Prestressed Steel Beam

Report Titled
Prestressed Steel Beam
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of
M Tech (Civil Engineering with Specialization in Structural Engineering)
By Vaibhav M Gaykar 122040009 2013
Prof. P. W. Kubde (Guide / Supervisor)
Structural Engineering Department Veermata Jijabai Technological Institute Mumbai 400 019 2013
VEERMATA JIJABAI TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the seminar on Prestressed Steel Beam is in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the Semester II syllabus of the M-Tech. (Civil Engineering with specialization in Structural Engineering) Course conducted in VEERMATA JIJABAI TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE as prescribed by the UNIVERSITY OF MUMBAI for the academic year 2012-2013.
Submitted by, VAIBHAV MADHUKAR GAYKAR (Roll No. 122040009)
________________ Project Guide Prof. P.W. Kubde
________________ External Examiner Dr. M.A. Chakrabarti
_______________ External Examiner Dr. K.K. Sangle
_________________ Head of Department Dr. A.N. Bambole
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I acknowledge my sincere thanks to my guide Prof. P.W. Kubde., professor in civil engineering for his invaluable guidance, kind assistance and excellent counseling. His active participation in the endeavor not only resulted in a resulted in a successful partial completion of the project but also rendered the whole experience pleasant. I am grateful for the confidence that he has placed in me during the project; taking keen interest at every stage of my work. He also directed me skillfully transforming me into a cohesive unit and getting the work done through channelized the work.
Also I acknowledge with thanks, the assistance provided by the department staff, central library staff and computer faculty staff. I would like to thank my colleagues and friends who directly or indirectly helped me for the same.
Vaibhav Madhukar Gaykar (Roll No. 122040009)
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapters List of Figures Abstract Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 General 1.2 Basic Principles of prestressing 1.3 Advantages of Prestressed Beams 1.4 Disadvantages of prestressed Beams Chapter 2: Literature Review 2.1 Method of Prestressing 2.1.1 Inroduction 2.1.2 Technology 2.2 Analysis of prestressed steel structure 2.2.1 General 2.2.2 Static analysis of section 2.2.3 Bending 2.2.4 Shear 2.2.5 Deflection Chapter 3: Behavior of prestressed steel beams 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Description of analyzed steel beam 3.3 Finite Element Analyses of the analyzed prestressed beam 3.3.1 Failure during Tensioning 3.3.2 Beam with two deviators 3.3.3 Beam with five deviators 3.3.4 Beam with eleven deviators 3.3.5 Remarks concerning the results of NLFE analyses 3.3.6 Increase in Beam Capacity Provided by prestressing Chapter 4: Experimentation 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Description 4.3 Results Chapter 5: Conclusion References i ii 1 1 1 1 2 3 3 3 4 7 8 8 8 10 11 13 13 13 16 16 18 19 20 20 22 24 24 24 26 28 29
LIST OF FIGURES
Figures
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 Section A-A Details of deflector stud System of anchoring Ferrule for anchoring strands Box girder Di-symmetrical Double T- Girder Prestressed steel Girder - principle of function Prestressed concrete Girder - principle of function at transfer condition at service condition Shear Deflected shape of prestressed I- beam Beam with two, five and eleven deviators Cross section at midspan Horizontal displacement versus prestressing force curves Deformed shape at failure during tensioning a) T2 b) T11 beam Beam with two deviators Beam with five deviators Beam with eleven deviators Failure load versus prestressing force Applied load versus mid-span horizontal displacement Increase in beam capacity versus prestressing force Girder Sliding bearing Anchoring the ends Distribution of load Initial-Measurement of deflection at transfer phase Final-Measurement of deflection at service phase
Title
Page No.
