Periodic assessments and

United Nations Environment Program Six Thematic priorities All Pages Page 2 of 3 Six thematic priorities United Nations Campaign

13.

of countries, in particular developing countries, national development processes. 14. and Resource efficiency : in an

Climate change : Strengthen the ability

to integrate climate change responses into Ensure that

natural resources are produced, processed consumed environmentally sustainable way, paving the way to the Green Economy, in which environmental impact is co-benefits are optimized. 15. threats Disasters to human and wellbeing conflicts : Minimize from the decoupled from economic growth and social

environmental causes and consequences of existing and potential natural and man-made disasters. 16. environmental governance and interactions at the country, regional and global levels are strengthened priorities. 17. waste : Harmful Minimize substances the impact and of hazardous harmful to address environmental Environmental governance : Ensure that

substances and hazardous waste on the environment and people. 18. countries use the ecosystem approach: the holistic management of land, water and living resources to promote conservation and sustainable use to enhance human well-being. reats. United Nations Campaign Ecosystem management: management Ensure that

1. Billion Tree Campaign Under the Plant for the Planet: Billion business and people,

communities,organizations,

industry,

civil society and governments are being encouraged to plant trees. The objective is to plant at least one billion trees worldwide each year. Billion Tree Campaign Maathai, Nobel Peace Prize laureate for 2004 and founder of Kenyas Green Belt Movement, was inspired by Professor Wangari

which has planted more than 30 million trees in 12 African countries since 1977.

Clean Up the World

2.

Clean

Up

the

World

is

community

based

environmental campaign that inspires and empowers clean up, fix up and conserve their environment.

communities from every corner of the globe to

Clean Up the World, held in conjunction with the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), mobilises an estimated 35 million volunteers from largest community-based environmental campaigns in the world . The campaign brings together businesses, community groups schools, governments and individuals in a range of activities and programs that positively improve local environments .Since the first Clean Up the World campaign in 1993 the improvements achieved due to the efforts of millions of concerned volunteers around the world have been astounding. Examples of community-led Clean Up the World activities include:

130 countries annually, making it one of the

Recycling and resource recovery Tree planting Education campaigns Water reuse and conservation Competitions Exhibitions

Fix up projects.

3. Earth Hour Earth Hour is a global grass-roots movement

encouraging individuals, businesses and governments around the world to take positive actions for the environment, and celebrating their commitment to the planet by switching off their lights for one designated hour.

Earth Hour 2012 aims to show the actions that people, businesses and governments world-wide are taking to reduce their environmental impact. Thereby establishing and encouraging others to join an interconnected global community engaged in dialogue and resource sharing that generates real solutions to environmental challenges.

The highlight of Earth Hour is that it is the world's most iconic landmarks go dark for one designated hour, as hundreds of millions of people transcend race, religion, culture, society generation and geography, switching off their lights in a global celebration of their commitment to protect the one thing that unites us all -the planet.

4. Paint for the Planet Paint for the Planet is an exhibit and auction of childrens art to launch the global United Nations paintings on climate change featured at the event were chosen from a collection of nearly 200,000 winning entries from UNEPs International Childrens Painting Competitions, which has been held every year for the last 17 years. campaign Unite to Combat Cimate Change. The

5. Seal The Deal The UN-led led Seal the Deal Campaign aims to galvanize political will and public support for reaching a comprehensive global climate agreement in Copenhagen in December 2009. Climate change affects us all. Nine out of every ten disasters recorded temperatures and more frequent floods, droughts are now clim climate ate related. Rising

and storms affect millions of peoples lives. This is set against a backdrop of financial and food insecurity .

6. TUNZA The word TUNZA means, to treat with care or affection in Kiswahili (a sub-regional language in Eastern Africa).The word Tunza was selected as the title of UNEPs long-term strategy on working with young people in environmental issues. Several activities including the Tunza international and regional conferences, publications and campaigns are implemented to promote awareness and actions on the environment by young people.

The main focus of the Tunza programme is to develop activities in the areas of capacity building, environmental awareness, information exchange and youth in environmental decision making processes,

with

vision

to

foster

generation

of

environmentally conscious citizens, capable of positive action. The programme also seeks to promote the making processes. involvement of young people in environmental decision

Page 1 of 3 NCTC: Policy and Debate

terrorist attacks on India in diverse forms have

Multiple

put the question mark on the efficacy of countrys counter terrorism structures and their operational capacities to pre-empt and prevent the terror attacks. As a result of this the agenda of zero the back drop of this the UPA government has proposed National Counter Terrorism Centre (NCTC) which was to be made functional from tolerance towards has become just eyewash. In

1st March 2012. However because of the several apprehensions poised by various Chief Ministers particularly from those states with non-Congress missed. The structures akin to NCTC are not a new concept in the modern world wherein the terrorism has emerged as a formidable threat to the internal security. Various western countries have terrorism. For instance NCTC in USA was set up in 2004 likewise UK has Joint Terror Analysis Centre (JTAC). the structures based on similar model to counter government the deadline of 1st March 2012 was

Page 2 of 3 The Controversy Although there seem to be countrywide consensus over the concept of NCTC, however there are controversies over the way it will function. Following Chief Ministers and the critics: 1. The NCTC in India has been set up by executive notification; this has obviated the States 2. The proposed NCTC is under the control of Intelligence under the Union government. Its a matter of Bureau (IB) which functions need of fresh legislation and consultation with are the apprehensions raised by about a dozen of

fact that IB does not have a legal status till date as it was established in 1887 through an office order to spy on Russian activities, and later on the Indian national movement 3. The accountability of NCTC located under the control of IB is also a major controversial issue. As there is no mechanism

through which parliament can exercise its control over IB because it is a clandestine organization. Moreover IB also does not come Act. 4. NCTC, empowered with Section 43 (A) of the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act has the powers of arrest and search as well. Armed I.B. with the be powers of arrest seizures, there are apprehensions that the might used by the Central government with vested interests. 5. The Police and Law and Order come under Schedule of the constitution. NCTC with powers of arrest and search can infringe with the powers devolved to the states by the federal structure. Constitution. This may hamper the the States subject as per the seventh and under the ambit of Right to Information

