Chapter 6 • Linear Combinations

Solutions for Selected Problems
Exercise 6.1


(1, 1, 1), b

(0, 1, 1), and c

(1, 0, 2).
7. a. Let a
If a
, b
, and c
 are coplanar then one of these
vectors can be expressed as a linear combination
of the other two, i.e., a

sb
  tc
.
By inspection of s
1 and t
1 we have
(1, 1, 1)
 (0, 1, 1)  (1, 0, 2) or
a

 b
  c, and a
, b
, and c
 are coplanar.


(1, 0, 1), q

(1, 1, 1), and

b. Let p r
(1, 0, 1).
p
  q

(1, 0, 1)
r
. Since p
  q
 is
perpendicular to the plane of p
 and q
 and collinear
with

r ,

r is perpendicular to the plane of p
 and q

Since s
3 and t
2 does not satisfy all three
equations, (4, 5, 8) cannot be expressed as a linear
combination of u
 and v
.
b. To determine another vector that can be written in
the form su
  tv
, choose values for s and t, i.e., let
s
4 and t
 3.
Now 4u
  3v

4(2, 1, 1)  3(1, 1, 3)

(8, 4, 4)  (3, 3, 9)

(11, 1, 5).
c. To determine another vector that cannot be written
in the form su
  tv
, proceed as in b but change
one component, i.e., (11, 1, 7) cannot be written as
su
  tv
 since s
4 and t
3 will generate the
first two components but not the third.
9. u

xa
 2yb

, v

2ya
  3yb
, and w


4a
  2b
.

therefore p
, q
, and


r are not coplanar. Since 2u
  v

w
,
we have 2(xa
  2yb
)  (2ya
  3yb
)
4a
  2b

8. a. Given u

(2, 1, 1), v

(1, 1, 3).
(2x  2y) a
  (4y  3y) b

4a
  2b

i) (4, 2, 2)
su
  tv
. By inspection we have (2x  2y 4) a
  (y  2) b

o
.
s
2, t
0 and (4, 2, 2)
2u
  0v
. Since a
 and b
 are not collinear, 2x  2y  4
0 and
ii) (1, 2, 4)
su
  tv
. By inspection we have y  2
0 therefore y
2 and x
4.
s
1, t
1 and (1, 2, 4)
u
  v
.
10. a. a(2, 1, 0)  b(3, 4, 5)  c(2, 0, 3)
(4, 10, 7)
iii) (1, 5, 11)
su
  tv
 Equating components gives

s(2, 1, 1)  t(1, 1, 3). 2a  3b  2c
4 ➀
a  4b
10 ➁
Equating components gives
5b  3c
7 ➂
2s  t
11 ➀
2  ➁  ➀: 11b  2c
24 ➃
s  t
51 ➁ 2  ➂  3  ➃: 43b
86
s  3t
11 ➂ b
2.
Add ➀ and ➁: 3s
6, s
2. Back substituting: a
2 and c
1.
From ➁ t
3. b. a(3, 1, 2)  b(1, 1, 3)  c(2, 1, 5)
(2, 5, 16)
Equating components gives 3a  b  2c
26 ➀
Check in ➂: 2  3(3)
2  9
11
a  b  c
56 ➁
therefore (1, 5, 11)
2u
  3v
. 2a  3b  5c
16 ➂
iv) (4, 5, 8)
su
  tv
 ➀  ➁: 2a  3c
7 ➃
3  ➀  ➂: 11a  11c
22  a  c
2 ➄

s(2, 1, 1)  t(1, 1, 3). ➃  2  ➄: c
3.
Equating components gives Back substituting: a
1, b
1.
2s  t
4 ➀
11. a. u

(1, 3, 2), v

(1, 1, 1), w


(5, 1, 4).
st
5 ➁
Since u
 · v

1  3  2
0, u
 ⊥ v
,
s  3t
8 ➂
Add ➀ and ➁: 3s
9, s
3. u
 · w

5  3  8
0, u
 ⊥ w
,

From ➁ t
2. v
 · w


5  1  4
0, v
 ⊥ w
, and u
, v
, and

 are mutually perpendicular.
w
Verify in ➂: 3  3(2)
3  6
9 ≠ 8.
Chapter 6: Linear Combinations 71
 b. î
(1, 0, 0). b. û
1 u
 therefore u