3 3 4 5 5 6 6 7 8 9 9 10 12 13 14 17 18 19 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 25 26 27 27
Abstract
The use of Prestressed concrete in structural field has been done for a long time, along with it the use of Prestressed steel also started taking place. But due to the lack of knowledge and calculation methods the use of Prestressed steel is very limited. Prestressed steel beams are lighter than the traditional ones of the same length and the vertical load capacity, this option could make them economically advantageous and a viable solution in many practical solutions. In this project, the method of prestressing steel beam is described along with the analysis methodology for the bending, shear and deflection. Also, the behavior of the Prestressed steel beam is shown with the help of non-linear finite element results with different deviator configurations. In the end some experimental work is also presented which shows the advantages that the widespread use of Prestressed Steel can bring to the sphere of the construction sector.
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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1. General
The necessity for economy in steel in view of large quantities needed for construction and rehabilitation of various steel structures prompted the requirement of saving steel. This is possible by using more reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete than steel. But for long spans where prestressed concrete is not viable, prestressed steel is the ideal solution. The concept of prestressing steel is not a new frontier in the field of Civil Engineering. But it is being widely considered only in the recent past, despite a long and successful history of prestressing concrete members.
1.2. Basic principles of prestressing

The term prestressed steel means application of a pre-determined concentric or eccentric force to a steel member so that the state of stress in the member resulting from this force and from any other anticipated external loading will be restricted to certain specified limit. This is done by inducing opposite stresses in a structure before it is put to its actual use by application of external forces. These forces are controlled in magnitude and direction to counter act the developed stresses in beam due to working loads. It is very difficult to establish a bond between the prestressing tendon and a steel beam. Hence external prestressing technique is adopted for prestressing of steel beams.
1.3. Advantages of prestressed Steel Beams

Lighter and slender members are possible by use of prestressed steel when compared with unprestressed steel beams. The whole cross-section is effective in prestressed steel beams. Prestressing of steel beams enhances its elastic range of the material and makes it more ductile when compared with un-prestressed steel beams. Prestressing of steel beams improves fatigue life of a structure and hence the technique is recommended for dynamically loaded structures. The external prestressing technique can be applied to improve the load carrying capacity of existing un-prestressed steel beams which is not always possible in Reinforced Cement Concrete beams. We can temporarily improve the load carrying capacity of a beam steadily by stage-by-stage prestressing to acquire the required load carrying capacity. Standard components required for prestressed steel beams can be manufactured in factories 1
and hence a lot of time is saved. Prestressing remarkably reduces ultimate deflection and hence high span depth ratios can be achieved. Prestressing steel girders increase the level of the stress at which the beam starts to buckle. The total loss of tensile prestressed force in cables is small in case of prestressed steel structures when compared with prestressed concrete structures. Tendons of External prestressed beams can easily be designed to be replaceable and re-stressable without major cost implications. Generally the webs can be made thinner resulting in a comparatively lighter structure thereby facilitating execution.
1.4. Disadvantage of prestressed Steel Beams

Longer spans are not preferred to avoid possible bulking. Externally prestressed members can easily be damaged with minor equipment. For certain cross-sections and construction procedures, the handling of the tensioning devices is difficult. The availability of builders and engineers experienced with the technique of external prestressing of steel is scanty. Initial equipment cost is very high. Prestressing tendons are brittle as high strength steel is used. The tendons are more exposed to environmental influences, fire, aggressive chemicals etc. The deviators and anchor plates which are delicate components, have to be placed very accurately. As the tendons are not bonded to the member (or bonded only at particular points) the ultimate strength is developed in the ultimate design resulting in a higher prestressing steel consumption. Usually cross-section cannot be fully utilized. Therefore a greater depth or additional prestressing is required.
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Method of Prestressing
2.1.1 Introduction The technique for realizing prestressed steel is achieved through external cables. This procedure requires a preliminary phase of preparation which includes the following operations: a. Preparation of the girder through the insertion of contrast elements to the cable which define the passage along the girder (deflectors); b. Formation of the cable; c. Placing the cables in position and their subsequent anchoring; d. Applying tension to the reinforcements with jacks and tightening them; e. Eventual re-tightening; All this must be done with maximum care and requires a specialized workforce.