6. In none of the countries where such models exist, the powers of arrest and seizures are not given to them.

7. In majority of the countries where the structures akin to NCTC exists, they are an independent agency. Article Index

Lokpal Bill

Basic tenets The fundamental tenets which support the formation of Lokpal in India are as follows:

United Nation Convention against Corruption requires all countries to put in place anti corruption agencies that would be independent of the executive and would have jurisdiction to corruption. investigate all public servants for

In the Hawala (or Vineet Narain) case, the Supreme right. Court held that the right to corruption-free governance is a fundamental

The background for Lokpal The two major stakeholders involved at this time in and Team

formulation of Lokpal in India are the Central government Anna.

initially was unenthusias unenthusiastic tic to bring in any legislation regarding the Lokpal till August last year. However, the massive public support which the movement of Anna Hazare received compelled the government to change its strategy.

The

government

By the end of the last year, it was clear that in the government would come up with legislation for the Winter Session of the Parliament the

formation of Lokpal. Thus the focus of debate after this shifted to the nature, kind and powers that are to be gi given ven to Lokpal. Team Anna drafted Janlokpal Bill and d pressurized Session of Parliament with a Bill similar the Central government to come up in Winter to that. The following are the major features of Jan

Lokpal Bill that was drafted by Team Anna: Composition: Lokpal should be a 11 member body Selection: By a broad based selection committee comprising of:

Prime Minister Leader of Opposition Two judges selected by all the judges of Supreme court CAG Chief Election Commissioner Chief Vigilance CommissionerPrevious three chair persons of the Lokpal

1. It proposed to bring the anti-corruption wing of CBI under the administrative control of Lokpal. 2. The Lokpal is proposed to be given corruption servants. 3. The Lokpal is sought to recommend the removal of those officials who were charged investigation jurisdiction over all the public

sheeted for the corruption and the order of freezing of any assets that seemed to be 4. Corruption related trials is envisaged to be put on the fast track and the court would determine the loss caused to the public exchequer by an act of corruption- which would be recovered from the corrupt public servants. 5. Bill provided for framing of Citizen Charters by all public authorities, which provide for time bound delivery of public goods and services. The failure to do so could invite the action at the hands of officers working under Lokpal. 6. The Lokpal, in order to ensure integrity and transparency, is sought to put every detail of the investigations conducted by them on the public website. 7. Any citizen could make a complaint against any member of the Lokpal to the Supreme Court, which has the power to order her/his 8. Public servants were barred from taking up suspension or removal. acquired by the corrupt means.

jobs with those organizations or companies which they had been dealing with in their official capacities. The Central government and various members of Parliament have criticized team Anna on the following fronts:

There are allegations that Team Anna had no Dalits, Adivasis, Other Backward Classes or minorities in it, effectively saying that only the upper and middle classes were involved in the campaign. Thus the Bill drafted by Team Anna is in line with the demands of the urban elites and does not represent the broad based demands.

Central the

government As

and per

various this

political the

leaders have also questioned the legitimacy of democratically Civil Society. Lokpal Bill in Winter Session of 2011 demands. elected legislature view truly

represents the citizens of India and not the

The Government

Central

itself, it has, however, failed to pass the Bill for making the Lokpal a Constitutional body, like the

has passed its version of the Bill

Election Commission. Secondly the Bill could pass only in Lok Sabha as a result it cannot be sent for the assent of the President until it is passed in Rajya Sabha as well.

Team Anna is highly dissatisfied with the Lokpal Bill in its present form. According to the team, the government has diluted almost all the provisions institution to curb corruption. The following are the major issues which Team Anna has raised about the present Bill: in the Bill which could make Lokpal an effective

1. Selection and removal procedures should be made independent of the government. The

December Bill proposes five members, of whom three should be government nominees the Prime Minister, the Speaker, the Leader of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha and the CJI or a judge of the Supreme Court nominated by the CJI, and one eminent jurist nominated by the President. 2. The CBI should be brought under the should have its own investigating body 3. All government servants should be brought under the Lokpals investigation ambit. 4. The procedure for the investigation should be in line with the normal criminal investigation. 5. The provision of mandatory reservation for SCs, STs, OBCs and women in Lokpal and putting NGOs under scrutiny is also questioned. Apart from the above criticism of the Bill raised by Team Anna, there are four divergent views on the present Lokpal Bill: 1. It is a weak Bill; some civil society administrative control of Lokpal, or the Lokpal

organizations Jokepal.

have

even

termed

it

as

2. It is better to have some sort of Lokpal even if it is not what it ought to be. 3. The Bill will undermine Indian parliamentary democracy and would severely affect the functioning of executive and legislators. 4. One of the arguments against the Bill is its tendency to disturb the federal equation by disciplinary action against its employees. However, last criticism can be countered by the fact that Article 253 of the Constitution says that where Parliament makes a law for the whole or any part of India to implement an international treaty or a decision made at any international transgresses the federal division of legislative conference, such law will hold good even if it power. The Lokpal-Lokayukta Act is made in compliance with the United Nation Convention on Corruption. Conclusion legislating on the State's power to take

The corruption in India has become the issue of

grave concern and in the recent past has reached to an alarming level , thus its a fact that present arrangements, structure and functions to curb corruption requires an alteration. to tackle the issue. Its also an established fact that there is lukewarm political will