u

û
Now (1, 0, 0)
a(1, 3, 2)  b(1, 1, 1)  c(5, 1, 4).
u


Equating components a  b  5c
1 ➀
3a  b  c
0 ➁
u



25  2
5  4
54

36
2a  b  4c
0 ➂ u

36 û.
➀  ➁: 4a  6c
1 ➃
➁  ➂: 5a  3c
0 ➄ Similarly v


v

v̂,
v



1  64
 16
9,
➃  2  ➄: 14a
1
v

9v̂
1 5 1


w


ŵ

w




3ŵ
a
, c
, b
 w 
41
 4
3, w
14 42 3
1 1 5
 therefore x

66 û  27v̂  24ŵ.
Therefore î
 u
   v
   w .
14 3 42
13. a.
ĵ
(0, 1, 0), therefore a  b  5c
0 ➀ y
3a  b  c
1 ➁ →
v
2a  b  4c
0 ➂
➀  ➁: 4a  6c
1 ➃ B
→
➁  ➂: 5a  3c
1 ➄ 80º x →

➃  2  ➄: 14a
3 →
40º 40º 30º u
bv 50º 20º x
3 1 1 20º
a
, c
, b
.
14 42 3 30º – a u→
A
3 1 1

Therefore ĵ
 u
   v
   w .
14 3 42
k̂
(0, 0, 1), therefore a  b  5c
0 ➀ Let x

au
  bv
. Draw lines from the tip of x

3a  b  c
0 ➁ parallel to u
 and v
 as in the diagram. The sides of
2a  b  4c
1 ➂
the parallelogram are the vectors au
 and bv
.
➀  ➁: 4a  6c
0 ➃
➁  ➂: 5a  3c
1 ➄ From ∆OAB
➃  2  ➄: 7a
1

au


bv


x

4
1 2 1 



8
a
, c
, b
 sin 80 sin 70 sin 30 sin 30
7 21 3
a
u


1 1 2

therefore k̂
 u
   v
   w . 
8
7 3 21 sin 80
8 sin 80
a

2
12. u

(5, 5, 2), v

(1, 8, 4), w


(2, 1, 2), and
x

(3, 6, 8).
4 sin 80°
a ≅ 3.9392
a. Now x

au

  bv
  cw

 gives rise to the equations
5a  b  2c
3 ➀
b
v


6a  8b  c
6 ➁ 
8
2a  4b  2c
8 ➂ sin 70
➀  ➂: 7a  3b
50 ➃ 8 sin 70
2  ➁  ➂: 8a  12b
20 ➄ b

10
➃  ➄  4: 5a
10
4
a
2, b
3, and c
8
 sin 70
5
and x

2u
  3v
  8w

.
b ≅ 0.75175

4
x

4 sin 80 u
   sin 70 v

5

x

3.94 u
  0.75 v
.

72 Chapter 6: Linear Combinations
 1
b. û

 u
 therefore u

2û . Similarly v

10v̂. 10. a. v
1
(1, 2), v
2
(3, 5) and v
1 ≠ kv
2 therefore v
1 and

u

v
2 can form bases for two dimensional space.
Therefore x

8 sin 80 û  8 sin 70 v̂
Now v

av
  bv

(8, 7)
x

7.88 û  7.52 v̂.
1 2
a  3b
8 ➀
2a  5b
7 ➁
Exercise 6.2 2  ➀  ➁: b
9, a
19.
The coordinates of v
 with v
1 and v
2 bases is
6. Vectors u
 and au
 are scalar multiples, hence will be
(19, 9).
parallel. Similarly v
 and bv
 are parallel. Since u
 and v

are linearly independent they will not be parallel, b. v
1
(3, 5), v
2
(6, 10). Since v
2
2v
1, v
1, and v
2

hence au
 is not parallel to bv
. Therefore au
 and bv
 are collinear hence cannot form a bases in R2.

are linearly independent.

11. a. v
1
(1, 0, 1), v
2
(2, 1, 1), v
3
(3, 1, 1).

7. Assume v

aî  bĵ  ck̂ and v

pî  qĵ  rk̂ Now v
1  v
2
(1, 3, 1)

therefore aî  bĵ  ck̂
pî  qĵ  rk̂ and v
 · (v
 _ v
 )
3  3  1
1 ≠ 0.
3 1 2

(a  p) î  (b  q) ĵ  (c  r)k̂
o
. Therefore v
1, v
2, and v
3 are not coplanar and can