Figure 2.1-Prestressed steel beam
Figure 2.2-Section A-A
2.1.2 Technology The first operation to carry out is to single out the line of the resulting cable and then to position the contrasts, made up of symmetrical studs which define the line of the cables themselves whose barycentric line is known as the resulting cable. Technically, the contrasts are realized through symmetrical studs with regard to the web of the girder. The studs are capped at one end to keep the cable in position and are welded to the web. Their number depends on the length of the girder and the stresses in play (figure 2.3).
Figure 2.3-Details of deflector stud
Once this operation is completed, the next stage is the formation of the cables. During this operation the strands are laid symmetrically in relation to the web and are freely left to run around the deflectors which have been greased or lubricated to avoid friction. The strand, which is made of high tensile steel is more susceptible by nature to corrosion than normal steel and is therefore protected against this risk. The protection is done through zinc-plating (galvanized strand) or through sheathing (sheathed strand) which consists in placing the strand (often zinc-plated) in a high density polyethylene sheath in which it can slide freely due to the presence of grease or wax which also act as protection against corrosion. With this technique it is also possible to replace strands which turn out to be unsuitable. Protection against corrosion can also be obtained by using a sheath of HDPE into which the strands are inserted. The sheath will subsequently be injected with cement paste as occurs with reinforced concrete. The next phase is anchoring which is the most delicate phase of the entire operation. A very simple system of anchoring is shown in figure 2.4. It is made up of : A rigid plate 4
Blockings Steel stiffeners.
Figure 2.4- System of anchoring
In particular, anchoring the strands foresees the use of conical-trunk ferrules inside of which are toothed wedges of the same shape that hold the steel before tensioning (fig.2.5). Indeed, tightening is assured precisely because of the contact between the strand and the wedge since the strand, tending to pull in on itself, drags the wedge with it and thus self-blocks.
Figure 2.5-Ferrule for anchoring strands
After the preparation phase, the next step is to determine the action acting upon the girder, as well as those associated with those induced by pretensioning. It must be added that the sections most adapted to prestressing are those boxed beams (fig. 2.6) and those with a plate
girder (a di-symmetrical double T) (fig.2.7) since these are the ones that most suit this technique, allowing for maximum exploitation of the material.
Figure 2.6- Box Girder
Figure 2.7- Di-symmetrical Double T-girder
2.2 Analysis of Prestressed Steel Structure

2.2.1 General A prestressed system consists quite simply in subjecting a structure to loads that produce opposing stresses to those when it is in service. Prestressing can be usefully applied to any material and, in particular to steel (figure 2.8), thus improving considerably its resistance characteristics. In the case of P.C., the effect of prestressing enables beams to pass from being partial reagents to become total reagents (only compression), (figure 2.9). The increase in the characteristics of resistance is solely due to a greater use of the section. In the case of steel this is taken for granted. The methods used for analyzing the sections are:
Figure 2.8: Prestressed steel Girder - principle of function
The static method is in which each section considers the effect of prestressing as an eccentric pressure (traditional method). The equivalent loads method, in which the effect of prestressing is analyzed through the introduction of a system of equivalent forces of external provenance which exert pressure upon the girder and are called equivalent loads.
Figure 2.9: Prestressed concrete beam - principle of function
2.2.2 Static analysis of section With reference to a simply supported prestressed steel beam, it will be necessary to assess whether in the section most under stress, the tensions owing to the loads and the prestressing are lower than those allowed for by the limit state under consideration. An admissible value for tension loss for P.S., on account of friction and steel relaxation is 5%. The value we take into consideration is 10% (generally for P.C., tension losses due to friction, creep shrinkage etc. are presumed to be 25% - 30%). Two load conditions will be taken into account, more precisely, an initial or at transfer condition and a final or at service condition. In the first case the prestressing force P will be increased through the application of a co-efficient = 1.10 to take account of the total (or final) tension loss. 2.2.3 Bending It may be said that prestressing was invented for bending girders and it is for this state of stressing that we gain the most benefits. In reference to figure 2.10, it may be verified, at transfer:
Figure 2.10-condition at transfer
where: A and Z are respectively the area and the section modulus of the steel girder, p is the partial coefficient of safety applied to the prestressing, Mmin is the minimum moment calculated, taking into account the partial coefficients of safety applied to the loads, e is the distance of the resulting cable from the centroid G.