Dilution of various provisions in the Janlokpal Bill on the pretext that Lokpal will undermine Indian parliamentary democracy and would severely affect lacks merit. The democracy in India has reached to a maturity level and if the an institution functioning is of established which affects the functioning of executive and legislators seem to

democracy it can be diluted anytime. However, it should be kept in mind that corruption in India exists not just because a powerful Lokpal is absent in the system. The reasons of corruption ethical dimensions as well. Thus, Lokpal cannot be panacea for all public pathologies arising due to corruption. To get rid of corruption an engaging are complexly interwoven in the social, cultural, and

democracy based on ethics can be the best solution. The democracy of such kind would restrict the entry of elements that perpetuate corruption, and its an age old saying that prevention is better than cure. NCTCBy: Saumya Srivastava, Sheena NCTC

Kapoor, Sonam Agrawal and Nandita Sebastian Panchyati Raj Institutions

The

institutions of local governance were present in India since time immemorial. There are various evidences throughout the history in India which vital importance. These institutions have existed from as early as corroborate the fact that these institutions were of

1200 BC. In the Rig Veda era, there have been ample evidences that show that villages of India had a sabha and with time they came to be known as Panchayat i.e. a council of 5 people. These Panchayats had both judicial and executive period (3rd Century B.C.) about the

powers. Likewise there are evidences from Mauryan multiple committees in urban centers that governed the day-to-day affairs. During the Guptan period (4th and 5th Century A.D.) a lot of powers were delegated to the local governing bodies. With the advent of Turks and Mughals in India the

structures and functions of governing bodies at the Centre altered to a great extent, however the powers governing at the local level remained almost intact. and the functions of the institutions

Panchayats: During pre Independence era Prior to the establishment of British Raj in India, the Indian villages were self sufficient economic entities with governance functions delegated to the Panchayats. sufficient and local governing units as Indian form the basis of governance of these Panchyats were based on the local culture, customs and mores. Nonetheless, Panchayats increase operations during the British rule, with the Karl Marx termed these self

of Communism. The laws and norms which formed

lost

their

autonomy

the

establishment of local civil and criminal courts, in of communication, the land revenue holder and police systems organizations, the growth of individualism and the (Zamindari and Ryotwari system) wise against the

earlier village tenure system. The monetization of economy and integration of the village economies to other parts of the country also played a major role in dismantling the traditional institution at the local levels.

Gandhi v/s Ambedekar debate During the freedom movement, there were

divergent views regarding the role of Panchayats in the modern India. The protagonists of Panchayati Raj (like Gandhi) were of the view that these institutions should play a foremost role in the nation building process as these institutions would make democracy more vibrant.

On the other hand there were leaders (like Ambadkar) who had diametric opposite views on the village Panchatyats. These leaders considered local perpetuated dominance. While champions of Panchayati Raj like Gandhi were determined to achieve strengthen the village level administration with Gram village Swaraj and the caste hegemony and male governing institutions as parochial in nature which

Panchayat as the governing body, Dr Ambedekar, Chairman of the Drafting Committee of Constitution, thought that putting the power into the hands of the village folk will contribute in the regression of

the country as Indian villages were underdeveloped and a stronger power was needed to bring it to the level of development of the urban India. Gandhis argument was based on the fact that, enable the villagers to take decisions which were more suitable and feasible for implementation in a particular area, based on the specific problems of that area. On the other hand, Dr Ambedekars opinion was based on his consideration that the villagers were ignorant, narrow minded and could be easily swayed by communalism, thus incapable of taking decisions which could contribute to the betterment of the village and the entire country in the long run. So, the first draft of Constitution evidently did not have the provision for Panchayats, however they were included after both parties reached a compromise over the reduced powers of the Panchayats. setting up of village level governing bodies will

As the leaders of the freedom movement were unable to decide the status and role to be given to the rural local self government. So drafting of the constitution saw PRI being placed in the non

justifiable part of the constitution, the Directive Principles of State Policy, as Article 40. It lays down that the State shall take steps to organize village panchayats and endow them with such enable them to function as units of powers and, authority as may be necessary to selfgovernment. Post independent era After the Independence, the Government of India was dedicated to set up Panchayati Raj Institution to provide real Swaraj to the rural people of India, to eradicate poverty, illiteracy, diseases etc. However the PRI structure did not develop the essential democratic impetus. It was thus unsuccessful in fulfilling the basic needs for rural development. There were various reasons for the failure bureaucratic which reasons included at both state the level, political lack and of unemployment,

capability and potential will at local level and many such reasons.

Late Mr. S. K. Dey (19051989) piloted and steered the course of community development and Panchayati Raj in the challenging, formative period Cooperation and Panchayati Raj under the Prime Minister-ship of Jawaharlal Nehru. Balwant Rai Mehta committee, formed in 1957, recommended establishment of the scheme of 'democratic decentralisation' which finally came to be known as Panchayati Raj which became a 3 tier system with Gram Panchayat at village level, Parishad at the district level. The K. Santhanam Committee was selected for solving all the issues related to PRI finance, in 1963.Ashok Mehta Committee was appointed by Janata Party, under the chairmanship of Mr Ashok Mehta, after coming to power in 1977 in order to find gaps in execution of Panchayati Raj so as to strengthen it. The Committee came out with a report containing 132 suggestions, the major one of which was the transformation of PRI from a 3 Panchayat Samiti at the block level, and Zila of Indias independence as Cabinet Minister of

tier to 2 tier system with Zila parishad at the top and Mandal panchayat working under it. G. V. K. Rao Committee was formed in 1985 with the same objective of strengthening the PRI. It suggested that responsibility of strongly

