ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE NERVOUS

SYSTEM
I. Introduction

The nervous system is the master controlling and

communicating system of the body. Every thought, action,
and emotion, reflects its activity. Its signaling device, or
means of communicating with body cells, is electrical
impulses, which are rapid and specific and cause almost
immediate response. To carry out its normal role, the nervous
system has three overlapping function: (1) much like a sentry,
it uses millions of sensory receptors to monitor changes
occurring both inside and outside the body. These changes are
called stimuli, and the gathered information is called sensory
input. (2) It process and interprets the sensory input and
makes decisions about what should he done at each moment
—a process called integration. (3) It then effects a response
by activating muscles or glands (effectors) via motor output.
An example will illustrate how these functions work together.
When you are driving and see a red light just ahead (sensor•
input), your nervous system integrates this information (red
light means "stop") and sends motor output to the muscles of
your right leg and foot, and your foot goes for the brake pedal
(the response).

The nervous system does not work alone to regulate and

maintain body homeostasis: the endocrine system is a second
important regulating system. While the nervous system
controls with rapid electrical nerve impulses, the endocrine
system organs produce hormones that are released into the
blood. Thus, the endocrine system typically brings about its
effects in a more leisurely way.

II. Classification

We have only one nervous system, hut, because of its

complexity, it is difficult to consider all its parts at the same
time. So, to simplify its study, we divide it in terms of its
structures (structural classification) or in terms of its activities
(functional classification). Each of these classification
schemes is described briefly below, and their relationships are
illustrated in Figure 7.2. It is not necessary to memorize this
whole scheme now, but as you are reading the descriptions,
try to get a "feel" for the major parts and how they fit
together. This will make your learning task easier as you make
your way through this chapter. Later you will meet all these
terms and concepts again and in more detail.

a. Structural Classification
 The structural classification which includes all nervous
system organs has two subdivisions—the central nervous
system and the peripheral nervous system (see Figure 7.2).
The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and
spinal cord, which occupy the dorsal body cavity and act as
the integrating and command centers of the nervous
system. They interpret incoming sensory information and
issue instructions based on past experience and current
conditions.
The peripheral (p0-rifer-al) nervous system (PNS), the part
of the nervous system outside the CNS, consists mainly of
the nerves that extend from the brain and spinal cord.
Spinal nerves carry impulses to and from the spinal cord.
Cranial (kra'ne-al) nerves carry impulses to and from Tie
brain. These nerves serve as communication lines. They
link all parts of the body by carrying impulses from the
sensory receptors to the CNS and from the CNS to the
appropriate glands or muscles.

b. Functional Classification
The functional classification scheme is concerned only with
PNS structures. It divides them into two principal
subdivisions (see Figure 7.2).
The sensory, or afferent (afferent), division consists of
nerve fibers that convey impulses to the central nervous
system from sensory receptors located in various parts of
the body. Sensory fibers delivering impulses from the skin,
skeletal muscles, and joints are called somatic (soma =
body) sensory (afferent) fibers, whereas those transmitting
impulses from the visceral organs are called visceral
sensory fibers, or visceral afferents. The sensory division
keeps the CNS constantly informed of events going on both
inside and outside the body.
 FIGURE 7.2 Organization of the nervous system. Organizational
flowchart showing that the central nervous system receives input
via sensory fibers and issues commands via motor fibers. The
sensory and motor fibers together form the nerves that constitute
the peripheral nervous system.
FIGURE 7.1 The nervous system's functions.
The motor or efferent (ef'er-rent), division carries impulses from the
CNS to effector organs the muscles and glands. These impulses
activate muscles and glands; that is, they effect (bring about) a motor
response.
The motor division in turn has two subdivisions (see Figure 7.2):

1. The somatic (so-mat'ik) nervous system allows us to consciously, or

voluntarily, control our skeletal muscles. Hence this subdivision is often
referred to as the voluntary nervous system. However, not all skeletal
muscle activity controlled by this motor division is voluntary. Skeletal
muscle reflexes, like the stretch reflex for example are initiated
involuntarily by these same fibers.
 2. The autonomic (aw"to-
nonfik) nervous system
(ANS) regulates events that
are automatic, or
involuntary, such as the
activity of smooth and
cardiac muscles and glands.
This subdivision, commonly
called the involuntary
nervous system itself has
two parts, the sympathetic
and parasympathetic, which
typically bring about
opposite effects. What one
stimulates, the other
inhibits. These will be
described later.