Since î, ĵ, and k̂ are linearly independent form a bases in R3.
a  p
0, a
p av
  bv
  cv

v

(1, 2, 3).
1 2 3
b  q
0, b
q Equating components
c  r
0, c
r a  2b  3c
1 ➀
therefore vectors expressed in terms of î, ĵ, and k̂ bc
2 ➁
are unique. abc
3 ➂
➂  ➁: a
1 ∴ 2b  3c
2
8. If (1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 1), and (1, 1, 1) can be used as bc
2
basis in 3-space then from which c
2 and b
4.
a(1, 1, 1)  b(1, 1, 1)  c(1, 1, 1)
o
 where a,
The coordinates of v
 will be (1, 4, 2).
b, and c are not all zero.
Equating components a  b  c
0 b. v
1
(1, 3, 1), v
2
(2, 1, 1), v
3
(4, 3, 5).
abc
0
abc
0 Now v
1  v
2
(4, 3, 5)
Solving we have a
b
c
0. The vectors are and v
 · (v
  v
 )
16  9  25
0
3 1 2
linearly independent hence can be used as a basis therefore v
1, v
2, and v
3 are coplanar and do not
in 3-space.
form a bases in R3.

, a
  b
 and a
  (a
  b
) can be used as
9. To show a c. v
1
(1, 0, 0), v
2
(1, 1, 0), v
3
(1, 1, 1). We
a basis for vectors in space, we need to establish have v
1  v
2
(0, 0, 1) and v
3 · (v
1 _ v
2)
1 ≠ 0
that the three vectors are not coplanar. Since a
 is therefore v
 , v
 , and v
 are not coplanar and can
1 2 3
perpendicular to a
  b
, a
 and a
  b
 will not be form a bases in R3.
collinear, hence will define a plane. Now a
 (a
  b
) av
  bv
  cv

v

(1, 2, 3).
1 2 3
is a vector perpendicular to both a
 and a
  b
 Equating components a  b  c
1
(i.e., perpendicular to the plane of a
 and a
  b
), bc
2
c
3.
hence does not lie in the plane of a
 and a
  b
.
Solving gives c
3, b
1 and a
1. The
Therefore a
, a
  b
, and a
  (a  b
) are not coplanar
coordinates of v
 will be (1, 1, 3).
and can be used as a basis for vectors in space.

Chapter 6: Linear Combinations 73

 2
12. Since (3u
  4v
) and (6u

  2v
) are linearly and   ks
0 or 2  3ks
0 ➁
3
independent,
a(3u
  4v
)  b(6u
  2v
)
0
 and a
b
0 2
From ➁ k

3s
3au
  4av
 6bu
  2bv

0

2
(3a  6b)u
  (4a  2b)v

0
. Substitute into ➀ 1  s  
0
s
Since a
b
0, 3a  6b
0, and 4a  2b
0, s2  s  2
0
giving 0u
  0v

0
 hence u
 and v
 are linearly (s  2)(s  1)
0
s
2 or s
1.
independent. If the vectors are parallel, s
2 or s
1.

13. Suppose that d

ka

  lb
  mc
 is not a unique
representation. There then exists another Exercise 6.3
representation, say d

pa
  qb
  rc
. Subtracting,
5. T
we have (k  p)a
  (l  q)b
  (m  r)c



0. Since 2




a , b , and c are basis vectors and hence not coplanar,
then k  p
0, l  q
0, and m  r
0 from B
which k
p, l
q, and m
r and a contraction is A
evident. Hence d

ka
  lb
  mc
 is a unique
representation. O

14. u
, v
, and w

 are mutually perpendicular, linearly Since T divides AB in the ratio 2:1, T will be

independent vectors. If a(u
  v
)  b(v
  w

)  external to AB as shown in the diagram.

  u
)
0
 and a
b
c
0, then u
  v
, v
  w
c(w
, In ∆OAT,

  u
 will be linearly independent.
and w

OA
OT
  AT


Expanding and collecting terms gives

2AB


but AT
(a  c)u
  (a  b)v
  (b  c)w


0
. Since u
, v
,


OA
therefore OT
  2AB

.

 are linearly dependent,
and w


OA
Now in ∆OAB, AB
  OB


ac
0 ➀


OA
therefore OT
  2(OA

  OB

)
ab
0 ➁


OA
OT
  2OB

.
bc
0 ➂
Solving: ➀  ➁  ➂ 2a
0, a
0, c
0, 6. D
and b
0. Therefore u  v
, u
  w


, and v
  w

 are
linearly independent. B

  2v
 and (3u
  sv
) are parallel

15. Since (1  s)u C
3
2
(1  s)u
  v

k(3u
  sv
), k  R.
3
O
Expanding and collecting terms gives
2

2

Given OB
1

OC   OD .
(1  s  3k)u
  (  ks)v

0
. 3 3
3



Since u and v are linearly independent, From ∆OBC,
1  s  3k
0 ➀

OC
CB
  OB



  2


OC
1

OC   OD
3 3
74 Chapter 6: Linear Combinations
 1 1


 