Figure 2.11-at service condition
where - Mmax is the maximum moment taking into consideration the partial safety coefficients applied to the loads. 2.2.4 Shear For a prestressed steel beam and generic section S, figure 2.12, we have:
Figure 2.12-Shear
or,
Where, t and h are respectively the thickness and the height of the web and thus: for pure shearing for pure bending and shearing
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2.2.5 Deflection 2.2.5.1 Importance of control of Deflection Deflection forms an important criterion for safety of any structure. Suitable control on deflection is very essential for the following reasons. a. Excessive sagging of any structural members is unsightly and may sometimes render the floor unsuitable for use by causing damage to finishes, partitions and associated structures. b. Large deflections under dynamic effects and under the influence of variable loads may cause discomfort to users. 2.2.5.2 Effect of Tendon Profile on Deflection In the most of the cases of prestressed beams and tendons are located with eccentricities towards the soffit of beams to counteract the sagging bending moments due to transverse loads. Consequently the prestressed beams deflect upwards (camber) on the application of prestress. Since the bending moment is the product of the prestressing force and eccentricity, the tendon profile itself will represent the shape of the bending moment diagram. 2.2.5.3. Expressions for Estimation of Deflection The method of computing deflections of simply supported eccentrically prestressed beam with straight cable in two different approaches will be discussed in the following sections a. Combined Effect of Prestress and External Load on Deflection Consider a simply supported beam of span l, Flexural rigidity EI subjected to a total uniformly distributed load of w/unit length and prestressed by a force P at an eccentricity e. Let the deflection of the beam at a distance x from left support be y. (Figure 2.13) Then bending moment at any section at a distance of x from left support is given by ( ) ( ) ( )
Hence from theory of pure bending, ( ) ( ) ( )
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Figure 2.13-Deflected shape of prestressed I- beam
Solving we get, ( ( ) ( { ) } ( )) ( ) ( )
This is the generalised expression for finding the deflection of a simply supported eccentrically prestressed beam considering the combined effect of prestress and total load. Maximum deflection by symmetry occurs at x=l/2 Hence,
( ) { ( ) } ( )
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CHAPTER 3 BEHAVIOUR OF PRESTRESSED STEEL BEAMS

3.1 Introduction
Prestressing techniques for steel beams were developed many years ago, both for the construction of new structures and for the rehabilitation of existing structures. Although tensioning principles were initially formulated and developed for reinforced concrete structures, the prestressing technology began to be applied also to steel beams by Dischinger and Magnel and by other engineers. The prestressed steel technique has been adopted mainly for bridges and rarely for roof structures. This chapter analyses the behaviour of I-shaped prestressed steel beams having a medium span _i.e., a span in the range (35-45m) for use as roof elements for buildings. In particular, the effects on the beams response, of the number of deviators (which impose the shape of the tendons by fixing the distance between tendons and beam) and of the prestressing force value, are thoroughly investigated.
Figure 3.1-Beam with two, five and eleven deviators
3.2. Description of the analysed prestressed steel Beam

Prestressed steel I-beams are analysed; the dimensions of the beams and the tendon shapes are illustrated in Fig. 2.14, depending on the number of deviators. A span equal to 40 m has been selected as the average value (3545 m) of the range assumed for medium-span beams. 13
In order to allow comparison of results obtained with nonlinear finite element (NLFE) analyses, all beams have the same span (40 m), the same I-shaped cross section, two tendons, and 15 ribs. The ribs are located at beam ends and along the longitudinal axis (x direction). The cross section is asymmetric with respect to the z axis (Fig. 3.2). Because the number of stiffening ribs slightly affects the stiffness of the beam, all the beams have the same number of ribs. Grade S275 steel, having a yielding strength of 275 MPa and an ultimate strength of 430 MPa, is adopted for beams and stiffening ribs. Tendons are composed of low-relaxation, highstrength prestressing strands with a 0.6-inch diameter. Strands are made of steel with a tensile strength fpk of 1,860 MPa. The geometrical features of the analysed beams are summarized in Table 1. It should be noted that in Table 1 beams with tendons comprised of four strands are indicated with an asterisk (for example T5*) while beams with tendons comprised of 12 strands are indicated without the asterisk (for example T5). Beams are named according to their number of deviators and according to the applied prestressing force; for example, T2-1000 is a beam with two deviators and a total axial force of Np=1,000 kN.