Although it is simpler to study the nervous system in terms of its

subdivisions, you should recognize that these subdivisions are made
for the sake of convenience only. Remember that the nervous system
acts as a coordinated unit, both structurally and functionally.
III. Neurons and Nerves
Even though it is complex, nervous tissue is made up of just
two principal types of cells—supporting cells and neurons.
FIGURE 7.3 Supporting (glial) cells of nervous a.S
tissues. Astrocytes (a) form a living barrier between
upp
neurons and capillaries in the CNS. Microglia (b) are
phagocytes, whereas ependymal cells (c) line the fluid-
orti
filled cavities of the CNS. The oligodendrocytes (d) form ng
myelin sheaths around nerve fibers in the CNS. (e) The
relationship of Schwann cells (myelinating cells) and
satellite cells to a neuron in the peripheral nervous
system.
Cells
Supporting cells in the CNS are "lumped together" as
neuroglia (nu-rog'le-ah), literally "nerve glue." Neuroglia
includes many types of cells that generally support,
insulate, and protect the delicate neurons (Figure 7.3). In
addition, each of the different types of neuroglia, also
simply called glia (gle'ah) or ghat cells has special
functions. The CNS glia include:

♥ Astrocytes: abundant star-shaped cells that

'ac¬count for nearly half of the neural tissue. Their
numerous projections have swollen ends that cling to
neurons, bracing them and anchoring them to their
nutrient supply lines, the blood capillaries (Figure
7.3a). Astrocytes form a living barrier between
capillaries and neurons and play a role in making
exchanges between the two. In this way, they help
protect the neurons from harmful substances that
might be in the blood. Astrocytes also help control
the chemical environment in the brain by picking up
 excess ions and recapturing released
neurotransmitters.
♥ Microglia: spiderlike phago¬cytes that dispose of
debris, including dead brain cells and bacteria tFigure
7.3b).
♥ Ependymal: these glial cells line the cavities of the
brain and the spinal cord (Figure 7.3c). The heating
of their cilia helps to circulate the cerebrospinal fluid
that fills those cavities and forms a protective
cush¬kin around the CNS.
♥ Oligodendrocytes: glia that wrap their flat
extensions tightly around the nerve fibers, producing
fatty insulating cov¬erings called myelin sheaths
(Figure 7.3d).

Although they somewhat resemble neurons structurally

(both cell types have cell extensions), glia are not able to
transmit nerve impulses, a func¬tion that is highly
developed in neurons. Another important difference is that
glia never lose their ability to divide, whereas most
FIGURE 7.4 Structure of a typical motor neuron. (a)
Diagrammatic view. (b) Photomicrograph (265x ).

neurons do. Conse¬quently, most brain tumors are

gliomas, or tumors formed by glial cells (neuroglia).
Supporting cells in the PNS come in two major varieties—
Schwann cells and satellite cells (Figure 7.3e). Schwann
cells form the myelin sheaths around nerve fibers that are
found in the PNS. Satellite cells act as protective,
cushioning cells.

b. Neurons
Neurons, also called nerve cells, are highly specialized to
transmit messages (nerve impulses) from one part of the
body to another. Although neurons differ structurally, they
have many common features (Figure 7.4). All have a cell
body, which contains the nucleus and is the metabolic
center of the cell, and one or more slender processes
extending from the cell body.

The cell body is the metabolic center of the neuron. It

contains the usual organelles except for centrioles (which
confirm the amitotic nature of most neurons). The rough
ER, called Nissl (nisi) substance, and neurofibrils,
intermediate filaments that are important in maintaining
cell shape, are particularly abundant in the cell body. The
armlike processes, or fibers, vary in length from
microscopic to 3 to 4 feet. The longest ones in humans
reach from the lumbar region of the spine to the great toe.
Neuron processes that convey incoming messages
(electrical signals) toward the cell body are dendrites
(den'dritz), whereas
those that generate
nerve impulses and
typically conduct them
away from the cell body
are axons (ak'sonz).
Neurons may have
hundreds of the
branching dendrites
(dendr = tree),
depending on the neuron
type, but each neuron
has only one axon, which
arises from a conelike
region of the cell body
called the axon hillock.

