Lab 9: Filters and Transfer Functions

LAB EXPERIMENTS USING NI ELVIS II AND NI MULTISIM

Alexander Ganago Jason Lee Sleight
University of Michigan Ann Arbor

Lab 9 Filters and Transfer Functions

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Lab 9: Filters and Transfer Functions

Goals for Lab 9

Learn about: The transfer function of a circuit Four types of filtersLP, HP, BP, and BR Pass-band of a filter, the half-power frequency The slope of filters transfer function magnitudes on a log-log plot, in dB/dec Passive and active filters First-order and second-order filters

In the pre-lab: Simulate the transfer functions of several filters (LP, HP, BP, and BR) Calculate the theoretical cutoff frequencies of several filters Discuss agreement/disagreement of theoretical calculations with simulations Find whether the slopes of the transfer function magnitude plots agree with theory

In the lab: Build passive filter circuitsfirst-order LP and HP, second-order LP, BP, BR Build active filter circuitsLP, based on op amp Study the performance of your circuits

In the post-lab: Compare the parameters of your circuits measured in the lab with your pre-lab simulations and calculations Discuss the agreement/disagreement between experiments and theory Discuss the possible causes of disagreement between your data and theory

Optional goals: Study the second-order HP passive filter Explore the effects of the resistance in a series RLC circuit on its parameters as a BR filter Compare the performance of a single-stage active filter based on op amp with that of two- and three-stage filters

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Lab 9: Filters and Transfer Functions

Introduction
Filters are circuits that pass or amplify signals at certain frequencies and block or suppress signals at other frequencies. Essential for their performance are circuit elements whose impedances are frequency-dependentcapacitors and inductors, as well as effective or parasitic capacitances and inductances. Due to the parasitic capacitances and inductances, any circuit can act as a filter, especially at high frequencies. In order to study a circuit as a filter, we must consider its input and output voltages and currents, as shown in Figure 9-1.

Figure 9-1. Input (1) and output (2) currents and voltages of a circuit. Here comes an important novelty: when we look at a circuit as a filter, most often, we are interested not in a particular value of the output voltage or current but in the ratio of the output to the input. This ratio has a special name of transfer function. Combining two inputs (voltage and current) and two outputs (voltage and current), we can consider 4 types of transfer functionsvoltage gain, current gain, transfer impedance, and transfer admittance [see your textbook for more detail]. Here we focus on the voltage gain:

H ( ) =

VOUT ( ) VIN ( )

Note that the voltage gain is defined for sinusoidal signals; in a linear circuit, a sinusoidal input produces a sinusoidal output at the same frequency, but (in general) with a different

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Lab 9: Filters and Transfer Functions amplitude and phase. In order to keep track of both the amplitude and phase angle, we use phasors; thus, at each frequency, the transfer function is a complex number. The transfer function magnitude
H ( ) = VOUT ( ) VIN ( )

determines the ratio of amplitudes and is used to describe the four types of filters, as shown in Figures 9-2 through 9-5: Low-Pass (LP), High-Pass (HP), Band-Pass (BP), and BR (BR). In this lab, you will study circuits that serve as examples of these 4 types of filters.

Figure 9-2. Transfer function magnitude of a Low-Pass (LP) filter.

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Lab 9: Filters and Transfer Functions

Figure 9-3. Transfer function magnitude of a High-Pass (HP) filter.

Figure 9-4. Transfer function magnitude of a Band-Pass (BP) filter.

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Lab 9: Filters and Transfer Functions

Figure 9-5. Transfer function magnitude of a BR (BR) filter. Of course, we need to determine what frequencies each filter passes and which frequencies it blocks. By conventional definition, the pass-band of a filter is the frequency range, where the power of the output signal exceeds 50% of the maximal output power. With a very good accuracy, the 50% power corresponds to the drop of the transfer function magnitude by 3 dB from the maximum. The half-power frequency is often called the cutoff, or corner frequency and denoted C (see Figures 9-2 to 9-5). Refer to your textbook for discussion and calculations. Frequencies outside the pass-band are called the stop-band (see Figures 9-2 to 9-5). The simplest filter circuit is a voltage divider built of two circuit elements with impedances Z1 and Z 2 as shown in Figure 9-6.