Figure 3.2-Cross section at midspan
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Table 1-Geometrical features
No lateral restraints are imposed during in situ pretensioning, Step b, except for the case of delayed tensioning (see below). In Steps cf, bracing at the top and at the bottom flanges are usually connected to the beam, providing lateral stability. In Table 2, the italicized data indicate load steps without bracing, whereas the rests indicate load steps with bracing. As previously stated, NLFE analyses are carried out by assuming bracing both at the top and bottom flanges except for some analyses which were performed with top flange bracing only. These analyses are identified with the letters -BTS. For example, T2-1000-BTS is a beam with two deviators, prestressed with axial force Np=1,000 kN and with top flange bracing only. Furthermore, the beams identified with the letters -NI were analysed without taking into account geometrical imperfections and with bracing at the top and bottom flanges, except beams identified with letter -NI-BTS which have the bracing only at the top flange.
Table 2-Load multipliers, referring to the steps and the Load combinations considered in the analyses
In the analyses with delayed tensioning, bracing at the top and bottom flanges are present in Step b also when the prestressing force is introduced (see Table 2). Stress losses in tendons 15
are not considered because friction losses are negligible for unbounded tendons and relaxation losses are negligible.
3.3. Finite-Element Analyses of the Analysed Prestressed Steel Beams

Buckling and nonlinear finite element analyses _with both mechanical and geometrical nonlinearities_ were carried out with the ABAQUS code. Four-node shell elements _S4_ were employed for beam and stiffening ribs, three-dimensional pipe elements (B31) for deviators having a radius of 70 mm and a thickness of 12 mm, and tube-tube contact elements (ITT31) for modelling the finite-sliding interaction where tendons are inside the deviators. Fixed boundary conditions were imposed to simulate supports and lateral restraint resulting from the bracing. A plasticity model with isotropic hardening behaviour was used to define the mechanical properties of the steel for the beam. NLFE analyses were carried out in load control by adopting Newtons method as convergence criteria. This means that the beam capacity was identified in correspondence of the peak value of the applied load corresponding to the last converging solution. It is well known that by standard load-control iterative procedures, it is not possible to describe softening branch or to detect bifurcation phenomena, etc. in the structural response. However, in the section titled Remarks concerning the results of NLFE analyses, it is shown that convergence fails after the yielding of the steel, in correspondence with high levels of deformation. Even if higher values of displacement could be achieved with more refined solution techniques, no significant increase in applied loads can be obtained; in addition, higher values of deformation are not germane to this study because they cannot be accepted in practice. 3.3.1 Failure during Tensioning The beam behaviour during tensioning was analysed in order to evaluate the maximum prestressing force that can be applied. The maximum prestressing force during tensioning was evaluated by applying the self-weight load and by increasing the prestressing until failure occurred. Fig. 3.3 depicts the top flange horizontal displacement (z direction) at the mid-span versus the prestressing force value for beams T2, T5, and T11; the initial horizontal displacement is not zero because of the imposed geometrical imperfection and self-weight. Deformed shapes at failure are shown in Fig. 17 for beams T2 and T11. Geometrical imperfection generates for T2 beam (with the greatest spacing between deviators (13.333 m)) 16
the largest horizontal displacements at mid-span; these horizontal displacements reach, in correspondence with the maximum prestressing force (1,559 kN), a value of 375 mm. For the T11 beam, the maximum value of the prestressing force (3,291 kN) is much higher than the value for the T2 beam and the horizontal displacements at mid-span reach, in correspondence with the maximum prestressing force, a value of 136 mm.