An occasional axon gives

off a collateral branch
along its length, but all
axons branch profusely at
their terminal end,
forming hundreds to
thousands of axon
terminals. These terminals contain hundreds of tiny
vesicles, or membranous sacs, that contain chemicals
called neurotransmitters

As we said, axons transmit nerve impulses away from the

cell body. When these impulses reach the axon terminals,
they stimulate the release of neurotransmitters into the
extracellular space. FIGURE 7.5 Relationship of Schwann
cells to axons in the peripheral nervous
Each axon terminal is system. As illustrated (top to bottom), a
separated from the Schwann cell envelops part of an axon in a
next neuron by a tiny trough and then rotates around the axon.
gap called the Most of the Schwann cell cytoplasm comes to
lie just beneath the exposed part of its
plasma membrane. The tight coil of plasma
membrane material surrounding the axon is
the myelin sheath. The Schwann cell
cytoplasm and exposed membrane are
referred to as the neurilemma.
 synaptic (si-nap'tik) cleft. Such a functional junction is
called a synapse (syn = to clasp or join). Although they are
close, neurons never actually touch other neurons. We will
learn more about synapses and the events that occur there
a bit later.

Most long nerve fibers are covered with a whitish, fatty

material, called myelin (mi'e-lin), which has a waxy
appearance. Myelin protects and insulates the fibers and
increases the transmission rate of nerve impulses. Axons
outside the CNS are myelinated by Schwann cells,
specialized supporting cells that wrap themselves tightly
around the axon jelly-roll fashion (Figure 7.5). When the
wrapping process is done, a tight coil of wrapped
membranes, the myelin sheath, encloses the axon. Most of
the Schwann cell cytoplasm ends up just beneath the
outermost part of its plasma mem-brane. This part of the
Schwann cell, external to the myelin sheath, is called the
neurilemma (nu"ri-lem'mah, "neuron husk"). Since the
myelin sheath is formed by many individual Schwann cells,
it has gaps or indentations called nodes of Ranvier (rahn-
ver), at regular intervals (see Figure 7.4).

Myelinated fibers are also found in the central nervous

system. However, there it is oligodendrocytes that form
CNS myelin sheaths (see Figure 7.3d). In contrast to
Schwann cells, each of which deposits myelin around a
small segment of one nerve fiber, the oligodendrocytes
with their many flat extensions can coil around as many as
60 different fibers at the same time. Although the myelin
sheaths formed by oligodendrocytes and those formed by
Schwann cells are quite similar, the CNS sheaths lack a
neurilemma. Because the neurilemma remains intact (for

FIGURE 7.6 Neurons classified by function. Sensory (afferent)

neurons conduct impulses from sensory receptors (in the skin, viscera,
muscles) to the central nervous system; most cell bodies are in ganglia
in the PNS. Motor (efferent) neurons transmit impulses from the CNS
(brain or spinal cord) to effectors in the body periphery. Association
neurons (interneurons) complete the communication pathway between
sensory and motor neurons; their cell bodies reside in the CNS.
the most part) when a peripheral nerve fiber is damaged, it
plays an important role in fiber regeneration, an ability that
is largely lacking in the central nervous system.

Neurons may be classified either according to boa they

function or according to their structure.

1. Functional Classification Functional classifications

groups neurons according to the direction the nerve
impulse is traveling relative to the CNS .On this basis,
there are sensory, motor, and association neurons
(Figure 7.6). Neurons carrying impulses from sensory
receptors (in the internal organs or the skin) to the CNS
are sensory or afferent neurons. (Afferent literally
means (“To go toward”)

The cell bodies of sensory neurons always found in a

ganglion outside the CNS. Sensory neurons keep us
informed about what is happening both inside and
outside the body.

The dendrite
endings of
the sensory
neurons are
usually
associated
with
specialized
receptors
that are
activated by
specific
changes
occurring
nearby. The
very
complex
receptors of
the special
sense organs
(vision,
hearing,
equilibrium.
taste, and
smell) are
FIGURE 7.8 Classification of neurons on the
basis of structure. (a) Multipolar. (b) Bipolar
(c) Unipolar.
covered separately in Chapter 8. The simpler types of
sensory receptors seen in the skin (cutaneous sense
organs) and in the muscles and tendons
(proprioceptors) are shown in Figure 7 .7. The pain
receptors (actually bare dendrite endings) are the least
specialized of the cutaneous receptors. They are also
 the most numerous, because pain warns us that some
type of body damage is occurring or is about to occur.
However, strong stimulation of any of the cutaneous
receptors (for example, by searing heat, extreme cold or
excessive pressure) is also interpreted as pain.