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Lab 9: Filters and Transfer Functions

Figure 9-6. A simple filter built as a voltage divider of two circuit elements. The transfer function of the filter shown in Figure 9-6 equals:
H( ) = Z2 Z1 + Z2

In this lab, you will use a resistor and a capacitor; depending on which connections you choose for the input and the output, you will build an LP filter (Figure 9-7) and an HP (Figure 9-8).

Figure 9-7. A first-order LP RC filter.

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Lab 9: Filters and Transfer Functions The transfer function of the filter shown in Figure 9-7 is easy to calculate with phasors:
1 H ( ) = 1 1 j C = = 1 1 + j RC R+ 1 + j jC C

Here, is the frequency of the sinusoidal signal (which you can vary on your function generator) and

C =

1 RC

is the characteristic frequency of the circuit (which you can vary by choosing another resistor or capacitor). The term first-order filter comes from the fact that, in the equation above, the terms with frequencies are linear (not quadratic). The magnitude of this transfer function is:

H ( ) =

1 1 + j C

1 1+ C
2

At very low frequencies << C this transfer function magnitude is constant and equal to 1. At = C we obtain: H ( = C ) = 1 1+ C
2

1 1 + (1)
2

1 2

The output power is proportional to H ( ) (assuming constant load resistance), thus at

2

= C the output power reaches exactly 50%; in other words, = C is the cutoff
frequency of this filter. At very high frequencies >> C this transfer function magnitude is approximately

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Lab 9: Filters and Transfer Functions H ( >> C ) = 1 1+ C

2

In other words, it is inversely proportional to the signal frequency. For example, if the signal frequency increases by a factor of 10 or by one decade (see below), the transfer function magnitude drops by a factor of 10. Recall that decibels (dB) are used as a logarithmic measure of the transfer function magnitude:

H ( ) dB = 20 log10 H ( )
The slope of the transfer function magnitude, such as observed at high frequencies for an LP filter, is often expressed in decibels per decade or dB/dec, where a decade is any interval of frequencies between 1 and 2 such that 2 = 10 , for example, from 10 Hz 1 to 100 Hz, or from 42 MHz to 420 MHz. On a plot that has a logarithmic scale of frequencies and shows the transfer function magnitude in decibels, such decrease corresponds to a straight line with the slope of 20 dB/dec for the first-order LP filter (Figure 9-2). Using the same resistor and capacitor, you can change their connections to the input and output signals and obtain a HP filter, as shown in Figure 9-8.

Figure 9-8. A first-order HP filter.

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Lab 9: Filters and Transfer Functions The filter in Figure 9-8 has the same cutoff frequency C = sketched in Figure 9-3. At high frequencies >> C , its transfer function magnitude is constant, and at low frequencies << C it has a slope of +20 dB/dec. Slightly more complicated voltage dividers are shown in Figures 9-9 and 9-10.
1 ; its transfer function is RC

Figure 9-9. A simple filter built as a voltage divider of three circuit elements.

Figure 9-10. Another simple filter built as a voltage divider of three circuit elements

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Lab 9: Filters and Transfer Functions A series RLC circuit can be used to obtain all 4 types of second-order filters, as shown in Figures 9-11 through 9-14.

Figure 9-11. A second-order LP filter.

Figure 9-12. A second-order HP filter.

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Lab 9: Filters and Transfer Functions

Figure 9-13. A second-order BP filter.

Figure 9-14. A second-order BR filter. Algebraic expressions for the transfer functions of the filters shown in Figures 9-11 to 92 14 contain quadratic, or second-order terms 2 , C , etc., therefore such filters are called second-order. See the calculations and discussions in your textbook. Here we note that, the transfer function magnitude of a second-order LP filter (see Figure 9-11), is expected to have the slope of 40 dB/dec, because its transfer function magnitude drops by a factor of 100 over each decade at high frequencies >> C .

