CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION For the award of a higher national diploma (HND), students in their final year of study are required to present or produce a project work report to their various departments which will then be accessed and grades awarded for performance and quality of work. In the view of this, we choose a project work titled design of concrete structural elements from a two (2) storey classroom block Almost all tall rise buildings, storey buildings consist of reinforced concrete elements such as beams; roof, floor, main and secondary beams, slabs, stairs columns and foundations. These elements during their life span will be subjected to various kinds of loads which it will be require of them to transmit the loads successfully without any impair or failure of the element. Reinforced concrete design has different methods in which various concrete elements can be designed, example are the working stress method and the ultimate load method of design. But it is most recommended that limit state method of design which is in accordance with the British standard code 8110 must be used in reinforced concrete design and in fact, it is the most widely used. During the design of reinforced concrete elements, there are various serviceability requirements which must be satisfied and this could also determine whether the element or the building as a whole is safe, this serviceability includes deflection, cracking, fire resistance durability, shear and others. With the above statement and the requirements in reinforced concrete design, we will go on with the design work and make sure all requirements are satisfied and controlled where necessary.

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY Civil engineers design and construct major structures and facilities that are essential in our everyday lives. Civil engineering is perhaps the broadest of the engineering fields, for it deals

with the creation, improvement and protection of the communal environment providing facilities for living, industry and transportation including roads, bridges, canals, water supply systems, dams etc. The design and assessment of structures is the main activity of many civil engineers, the study of the structural behavior, analysis and design is therefore a principal party of most civil engineering works and is essential for professional accreditation. Many structural engineering works are of such an ordered reference standard or complexity that they require extensive management for their procurement, maintenance and later reuse for demolition.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Since buildings are subjected to various kinds of loads such as dead loads, live loads, wind loads, seismic loads and etc. the need of structural design is necessary in able to determine by calculation the sizes of structural components and members. This will enable the building to serve it intended purpose or function for which it was designed for.

1.2 AIMS OF THE STUDY To produce a structure which satisfies an appropriate safety and serviceability requirement, keep within the budget and pleasing the eye To develop understanding of the structural behavior Gain competence in the method of analysis and design. Understand the various procedures during the design

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY To complete our aims as stated above, this project will lay emphasis on the design of reinforced concrete structural elements from a two (2) storey classroom block proposed to be a civil engineering department. The design of the structural elements will include: the slab, the beam, the column, stair and foundation.

1.4 LIMITATIONS
Likewise every situation, there are some problems which hinder the progress of every work in almost all situations in this world. During the design work, few hindrances which were encountered are summarized below. Financial difficulties embraced us which did not permit us to have a well detailed and up to date architectural drawing for the design work. Combining class duties and the project work at the same time was very hectic and challenging, it made it difficult for us to go the extra mile in this project work. The library is not well equipped with the necessary handbooks about real life reinforced concrete design problems.

CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 INTRODUCTION This chapter presents an overview of previous work on related topics that provide the necessary background for the purpose of this research. The literature review concentrates on a range of reinforced concrete design topics which help in the overall design of concrete structural elements. These topics will include the aim or the necessity of reinforced concrete design, structural detailing, and the behavior of loads on structures and also about concrete elements such as beam, slab, column and foundation.

2.2 THE AIMS OF REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN This project is concerned with reinforced concrete and since structural engineering is dominated by design, it is appropriate to begin by stating the aims of structural design and briefly describe the process by which structural engineers seeks to achieve them. There are three main aims in structural design; firstly, the structure must be safe for society demands security in the structure it inhabits. Secondly, the structure must fulfill it intended purpose during its

intended life span. Thirdly, the structure must be economical with regards to frost cost and to maintenance cost: indeed, most design decisions are implicit or explicit; economic decisions. A structural project is initiated by the client, who states his requirements of the structure; his requirements are usually vague, because he is not aware of the possibilities and limitations of structural engineering. In fact, his most important requirements are not often explicit stated, for instance, he will assume that the structure will be safe and that it will remain serviceable during its intended life.

2.2.1 THE DESIGN PROCEDURE The process of structural design begins with the structural engineer appreciation of the clients requirements. After collecting and assimilating relevant facts, he develops concepts of general structural schemes, appraises them, and then, having considered the use of materials and methods, he makes the important decisions of choosing the final structural scheme (after consultation with the client if necessary). This is followed by a full structural analysis and
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detailed design which form the subject matter of this project. Having checked through such analysis and design, that the final structure is adequate under service conditions and during erection, the engineer then issues the specifications and detail drawings to the contractor. These documents are the engineers instructions, which will erect the structure under the engineers supervision.