planning,

implementation and monitoring of various projects addressing specific problems of the area must be given to PRIs at the district level and below. L. M Singhvi Committee (1986) was also involved with studying PRI for the sake of better execution and hold of it. Constitution (73rd Amendment Act) The 73rd amendment bill was introduced by the Government in the year 1991.Though the bill got passed in December 1992 by a Joint Selected Committee of Parliament, Presidents assent came on 20th April 1993 and on April 24, 1993 Government enforced it into a Constitution Act of 1992(73RD amendment) for panchayats. This amendment was made in order to revive the rural local bodies by giving them constitutional status, allocating them power and functions, making

provisions for finances, ensuring regular elections, and providing reservations of seats for SCs, STs, women, and weaker sections so as to ensure their participation in the political process at all levels. This amendment has also provided for reservations for Chairpersons at all levels of local bodies to ensure their effective role in decision making. The main features of the Constitution (73rd Amendment) Act: 1. Establishment of a three tier structures (Village Panchayat, Block Samiti and Zila Parishad) in states which have a population 2. Regular elections for Panchayats at every 5 years 3. Reservations of seats for members and offices for chairpersons for Scheduled castes and Scheduled tribes in proportion to their population 4. Reservations seats for of greater and than 1/3rd for of 20 lakhs and above.

members

offices

chairpersons to women 5. Constitution of State Finance Commissions every five years to recommend measures to improve the finances of Panchayats 6. A State Election Commission has to be constituted in every State and Union Territory (UT), to supervise, direct and control the regular and smooth elections to Panchayats 7. Gram Sabha or village assembly as a deliberative body to decentralize governance has been envisaged as the 8. To foundation of the Panchayati Raj System promote bottom-up has planning, District every Planning district Committee been (DPC) the in

accorded

constitutional status. 9. An indicative list of 29 items has been given in the Eleventh Schedule of the Constitution. Panchayats are expected to play an effective role in the planning and implementation of works related to these 29 items.

Features of PRI The consequence was of the 73rd Constitutional of the

amendment

formal

structure

Panchayati Raj Institution in every state. It is a 3 tiered structure at district, block and village level. The Gram Panchayat and Gram Sabha are at the bottom(village level)and the Zilla Parishad is forms the niddle tier of the system(block level) Gram Sabha: A significant feature of the structure at the apex(district level). The Panchayat Samiti

of panchayats at the village level is Gram Sabha. It is a village assembly having a legal status under the law. It consists of all the adult members whose names are included in the voters list. Gram Sabha works as a supervisory body which audits The and regulates the functioning of Gram Panchayat. meetings of Gram Sabha are held twice a year. It considers annual statements of accounts, audit reports, programs of work and taxation proposal and plan for development and identify beneficiaries under various schemes. It is

constituted by the State government Gram Panchayat(GP) is the primary unit of PRI. It

is a body of elected members from the Gram Sabha to form an executive committee headed by and implementation of development programs at village levels. Seats have been a Sarpanch. They are responsible for formulation reserved for

scheduled castes and tribes as well as women. GPs have been entrusted with both obligatory and discretionary functions. These include preparation of annual plans and budget for the development of GP area, organizing voluntary labour and contribution for community works; improvement of agriculture, animal husbandry, fisheries, rural housing drinking water and sanitation, electrification, education, women and child development etc. Panchayat Samiti was recommended by the Balwant

Rai Mehta Committee. The representatives of the Panchayats within the block area constitute the Panchayat Samiti. It exercises control over all the main functions of Panchayat Samiti are planning Block officials and supervises their activities. The

execution and supervision of all the developmental programs in the Block. It also supervises the works of Gram Panchayat within its jurisdiction. Zila Parishads consists of Presidents of Samitis, elect their representatives seats have from their also

the local MLAs, MPs and MLCs. The voters directly constituencies. These

been

reserved for scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and women It exercises the powers of coordination and general supervision over the work of Panchayat Samitis and Gram Panchayat. The Zilla Parishad maintains District Development fund and utilizes it for any type of constructive work in the District. It implements plans as per the directives of the State Government. It acts as an advisor to the government on allocation of work among GP and Panchayat Samiti and coordinates their works. Conclusion The local governing bodies like Panchayats were part and parcel of governance in India since ancient times. Therefore concept of

decentratlization is not new for India. However, democratic decentralization and empowering

the noval charactersctics of 73rd Amnedmnet are maginalized sections of the society and making Panchayats instistutions of public participation and advocacy. The decentralization in ancient India was generally quagmired with caste hegemony, gender dominance and arbitrary laws. The recent news about Khap Panchayats and their blood thristy verdicts are some of the examples of the reflections of the that Panchayats would perpetuate caste past. Thus the argument of leaders like Ambadkar and gender hegemony had merit at the time. of independence. The scheme of 73rd Amendment Act has taken care of all these issues and have ensured institutionalized participation of hitherto marginalized sections by the provision of reservation. Thus the scheme has taken care of all the issues, nonetheless its effectiveness and future would largely depend upon crucial factors like the

pressure from below, political will and attitude of bureaucracy. Mullaperiyar Issue

About Mullaperiyar dam It is 116 years old dam situated in Kerala on river Periyar, however it is under the administrative control of the Tamil Nadu Public Works Department (PWD), which operates and maintains it. The geographical location of the dam and its administrative control are in the hands of different state governments i.e. Kerala and Tamil Nadu respectively. The peculiar fact about the dam is while the water resources and geographical

boundaries belong to Kerala, the administrative control of dam and the utilization rights of water resources rest with Tamil Nadu. History of the dam The dam was built under an 1886 accord

between the then Maharaja of Travancore (now Kerala) and the erstwhile British Raj, in the accord the Princely state of Travancore leased the dam for 999 years to Madras presidency (ruled by British). It was a deal between the two

asymmetrical actors, tiny state of Travancore on one hand while mighty imperial British Raj on the other. After independence all agreements and treaties made by the British Raj and the princely states had Independence Act of 1947. However, the 1886 subsequently by Kerala and Tamil Nadu in 1970. The bone of contention Unlike the other inter-States water disputes, lapsed with the passing of the Indian

accord related to Mullaperiyar dam was validated

water sharing is not the primary bone of contention between Kerala and Tamil Nadu. The controversy between the two states is related to safety concerns related to dam in Kerala and livelihood issues related to water quantity in Tamil Nadu.