The proprioceptors detect the amount of stretch. or

tension, in skeletal muscles, their tendons, and joints.
They send this information to the brain so that the
proper adjustments can be made to maintain balance
and normal posture. Propria comes from the Latin word
meaning "one's own," and the proprioceptors constantly
advise our brain of our own movements.

Neurons carrying impulses from the CNS to the viscera

and/or muscles and glands are motor, or efferent,
neurons (see Figure 7.6). The cell bodies of motor
neurons are always located in the
CNS.

The third category of neurons is the association

neurons, or
interneurons. They
connect the motor
and sensory neurons
in neural pathways.
Like the motor
neurons, their cell
bodies are always
located in the CNS.

2. Structural
Classification
Structural
classification is based
on the number of
processes extending
from the cell body
(Figure 7.8). If there
are several, the
neuron is a multipolar
neuron. Since all
motor and association
neurons are
FIGURE 7.9 The nerve impulse. (a) Resting membrane electrical
conditions. The external face of the membrane is slightly positive: its
internal face is slightly negative. The chief extracellular on is sodium fhlarl,
whereas the chief intracellular ion is potassium (K4). The membrane is
relatively impermeable to both ions. (b) Stimulus initiates local
depolarization. A stimulus changes the permeability of a "patch" of the
membrane, and sodium ions diffuse rapidly into the cell. This changes the
polarity of the membrane (the inside becomes more positive; the outside
becomes more negative). (c) Depolarization and generation of an action
potential. If the stimulus is strong enough, depolarization causes
membrane polarity to be completely reversed and an action potential is
initiated. (d) Propagation of the action potential. Depolarization of the first
membrane patch causes permeability changes in the adjacent membrane,
and the events described in (b) are repeated. Thus, the action potential
propagates rapidly along the entire length of the membrane. (e)
Repolarization. Potassium ions diffuse out of the cell as membrane
permeability changes again, restoring the negative charge on the inside of
 multipolar, this is
the most common
structural type.
Neurons with two
processes—an
axon and a
dendrite—are
called bipolar
neurons. Bipolar
neurons are rare
in adults, found
only in some
special sense
organs (eye,
nose), where they
act in sensory
processing as
receptor cells.
Unipolar neurons
have a single
process emerging
from the cell body.
However, it is
very short and
divides almost
immediately into proximal (central) and distal
(peripheral) processes. Unipolar neurons are unique in
that only the small branches at the end of the
peripheral process are dendrites. The remainder of the
peripheral process and the central process function as
axons; thus, in this case, the axon conducts nerve
impulses both toward and away from the cell body.
Sensory neurons found in PNS ganglia are unipolar.

Physiology

Nerve Impulses Neurons have two major functional

properties: irritability, the ability to respond to a stimulus
and convert it into a nerve impulse, and conductivity, the
ability to transmit the impulse to other neurons, muscles,
or glands. We will consider these functional abilities next.

The plasma membrane of a resting, or inactive, neuron is

polarized, which means that there are fewer positive ions
sitting on the inner face of the neuron's plasma membrane
than there are on its outer face in the tissue fluid that
surrounds it (Figure 7.9). The major positive ions inside the
cell are potassium (K), whereas the major positive ions
outside the cell are sodium (Na). As long as the inside
remains more negative as compared to the outside, the
neuron will stay inactive.

Many different types of stimuli excite neurons to become

active and generate an impulse. For example, light excites
the eye receptors, sound excites some of the ear receptors,
and pressure excites some cutaneous receptors of the skin.