2.3 CODE OF PRACTICE (BS8110) Codes of practice are intended as guides or references to the structural engineer and should to be as such; they should never be allowed to replace his conscience and competence. While the structural engineer will be striving to achieve good design and be creative, he must appreciate the dangers inherent in revolutionary concepts. Ample experience in the past and in recent times has shown that uncommon designs or unfamiliar constructional methods do increase the risk of failures. The Reinforced concrete design is based on the BS8110 code.

2.4 THE STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOUR OF CONCRETE ELEMENTS One should be aware of the implications of loads applied to structural building elements and understanding the terminology associated with the structure behavior of building and the elements within them. One should also appreciate the implications of the structural performance upon the selection of materials. Included in this section are: the nature of loads acting on buildings and the nature of building components

2.4.1 The nature of loads acting on buildings Vertically applied loads, such as the dead loading of the building structure and some live loadings act to give rise to a tendency for the structure to move in a downward direction that is to sink into the ground. The extent of any such movement depends upon the ability of the building to spread the building load over a sufficient area to ensure stability on ground of a given bearing
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capacity. The load bearing capacities of different soil types vary considerably and the function of the foundation to building is to ensure that the bearing capacity of the ground is not exceeded by the loading of the structure. In most instances, the bearing capacity of the ground normally expressed in KN/m2 is very much less than the pressure likely to be exerted by the building structure if placed directly onto the ground. The pressure is reduced by utilizing foundation to increase the interface area between the building and the ground, thus reducing the pressure applied to the ground. Heavy loadings on components may give rise to deflection resulting from the establishment of moments or in extreme cases puncturing of the component resulting from excessive shear at a specific point. When subjected to deflections, beam and floor sections are forced into compression at the upper regions and tensions at the lower regions. This may limit the design feasibility of some materials, such as concrete which performs well in compression but not in tension. Hence the use of composite units is common such as concrete reinforced in the tension zones with steel.

2.4.2 the nature of building components Reinforced concrete is one of the common materials used for the construction of supporting structures for multi-storey or large span industrial and commercial buildings Reinforced concrete combines the compressive strength of concrete and the tensile strength of steel to allow for efficient and cost effective frame design. When considering the structural behavior of building elements, the following must be noticed: The direction of the applied load is important which normally dictates the effect upon the building. Failure of building elements can occur in a variety of ways such as: Buckling of slender columns Bending of beams and slabs Shear at support points Crushing of localized areas

Individual structural elements can act together to create a stronger form Some deflection of elements is essential and acceptable, but an element is allowed to reach its elastic limit due to overloading, the structural element may f

2.4.3 STRUCTURAL DETAILING Simple and practical detailing should always be aimed for during design. Aesthetically, detailing should be presentable and must avoid clumsy joints. Special emphasis has to be put on seismic detailing in order to provide ductile behavior. Column beam junctions will need additional care to ensure flow of concrete between bars especially when ductile detailing has been done for joints are not shown fully in the drawings. Injections grouting, replacement or anticorrosive treatment to rebar, use of bonding aids, jacketing to structural members, patch repair, applying special casting/ treatment to protect structures against harmful exposures/environment, water proofing etc. are often adopted. Various materials are available and the engineers have to be careful to select the right one after detailed investigation and as per the requirement.

2.5 REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

2.5.1

SLABS

Slabs are plate elements forming floors and roofs in building which normally carry uniform distributed loads. Slabs maybe simply supported or continuous over one or more supports and are classified according to the method of supports as follows:

Spanning one way between beams or walls Spanning two ways between the support beams or walls Flat slabs carried on columns and edge beams or walls with no interior beams.

Slabs may be analyzed using the following methods The elastic analysis For the method of design coefficients use is made of the moment and she coefficient given in the code, which have been obtained from yield line analysis The yield line and Hillerborg strip methods are limit design or collapse loads method.

Simply supported slabs: these are slabs which rest on a bearing and for design purpose are not considered to be fixed to the support and are therefore, in theory, free to lift. In practice however they are restrained from unacceptable lifting by their own self weight plus any loadings. A simply supported slab spanning two ways will deflect about both axis under load and the corners will tend to lift and curl up from the supports causing tortional moments. When not provision has
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been made to prevent this lifting or resist the torsional then moment coefficients in BS8100 maybe be used.