Kerala government is concerned about the condition of the dam. According to them the dam is old and government demands construction of new dam and alleges that in present form it is a serious threat to life of people, their property and bio-diversity in six districts of Kerala. Kerala's proposal for decommissioning the dam and construction of a new Nadu government considers the dam as good as new and has demanded that water level of the dam must be raised so that greater quantity of water could reach to the five districts of Tamil people. Nadu where water from the dam is lifeline for the dam has been challenged by Tamil Nadu. Tamil has completed its lifespan. The state

Keralas view The Kerala government has put forward following level of the dam and constructing a new dam:

views to support its demands of lowering the water

As per Kerala government the dam is located in the seismic zone being old it more cannot withstand the earthquake of 6M or

Lime and Mortar- a primitive technology is used in construction of the dam, according to Kelara government this technology is outdated. Increasing seepage is indicative of the gradual deterioration of the dam

The quantity of water seeping in through the structure is believed to be much more than what has been recorded

The dam is an 'endangered' scheduled dam under the Kerala Irrigation and Water Conservation (Amendment) Act, 2006.

Tamil Nadus stand

Tamil Nadu's stand is that the dam is perfectly safe and there is no need for a new dam

A ruling by Supreme Court in 2006 had permitted Tamil Nadu to raise the water level of the dam to 142 ft, or 43m from present level of 136 ft.

In a statement issued on the dam, Dr said that; There is no

Jayalalithaa the chief minister of the sate justification whatsoever to believe that the Mullaperiyar dam is unsafe or likely to collapse, bringing a deluge

districts.

upon

Idukki

and

surrounding

According to state government officials the

dam

is

well

maintained

and

periodically

reinforced. The safety of the dam is being constantly monitored by the highly qualified and accomplished technical experts. Reason for recently in news Heavy downpours in the month of November 2011 brought in front the safety issues. This coupled with the reports about fissures and seepage of water through the dam, and leaching out of lime among the people living in the downstream areas of Kerala. All this was followed by attacks on Tamils in Kumili and other parts of Kerala and similar violent retaliation in Tamil Nadu. Empowered Committee Supreme Court has appointed a five-member from the structure had led to a genuine fear

and frequent earthquakes in the areas nearby dam

Empowered Committee led by the former Chief

Justice of India, Justice A.S. Anand, to study all the issues relating to the dam. It is expected

that

the

committee

will

submit

its

report

in

February 2012. Dam 999 An English movie directed by Sohan Roy which was banned in Tamil Nadu because of the allegations dispute between Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Final report of the Empowered Committee The Empowered Committee, headed by former Chief Justice of India A.S. Anand, has said that the dam is structurally, seismically and hydrologically safe. The committee has given its nod to the view of Tamil Nadu's goernment that the height of the dam can be increased from 136 to 142 feet after carrying out certain repairs. Banning of books and writers that the film is based on the Mullaperiyar Dam

In the recent past the country has witnessed

various incidences of banning of books, cancellation

of film screening and proscribing of other forms of art. All these incidences are the examples of curtailment of the freedom of expression which is a fundamental right as enshrined by the constitution of India. The irony in all such incidences is the fact that curtailed in an institutionalized manner with state machinery explicitly, implicitly or tacitly involved in curtailment. examples:

the fundamental right of freedom of expression is

The

following

are

some

of

the

Salman Rushdies absence in the Jaipur Literature Festival Festival (Jan, 2012) Cancellation of a seminar on Salman Rushdie in Hyderabad (Jan,2012) Cancellation of a film screening in Pune based on Kashmir Cancellation of book release (Nirbasan) by Taslima Book Fair (Feb, 2012) Hundred Nasreen in Kolkata

International A.K.

Three

Ramanujan's essay was removed from the

Ramayanas,

curriculum of Delhi University (2011)

Mumbai University withdrew Rohinton Mistry's novel Such a Long Journey (shortlisted for the Booker Prize in 1991) from its

derogatory references in it to its party members

curriculum after the Shiv Sena Sena objected to

Author James Laines ShivajiShivaji-Hindu king in Islamic India was banned in Maharashtra The Gujarat government banned Pulitzer

PrizePrize-winning author Joseph Lelyveld's Great India after objections were raised against

Soul: Mahatma Gandhi and his Struggle with its contents which speak about Gandhi's been homosexual. homosexual.

friendship with a German man who may have

There are two major logics given by the state and the protagonists who championed the ban, these are as: 1. In order to maintain Law and order situation 2. On the pretext that right to freedom

of expression is not an absolute right and has reasonable restriction attached to it.