FIGURE 7.10 How neurons

communicate at chemical synapses.
The events occurring at the synapse are
However, most neurons in the body are excited by
neurotransmitters released by other neurons, as will be
described shortly. Regardless of what the stimulus is, the
result is always the same—the permeability properties of
the cell's plasma membrane change for a very brief period.
Normally, sodium ions cannot diffuse through the plasma
membrane to any great extent; but when the neuron is
adequately stimulated, the "gates" of sodium channels in
the membrane open. Because sodium is in much higher
concentration outside the cell, it will then diffuse quickly
into the neuron. (Remember the laws of diffusion?) This
inward rush of sodium ions changes the polarity of the
neuron's membrane at that site, an event called
depolarization. Locally, the inside is now more positive, and
the outside is less positive, a situation called a graded
potential. However if the stimulus is strong enough and the
sodium in-flux is great enough, the local depolarization
(graded potential) activates the neuron to initiate and
transmit a long distance signal called an action potential,
also called a nerve impulse in neurons. The nerve impulse
is an all-or-none re- sauna like firing a gun. It is either
propagated (conducted) over the entire axon, or it doesn't
happen at all. The nerve impulse never goes partway along
an axon's length, nor does it die out with distance as do
graded potentials.

Almost immediately after the sodium ions rush into the

neuron, the membrane permeability changes again,
becoming impermeable to sodium ions but permeable to
potassium ions. So potassium ions are allowed to diffuse
out of the neuron into the tissue fluid, and they do so very
rapidly. This outflow of positive ions from the cell restores
the electrical conditions at the membrane to the polarized,
or resting, state, an event called repolarization. Until
repolarization occurs, a neuron cannot conduct another
impulse. After repolarization occurs, the initial
concentrations of the sodium and potassium ions inside
and outside the neuron are restored by activation of• the
sodium-potassium pump. This pump uses ATP (cellular
energy) to pump excess sodium ions out of the cell and to
bring potassium ions back into it. Once begun, these
sequential events spread along the entire neuronal
membrane.

The events just described explain propagation of a nerve

impulse along unmyelinated fibers. Fibers that have myelin
sheaths conduct impulses much faster because the nerve
impulse literally jumps, or leaps, from node to node along
the length of the fiber. This occurs because no current can
flow across the axon membrane where there is fatty myelin
insulation. This type of impulse is called salutatory (Sal’tah-
to”re) conduction (saltare = to dance or leap)
IV. Central
Nervous
System

Our body is
made up of
biological
processes.
Everything
we feel,
think or do
has
biological
components.
Biological
processes help us to understand behavior. All of the
psychological phenomena covered in this topic are a direct
product of these biological processes. Psychology is the
study of what the nervous system does. Therefore an
understanding of this system is essential to an
understanding of human psychology.

Every section of this part of the case presentation is about

the brain and the nervous system. It is impossible to
examine all of the major neuroanatomic structures. The
points of interest here include the structures of the brain
believed to be involved in the formation of thought and
emotion.

The brain is defined in various ways. The definition that

best suits the perspective of this case study is that the
brain is that part of the central nervous system
encapsulated by the skull. The brain is the core of our
humanity. Intercommunication of different parts of the
brain yield the experiences of love, hate, elation, joy or
madness. The brain provides the underlying biology for
will, determination, hopes and dreams. Without the brain to
integrate experience, people would neither enjoy the
wonder nor fear the horror of life.

a. Brain

Brains exist because the distribution of resources

necessary for survival and the hazards that threaten
survival vary in space and time. There would be little need
for a nervous system in an immobile organism or an
organism that lived in regular and predictable
environment. Brains are informed by the senses about the
presence of resources and hazards; they evaluate and
store this input and generate adaptive responses executed
by the muscles.

Some of the most basic features of brains can be found in

bacteria because even the simplest motile organisms must
solve the problem of locating resources and avoiding
toxins. They sense their environment through a large
number of receptors, which are protein molecules
embedded in the cell wall. The action taken in response to
the inputs usually depends on the gradient of the
chemicals. Thus memory is required to compare the inputs
from different locations. The strength of the signal is
modulated by immediate past experience. This in turn
regulates the strength of the signal sent by chemical
messengers from the receptor to the flagellar motors. Thus
even at the unicellular level, the bacteria have already
possessed the ability to integrate numerous analog inputs
and generate a binary (digital) output of stop or go.

In multicellular organism, cells specialized for receptor

function are located on the surface. Other cells specialized
for the transmission and analysis of information are located
in the protected interior and are linked to effector cells,
usually muscles, which produce adaptive responses. As do
unicellular organisms, neurons integrate the diverse array
of incoming information from the receptors, which in
neurons may result in the firing of an action potential
(when the summation is above a threshold level) rather
than swimming toward a nutrient source as in the
unicellular organisms. Once the threshold for generating an
action potential is reached, the signal is always the same,
both in amplitude and shape (a nerve consists of many
neurons, it does not obey the all-or-none law).