OC   OD 14. O
3 3

 
1



 OC  OD .
3
h


OC
But CD
  OD




1 CD
therefore CB
 and C, B, and D are collinear. A ak P bk
B
3
P divides AB in the ratio a:b. Let AP
ak and
11. 2 B(6, 0, –1) PB
bk. Now the altitude of ∆OAP
h and the
altitude of ∆OBP
h.
Q
1
1 ∆OAP
 akh
P 2

1
A(3, 6, 8) ∆OBP
 bkh
2
Let P divide AB in the ratio 1:2 ∆OAP a

.


2 OA
therefore OP
  1 OB

 ∆OBP b
3 3
2 1 15. A

 (3, 6, 8)   (6, 0, 1) B
3 3

(4, 4, 5).
The coordinates of P are (4, 4, 5). The midpoint of C
PB is Q(5, 2, 2). The points of trisection are (4, 4, 5)
and (5, 2, 2).

O D
13. D


rOA
Given OD
  sOB

  tOC

 and r  s  t
1.
7
4 Now r
1  s  t
G


(1  s  t)OA
therefore OD
  sOB

  tOC


1

OA

  s(OA

  OB

)  t(OA

  OC

).
F 2 OD

  OB
In ∆OAB, OA

AB

,
E
O
 

In ∆OAC, OA
.
OC
AC


OA
Therefore OD
  sAB

  tAC




2 OD
Since OE
  7 OF

,
5 5
 OA
OD

sAB

  tAC

.
E: is external to DF,
  OA
In ∆OAD, OD

AD


is beyond F,

sAB
therefore AD
  tAC
.
divides DF in the ratio 7:2.

 is expressed as a linear combination of AB
AD
 and


1 OD
Since OG
  4 OF

,
 therefore AD
AC
, AB

, and AC

 are coplanar, hence A,
5 5
B, C, and D are coplanar.
G: is between D and F
divides DF in the ratio 4:1.
In both cases DF is 5 units.
a. D divides GE in the ratio 4:7.

b. F divides GE in the ratio 1:2.

Chapter 6: Linear Combinations 75

Exercise 6.4 2. A

1. A
→
b
→
a Q
→
b
P
→ → → →
a C B a P a Q a C


PQ
a. Since P and Q trisect BC, let BP

QC


a
.
B O


AP
In ∆ABP, AB
  a
.
a. Let P and Q be midpoints of AB and AC respectively.

AQ
In ∆ACQ, AC
  a
.


PA
Therefore BP

a
 and
  AC
Adding gives AB

AP

  AQ

.


QA
CQ

b
.
b. Since P and Q trisect BC


a
  b
.
In ∆PAQ, PQ


2a
  2b


2 OB
OP
  1 OC


In ∆BAC, BC 3 3

2(a
  b
)


2PQ
BC
.

1 OB
and OQ
  2 OC

.
3 3
Therefore BCPQ and BC
2PQ
1
  OQ
Adding OP

OB

  OC

.
or PQ
 BC.
2

OA

  OB

.
c. In ∆AOB, AB
1


 OA

   OB

1

OA
In ∆AOC, AC
  OC

.
b. From the midpoint theorem OP
2 2
  AC


2OA

  OB

  OC

.
Adding: AB


1 OA
and OQ
  1 OC



OA
Similarly from ∆AOP, AP
  OP


2 2


OA
∆AOQ, AQ
  OQ




OP
Now PQ
  OQ


  AQ


2OA

  OP

  OQ


and AP

  OQ
but OP

OB

  OC

.
   
1
 1
 1
 1


  OA   OB   OA   OC
2 2 2 2
  AC
Therefore AB

AP

  AQ.



 
1



 OB  OC 3. A
2


OB
but BC
 


1 BC
OC therefore PQ

2
1 F
hence PQBC and PQ
 BC. D
2

C
B E

76 Chapter 6: Linear Combinations

 Since D, E, and F are the midpoints of the sides of G is the centroid of ∆ABC.
∆ABC as shown,
a. D divides BC in the ratio 1:1.


1 OA
OD
  1 OB

, b. G divides AD in the ratio 2:1.
2 2
1


 OA

   OD

 2
c. OG
3 3


1 OB
OE
  1 OC

,

1 OB

  1 OC

.
2 2 D is a midpoint, therefore OD
2 2


1 OC
and OF
2

  1 OA
2

.