Solid slabs spanning in one direction: these slabs are designed as if they consist of a series of beams of one meter breadth .The main steel is in the direction of the span and or distribution steel is required in the transverse direction. The main steel should form the outer layer of reinforcement to give it the maximum lever arm. The calculation for bending reinforcement follows a similar procedure to that used in beam design.

2.5.2 COLUMNS These are the vertical load bearing members of the structural frame which transmits the beam loads down to the foundation. They are usually constructed in storey heights and therefore the reinforcement must be lapped to provide structural continuity.

Braced and unbraced columns An essential step in the design of a column is to determine whether the proposed dimension and frame arrangement will make it short or a slender column. If the column is slender additional moments due to deflection must be added to the moments from the primary analysis. In general columns in buildings are short. Clause 3.8.1.3 of the code defines short columns as follows: For a braced structure, the column is considered as short if both the slenderness ratios lex/h and ley/b are less than 15. If either ratio is greater than 15, the column is considered slender. For an unbraced structure, the column is considered as short if both the slenderness ratios lex/h and ley/b are less than 10. If either ratio is greater than 10, the column is considered slender. Effective height of column The effective height of a column depends on The actual height between floor beams, base and floor beams or lateral supports The column section dimensions

The end conditions such as the stiffness of beams framing into the columns or whether the column to base connection is designed to resist moment Whether the column is braced or unbraced.

The effective height of a pin ended column is the actual height. The effective height of a general column is the height of an equivalent pined ended column of the same strength as the actual member. Theoretically the effective height is the distance between the points of inflexion along the member length

2.5.3BEAMS These are horizontal load bearing members which are classified as either main beams which transmit floor and secondary floor loads to the main beams. Concrete being a material which has little tensile strength needs to be reinforced to resist the induced tensile stresses which can be in the form of ordinary or diagonal tension (shear). Beams can sub divided into singly reinforced or doubly reinforced.

2.5.3.1 Singly reinforced beam Reinforced concrete beams are non homogeneous in nature and, therefore, an exact theory of bending cannot be developed.

2.5.3.2 BENDING THEORY Assumptions made in the design of reinforced concrete beam are given bellow: Cross section remains plane before and after bending, this means that the unit strain in a beam above and below the neutral axis is proportional to the distance from that axis. The concrete in tension cracked and all tensile stressed are taken by the reinforcement There is good bond between the reinforcement and the concrete, the strain in the reinforcement is given by the theoretical strain in the adjacent concrete. The stress in all the bars are equal, therefore the resultant tensile act at the centroid of the bar
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2.5.3.3 Doubly reinforced beams It had been since that the balanced section of a beam is the most economical section from the requirement of steel point of view. If the area of tensile steel reinforcement is doubled, the moment of resistance of the beam is increased only about 22%.if a beam is required to resist a moment much greater, there are two alternatives: one is to use an over reinforced section, which is always uneconomical since the increase in the moment of resistance is not in proportion to the increase in the area of tensile reinforcement since the concrete, having reached maximum allowable stress cannot take more additional load without adding compression steel. The second alternative is to provide reinforcement in the compression side of the beam and thus to increase the moment of resistance of the beam beyond the value for a singly reinforced balance section. Doubly reinforced sections are required when the applied moment is larger than the limiting moment. Sections reinforced with steel in compression and tension is known as doubly reinforced sections.

2.5.3.4 T AND L BEAMS In actual practices T-sections are common than rectangular sections since the part of reinforced concrete slab, monolithic with the beam, participates with the structural behavior of the beam. The slab, which forms the upper part of the T- beam, is stressed laterally in compression, but this does not reduce it capacity to care for longitudinal compression as a part of the beam

2.5.4 FOUNDATION Foundations transfer the load from the floor, beams, and columns to the ground. The type of ground and its strength must play an important role in the selection of the type of foundation. Thus prior to the engineer deciding on the foundation system, he must have results of site investigation. This may vary from a trial hole, in a small contract, to large number of deep boreholes in a large contract. This is the work of a specialist and is carried out in order to determine the nature of ground and the contours of its strata. No matter how extensive the

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ground exploration is, there will always be the unknown factor and so special care must be taken with foundations. Not only is the strength of the ground important, but the type of ground will also play a part in deciding the type of foundation. Example, it is difficult to drive piles through boulder clay, or keep bored pile casings dry where water table is high and which could attack the concrete.