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Lab 9: Filters and Transfer Functions We also note that the minimal transfer function magnitude of the second-order BR filter (Figure 9-14) theoretically reaches zero, or (negative infinity) on the dB scale, at the 1 but in practice it does not happen because of the parasitic resonant frequency 0 = LC resistance of the inductor and other imperfections of the circuit. Therefore, in your prelab simulations you can obtain very low magnitudes of the transfer function for this BR filter (the exact value depends on the frequencies, at which the software calculates H ( ) , which depends on the number of points per decade, and so on) but in the lab you will probably observe a much shallower notch in the transfer function magnitude plot. If losses in the second-order circuit are not high, both the LP and HP transfer function 1 as shown in Figures 9-15 and magnitude plots reveal the resonant peaks near 0 = LC 9-16.

Figure 9-15. The transfer function magnitude plot for a second-order LP filter.

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Lab 9: Filters and Transfer Functions

Figure 9-16. The transfer function magnitude plot for a second-order HP filter. The frequency, at which the transfer function magnitude is maximal, is usually close to 1 ; however, in the case of a weak resonance (broad the resonant frequency 0 = LC peak), the maximum on the curve is shifted toward lower frequencies for LP filters and toward high frequencies for HP filters. The filters discussed above are called passive, because they do not contain sources of power. Active filters include, for example, op amps, which require power supplies. Figure 9-17 shows an active filter based on an inverting amplifier.

Figure 9-17. An inverting amplifier can act as an active filter.

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Lab 9: Filters and Transfer Functions

The transfer function of this active filter equals:

H ( ) = Z2 Z1

The negative sign is important when you calculate and measure the phase shift between the input and the output signals. In this lab, you will build a first-order LP filter based on an inverting amplifier; its diagram is shown in Figure 9-18.

Figure 9-18. An active first-order LP filter based on an inverting amplifier. The output of this filter can be used as an input for another filter thus several filters can be used as stages of a larger filter circuit. For example, Figure 9-19 shows a filter of two identical stages, and Figure 9-20 shows a filter of three identical stages. In this lab, you will build and study active circuits of one stage (Figure 9-18), and you will have an option to explore for extra credit an active circuit of two and three identical stages (see Figures 9-19 and 9-20).

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Lab 9: Filters and Transfer Functions

Figure 9-19. An active LP filter built of 2 identical stages (for extra credit exploration).

Figure 9-20. An active LP filter built of 3 identical stages (for extra credit exploration).

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Lab 9: Filters and Transfer Functions

Pre-Lab: 1. First-Order Filters

Part 1.1. First-Order Low-Pass Filter
Use Multisim to simulate the following circuit:

Use R = 10 C = 470 F Use the Bode Plotter tool to create a frequency analysis from 11,000 Hz.

A. Using the given circuit parameters, calculate the theoretical cutoff frequency of the
filter.

B. Use the cursors on the Bode Plotter to measure and record the cutoff frequency,
f CUTOFF,1 , of the filter. Discuss its agreement/disagreement with the theoretical cutoff frequency from Part 1.1.A.
B B

C. Create a printout of the simulation results (Pre-Lab Printout #1). D. On the printout, show a linear approximation to the transfer function (constant at low
frequency and with the slope of 20 dB/dec at high frequency). Determine whether the crossing point of the two linear functions matches the cutoff frequency. Briefly discuss whether the 20 dB/dec linear approximation matches the actual transfer function.

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Lab 9: Filters and Transfer Functions

Part 1.2. First-Order High-Pass Filter

Use Multisim to simulate the following circuit:

Use R = 10 C = 470 F Use the Bode Plotter tool to create a frequency analysis from 11,000 Hz.

E. Using the given circuit parameters, calculate the theoretical cutoff frequency of the
filter.

F. Use the cursors on the Bode Plotter to measure and record the cutoff frequency,
f CUTOFF,2 , of the filter. Discuss its agreement/disagreement with the theoretical cutoff frequency from Part 1.2.A.
B B

G. Create a printout of the simulation results (Pre-Lab Printout #2). H. On the printout, show the linear approximation to the transfer function (with the slope
of +20 dB/dec at low frequency and a constant at high frequency). Determine whether the crossing point of the two linear functions matches the cutoff frequency. Briefly discuss whether the +20 dB/dec linear approximation matches the actual transfer function.

