Math 104

theorems and concepts

for midterm 2 prep

Open A subset U of a metric space (X, d) is open in X if for any x U r > 0 such that Br (x) U. Closed A subset A X is closed in X if whenever (an ) is a sequence of points in A converging to some a X, then a A. Little Side Fact If a subset U of a metric space (X, d) is open in X and S X, then U S is open in S . (mentioned in lecture 10/12) Collections of Open Sets The union of any collection of open sets in X is open in X ; the intersection of nitely many open sets in X is open in X . Collections of Closed Sets The intersection of any collection of closed sets in X is closed in x; the union of nitely many closed sets in X is closed in X . (proof : lecture 9/21) Let S be a subset of a metric space X . Interior A point s S is said to be an interior point of S if there exists r > 0 such that Br (s) S. The set of all interior points of S is called the interior of S in X and is denoted by intS . It is always true that intS S. If additionally S intS (which means S = intS ), then S is open. Closure A point x X is said to be a limit point of S if there exists a sequence (xn ) S converging to x. The set of all limit points of S is called the closure of S in X and is denoted S . It is always true that S S. If additionally S S (which means S = S ), then S is closed. Dense S is dense in X : 1) if its closure in X is all of X , 2) i every nonempty open set in X contains an element of S . Boundary A point x X is a boundary point of S if for any r > 0, the ball Br (p) of radius r around p contains an element of S and an element of X \S . The set of all boundary points of S is called the boundary of S and is denoted by S .

Fun Boundary/Interior/Closure Relations 1) S is open in X i S S = . 2) S is closed in X i S S. 3) For any S, S S , in other words any boundary point of S is also a limit point of S .(proof: Met Notes pg. 20 Proposition 13) 4) intS is open in X (proof: Met Notes pg. 18, Proposition 8) and S is closed in X (Homework 5 problem 3). 5) intS is the union of all open subsets of X contained in S , and S is the intersection of all closed subsets of X containing S . 6) S = S X \S 7) S = intS S Theorem 10.2, Ross All bounded monotone sequences converge. Theorem 11.3, Ross Every sequence (sn ) has a monotonic subsequence. (proof : pg. 67(Ross)) Theorem 11.5 (Bolzano - Weierstrass), Ross Every bounded sequence has a convergent subsequence. (proof : pg. 69(Ross) and lecture 10/1) Connectedness A metric space X is disconnected if there exists nonempty, disjoint open subsets U, V X such that X = U V. We say that X is connected if it is not disconnected. Also, if X is connected, if we break it up into two disjoint open subsets U and V , then one of them is empty. (lecture 10/7) Connected Corollary (a, b) is connected. (proof : Met Notes pg. 21 and lecture 10/7) (Sequentially) Compact Let K (X, d). We say K is compact if every sequence in K has a convergent subsequence in K . Compact Corollary/ Extras [a, b] is compact. (proof : lecture 10/1, Met Notes pg. 23). Using the same proof, any closed and bounded subset of R is compact. Any nite subset {x1 , . . . , xn } of a metric space X is compact. (proof : Met Notes pg. 22, ex. 28). Heine - Borel Theorem A subset of Rn is compact i it is closed and bounded. Basically we are saying that the compact subsets of Rn are the closed and bounded subsets (note: Rn itself is not compact). Denition of Open Cover Let X be a metric space and S X a subspace. An open cover of S is a collection {U } of open subsets of X such that S is contained in their unionmeaning that any element of S is in at least one of the U . A subcover of an open cover {U } is an open cover {V } of S so that each V occurs in the collection {U }. An open cover is nite if it contains nitely many sets.

(Covering) Compact A subset K of a metric space (X, d) is said to be compact if every open cover of K has a nite subcover. Compact Subsets Proposition A compact subset K of a metric space X is closed and bounded in X . (2 DIFFERENT proofs : Met Notes pg. 23 Prop. 14 (sequential proof) and Met Notes pg. 25 Prop. 15 (covering proof)) Continuity Denition 1: A function f : M N is continuous at p M if whenever (pn ) p in M, f (pn ) f (p) in N . Denition 2: A function f : M N is continuous at p M i >, > 0 such that dN (f (q ), f (p)) < whenever dM (q, p) <