Action potentials and voltage-gated sodium channels are

present in jellyfish, which are the simplest organisms to
possess nervous systems. The development of this basic
neuronal mechanism set the stage for the proliferation of
animal life that occurred during the Cambrian period.
Among these Cambrian animals were the early chordates,
which possessed very simple brains. Some of these early
fish developed a unique way to insulate their axons by
wrapping them with a fatty material called myelin, which
greatly facilitated axonal transmission and evolution of
larger brains. Some of their descendants, which also were
small predators, crawled up on the muddy shores and
eventually took up permanent residence on dry land.
Challenged by the severe temperature changes in the
terrestrial environment, some experimented with becoming
 warm-blooded, and the most successful became the
ancestors of birds and mammals. Changes in the brain and
parental care were a crucial part of the set of mechanisms
that enabled these animals to maintain a constant body
temperature.

The human brain can be divided into three parts: the

hindbrain, which has been inherited from the reptiles; the
limbic system, which was first emerged in mammals; and
the forebrain, which has its full development in human.
Different views of the human brain are shown in Figure
03c, d, and e. Tables 01 lists the functions of the different
parts of the human brain. The brain is separated into two
hemispheres. Apart from a single little organ -- the pineal
gland in the centre base of the brain -- every brain module
is duplicated in each hemisphere. The left brain is
calculating, communicative and capable of conceiving and
executing complicated plans --the reductionistic brain;
while the right one is considered as gentle, emotional and
more at one with the natural world -- the holistic brain. The
cerebral cortex is covered in a thin skin of acquiring
knowledge by the use of reasoning, intuition or
perception). Table 02 below lists the location and functions
of the major components in the human brain.
Structure Location Functions
Limbic
System
(Mammalian
Brain)
Thalamus in the middle of the limbic relays incoming information (except
system smell) to the appropriate part of the
brain for further processing.
Hypothalamu beneath thalamus regulates basic biological drives,
s, Pituitary hormonal levels, sexual behavior, and
Gland controls autonomic functions such as
hunger, thirst, and body temperature.
Optic Chiasm in front of the pituitary gland left-right optic nerves cross-over point.
Septum adjacent to hypothalamus stimulates sexual pleasure
Hippocampus within the temporal lobe mediates learning and memory
formation.
Amygdala in front of the hippocampus responsible for anxiety, emotion, and
fear
Mammillary linked to the hippocampus have a role in emotional behavior,
Body, Fornix learning, and motivation.
Basal outside the thalamus involves in movement, emotions,
Ganglia planning and in integrating sensory
(Striatum): information
Caudate
Nucleus,
Putamen,
Globus
Pallidus
Ventricles from tiny central canal within fills with cerebrospinal fluid for
and Central the spinal cord to the mechanical protection.
Canal enlarged hollows within the
skull called ventricles
Cingulate above corpus callosum concentrates attention on adverse
Gyrus internal stimuli such as pain, contains
the feeling of self.
Corpus under the cingulate gyrus is a bundle of nerve fibers linking the
Callosum cerebral hemispheres, involve in
language learning.
Forebrain
(Human
Brain)
Frontal Lobe in front of the head controls voluntary movement, thinking,
(Conscious and feeling.
Brain)
Prefrontal in front of the frontal lobe inhibits inappropriate actions, forms
Cortex plans and concepts, helps focus
attention, and bestows meaning to
perceptions.
Parietal Lobe in top rear of the head contains the primary somatosensory
area that manages skin sensation.
Occipital in the back of the head contains the visual cortex to manage
Lobe vision.
Temporal on each side of the head contains the auditory cortex to manage
Lobe above the temples hearing and speech.
Table 02 - Human Brain
The parietal eye is not an
eye in the traditional sense in that it does not see images,
but rather is a photosensitive organ which only reacts to
light and dark. The parietal eye is connected to the pineal
body and is used to trigger hormone production and
thermoregulation. It often shows up as either a dark spot or
an opalescent spot. Opsin proteins sensitive to blue and
green light has been identified in the cell.

Throughout its lifetime, the human brain undergoes more

changes than any other part of the body. They can be
broadly divided into five stages. Table 03 summarizes the
significant events within each stage, the "DO" and "DON'T"
to keep a healthy mind.