2.5.4.1

TYPES OF FOUNDATION

2.5.4.2

STRIP FOUNDATION

Where the ground is good and the loads are light and continuous (e.g. A block/brick wall) strip foundation is all that may be required. If the load is less than or equal to the depth of foundation, then there is no transverse bending in the strip and if any reinforcement is required it will only be a light mesh to enable the foundation to span across local soft spots. It should be noted that at large door openings, there is possibilities in this foundation of a reversal of bending. Thus putting the top section into tension. Here again reinforcement may be required.

2.5.4.3

PAD FOUNDATION

If the load is not continuous and the structure is supported on columns, the most economical foundation is often an isolated pad foundation. However if the ground property to load relationship is such that the area is covered by the pad is more than half the total area, then a strip foundation design as a continuous beam may be the answer, but if this is unsatisfactory, a raft foundation may provide the answer.

2.5.4.4

RAFT FOUNDATION

A raft can provide the answer where pads become so large that they are almost touching. If the ground is so poor that the raft could not spread the load sufficiently, we can consider buoyant raft. This is a cellular raft, which in itself is lighter than the soil removed. This gives the supporting strata a relief of load which can thus be available to support the load from the superstructure.
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2.5.4.5

PILED FOUNDATION

If there is a good load bearing strata at a reasonable depth, piled foundation then provide a satisfactory solution. These are series of columns constructed or inserted into the ground to transmit the loads of a structure to a lower level of subsoil. Piled foundations can be used when suitable foundation conditions are not present at or near ground level making the use of deep traditional foundation uneconomic.

2.5.5

STAIR CASE

Stairs consist of a succession of steps and landing that make it possible to pass on foot to other levels .whereas staircase or stair way is often applied to the complete system of treads, risers, strings, landings, balustrades and other component parts in one or more successive flights of stairs. The space occupied by a stair case is termed as stairwell. Stairs maybe divided into two categories, depending upon the direction in which the stair slab spans.

Stair slab spanning horizontal: in this category, the slab is supported on each side by side wall or stringer beam on one side and beam on the other side. Sometimes as in the case of straight flight stair, the slab may also be supported on both the sides by the two side walls. Stair slab spanning longitudinally: in this category, the slab is supported at bottom and top of the flight and remain unsupported on the sides. Each flight of stairs is continuous, supported on beams at top and bottom or on landings.

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CHAPTER THREE 3.0METHODOLOGY 3.1INTRODUCTION The design of reinforced concrete structures is achievable with different kinds of methods and code of practices. The design work was done using the limit state design concept according to BS8110. Below is the other method of design description and concise description of the method used.

3.2DESCRIPTION OF DESIGN METHODS 3.2.1WORKING STRESS METHOD In this method, the structures are analyzed by the classical elastic theory. The stresses in the members are considered for normal working loading condition, and no attention is given to the condition that arises at the time of structural collapse. The working loads are fixed by limiting the stresses in concrete and steel to a fraction of the stresses at which the material fails when tested as cubes and cylinders for concrete and bars in steel.

3.2.2ULTIMATE LOAD METHOD OF DESIGN An alternative method of design that was developed was the ultimate load method or the load factor method, in which the ultimate load is some known multiple of the maximum working load which the structure is likely to carry. The ration of the collapse load to the working load is known as the load factor. The load factor gives the exact margin of safety against collapse

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3.2.3LIMIT STATE METHOD DESIGN The design of an engineering structure must ensure that (1) under the worst loadings, the structure is safe, and (2) during normal working conditions the deformation of the members does not detract from the appearance, durability or performance of the structure. The Limit State method involves applying partial factors of safety, both to the loads and to the material strengths. The magnitude of the factors may be varied so that they may be used either with the plastic conditions in the ultimate state or with the more elastic stress range in the working loads. The two principal type s of limit state are the ultimate limit state and the serviceability limit state. This is the method used in the design of the various reinforced structural elements of the design work.

Ultimate Limit State (ULS) This requires that the structure must be able to withstand, with an adequate factor of safety against collapse, the loads for which it is designed. The possibility of buckling or overturning must also be taken into account, as must the possibility of accidental damage as caused, for example, by an internal explosion.