Uniform Continuity A function f : M N is uniformly continuous if > 0, > 0 such that dN (f (q ), f (p)) < whenever dM (q, p) < Note: it is the same as continuous, except now p isnt xed!! (Neither is q , but its not xed in regular continuity either) Theorem A function f : M N is uniformly continuous i whenever dM (pn , qn ) 0, then dN (f (pn ), f (qn )) 0. (as stated in lecture 10/17). If f is uniformly continuous on a set S and (sn ) is a Cauchy sequence in S , then (f (sn )) is a Cauchy sequence. (Ross pg. 138, Thm. 19.4 (proof following)) Theorem If f : M N is continuous and M is compact, then f is uniformly continuous. (as stated in lecture 10/17, along with sketches of 2 dierent proofs). If f is continuous on a closed interval [a, b], then f is uniformly continuous on [a, b] (Ross pg. 136, Thm. 19.2. Same thing as said in class, except here M = [a, b] (which is compact) and N = R.) Two Important Corollaries: Intermediate Value Theorem Any continuous function f : M R where M is connected has the intermediate value property: if p, q M and f (p) < f (q ), then for any z R such that f (p) < z < f (q ), x M such that f (x) = z. (proof : Met Notes pg. 30, pg.127 (Ross, Thm. 18.2), lecture 10/12) Extreme Value Theorem Any continuous function f : M R with compact domain M achieves a maximum and a minimum. (In particular, real-valued continuous functions on compact domains are always bounded.) (proof: Met notes pg. 31, pg. 126 (Ross, Thm. 18.1), lecture 10/14)

Other Continuity Theorems: Theorem 12 (Metric Notes) A function f : M N is continuous i f 1 (U ) is open in M for any open subset U of N . Theorem 13 (Metric Notes) The image of a connected space under a continuous function is connected, i.e. if f : M N is continuous and M connected, then f (S ) is connected. (proof: Met Notes pg. 30) Theorem 14 (Metric Notes) The image of a compact space under a continuous function is compact; i.e. if f : M N is continuous and M is compact, then f (M ) is compact. (proofs: Met Notes pg. 30 (proof 1: sequential denition of compactness) and 31 (proof 2: covering denition of compactness)) Theorem 15 (Metric Notes) A continuous function on a compact metric space is uniformly continuous. Limits

Denition of Limit Let f : (a, b) R be a function and x x0 (a, b). We say L is the limit of f as x approaches x0 if > 0, > 0 such that if 0 < |x x0 | < then |f (x) L| < . Notation for limit:
xx0

lim f (x) = L

limits are unique (can use 2 - trick to show this) lim f (x) = f (x0 ) i f is continuous at x0
xx0

Squeeze Theorem If f (x) g (x) h(x) x (a, b) and lim f (x) = L = lim h(x), then lim g (x) = L.
xx0 xx0 xx0

(proof: lecture 10/19) Pointwise Convergence We say (fn ) converges pointwise to f : [a, b] R if x [a, b], (fn (x)) f (x). We call f the pointwise limit of (fn ). Uniform Convergence We say (fn ) converges uniformly to f if > 0 N N such that |fn (x) f (x)| < and x. We call f the uniform limit of (fn ).

for n N

Boundedness and Uniform Convergence If (fn ) are bounded and (fn ) f uniformly, then f is bounded. (prove using reverse triangle inequality and denition of convergence... mentioned lecture 10/26)

Series A series

an converges if the sequence of partial sums sn = a1 + a2 + + an converges.

n=1

A series an converges absolutely if this conditional convergence. If

|an | converges. If

an converges but

|an | doesnt, call

an is absolutely convergent, rearrangements dont aect the convergence.

Theorem Suppose an is conditionally convergent. Then given any x R, a rearrangement of converging to x.

an

Cauchy Criterion for Convergence an satises the Cauchy criterion if its sequence of partial sums (sn ) is a Cauchy sequence, in
n

other words, for each > 0, N N such that n m > N implies

k=m

ak < . A series converges

i it satises the Cauchy criterion. Theorem If a series

an converges, then lim an = 0. (proof: pg. 90 (Ross), Corollary 14.5)

Series of Functions A series of functions fn converges (pointwise or uniformly ) if the sequence of partial sums gk = f1 + f2 + + fk converges (pointwise or uniformly ) Types of Series Geometric: of the form
n

n n=0 ar .

For r = 1, given by

ark = a
k=0

1 rn+1 1 if |a| < 1, diverges else 1r 1a

( pg. 91 (Ross))

Power: of functions of the form

n=0

an (x x0 )n

xn on R doesnt converge on R, but converges pointwise (NOT uniformly!) on (-1, 1) to

1 1x .