1 OA
Substituting: OG
3

  2 1 OB
3 2 

  1 OC
2





1 OA

  1 OB

  1 OC

.

  OE
Adding gives OD
  OF


OA

  OB

  OC

. OG
3 3 3

6. A
4. D
→ →
b →
c b
A
→ E E
a
F →
→
→
a b
b G
→
C c
B
→
C
→ D a
ABCD is a quadrilateral. Diagonals BD and AC bisect B a
each other at E


EC
therefore AE

a
 D, E, and F are the midpoints of the sides of ∆ABC


ED
and BE

b


EC
with AE

b
,


a
  b
.
In ∆AED, AD

DB
CD

a
,


b
  a
.
In ∆BEC, BC
  FA
and BF

c
.


BC
Therefore AD
 and ABCD is a parallelogram. G is the centroid and divides each median in the
ratio 2:1
5. A


2 b
  1 (2c
)
2 b
  2 c
.
therefore AG
3 3 3 3


(2c
)  (a
)
 c
  2 a

Similarly BG
1 2 2
2 3 3 3 3


(2a
)  (b
)
 a
  2 b
.
CG
1 2 2
G
3 3 3 3
Adding gives the required result AG
  BG
  CG

0
.
1
C
D
B

Chapter 6: Linear Combinations 77

 →
7. A c AB is a chord of circle with centre O. A line l through
D
→
→
O is perpendicular to AB meeting AB at E. We are to
→
mb sa
d show that E is the midpoint of AB.
→

→
E → d

a
 and EB
Let AE

ma
, m > 0
(1  s) a (1  m) b


c
.
OE
B →


c
  a
.
In ∆OAE, OA
c C


c
  ma
.
In ∆OBE, OB




OB
But
OA

therefore
OA


2

OB


2
ABCD is a parallelogram with


BC


c

 · OA
and OA

OB

 · OB

.
AD


CD


d

 · OA
OA

(c
  a
) · (c  a
)
BA
The diagonals intersect at E.
c
 · c
  2c
 · a
  a
 · a



(1  s)a
, ED


sa

 · OB
OB

(c
  ma
) · (c
  ma
)
Let BE


mb
, EC
AE

(1  m)b
.
c
 · c
  2mc
 · a
  m2a
 · a
.

 · OA

OB
 · OB

In ∆ABE, d

(1  s)a
  mb
. Since OA
In ∆DEC, d

(1  m)b
  sa
. a
 · a
  2c
 · a

m a
 · a
  2mc
 · a
.
2

Therefore (1  s)a
  mb

 (1  m)b
  sa
 But c
 ⊥ a
 therefore c
 · a

0
(1  s  s)a

( 1  m  m)b
 and a
 · a

m2a
 · a

(1  2s)a

(2m  1)b
. m2
1
a
 and b
 are linearly independent m
but m > 0 therefore m
1 and
1

EB


a
, hence E is the midpoint of AB.
therefore 1  2s
0, s
 AE
2
1
and 2m  1
0, m

2 9. A


(1  s)a

BE
→
1

 a
 b
2


sa

ED c
→ D

1 →

 a
 b
2


ED
therefore BE
.
B C
Similarly AE

1 b
 and the diagonals bisect


EC →
a
2
each other.
∆ABC is right angled at B. D is the midpoint of AC.
8. l

DC

b
, BA


c
 and BC


a
.
Let AD
Now c

BD
  b

and a

BD
  b

since a
 ⊥ c
, a
 · c

0
O
  b
) · (BD
therefore (BD
  b
)
0
→
c



b


0

BD 2 2




b


and
BD
A B
E hence the midpoint of the hypotenuse is equidistant
from the three vertices of the triangle.

78 Chapter 6: Linear Combinations

10. D a
→ hence K divides BD in the ratio n:1
C
→
b

n AD
and AK
  1 AB

.
→ n1 n1
b
A → 12. A
a B

ABCD is a parallelogram with


DC
AB

a



BC

b
. X P B
AD


2 
AC
Prove
DB

2

AD


2 
DC


2 
CB
2 


2 or
DB

BA

2 
AC


2
2
a

2  2
b

2.


a
  b
.
In ∆ADB: DB


a
  b
.
In ∆ABC: AC C



DB
Now
DB 2
 · DB


(a
  b
) · (a
  b
)


a

2  2a
 · b
 
b

2 ∆ABC is inscribed in a circle with centre X. A point P


2
AC

AC
 · AC


(a
  b
) · (a
  b
)

XA
is such that XP
  XB
  XC
. Since X is the


a

 2a
 · b
 
b

2.
2



XB
centre,
XA



XC


.
Adding
AC


DB



2
a

 2
b

, hence
2 2 2 2


XC
a. In ∆PXC, CP
  XP


the sum of the squares of the diagonals of any


XC
CP
 XA

  XB

  XC


parallelogram is equal to the sum of the squares of
the four sides.