Figure 3.3-Horizontal displacement versus prestressing force curves
The maximum value of the prestressing force for the T5 beam (3,121 kN) is between the values of beams T2 and T11. Even if, during tensioning, the behaviour of the T5 beam is similar to the behaviour of the T11 beam, it can be pointed out that the maximum values of prestressing forces for beams T5 and T11 are similar, but the corresponding horizontal displacements are quite different. Indeed, the displacement of the T11 beam is about 60% of the displacement of the T5 beam (219 mm).
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Figure 3.41-Deformed shape at failure during tensioning a) T2 b) T11 beam
3.3.2 Beam with Two Deviators Fig. 18 shows, for T2 beams, midspan deflection versus applied load curves obtained, taking into account _in NLFE analyses_ the effects of geometrical imperfection. Fig18_a_ refers to beams with bracing only at the top flange, whereas Fig3.5_b_ refers to beams with bracing at the top and bottom flanges. Fig. 3.5a_ shows that, for beams with bracing only at the top flange, a very low value of prestressing force of 500 kN _T2_-500-BTS beam_ is about the greatest value that can be applied. Indeed, using a prestressing force value of 500 kN, the vertical load capacity of the beam increases with respect to the nonprestressed beam _T2_-0BTS_, but a prestressing force value equal to 1,000 kN _T2_-1000-BTS_ causes a decrease in beam strength with respect to the nonprestressed beam _T2_-0-BTS_. In fact, owing to geometrical imperfections, the deformation of the T2_-1000-BTS beam is so amplified by the prestressing force _during step loads a and b_ that, when vertical loads are applied _from step load c to f_, failure is quickly reached because of large horizontal displacements. For the same reason, the stiffness of T2_-1000-BTS in the elastic range is lower than T2_-0BTS. Fig. 3.5_b_ shows that for beams with bracing at the top and bottom flanges, a prestressing force up to 1,000 kN _T2_-1000_ can be applied, increasing the vertical load capacity of the beam with respect to the nonprestressed beam _T2_-0_. Indeed, the bracing at the bottom flanges _applied after load Step b_ fixes out-of-plane displacements and avoids lateral instability; as a result, in Fig. 3.5_b_, the slopes of all the curves in the elastic range are the same.
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Figure 3.5-Beam with two deviators a) Bracing only at top span b) Bracing at top and bottom flanges
3.3.3. Beam with Five Deviators In Fig. 3.6, midspan deflection versus applied load curves obtained with NLFE analyses, taking into account the effects of geometrical imperfections, shows that for beams with bracing only at the top flange, the optimal value of prestressing force of 2,000 kN _T5-2000BTS_ corresponds to the highest vertical load capacity of the beam. While, for beams with bracing at the top and bottom flanges, Fig. 3.6_b_ shows that the optimal prestressing force value is 3,000 kN. In the section titled Remarks concerning the results of NLFE analyses, it is shown that even if the vertical load capacities of beams T5-3000 and T5-2000 are similar, the horizontal displacements of the T5-3000 beam are much higher than those of the T5-2000 beam, as seen in Fig. 3.6_b_.
Figure 3.6- Beam with five deviators a) bracing only at top flange b) bracing at top and bottom flanges
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3.3.4. Beam with Eleven Deviators Fig. 3.7_a_ refers to T11 beams with bracing at the top flange only, whereas Fig. 8_b_ refers to T11 beams with bracing at the top and bottom flanges. The prestressing force value of 3,000 kN corresponds to the highest vertical load capacity of the beam, both for beams with only top flange bracing, Fig. 3.7_a_, and for beams with bracing at the top and bottom flanges, Fig. 3.7_b_. Fig. 3.7_a_ illustrates midspan deflection versus applied load curves obtained without taking into account the effects of geometrical imperfection _-NI_. Therefore, web strengthening is required to increase the vertical load capacity of the beam, as shown in Fig. 3.7_b_.