Serviceability Limit State (SLS) This requires that the structural elements do not exhibit any preliminary signs of failure. Generally, the most important serviceability limit states are: Deflection (appearance or efficiency of any part of the structure must not be adversely affected by deflections), Cracking (local damage due to cracking and spalling must not affect the appearance, efficiency or durability of the structure) and Durability (in terms of the proposed life of the structure and its conditions of exposure). Other Limit States that may be reached include: Excessive Vibration, Fatigue & Fire Resistance

3.3CHARACTERISTIC LOADS Since it is not yet possible to express loads in statistical terms, the following characteristic loads are used in the design; Dead loads (GK) - the weight of the structure complete, with finishes, partitions etc.
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Imposed loads (QK) - the weight due to furniture, occupants etc.

3.3.1DESIGN LOADS The design load is the characteristic loads times the partial safety factor. The partial safety factor varies according to the circumstances under which the loads are considered. Below is the mathematical representation of the design load used in this design work.

n=1.4 GK+1.6 QK

3.3.2CHARACTERISTIC STRENGTH OF MATERIALS The characteristic strength of materials used in the design work is stated below High yield steel with fy equal to 460N/mm3 Concrete grade C30 with a characteristic strength of 30N/m2

3.4 SUMMARY OF DESIGN PROCEDURES 3.4.1SLAB The slab will be determined whether it is a one way or two way. We will then decide on the material stresses to be used, i.e. fy and fcu. The overall thickness h of the slab will be assumed. Estimate the characteristic loads Gk and Qk per unit area. Calculate the design load using this equation: n=1.4 Gk +1.6 Qk Determine the ultimate bending moments in the short and long spans from the following equations:
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Short span Msx =sxnlx Long span Mxy=synlx Choose the appropriate concrete cover and determine d. The cover will be Check whether it is appropriate for fire resistance Determine the ultimate moment of resistance based on the concrete section for the short span. Check the span/depth ratio (deflection): Calculate M/bd2 and obtain a modification factor from the table 3.10 of the code. Select the basic ratio, then calculate the allowable ratio from basic ratiomodification factor, then calculate the actual ratio which is equal to effective span/effective depth. Actual ratio should be less then allowable ratio The reinforcement areas will be calculated using the design formula stated below. AS=Msx/ (0.95fy z) for the short span AS=Msy/ (0.95fy z) for the long span Select the reinforcement required Check for shear will be done in accordance with the equation 21 of BS8110. v=V/bd and in not case will v exceeds 0.8fcu or 5N/mm2 which ever is lesser. Check the minimum area of reinforcement in either direction should not be less than the following: 0.0013bh for high yield steel; 0.0024bh for mild steel, where b =1000mm and h= overall depth of slab (mm 3.4.2BEAM Decide on the material stresses to be used, that is, the characteristic strength of concrete fcu and the characteristic strength of steel fy. Assume a beam size, could be d=the effective span/12 and breath=d/2
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Estimate the characteristic loads Gk and Qk per unit length of beam. Calculate the design loads 1.4 Gk +1.6 Qk per unit length of beam The ultimate bending moment M will be determine from the bending moment diagram. Choose the appropriate concrete cover and determine the overall depth of beam Check the cover is appropriate for fire resistance if necessary. Determine the ultimate resistant moment based on the concrete section (this must be equal to or greater than the ultimate bending moment. Otherwise a larger section or compression reinforcement must be considered). It was determined using Microsoft excel program developed by Techno consult and university of Portsmouth in UK Check the span/depth ratio: M/bd2 will be calculated and the modification factor will be obtain a from table 3.10 of the BS8110 .Select the basic ratio from table 3.9, then calculate the allowable ratio from: basic ratiomodification factor, then calculate the actual ration which is equal to effective span/effective depth. Actual ratio should be less then allowable ratio Calculate the reinforce area by either: Use of the design charts: in which case calculate M/bd2 and determine 100As/bd from appropriate design chart in BS8100.Part 3 or Used the design formula: in which calculate K=M/fcubd2 will be used to determine if the section is singly reinforce or double reinforced. Therefore, when: M/fcubd2 = K >0.156 Compression reinforcement is required to supplement the moment of resistance of the concrete. The lever arm will be Calculated by the equation: Z= (0.5+0.25-k/0.9)d
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Calculate the reinforcement area As=M/0.95fyz for singly reinforced section Tension reinforcement area will calculated with the equation below As=M-0.156fcu bd2/0.95fy (d-d) Compression reinforcement area is calculated with the equation below As=0.156 fcubd2/0.95 fyz + As Check the minimum reinforcement required Calculating the shear reinforcement: The actual shear stress v will be determine from V/bd as in BS8110 cl.3.4.5.2 100As/bd will be determined and vc will be selected from a table 3.8 of the code. If vc+0.4<v, shear reinforcement will be provided in accordance with table 3.7 of BS 8110, that is, and a bar size will be determined and spacing for nominal links.