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Lab 9: Filters and Transfer Functions

2. Second-Order Filters
Part 2.1. Second-Order Low-Pass Filter
Use Multisim to simulate the following circuit:

Use R = 10 C = 4.7 F L = 10 mH Use the Bode Plotter tool to create a frequency analysis from 1010,000 Hz.

A. Using the given circuit parameters, calculate the theoretical maximal gain frequency of
the filter.

B. Use the cursors on the Bode Plotter to measure and record the maximal gain frequency,
f MAX,1 , of the filter. Discuss its agreement/disagreement with the theoretical maximal gain frequency from Part 2.1.A.
B B

C. Create a printout of the simulation results (Pre-Lab Printout #3). D. On the printout, show the linear approximation to the transfer function (constant at low
frequency and with the slope of 40 dB/dec at high frequency). Determine whether the crossing point of the two linear functions matches the maximal gain frequency. Briefly discuss whether the 40 dB/dec linear approximation matches the actual transfer function.

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Lab 9: Filters and Transfer Functions

Part 2.2. Second-Order High-Pass Filter

Use Multisim to simulate the following circuit:

Use R = 10 C = 4.7 F L = 10 mH Use the Bode Plotter tool to create a frequency analysis from 1010,000 Hz.

E. Using the given circuit parameters, calculate the theoretical maximal gain frequency of
the filter.

F. Use the cursors on the Bode Plotter to measure and record the maximal gain frequency,
f MAX,2 , of the filter. Discuss its agreement/disagreement with the theoretical maximal frequency from Part 2.2.A.
B B

G. Create a printout of the simulation results (Pre-Lab Printout #4). H. On the printout, show the linear approximation to the transfer function (with the slope
of +40 dB/dec at low frequency and constant at high frequency). Determine whether the crossing point of the two linear functions matches the maximal gain frequency. Briefly discuss whether the +40 dB/dec approximation matches the actual transfer function.

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Lab 9: Filters and Transfer Functions

Part 2.3. Second-Order Band-Pass Filter

Use Multisim to simulate the following circuit:

Use R = 100 C = 4.7 F L = 10 mH Use the Bode Plotter tool to create a frequency analysis from 1010,000 Hz.

I. Using the given circuit parameters, calculate the theoretical frequency of the maximal
gain of the filter, as well as the bandwidth of the filter.

J.Use the cursors on the Bode Plotter to measure and record the frequency of maximal
gain, f MAX,3 , of the filter, as well as the bandwidth of the filter. Discuss its agreement/disagreement with the respective theoretical values from Part 2.3.A.
B B

K. Create a printout of the simulation results (Pre-Lab Printout #5). L. On the printout, show the linear approximation to the transfer function (with the slope
of +20 dB/dec at low frequency and with the slope of 20 dB/dec at high frequency). Determine whether the crossing point of the two linear functions matches the frequency of maximal gain. Briefly discuss whether the +20 dB/dec and 20 dB/dec linear approximations match the actual transfer function.

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Lab 9: Filters and Transfer Functions

Part 2.4. Second-Order Band-Reject Filter

Use Multisim to simulate the following circuit:

Use R = 100 C = 4.7 F L = 10 mH Use the Bode Plotter tool to create a frequency analysis from 1010,000 Hz.

M. Using the given circuit parameters, calculate the theoretical frequency of the minimal
gain of the filter, as well as the bandwidth of the filter.

N. Use the cursors on the Bode Plotter to measure and record the frequency of minimal
gain, f MIN,1 , of the filter, as well as the bandwidth of the filter. Discuss its agreement/disagreement with the respective theoretical values from Part 2.4.A.
B B

O. Create a printout of the simulation results (Pre-Lab Printout #6).

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Lab 9: Filters and Transfer Functions

3. Active Filters
Use Multisim to simulate the following circuit:

Use R 1 = 1 k R 2 = R L = 5 k C = 1 F Use a Virtual Op Amp. Use the Bode Plotter tool to create a frequency analysis from 11,000 Hz.
B B B B B B

P. Use the cursors on the Bode Plotter to measure and record the cutoff frequency,
f CUTOFF,3 , of the filter
B B

Q. Create a printout of the simulation results (Pre-Lab Printout #7).

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Lab 9: Filters and Transfer Functions

In-Lab Work
Part 1: First-Order Filters
Part 1.1. First-Order Low-Pass Filter
Power on the ELVIS II. Build the following circuit:

Use: R = 10 C = 470F Measure V IN on AI1 and V OUT on AI0.