XA
CP
  XB

.


XA
b. From ∆AXB, AB
  XB


11. D C

 · AB
CP

(XA

  XB

) · (XA
  XB

)



XB


XA 2

2
K


and
XB
But X is the centre of the circle and
XA






XB
are radii, therefore
XA

and CP

 · AB


0

 · AB
Since CP

0, CP

 ⊥ AB

.
A B

XB
In ∆PXB, BP
  XP




XA
BP
  XC

.


nDC
ABCD is a trapezoid with AB
. DB and AC

XA
Now AC
  XC




nDC
intersect at K. Since AB
,
 · AC
BP


XA



XC
2

2
∠BAK
∠KCD
0.
∠ABK
∠KDC
 ⊥ AC
therefore BP

then ∆ABK ~ ∆KDC.

XA
In ∆PXA, AP
  XP




XB
AP
  XC

.

AB



AK



BK



Now  

.

C
K
K

XB
Now BC
  XC


D
C
D





 · BC
AP

(XB

  XC

) · (XB

  XC

)


nDC
But AB

0.

 ⊥ BC
Therefore AP
.

AB



BK



therefore  
n and 
n
, BP

, and CP

 are perpendicular to BC,

C


D 1
K
D
1 c. Since AP
AC, and AB respectively, P is common to all three

AB



BK


vectors, and these altitudes are concurrent.
therefore  
n and 
n



DC
1


KD
1

Chapter 6: Linear Combinations 79

13. a. →
a 14. B
A B A

K
→
→
b O b

O
C
F

D → C
a


DC
ABCD is a rectangle with AB

a
 E D


BC
AD

b
.
Let O be any point. ABCDEF is a regular hexagon with centre O. Diagonals


OD
In ∆OAD, OA
  b
. AC and BE intersect at K. Join AO and OC. ∆AOB and
∆BOC are congruent equilateral triangles. AOCB is a


OD
In ∆OCD, OC
  a
.
parallelogram. Diagonals AC and OB bisect each other.

 · OC
OA

(OD

  b
) · (OD

  a
) Therefore K divides AC in the ratio 1:1.

OD
 · OD

  OD
 · (b
  a
)  a
 · b
. Now BK
KO
a
EO
OB
2a
But a
 ⊥ b
, therefore a
 · b

0 and a
  b

DB

.
and BK:KE
1:3 therefore K divides BE in the

 · OC
Therefore OA

OD

 · OD

  OD

 · DB

 ratio 1:3.

 · (OD

OD
  DB

)

 · OC
OA

OD

 · OB

 15. a. A

  DB
(in ∆DOB, OD

OB

). →
2b
→


OB
b. In ∆OAB, OA
  a
 td
F

 · OA


(OB

  a
) · (OB

  a
)
s) →
OA
c
–


2

OB

OA

2  2a
 · OB

  a
 · a
. ➀
(1

→


OD
In ∆DOC, OC
  a
 D 3b
sc →

→

 · OC
OC

(OD

  a
) · (OD

  a
) (1 – t) d


2

OD

OC

2  2a
 · OD

  a
 · a
. ➁
B →
a E →
2a
C
Adding ➀ and ➁:


2 
OC

OA

2

OB


2 
OD


2  2a
 · (OD

  OB

)


2b
, FC


3b
,
 2a
 · a
. Let AF


a
, EC


2a
.
Now 2a
 · (OD

  OB

)  2a
 · a

2a
 · (OD

  OB

  a
) BE


sc
, DF


(1  s)c


2a
 · b
 BD


td
, DE
and AD

(1  t)d
.
(from quadrilateral ABOD).
But a
 ⊥ b
, therefore 2a
 · b

0 From ∆BDE


2 
OC
and
OA

2

OB


2

OD


2. sc

a
  (1  t)d
. ➀
From ∆BFC
3a

c
  3b

1
a

 c
  b
.
3

80 Chapter 6: Linear Combinations

Substituting for a
 in ➀ b. A

1
sc

 c
  b
  (1  t)d
. ➁ 2
3
In ∆ADF, 2b

td
  (1  s)c
.
F
2 8k
Substitute for b
 in ➁
4
1 1 1
sc

 c
   td
   (1  s)c
  (1  t)d
. 10k
3 2 2 12k 3
D
Collecting terms 5 1
5k 10k
1 1 1 1
(s       s)c