3.4.3COLUMN DESIGN The column was considered as braced since it is supported by walls or other form of bracing which is in accordance to BS8110 part 3. Clause 3.8.1.5 The column was determined to be either a short or slender as stated in BS8110 .part 3, clause 3.8.1.3 by the following formulae. Lex/h and ley/b Where lex is the effective height in respect of the major axis ley is the effective height in respect of the minor axis h is depth of cross section b is width of column
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The effective height le of the column was determined by the equation le=lo Where lo is the clear height of the column between end restraints are values obtain from table 3.19 of BS8110 When both ratios are less than 15 (braced) and 10(unbraced), it is considered as short. It should otherwise be considered as slender. The end conditions which are selected to determine the value of is given in clause 3.8.1.6.2 of BS8110. If the column is axially loaded, the column design for compressive ULS is done by using BS8110 equation 38. N=0.4fcuAc+0.75Ascfy When eccentricity is allowed due to construction tolerance, only a column that cannot be subjected to significant moments for pure axial load, the ultimate capacity of the column is given in BS8110 clause 3.8.3.1 as: Nuz=0.45fcuAc+0.87Ascfy If the column supports an approximately symmetrical arrangement of beams, the column is design for compressive ULS using BS8110 equation 39. N=0.35fcuAc+0.67Ascfy If the column is subjected to uniaxial or biaxial bending design for combined ULS of compression and bending by reference to BS8110 part 3 design charts. There will be a check for shear ULS for columns subjected to vertical loading and bending. No check will be required if the column is axially loaded.

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The reinforcement area could also be determined by using the design chart, in which case, the following must be calculated: N/bh and M/bh2 Then determine 100Asc/bh from the design chart in BS8100: Part 3 and as provided in appendix B in this design work. Minimum reinforcement will be check by; 100Asc/bh0.4 Maximum reinforcement will be check by: 6%bh Minimum size of links which will be provided will be of the biggest longitudinal bar. Maximum spacing between links which will be provided will be 12 times the size of smallest longitudinal bar.

3.4.4FOUNDATION DESIGN The plan size of the footing was determined by using the permissible bearing pressure and the critical loading arrangements for the serviceability limit state. The bearing value was chosen from a soil type of medium sand or medium dense sand and gravel of bearing value between 200-600 kN/m2. The equation below was used: A=N/bearing pressure value The bearing pressure associated with the critical loading arrangement at the ultimate limit state was then determined using the formula below: Bearing pressure=ultimate load (N)/area of base (A) The thickness h of the pad base will be assumed which will lead to the determination of the effective depth d.

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A check will be carried out to make sure that the shear stress at the column face is less than 0.8fcu or 5N/mm2. Shear stress vc= N/ (column perimeterd) Punching shear will be calculated to check the thickness, assuming a probable value for the ultimate shear stress vc from table of code. The formulae below were used; Critical perimeter=column perimeter+12d Area within perimeter= (b+3d) 2 Punching shear V=earth pressure (l2-area within perimeter) Punching shear stress =V/ (perimeter d) Reinforcement will be calculated to resist bending using the following equation. K=M/fcubd2 Z= (0.5+0.25-k/0.9)d As=M/0.95fyz A final check of the punching shear will be done again having established vc precisely and a check on the shear stress at the critical section must be carried out too.

3.4.5DESIGN OF STAIR CASE Dimensions: Rise According to BS5395 part 1, the rise should not be less than 100mm and not greater than 220mm for any category of stairs. Based on this, 150mm was chosen as the rise for the steps in the design.

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Going Again according to BS5395 part 1, it recommends that going should not be less than 225mm and not greater than 350mm for any category of stair. Based on this, 300mm was chosen as the going for steps in the design work. Loading The estimated dead load of the stair will consist of the dead weight of the waist slab which will be calculated at right angle to the slope and the weight of the steps which will be calculated by treating the steps to be equivalent horizontal slab of thickness equal to half the rise. Reinforcement area Reinforced area of the stair will be determined or calculated using the formulae as used in beams and slabs. Serviceability checks Deflection and shear will be determined and controlled as stated in the code and the same as used in beams and slabs.

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