B B B B

Power on the PB. From the NI ELVISmx Instrument Launcher, launch the Bode Analyzer. Set the frequency range to be 11,000 Hz, 15 steps per decade, V PPK = 5V, normal polarity.
B B

Run the Bode Analyzer. Use the cursor to measure the cutoff frequency: f CUTOFF,1 = _________ Hz
B B

Create a printout of the Bode plot. (In-Lab Printout #1) Power off the PB.

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Lab 9: Filters and Transfer Functions

Part 1.2. First-Order High-Pass Filter

Build the following circuit (Hint: components are the same as in Part 1.1 but their connections are different):

Use R = 10 C = 470F Measure V IN on AI1 and V OUT on AI0.

B B B B

Power on the PB. Run the Bode Analyzer with the same settings as Part 1.1. Use the cursor to measure the cutoff frequency: f CUTOFF,2 = _________ Hz
B B

Create a printout of the Bode plot. (In-Lab Printout #2) Power off the PB.

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Lab 9: Filters and Transfer Functions

Part 2: Second-Order Filters

Part 2.1. Second-Order Low-Pass Filter
Build the following circuit:

Use R = 10 C = 4.7F L = 10 mH Measure V IN on AI1 and V OUT on AI0.

B B B B

Power on the PB. Set the frequency range of the Bode Analyzer to be 1010,000 Hz, 15 steps per decade, V PPK = 5V, normal polarity.
B B

Run the Bode Analyzer. Use the cursor to measure the maximal gain frequency: f MAX,1 = _________ Hz
B B

Create a printout of the Bode plot. (In-Lab Printout #3) Power off the PB.

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Lab 9: Filters and Transfer Functions

Part 2.2 Exploration: Second-Order High-Pass Filter

If you do not want to perform the explorations, skip to Part 2.3. Build the following circuit (Hint: components are the same as in Part 2.1 but their connections are different):

Use R = 10 C = 4.7F L = 10 mH Measure V IN on AI1 and V OUT on AI0.

B B B B

Power on the PB. Run the Bode Analyzer with the same settings as Part 2.1. Use the cursor to measure the maximal gain frequency: f MAX,2 = _________ Hz
B B

Create a printout of the Bode plot. (In-Lab Printout #4) Power off the PB.

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Lab 9: Filters and Transfer Functions

Part 2.3. Second-Order Band-Pass Filter

Build the following circuit:

Use R = 100 (Note: this is different from Parts 2.1 and 2.2) C = 4.7F L = 10 mH Measure V IN on AI1 and V OUT on AI0.
B B B B

Power on the PB. Set the frequency range of the Bode Analyzer to be 1010,000 Hz, 15 steps per decade, V PPK = 5V, normal polarity.
B B

Run the Bode Analyzer. Use the cursor to measure the maximal gain frequency: f MAX,3 = _________ Hz
B B

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Lab 9: Filters and Transfer Functions

Use the cursor to measure the frequencies f C1, Part 3 and f C2, Part 3 , which determine the bandwidth:
f C1, Part 3 = ________ Hz f C2, Part 3 = ________ Hz

Note that the sketch above shows frequencies in rad/sec, while your measurements produce frequencies in Hz. Create a printout of the Bode plot. (In-Lab Printout #5) Power off the PB.

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Lab 9: Filters and Transfer Functions

Part 2.4. Second-Order Band-Reject Filter

Build the following circuit (Hint: components are the same as in Part 2.3 but their connections are different):

Use R = 100 C = 4.7F L = 10 mH Measure V IN on AI1 and V OUT on AI0.