(k  1  t)d
 B
1 E 2
C
3 2 2 2
3 5
 3
( s  )c
( t  1)d
. We place the ratios given in the problem and
2 6 2
calculated in part a on the diagram. We use the
Since c
 and d
 are linearly independent proposition that areas of triangles having the same
altitude are proportional to their bases.
3 5 3 Join CD
 s  
0 and  t  1
0
2 6 2 ∆BED:∆DEC
1:2.
5 2 Let ∆BED
5k
s
 t
 therefore ∆DEC
10k.
9 3
Also ∆ABD:∆BDE
2:1
Now BD

5 c


2 d

AD and ∆BDA
10k.
9 3 Now ∆ABD:∆ADF
5:4


4 c
 1


 d
 therefore ∆ADF
8k
DF DE
9 3 and ∆ADF:∆FDC
2:3
and ∆FDC
12k.


:
DE

AD


2:1 Quad CEDF
22k
∆ABC
45k.

BD


Quad CEDF:∆ABC
22:45.

5

D
F
4 16. Given parallelogram ABCD, DC is extended to E so


:
DF



5:4 that DE:EC
3:2 therefore C divides DE in the

BD
DC 1
D divides AE in the ratio 2:1 and BF in the ratio 1:2, i.e., 
.
CD 2
ratio 5:4.
ABDE therefore ∠BAF
∠FEC, ∠ABF
∠EFC,
and ∆ABF ~ ∆ECF
AF BF AB DC 1
hence 



 (AB
DC).
EF CF CE CE 2
Therefore F divides BC in the ratio 1:2 and AE in the
ratio 1:2.

Chapter 6: Linear Combinations 81

 The following is a vector solution to question 16. 17. a., b. P
→
A a B
→
→ tb F
sc → T
→ (1 – s)c B A
→
(1 – t)b →
a 2a
D E
C

Since DE:EC
3:2, DC:CE
1:2 Q

ABCD is a parallelogram.


DC
Let AB

a
. In quadrilateral AP
AQ and


2a

CE BP
BQ.


tb
, FC


(1  t)b
 Let BA and PQ intersect at T.
BF
In ∆APB and ∆AQB


sc
, FE
AF

(1  s)c
 AP
AQ
In ∆ABF, tb

a
  sc
. ➀ PB
QB
AB is common
In ∆FCE, 2a

(1  t)b
  (1  s)c

therefore ∆APB  ∆AQB
1 1
therefore a

 (t  1)b
   (1  s)c
. and ∠PAB
∠QAB.
2 2 AP
AQ
Substitute for a
 in ➀ AT is common.
Therefore ∆APT  ∆AQT
1 1
tb

 (1  t)b
   (1  s)c
  sc
 and PT
QT, hence AB bisects PQ
2 2
and ∠ATP
∠ATQ
x
2tb

b
  tb
  c
  sc
  2sc
 2x
180°
b
(3t  1)
c
(3s  1). x
90°, hence AB is perpendicular to PQ.
or
Since b
 and c
 are linearly independent
Since A is equidistant from P and Q, A is on the
3t  1
0 and 3s  1
0 perpendicular bisector of PQ. Similarly B is
1 1 equidistant from P and Q and B is on the
t
. s
. perpendicular bisector of PQ therefore AB is the
3 3
perpendicular bisector of PQ, i.e., AB ⊥ PQ and


1 b

Therefore BF

1 c

Therefore AF AB bisects PQ.
3 3


2 b

and FC

2 c

and FE 18. N
3 3


:
FC

BF


1:2.

:
FE

AF


1:2.

Therefore F divides BC in the ratio 1:2 and AF in the

ratio 1:2. M

 ⊥ PQ
MNPQ is a tetrahedron with MN
, MP

 ⊥ NQ

.

 ⊥ NP
Show MQ
.

 ⊥ PQ
Since MN
, MN

 · PQ


0

 ⊥ NQ
and MP
, MP

 · NQ


0.

82 Chapter 6: Linear Combinations



MN
Now MQ
  NQ

 e. Let a

(0, 1, 0), b

(0, 0, 7), and c

(7, 0,


NQ
and NP
  QP

 0). Since a
, b
, and c
 are vectors along the y-axis,

 · NP
MQ

(MN

  NQ

) · (NQ

  QP

) z-axis, and x-axis respectively, the three vectors are

 · NQ

MN
  MN

 · QP

  NQ

 · NQ

  mutually perpendicular, not coplanar, and hence

 · QP
NQ
 linearly independent.