In order to prevent threat to law and order, the state should not suppress fundamental rights which it is the duty of every democratic state to uphold. Instead the state should take action against those who indulge in intimidation and provide security to person who wishes to exercise their basic human rights viz. freedom of expression and free movement. The Supreme Court in context of Tamil movie, Ore Oru Gramathile held that freedom of expression cannot be suppressed on the account of threats of violence. That would tantamount to negation of the intimidation. Freedom cannot be held ransom by an intolerant group of people. The Court also held that freedom of expression protects not merely ideas that are accepted but those that offend shock or disturb the State or any sector of the population. At times the bans of such kinds have profound political reasons for their acceptance rather than the threat to law and order situation. Many a rule of law and surrender to blackmail and

times the bans are imposed to pacify a particular caste, group or community which is seen as a vote bank. The absence of Rushdie from the Jaipur Literature Festival can thus be correlated to the nearby elections in the five states. However, this approach is parochial and weakens the essence of democracy. Can just offending a group or community be the sole criterion to curtail the right to freedom of expression of an individual? Somebody getting offended by something or some action is a highly subjective matter. For instance a person lets say Mr. X, who doesnt like black color, might feel offended just because Mr. Y wears a black shirt on a particular day. In such case should Mr. Y be forced not to wear the black color? This question can be answered on the basis of harm principle coined by J.S. Mill in his classic work Liberty. The harm principle is the idea that exercised over any member of a the only purpose for which power can be rightfully community, against his will, is to prevent harm to

civilized

others. According to Mills, a person can do anything he wishes, as long as his actions do not harm others. This logic can be extended in the case of the books and the other forms of art which allegedly offend the sentiments of a particular group or communities. Since the writers or the artists are not causing harm to anybody, the State should not exercise its authority to forcefully ban them against the choice of the authors or artists. Conclusion The right to freedom of expression is a hard earned right after the long struggle from the colonial rule. There are countries in the world where the censorship exists to a great extent and the citizen groups are in a stage of constant struggle to earn this right. Thus to promote the tendencies which curb freedom of expression in one form or the other is analogues to moving in the reverse direction.

India is a highly diverse country. The language, culture, customs and mores in one part of the country are entirely different from the other. Apart from the has high led to diversity creation this of era of globalization multiple

identities and has given the choices and medium for the expression. In such milieu it has become vital not only to respect the individuals right of freedom of expression but also to enhance the dAntrixAntrix-Devas deal

What is Antrix? Antrix Corporation Limited was incorporated as a

private limited company owned by Government of India, in September 1992 as a marketing arm of

Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) for promotion transfer and commercial exploitation of space products, technical of consultancy services by and ISRO.

technologies

developed

Another major objective is to facilitate development

of space related industrial capabilities in India. What is Space Commission? The Space Commission was established in India four decades back to formulate the countrys space policies and to oversee the implementation of the space programs. It is headed by Secretary for the Department of Space and has top officials from the Central government as its members. What is Spectrum? What is S band? Spectrum refers to the range of radio frequencies lower than 300 GHz. Thus spectrum is the collective term of the range of frequencies which are by used for different radio the application. Radio transmission is generally regulated the Governments across world. The particular parts of the spectrum is sold or licensed to the other entities (both Public and Private) for various purposes like mobile telephony, Television broadcast etc. The frequencies and power levels in different frequencies are coordinated to ensure transmission

that there is no interference across services. S band is the part of spectrum which has the frequencies ranging from 1.55 GHz to 5.2 GHz. It is used in applications such as weather radar and some communication satellites. The deal The Antrix-Devas deal provides for the leasing to Devas of 90 per cent of the space segment capacity on two geostationary satellites, GSAT-6 and GSAT-6A for 12 years on a 24x7 hour a week basis, which would use up the entire S-band available with ISRO. As per the agreement of the deal, ISRO build two communication satellites i.e. per the needs of Devas. Devas envisaged to launch satellite services digital that GSAT-6 and GSAT-6A. These satellites were customized as

multimedia

broadcast

(S-DMB)

would be delivered to fixed, portable and mobile receivers. Also, this leased capacity was to be on

non-pre-emptible'

basis,

which

means

this

capacity cannot be used by any other user for any other purpose. The controversies in the deal The following are the issues which have gained prominence and had made the deal questionable:

The Union Cabinet and Space Commission were not adequately informed about the deal and its implications.

The proposal for seeking approval for GSAT6 and GSAT-6A did not make any reference did not make any reference to their utilization for the Antrix Devas deal

The compensation to be paid by Devas to ISRO under the deal was not adequate and it was much less than its actual worth.

The agreement was heavily loaded in the favor of Devas. Much of the upfront costs as well as the risk of building customized satellites was to be incurred by ISRO. the

As per the preliminary estimates by the Comptroller and Auditor General the spectrum allotted to Devas could have been worth as amount agreed in the deal to be paid by Devas was just about Rs 1500 crore that too over a period of 12 years. much as Rs. 2 lakh crore. However the

No transparent and competitive process was of spectrum.

adopted to choose the company for the sale

The other side G. Madhavan Nair, who was chairman of ISRO

and Antrix when the deal was signed, had denied the fact that government was unaware of the deal. He has alleged that several key people were aware of the deal at every stage. He also held that there are persons who are members of both Space Commission and the Antrixs board of directors. Thus as per his views its just a myth that Union Cabinet and Space Commission were in the government, including Prime Minister Office,

unaware of the deal. emocratic tolerance. The Timelines

Terrorism

Origin and meaning The origin of word terrorism could be traced in

French Revolution. During French Revolution, in 1792, the Jacobins came to

power in France and initiated Reign of Terror or La Terreur rreur and within a month about 12000 people lost their lives lives. Definition of Terrorism In the international community till date there is no universally agreed and legally binding definition of

terrorism. Various government agencies and legal systems across the globe use different definitions for characteristics of terrorism which are common, these are as follows:

terrorism.

However

there

are

some

key

Violent acts or, threat of violence to generate fear in community. Use of violent means to achieve political ends. Acts/methods have propaganda of achieving higher psychological victim or target. repercussions beyond the immediate

Conducted by trained individuals who are linked with organization with an identifiable chain of command or conspiratorial cell structure.

Maligning of the credibility of the State and institutions.