S Age Event(s) DO DON'T

tag
e
1 0 - 10 * Growing neurons and Mother should: * Mother should
months connections * be stress-free, stay away from
Gestation * Making sure each eats well cigarettes,
section of the brain * take folic acid alcohol and
grows properly and in and vitamin B12 other toxins
the right place * stimulate the
young brain with
sounds and
sensations
2 Birth - 6 * A sense of self * Parents should * Parents should
Childhood develops as the parietal provide a beware of the
and frontal lobe circuits nurturing emotional
become more environment and consequence of
integrated. one-on-one neglect or harsh
* Development of interaction parenting
voluntary movement,
reasoning, and
perception
* Frontal lobes become
active leading to the
development of
emotions, attachments,
planning, working
memory and attention
 * Life experiences
shape the emotional
well-being in adulthood
* At age 6, the brain is
95% of its adult weight
and at its peak of
energy consumption
3 7 - 22 * Wiring of the brain is * Teenagers * Teenagers
Adolescen still in progress should learn to should avoid
ce * Grey matter (neural control reckless, alcohol abuse,
connections) pruning irrational and smoking, drug
* White matter (fatty irritable behaviors and unprotected
tissue surrounding * Do learn a skill sex.
neurons) increase helps to support life in
to speed up electrical the future
impulses and stabilize
connections
* The prefrontal cortex
(involving control of
impulses, judgment and
decision-making) is the
last to mature
4 23 - 65 * The brain reaches the * Stay active * Avoid
Adulthood peak power at around mentally and cigarettes,
age 22 and lasts for physically booze, and
about 5 years; * Eat healthy diet mind-altering
thereafter it's downhill drugs.
all the way
* The last to mature
and first to go brain
functions are those
involve executive
control in the prefrontal
and temporal cortices
* Episodic memory for
recalling events also
declines rapidly
* Processing speed
slows down
* Working memory is
able to store less
information
5 > 65 * Losing brain cells in * Exercise to * Avoid
Old Age critical areas such as improve abstract grumpiness by
the hippocampus where reasoning and eating certain
memories are concentration foods, such as
processed * Learn new skill yogurt,
such as guitar chocolate, and
playing to attain almonds to get
the same effect a good dose of
* Practice dopamine (for
meditation can promoting
promote neutral positive
emotions emotions)
* Don't stressed
out as it is
related to
higher risk of
developing
dementia.

Table 07 - The Five Stages of Human Brain

It is well known that the brain is an electrochemical organ;
a fully functioning brain can generate as much as 20 watts
of electrical power. Even though this electrical power is
very limited, it does occur in very specific ways that are
characteristic of the human brain. Electrical activity
emanating from the brain can be displayed in the form of
brainwaves. There are four categories of these brainwaves,
ranging from the most active to the least active. Figure 03f
is produced by an EEG (ElectroEncephaloGraph) chart
recorder to show the different kind of brainwave according
to the different state of the brain. These are all oscillating
electrical voltages in the brain, but they are very tiny
voltages, just a few millionths of a volt. Electrodes are
placed on the outer surface of the head to detect electrical
changes in the extracellular fluid of the brain in response
to changes in potential among large groups of neurons.
The resulting signals from the electrodes are amplified and
recorded.

Brain waves originate from the cerebral cortex, but also

reflect activities in other parts of the brain that influence
the cortex, such as the reticular formation. Because the
intensity of electrical changes is directly related to the
degree of neuronal activity, brain waves vary markedly in
amplitude and frequency between sleep and wakefulness.
Beta wave rhythms appear to be involved in higher mental
activity, including perception and consciousness. It seems
to be associated with consciousness, e.g., it disappears
with general anesthesia. Other waves that can be detected
are Alpha, Theta, and Delta. When the hemispheres or
regions of the brain are producing a wave synchronously,
they are said to be coherent. Alpha waves are generated in
the Thalamus (the brain within the brain), while Theta
waves occur mainly in the parietal and temporal regions of
the cerebrum. The Alpha and Theta waves seem to be
associated with creative, insightful thought. When an artist
or scientist has the "aha" experience, there's a good
chance he or she is in Alpha or Theta. These two kinds of
brain waves are also associated with relaxation and,
stronger immune systems. Therefore, many people try to
train themselves to enter such states through various
biofeedback7 techniques (with varying degree of success).
Delta Waves occur during sleep. They originate from the
cerebral cortex when it is not being activated by the
reticular formation. In slow-wave sleep, the entire brain
oscillates in a gentle rhythm quite unlike the fragmented
oscillations of normal consciousness. The neocortical
activity is often modulated by a rhythm of 40-80 Hz, called
the Gamma wave (not shown in Figure 03f). When there
are strong gamma oscillations in certain parts of the
neocortex, human subjects do better on learning and
memory tasks.
 b. Protection: Meninges, Blood-Brain Barrier and CSF