B B B B

Power on the PB. Run the Bode Analyzer with the same settings as Part 2.3. Use the cursor to measure the minimal gain frequency: f MIN,4 = _________ Hz
B B

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Lab 9: Filters and Transfer Functions

Use the cursor to measure the frequencies f C1 and f C2 , which determine the bandwidth:
f C1, Part 4 = ________ Hz f C2, Part 4 = ________ Hz

Note that the sketch above shows frequencies in rad/sec, while your measurements produce frequencies in Hz.

Create a printout of the Bode plot. (In-Lab Printout #6) Power off the PB.

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Lab 9: Filters and Transfer Functions

Part 2.5 Explorations Band Reject Filter

Change your circuit from Part 2.4 so that R = 1 k. Power on the PB. Run the Bode Analyzer with the same settings as Part 2.4. Use the cursor to measure the minimal gain frequency, as well as the frequencies f C1, Part 5 and f C2, Part 5 which determine the bandwidth: f MIN,5 = _________ Hz
B B

f C1, Part 5 = ________ Hz f C2, Part 5 = ________ Hz

Create a printout of the Bode plot. (In-Lab Printout #7) Power off the PB.

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Lab 9: Filters and Transfer Functions

Part 3: Active Filters

Build the following circuit:

Where R 1 = 1 k
B B

R 2 = R L = 5 k
B B B B

C = 1 F Measure V IN on AI1 and V OUT on AI0.

B B B B

Power on the PB. Set the frequency range of the Bode Analyzer to be 11,000 Hz, 15 steps per decade, V PPK = 0.1V, normal polarity.
B B

Run the Bode Analyzer. Use the cursor to measure the cutoff frequency: f CUTOFF,3 = _________ Hz
B B

Create a printout of the Bode plot. (In-Lab Printout #8) Power off the PB. This is the end of the required lab. If you are not going to continue with the explorations, then power off the PB and ELVIS II and clean up your workstation.

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Lab 9: Filters and Transfer Functions

Part 4: Explorations Active Filters

Build the following circuit:

Use: R 1 = 1 k
B B

R F = R L = 5 k
B B B B

C = 1 F Measure V IN on AI1 and V OUT on AI0.

B B B B

Power on the PB. Run the Bode Analyzer with the same settings as Part 4. Use the cursor to measure the cutoff frequency: f CUTOFF,4 = _________ Hz
B B

Create a printout of the Bode plot. (In-Lab Printout #9) Power off the PB. Continued on the next page.

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Lab 9: Filters and Transfer Functions Build the following circuit:

Use: R 1 = 1 k
B B

R F = R L = 5 k
B B B B

C = 1 F Measure V IN on AI1 and V OUT on AI0.

B B B B

Power on the PB. Run the Bode Analyzer with the same settings as Part 4. Use the cursor to measure the cutoff frequency: f CUTOFF,5 = _________ Hz
B B

Create a printout of the Bode plot. (In-Lab Printout #10) This is the end of the lab. Power off the PB and ELVIS II and clean up your workstation.

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Lab 9: Filters and Transfer Functions

Post-Lab: 1. First-Order Filters

Part 1.1. First-Order Low-Pass Filter
A. Discuss (quantitatively) the agreement/disagreement between the cutoff frequency
found in your simulation (from Pre-Lab Part 1.1) and measured in the lab (from In-Lab Part 1.1).

B. Discuss (qualitatively) the agreement/disagreement between the phase shift of your

simulated circuit (from Pre-Lab Part 1.1) and your experimental circuit (from In-Lab Part 1.1) at various frequencies.

Part 1.2. First-Order High-Pass Filter

C. Discuss (quantitatively) the agreement/disagreement between the cutoff frequency
found in your simulation (from Pre-Lab Part 1.2) and measured in the lab (from In-Lab Part 1.2).

D. Discuss (qualitatively) the agreement/disagreement between the phase shift of your

simulated circuit (from Pre-Lab Part 1.2) and your experimental circuit (from In-Lab Part 1.2) at various frequencies.

Continued on the next page

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Lab 9: Filters and Transfer Functions

2. Second-Order Filters
Part 2.1. Second-Order Low-Pass Filter
A. Discuss (quantitatively) the agreement/disagreement between the maximal gain
frequency found in your simulation (from Pre-Lab Part 2.1) and measured in the lab (from In-Lab Part 2.1).