Figure 3.7 Beam with eleven deviators a) Bracing only at top span b) Bracing at top and bottom flanges
3.3.5. Remarks concerning the Results of NLFE Analyses Some remarks are in order pertaining to the NLFE analyses reported in this paper on prestressed steel beams. 3.3.5.1.Maximum Prestressing Force In the first loading phase, which is tensioning, the maximum prestressing force values increase as the number of deviators increases and so, the spacing between the deviators decreases _e.g., in Fig. 3, the maximum prestressing forces are 1,559 and 3,291 kN for beams T2 and T11, respectively_. 3.3.5.2. Optimal Prestressing Force In the second loading phase, that is, loading after tensioning _when vertical loads are applied_, the optimal value of prestressing force _providing the maximum load capacity of the beam_ can be identified. Fig. 21 refers to beams with bracing at the top and bottom 20
flanges and shows the failure load versus the prestressing force curves. It can be mentioned that the optimal value of prestressing forces _which are 1,000, 3,000, and 3,000 kN for beams T2, T5, and T11, respectively_ increase as the number of deviators increases. For the T5 beam, however, a value for the prestressing force of 2,000 kN must be considered as the preferred value because for a prestressing force value of 3,000 kN _which is the optimal value as defined in the introduction_, the horizontal displacements, illustrated in Fig. 3.9_b_, cannot be accepted in practice.
Figure 3.8 Failure load versus prestressing force for beams with the bracing at the top and bottom flanges
3.3.5.3. Bracing Effects on Lateral Stability The advantages provided by a double bracing _at the top and bottom flanges_ can be pointed out in Figs3.9_a and b_ in which applied load versus mid-span horizontal displacement curves are shown for T5 beams. Horizontal displacements at the top flange and bottom flange are shown in Fig. 3.9_a_ for beams with only top flange bracing and in Fig. 22_b_ for beams with bracing both at the top and bottom flanges. Focusing on beam T5-2000-BTS, as an example, Fig. 3.9_a_ shows that at the end of tensioning, the top flange reaches a positive horizontal displacement of +114 mm; after tensioning, bracing is placed at the top of the T52000-BTS beam, so this horizontal displacement value remains fixed. The bottom flange reaches a positive value at the end of tensioning of +27 mm, after tensioning no bracing is placed at the bottom flange for beam T5-2000-BTS, so the horizontal displacement reaches a negative value at failure of _252 mm. This means that large rotations of the section about the x axis also occur. For a prestressing force value of 3,000 kN _T5-3000-BTS_, Fig.3.9_a_ 21
shows that the horizontal displacement at failure of the bottom flanges reaches a negative value of _495 mm, which is unacceptable in practice. For beams with both top and bottom flange bracings, midspan horizontal displacements remain fixed in both flanges when vertical loads are applied, as shown in Fig. 3.9_b_. For this reason, these beams are able to carry higher values of load than beams with only top flange bracing.
Figure 3.9- Applied laod versus midspan horizontal displacement for beams with five deviators a) bracing at top flange b) bracing at top and bottom flange
3.3.6. Increase in Beam Capacity Provided by Prestressing

3.3.6.1. Effects With the aim of quantifying the benefits of tensioning, the increase in beam capacity, _ LOAD, of the prestressed beams with respect to non-prestressed beams is shown in Fig. 3.10, which considers beams with bracing at the top and bottom flanges. Note that the nonprestressed beams have two tendons _the same as those of prestressed beams_, which work under loads, even though they are non-prestressed.
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Figure 3.10-Increase in beam capacity versus prestressing force
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CHAPTER 4 Experimentation
4.1. Introduction
Having described the techniques for employing prestressed steel it would be useful to present the results of an experiment which started in April 99 under the guidance of the engineer, Mr Nunziata. The test consisted in observing and studying the behaviour of a 21.40-meter pre stressed steel girder. It goes without saying that the girder had first been studied theoretically to determine its dimensions, loads and other characteristics, after which it was realized. The girder is shown in figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1-Girder
4.2 Description
The girder has the following characteristics: It has a height of 80 cm., and is prestressed with ten strands, foreseeing a total capacity of 21.6 kN/m, (equal to 10,2 kN/m for dead loads and 11,4 kN/m for imposed loads) excluding its own weight which is equal to 1.72 kN/m. The beam was positioned in an outdoor courtyard and rested on two supports, one of which was a sliding bearing and the other a hinge (fig.4.2).