Causes of Terrorism 1. High inequalities, regional imbalances in

development process

and identity crisis of

the people of certain geographies 2. Geographies with higher incidence of poverty, illiteracy indices 3. Apathy are more vulnerable to ideologies of government agencies for local and low human development

which promote violence and terror development, rampant corruption, violation of rule of law and human rights, delay in delivery of justice and over centralization of This also can act as the breeding ground for terrorism 4. Wrong interpretation and misinterpretation of certain religious and philosophical ideologies, thus in their name evoking people to adhere to violence 5. Moral and ethical degradation, and easy 6. Support to terrorist groups in all forms by various countries and even proving to be safe havens for terrorist group and enabling them with terrorist infrastructure. All this is done to achieve the political aims and with the motto of destabilizing the targeted countries. availability of arms and ammunitions power creates alienation in local population.

7. Funding of the terrorist groups through illicit ways like opium trade, Hawala etc History of terrorism in India Punjab The terrorism in Punjab was based on the demand to carve a separate theocratic state namely Khalistan. Demand for separate state started in 70s when few Sikh leaders cited various political, social, and cultural issues to allege that the Sikhs were being discriminated in India and threat to the identity of Sikhism. The movement for the separate state further intensified in 1980s under the leadership of Blue The Star operation was conducted an by assault the on Jarnail Singh Bhinderwale. In 1984, Operation Indian Golden government to stem out the Khalistan movement. Temple, damaged some portions involved of the Sikh

shrine, which resulted in turning the movement into extreme violent one. The brutal assassination of Indira Gandhi by two Sikh body guards followed by

anti-Sikh riots in Delhi further intensified the violence in Punjab. The violent Khalistan movement came to an end in 1992-3 chief by the of adoption Punjab, of strong counter and insurgency operation by Punjab Police. The then Inspector General of Police K.P.S Gill were pivotal in taking stern counter insurgency steps to end the violence in Punjab. Major terrorist groups in Punjab includes Babbar Khalistan Liberation Force, and minister Benat Singh

Khalsa International, Khalistan Commando Force, Khalistan Zindabad Force. Nagaland The Nagas were the first to initiate an armed insurgency against Union of India in 1950s. Led by A.Z. Phizo, the Nagaland Nationalist Council (NNC) started organized insurgency in Nagaland. The peace process was attempted in 1964, 1975 and 1986 could yield no concrete results. The negotiated peace led to the division of NNC into

two

groups

i.e.

National

Socialist

Council

of

Nagaland-Isak-Muivah (NSCN-IM) and National Socialist Council of Nagaland-Khaplang (NSCN-K) which are antagonist to each other. On 14 June 2001, a ceasefire agreement was signed between the government of India and the NSCN-IM, which had received widespread approval and support in Nagaland. Terrorist outfits such as the Naga National Council-Federal (NNC-F) and National Council of Nagaland-Khaplang (NSCN-K) also welcomed the development. However off late the outfits like NSCN-IM have kept aside the demand for secession Union of India. They are now demanding Nagalim or Greater Nagaland. The Naga militant groups are now demanding integration of all Naga-inhabited Nagaland. Assam Demand for secession of Assam The insurgency in Assam and demand for areas of Assam, Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh and the

secession from Union of India started to gain momentum in late 1970s. The major cause for agitation for Assamese was the huge influx of non the state. The indigenous people of Assam Assamese population, especially from Bangladesh, in demanded that the illegal immigrants who had emigrated from Bangladesh to Assam be detected and deported. The violent insurgency was led by United Liberated Front of Assam (ULFA) and set up almost parallel government in the state. Indian Government launched a series of military operations such as Operation Bagranj, Operation Rhino etc and compelled ULFA to come to negotiation table. The violent movement led by ULFA finally ended after its leaders signed Assam Accord with the central government on 15 August 1985. Demand for separate Bodoland Bodoland is an area located in the north bank of Brahmaputra river in the state of Assam. Various militant outfits such as National Democratic Front of Bodoland (NDFB), the Bodo Liberation Tigers (BLT) wanted a separate state of Bodoland.

These groups have also indulged in ethnic cleansing of non Bodo inhabitants like Santhals and Muslim settlers in the area. Kashmir The reasons for militancy in Kashmir are as follows:

The non adherence to the basic tenets of Article 370 by the Central government, rigging of state elections, dismissal popularly elected state government of

has

created suspicious in the minds of various groups which have started the demand of separate state.

Widespread corruption and unemployment have also created a sense of alienation. The underdevelopment indices given in and the low state by human are the

development constantly

neighboring country.

communal

colors

The presence of terrorist infrastructure in Pakistan, and support to various outfit from

agencies like ISI have further added fuel to the fire

The role of Afghan mercenaries has also

further intensified the militancy in the state. After the invasion of Afghanistan by the Soviet Union, Mujahidin fighters, with the aid of Pakistan, slowly infiltrated Kashmir with the goal of spreading a radical Islamist ideology

There have been allegations of gross violation of Human Rights in Kashmir of various sections in the society. On one hand where the Kashmiri Pandits have faced brutal atrocities if form of ethnic cleansing from the insurgents on the other hands there are serious allegations of Human rights violation and extra judicial killing on Indian armed forces as well.

The various militant outfits operating in Kashmir are as: Al Queda, Lashkar-e-Toiba, Jaish-eMuhammad, and Harkat-ul-Mujahideen. Apart from these militant groups there are a few moderate groups like All Party Huriat Confrence formed to

achieve formed the right of self-determination. Implication of terrorism

Loss of life and property is the major result of terrorism. It also creates an ambience of fear psychosis.

Terrorism hijacks the whole socio-economic and cultural development in the effected territories. All the sectors of the economy are affected by the terrorism directly or indirectly. Industry, agriculture, trade and services, all receive a set back because of terrorism.