B. Discuss (qualitatively) the agreement/disagreement between the phase shift of your

simulated circuit (from Pre-Lab Part 2.1) and your experimental circuit (from In-Lab Part 2.1) at various frequencies.

C. Compare your results (qualitatively) of your second-order low pass filter to those of
your first-order low pass filter. Discuss issues such as overshoot, fallout rate (slope of the transfer function magnitude plot in dB/dec), and phase shift. What are the advantages/disadvantages of each circuit?

Part 2.2 Exploration: Second-Order High-Pass Filter

D. Discuss (quantitatively) the agreement/disagreement between the maximal gain
frequency found in your simulation (from Pre-Lab Part 2.2) and measured in the lab (from In-Lab Part 2.2).

E. Discuss (qualitatively) the agreement/disagreement between the phase shift of your

simulated circuit (from Pre-Lab Part 2.2) and your experimental circuit (from In-Lab Part 2.2) at various frequencies.

F. Discuss (qualitatively) the agreement/disagreement between the slope of the transfer

function magnitude plot (in dB/dec) within the stop-band of you simulated circuit (from Pre-Lab Part 2.2) and your experimental circuit (from In-Lab Part 2.2). Explain your results.

G. Compare your results (qualitatively) of your second-order high pass filter to those of
your first-order high pass filter. Discuss issues such as overshoot, fallout rate, and phase shift. What are the advantages/disadvantages of each circuit?

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Lab 9: Filters and Transfer Functions

Part 2.3. Second-Order Band-Pass Filter

H. Discuss (quantitatively) the agreement/disagreement between your simulated maximal
gain frequency (from Pre-Lab Part 2.3) and your experimental maximal gain frequency (from In-Lab Part 2.3).

I. Discuss (quantitatively) the agreement/disagreement between your simulated bandwidth

(from Pre-Lab Part 2.3) and your experimental bandwidth (from In-Lab Part 2.3).

J.Discuss (qualitatively) the agreement/disagreement between the phase shift of your

simulated circuit (from Pre-Lab Part 2.3) and your experimental circuit (from In-Lab Part 2.3).

Part 2.4. Second-Order Band-Reject Filter

K. Discuss (quantitatively) the agreement/disagreement between your simulated minimal
gain frequency (from Pre-Lab Part 2.4) and your experimental minimal gain frequency (from In-Lab Part 2.4).

L. Discuss (quantitatively) the agreement/disagreement between your simulated

bandwidth (from Pre-Lab Part 2.4) and your experimental bandwidth (from In-Lab Part 2.4).

M. Discuss (qualitatively) the agreement/disagreement between the phase shift of your

simulated circuit (from Pre-Lab Part 2.4) and your experimental circuit (from In-Lab Part 2.4).

Part 2.5 Explorations Band Reject Filter

N. Calculate the theoretical minimal-gain frequency and the bandwidth for the circuit used
in In-Lab Part 2.5. (series RLC with R = 1 k, C = 4.7F, L = 10 mH).

O. Discuss (quantitatively) the agreement/disagreement between the theoretical minimal

gain frequency above and your experimental minimal gain frequency (from In-Lab Part 2.5).

P. Discuss (quantitatively) the agreement/disagreement between the theoretical bandwidth

above and your experimental bandwidth (from In-Lab Part 2.5).

3. Active Filters
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Lab 9: Filters and Transfer Functions

A. Discuss (quantitatively) the agreement/disagreement between your simulated cutoff

frequency (from Pre-Lab Part 3) and your experimental cutoff frequency (from In-Lab Part 3).

B. Compare your results (qualitatively) of your active low pass filter to those of your firstorder and second-order low pass filter. Discuss issues such as overshoot, fallout rate, and phase shift. What are the advantages/disadvantages of the active circuit?

4. Explorations Active Filters

A. Explain your results. Discuss issues such as overshoot, fallout rate, cutoff frequency,
and phase shift for each circuit. Give a qualitative comparison between each of the filters (1-stage active from Part 3, 2-stage active from Part 4, and 3-stage active from Part 4.). Explain the advantages/disadvantages of using more stages in your active filter.

2010 A. Ganago

Post-Lab Page 4 of 4