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Figure 4.2-Sliding bearing
The strand deflectors were positioned, which in turn, were anchored at the ends of the girder with blockings (fig.4.3). Finally, we proceeded to the distribution of the load with blocks of cement of 25 kN (fig.4.4) and to the tightening of each strand with a force of an intensity equal to 151 kN.
Figure 4.3-Anchoring the ends
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Figure 4.4-Distribution of load
After this, we passed to the measurement of the deflection in the middle span with a fiftieths calibre for the three fundamental phases (fig.4.5 & 4.6).
4.3 Results
The following results were obtained: a. In the at transfer phase, the deflection is equal to 54.54 mm. b. In the loading phase, taking into account the climatic conditions, the following values were recorded: -68.32 mm. immediately after loading phase; -76.04 mm. after three days; -76.00 mm. after one week; -77.80 mm. after twelve days; -78.70 mm. after thirteen days; -79.84 mm. after about a month; -79.64 mm. after over two months. c. In the unloading phase, we recorded an elastic return and the final deflection was 37.84 mm.
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Figure 4.5 Initial-Measurement of deflection at transfer phase
Figure 4.6-Final-Measurement of deflection at service phase
Through this experiment, even though it was carried out under difficult conditions, the results obtained were significant and underline two particular facts: a. The superiority in terms of resistance and deformation of structures in prestressed steel compared to analogous structural typologies; b. The economy and simplicity of execution of the proposed technology which can be realized with simple elements and is accessible to all.
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CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSIONS
The number of deviators and the prestressing force are investigated as critical parameters in the design of Prestressed steel beams of medium span. Indeed, a general outcome of this study is that, mainly due to mitigation of buckling and consequently. thanks to the higher value of prestressing force that can be applied, the vertical load capacity increases with the number of deviators. For practical solutions, it is not recommended to impose the shape of tendons by only two deviators. Indeed, for beams with two deviators, the lowest values of prestressing force can be applied and lowest values of vertical load capacity can be achieved. Furthermore, the deformed shape of a beam with two deviators is characterized at midspan by a decrease in the distance between the tendons and the beam axis as the load increases; this phenomenon causes a loss in tendon eccentricity and consequently a loss in vertical load capacity of the beam. For an assigned number of deviators, and for the same prestressing force value, a beam having bracing both at the top and bottom flanges performs better than a beam having only bracing at the top flange. The presented information in a very concise manner, it has illustrated some structures in prestressed steel and a technology which is very simple. This is in the hope that such a technique will become more widely used since prestressed steel is a material which can bring both economic benefit and technical benefit to the sphere of the construction industry.
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REFERENCES
1. A. Masullo, V. Nunziata, Prestressed steel structures: historical and technological analysis, Structure in acciaio precompresso, Nunziata, Vincenzo 1999. 2. B. Belletti and A. Gasperi, Behavior of Prestressed Steel Beams, J. Struct. Eng., ASCE September 2010 vol.136:1131-1139. 3. M. Raju Ponnada and R. Vipparthy, Improved Method of Estimating Deflection in Prestressed Steel I-Beams, Asian Journal Of Civil Engineering (BHRC) vol. 14, no. 5 (2013), Pages 765-772. 4. M.S.Troitsky (1990), Prestressed Steel Bridges Theory and Design, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. 5. Nunziata, V. _2004_, Strutture in acciaio precompresso, D. Flaccovio, ed., D. Flaccovio Publishers, Palermo, Italy (in Italian). 6. V. Nunziata, Prestressed Steel Structures Design: A New Frontier for Structural Engineering, Structure in acciaio precompresso, Nunziata, Vincenzo 1999.
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