1. Blood-brain Barrier
Diagram of a cerebral capillary enclosed in astrocyte end-feet. Characteristics of
the blood-brain barrier are indicated: (1) tight junctions that seal the pathway
between the capillary (endothelial) cells; (2) the lipid nature of the cell
membranes of the capillary wall which makes it a barrier towater-soluble
molecules; (3), (4), and (5) represent some of the carriers and ion channels; (6)
the 'enzymatic barrier'that removes molecules from the blood; (7) the efflux
pumps which extrude fat-soluble molecules that have crossed into the cells.
The main function of the blood-brain barrier (BBB)
is to protect the brain from changes in the levels in
the blood of ions, amino acids, peptides, and other
substances. The barrier is located at the brain blood
capillaries, which are unusual in two ways. Firstly,
the cells which make up the walls of these vessels
(the endothelium) are sealed together at their
edges by tight junctions that form a key component
of the barrier. These junctions prevent water-soluble
substances in the blood from passing between the
cells and therefore from freely entering the fluid
environment of the brain cells. Secondly, these
capillaries are enclosed by the flattened ‘end-feet’
of astrocytic cells (one type of glia), which also act
as a partial, active, barrier. Thus the only way for
water-soluble substances to cross the BBB is by
passing directly through the walls of the cerebral
capillaries, and because their cell membranes are
made up of a lipid/protein bilayer, they also act as a
major part of the BBB.

In contrast, fat-soluble molecules, including those

of oxygen and carbon dioxide, anaesthetics, and
alcohol can pass straight through the lipids in the
capillary walls and so gain access to all parts of the
brain.

Apart from these passive elements of the BBB there

are also enzymes on the lining of the cerebral
capillaries that destroy unwanted peptides and
other small molecules in the blood as it flows
through the brain.

Finally, there is another barrier process that acts

against lipid-soluble molecules, which may be toxic
and can diffuse straight through capillary walls into
the brain. In the capillary wall there are three
classes of specialized ‘efflux pumps’ which bind to
three broad classes of molecules and transport
them back into the blood out of the brain.

However, in order for nourishment to reach the

brain, water-soluble compounds must cross the
BBB, including the vital glucose for energy
production and amino acids for protein synthesis. To
achieve this transfer, brain vessels have evolved
special carriers on both sides of the cells forming
the capillary walls, which transport these
substances from blood to brain, and also move
waste products and other unwanted molecules in
the opposite direction.

The successful evolution of a complex brain

depends on the development of the BBB. It exists in
all vertebrates, and also in insects and the highly
intelligent squid and octopus. In man the BBB is
fully formed by the third month of gestation, and
errors in this process can lead to defects such as
spina bifida.

Although the BBB is an obvious advantage in

protecting the brain, it also restricts the entry from
the blood of water-soluble drugs which are used to
treat brain tumours or infections, such as the AIDS
virus, which uses the brain as a sanctuary and
‘hides’ behind the BBB from body defence
mechanisms. To overcome these problems drugs
are designed to cross the BBB, by making them
more fat soluble. But this also means that they
might enter most cells in the body and be too toxic.
Alternative approaches are to make drug molecules
that can ‘ride on’ the natural transporter proteins in
the cerebral capillaries, and so be more focused on
the brain, or to use drugs that open the BBB.

Since the brain is contained in a rigid, bony skull, its

volume has to be kept constant. The BBB plays a
key role in this process, by limiting the freedom of
movement of water and salts from the blood into
the extracellular fluid of the brain. Whereas in other
body tissues extracellular fluid is formed by leakage
from capillaries, the BBB in fact secretes brain
extracellular fluid at a controlled rate and is thus
critical in the maintenance of normal brain volume.
If the barrier is made leaky by trauma or infection,
water and salts cross into the brain, causing it to
swell (cerebral oedema), which leads to raised
intracranial pressure; this can be fatal.