Terrorism erodes the sovereignty of the state. The state losses its control many a times governments and kangaroo courts are rampant affects the sovereignty of state. in the affected areas. Parallel

in the affected areas all these further

In the affected areas there is gross violation of Rule of Law and Human Rights. To counter insurgency at times stringent laws and regulations are implemented. This curtails

public liberties in an institutionalized manner and brutalizes the governance.

Federal decision making, decentralization and

devolving of power at the local levels gets affected, because at the time of militancy all the decisions are primarily taken by the Central government. International Terrorist Groups S.No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Name of Terrorist Group Taliban Al-Qaeda Hezbollah Kurdistan Workers Party LTTE Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia AdenAden-Abyan Islamic Army Basque Fatherhood and Freedom Hamas Ansar al-Sunnah Army Place of Origin Afghanistan Afghanistan Lebanon Turkey Sri Lanka Colombia Yemen Spain Palestine Iraq

11 12

Riyad us-Saliheyn Martyrs' Brigade Armed Islamic Group

Chechnya Algeria

Rights of Homosexuals

What is Homosexuality? Encyclopaedia Britannica defines homosexuality as sexual interest in and attraction to members of ones own sex. Sexual relationship between two identical sexes is homosexuality. A male who has for sexual relationship with same sex is sexual coitus with another male or who has desire a homosexual. Homosexual relationship between two females is termed as Sapphism or in normal parlance Lesbianism. The female who involves in homo-sex behaviour is Lesbian. Homosexuals: Sinners or Pathological or an called a Sapphic or

Oppressed community?

well as in the animal species, heterosexuality is practiced by the majority. Since it is practiced by fact? The answer to this question depends upon

In human-beings as

majority, can it be considered as universal truth or the outlook of society towards the homosexual and reason behind homosexuality. In past the outlook towards homosexual was very rigid, they were looked upon as the sinners and criminals who deliberately for vested interest deviated from so called natural sexual behavior. In the early 20th century psychiatry and medicine stood up for homosexuals. The researchers from psychiatry and medicine propelled that there are various biological and psychological factors which can result discourse about homosexuality shifted from the into homosexuality. As a consequence,

realms of sin and crime to include that of pathology. Likewise the recent researches and studies have changed the outlook towards the homosexuality, these trends argued that whatever might be the cause of homosexual behavior, its beyond the control of an individual. Thus those practicing them are different but in no way abnormal emerged many groups, organizations and institutions which advocated for the non discrimination and equal rights for homosexuals. Section 377 of Indian Penal Code Section 377 of Indian Penal Code is related to Sex. This section states that: and wrong. As a result there

Unnatural

whoever voluntarily has carnal intercourse against animal, shall be punished with imprisonment for life, or with imprisonment of either description for term which may extend to ten years, and shall also be liable to fine. Till the year 2009, homosexuality comes under the

the order of nature with any man, woman or

ambit Unnatural Sex, however Delhi High Court Verdict of 2009 in this context could be treated as a milestone in the rights of Homosexuals. Delhi High Court verdict on homosexuals and section 377 The judgment of Delhi High Court in 2009 regarding amendments in section 377 of Indian Penal Code can be considered as a landmark in context of rights of oppressed sexual minorities i.e. homosexuals. In this judgment Delhi High Court ruled that sexual intercourse among adults of similar sex should not be treated as criminal offence under Section 377 of Indian Penal Code. The High Court held that criminalizing homosexual behavior done in private among the consenting adults tantamount to violation of fundamental rights like the right to protection of life and liberty. In the judgment High Court also held that any discrimination on the grounds of sexual orientation was against Article 15 of the Constitution which prohibits any discrimination on grounds of sex,

religion, caste or place of birth. It could be inferred that through this judgment judiciary has enhanced the scope of connotation of sex. Discrimination on the basis of Sex hitherto was confined to that on the basis of gender i.e. male and females but the landmark judgment it. has given a newer dimension to Delhi high court held that: We hold that

sexual orientation is a ground analogous to sex, and that discrimination on sexual orientation is not permitted under Article 15. Supreme Courts View The Supreme Court in February 2012 has

started

hearing

the

petitions

challenging

the

verdict of 2009 Delhi High Court. The Union Home Ministry along with some government bodies and private groups are fighting against the Delhi Courts verdict which decriminalizes the sexual The opposite side includes NGOs like behavior among the consenting adults of same sex. Naz foundation.

The case is still pending in the Court, however there have been strong indications that the Supreme Court is moving forward in defending the decision of the Delhi High Court. The Court has drawn a distinction between unnatural and

abnormal. The court is of the view sexual behavior among the same sex does not fit in the conventional norms and narratives, but there is no way to prove that its unnatural. The court is of the view that meaning of words depends upon the time and is never constant. The same is applicable to the word unnatural. The court held that this was codified in 1860. Thus its a high time advancement society. and scientific progress of the 21st century is much advanced than the time when

to interpret the terms like unnatural as per the

The Controversy Conclusion

All Pages 8. Page 3 of 3 9. Conclusion 10. The fundamental principles that are required to combat terrorism by any structure

like NCTC are information pooling, cooperation and coordination among Central and State governments and various security agencies. If NCTC in its current form is imposed by the UPA coordination government, between the Centre very and purpose various of

State governments would stand defeat. Thus its very crucial to develop a consensus and address the apprehensions of the Chief Ministers. 11. a national consensus over the formation of functioning and powers. 12. There is a dilemma regarding the future role of IB if NCTC comes under its control and gets the powers like arrest Its an encouraging fact that there is

NCTC the apprehensions are confined to its

seizure. An agency with policing power but not accountable to Parliament would be against the tenet of democracy. if IB is put under the On the other hand supervision of

parliamentary its competency as a clandestine intelligence agency would be eroded. Thus one the most viable solutions could be to make NCTC as an independent agency like in the case of US. 13.

19.