Basin Analysis Assignment 1

Name Matrix No. Lecturer

: : :

Muhammad Hanif Haziq bin Mohammad 15323 AP Dr Abdul Hadi Abd Rahman

Passive Margin

1.0 Tectonic setting To describe to you the tectonic settings of a Passive Margin, one must go back to a part of the basics of a Wilson Cycle (refer to Figure 1). Firstly, there is a rifting of the continental margin due to tensional tectonic forces which will result in faulting of the area in the centre of the rifting area. Further spreading will thin the continental crust. At the same time, there will be an injection or upwelling of basaltic magma which forms a proto-oceanic crust (new oceanic crust) at the centre of the rifting gap. The edges of the continental crust nearest to the edge of the new oceanic crust will undergo normal faulting. As the transitional crust (the transition between the oceanic basin and continental margin) cools down and thickens due to sediment loading there is an increase in density which causes it to subside forming the passive margin. On the other hand, the initial centre of rifting will form the mid-ocean rift. According to Allen & Allen (2005), the passive margin is divided into volcanically active margins and nonvolcanic margins. The nonvolcanic margins are related to the above description while for the volcanic passive margins, the initial rifting is caused by mental upwelling which uplifts the continental lithosphere. At the passive margins (transition between continent and oceanic crust), we can see evidence of this with the presence of dikes and other types of intrusions. A continuation of the Wilson cycle states that, after some geological time, the mid ocean ridge will close down with continual subduction of the crust near to the continental margins which brings back together the continental lithospheres at each sides of the passive margins. This will cause continental-continental collision where the denser continental lithosphere will subduct below the lesser dense lithosphere forming a series of thrust faults (collision orogeny) and a foreland basin. Once it is stable and there is no more tectonic activity, the mountains formed due to the collision are eroded forming peneplaned mountains and the sediments accumulated from this erosion will form a new passive margin.

Passive Margin

Passive Margin

Figure 1: The Wilson Cycle (Viesser,n.d.)

2.0 Subsidence mechanisms For the subsidence mechanisms in passive margin, it is divided into three major mechanisms which are: 1. Isostacy Isostacy is the change of crustal or lithospheric thickness caused by the gravitational equilibrium. It is related to the heat flow thus when thermal upwelling occurs, there will be uplifting of the continental crust which results in erosion, rifting, stretching and thinning. As the stretching stops, and the crust cools down, it becomes thicker thus more dense which leads to subsidence. 2. Loading When the transitional crust stretches, the edge nearest to the continent will form normal faults which provide accommodation space for continental sediments that erode into it which further aids in subsidence. The increase in drainage also assists in loading from the ocean (pelagic and benthic sediments). The lithospheric flexure of the subducting crust will also aid in loading supplying sediments to a part of the basin as it subsides. 3. Dynamic effects The mantle convections and formation of plumes assists in uplifting and thinning of the crust. The convection currents in the asthenosphere also aids in the tectonic movement of the crust. 4. Phase changes Near to the subduction zone in the passive margin, there will be a melange formed from accumulated sediments from the upper continents, lower continental crust gabbro and upper oceanic crust basalt. As these sediments are brought deeper into the mantle under high pressures and low temperature, they are metamorphosed into eclogite which further aids in subsidence due to its denser properties (Bucher, 1994).

3.0 Large-scale stratigraphic architecture

The subsided continental crust near the edge of the continental crust has a series of normal faults which dip seaward. At the passive margin, there is a transition of facies from: Non marine continental facies to a shallow marine facies at the shore. At the continental shelf facies consists of sediment eroding from the continents and benthic sediments. Deeper at the slope and rise facies, turbidites sequences are formed consisting of pelagic, benthic and sediments eroded from the continents. In carbonate suitable climates, there are also eroded carbonate sediments if below the carbonate compensation depth (CCD).

If during the initial rifting, the margins were uplifted, there will be bad drainage. With the addition of an arid climate, evaporates might form leading to formations of salt dome later in the passive margins as the buried evaporates migrate upwards. We can say that the stratigraphic variations are largely influenced by the changes in the sea level.

Figure 2: Stratigraphic architecture variation schemes taken from Spring (2011)

4.0 Palaeogeography

Figure 3: Palaeogeography of the formation of the Aptian Salt basin during breakup of Africa and South America taken from Brownfield,M. & Charpentier, R. (2006)

On Paleogeography, I will focus on the Aptian Salt Basin as studied by Brownfield et al (2006). This Basin extends from Cameroon in the North to Namibia in the South. It was formed during the breakup of North America, South America and Africa as an early extensive Palaeozoic basin was rifted apart in the Jurassic-Cretaceous period. The process started with the initial formation of the Atlantic Ocean during the Carboniferous to Permian and the split of the North American plate from Eurasia and the African plate from Permian to Triassic times. In the early Jurassic, the breakup of Africa and South America occurred thus forming the southward part of the Atlantic Ocean. Lastly during Cretaceous, the breakup of the area now known as Gulf of Guinea occurred forming anoxic waters from The Walvis ridge until the North of Africa. These anoxic waters became oxic in the Late Cretaceous. Presence of evaporites and clastic sedimentary rocks in the West African areas gives evidence of the initial rifting that occurred which might have been caused by migrating hot spots. As continual spreading of the Atlantic Ocean occurs, the transition between the edge of the ocean crust of the Atlantic and continents of West Africa forms the passive margins.

5.0 Basin resources As the passive margin is able to accommodate large amount of sediments, it has a really good petroleum reservoir potential. The oil maturation is also good due to the fact that the sediments in the margins arent affected by intense cooking from magmas. According to Mann et al. (2001), among 592 giant oil fields monitored, approximately 65 percent of oil was present and from these 592 oil fields, 30% of them are passive margin fields. This Petroleum plays a very important part of our

lives as the major energy supply in the industry. It is also used to make daily items such as plastic, clothing and medicines. 6.0 References

Allen, P. A. (2005). Basin Analysis: Principles and Application. Malden: BLACKWELL PUBLISHING. Bucher, K. a. (1994). Petrogenesis of Metamorphic. New York: Springer-Verlag. Charpentier, M. E. (2006). Geology and Total Petroleum Systems of the West-Central Coastal Province (7203), West Africa. U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 2207-B, 52. Hendrix, P. M. (2011). Sedimentary Basin Analysis. P. Mann, L. G. (2001). A new classification scheme of the world's giant fields reveals the regional geology where explorationists may be most likely to find future giants". Tectonic setting of the world's giant oil fields Part 1. Visser, W. (n.d.). Sedimentary Basin Formation.