 · (MN

NQ
  NQ

  QP

), MN

 · QP


0

 · MP

NQ
, MP


MN

  NQ

  QP

. 3. Since c

t2a
  b
 and d

(2t  3)(a
  b
) are

 · NP
Since MQ

NQ

 · MP


0, MQ

 ⊥ NP

. linearly dependent, d

kc
.
Therefore (2t  3)(a
  b
)
k(t2a
  b
)
(2t  3)a
  (2t  3)b

kt2a
  kb

Review Exercise
(b
t2  2t  3)a
  (k  2t  3)b

0
.
1. a. Since (2, 3) ≠ k(4, 3), vectors (2, 3) and (4, 3) Since a
 and b
 are linearly independent
may be used as basis vectors for a plane. kt2 (2t  3)
0 ➁
b. Let (3, 1)
a(2, 3)  b(4, 3). and k (2t  3)
0. ➀
Equating components gives:
From ➀ k
(2t  3).
2a  4b
3 ➀
3a  3b
1 ➁ Substitute into ➁ (2t  3)t2  (2t  3)
0.

3 11 Factor (2t  3)(  t2  1)
0

  ➀  ➁: 9b

2 2 2t  3
0 or  t2  1
0
3
11 5 t
 t2
1
b
 and a
 2
18 18 3
The only real solution is t
 and from ➀ k
0.
5 11 2
hence (3, 1)
 (2, 3)   (4, 3). 3
18 18


Therefore c and d are linearly dependent when t
.
2


(3, 5, 6), v

(6, 10, 12), w


(3, 5, 6). 3 9
2. a. Let u We note that for t
, c

a
  b
, and d

0
.
2 4
Since v
 can be written as a linear combination of
u
 and w

, v

2u
  0w

, the vectors u
, v
, and w

 are 4. Expressing any of the vectors as a linear combination

linearly dependent. of the other two gives

a
  2b
  c

p(2a
  b
)  q(a
  b
  c
)
b. Let a

(5, 1, 1), b

(6, 5, 2), c

(3, 8, 2),
from which
and d

(40, 39,29). These vectors are linearly
(1  2p  q)a
  (2  p  q)b
  (1  q)c

0.
dependent since four vectors in R3 are always
Since a
, b
, and c
 are linearly independent,
linearly dependent.
1  2p  q
0, ➀
c. Let u

(7, 8, 9), v

(0, 0, 0), w


(3, 8, 6). 2  p  q
0, ➁
Now au
  bv
  cw


0
 if a
c
0 and b can 1  q
0. and ➂
be a number other than zero, hence, u
, v
, and w

 are From ➀ and ➂, q
1, p
0.
linearly dependent. From ➁ 2  0  1
1 ≠ 0.
p
0, q
1 does not satisfy equation ➁, therefore a

d. Let u

(7, 8) and v

(14, 19). Since u

 ≠ kv
,
 2b
  c
 cannot be written as a linear combination
u
 and v
 are not parallel, hence are linearly
of 2a
  b
 and a
  b
  c
, i.e., they are not coplanar,
independent.
hence are linearly independent.

Chapter 6: Linear Combinations 83

5. a. For ∆ABC with vertices A(0, 0), B(5, 6), C(2, 0), 7. B
7

 
5
the midpoint of AB is , 3 , of AC is (1, 0), and
2 1 M
A

 
7
of BC is , 3 . The position vector of the
2
centroid G of a triangle is given by
O


1(OA
OG
  OB
  OC
).
3

OA
From ∆OAM, OM
  AM




1[(0, 0)  (5, 6)  (2, 0)]
For ∆ABC, OG
3

1 AB
but AM

8
 
7

, 2 .

OA
  OB

 (from ∆OAB).
3 and AB

 
7
Therefore the centroid is , 2 .
  1 AB


OA
Therefore OM

3 8
b. For ∆ABC with vertices A(4, 7, 2), B(6, 1, 1),
  1(OA

OA
  OB

)
8

 

7 OA

  1 OB
1
.
C(0, 1, 4), the midpoint of AB is 5, 4,  , OM
2 8 8

 
3
of AC is (2, 3, 3), and of BC is 3, 0,  . 8. a. Q
2

 
10 7 5
The centroid of ∆ABC is , ,  . M
3 3 3


3 ON
6. Since OM
  2 OP

, M divides NP

 in the N
5 5
ratio 2:3.


4 ON
Since OM
  1 OQ

, M divides NQ

 in the O
5 5
ratio 1:4.

ON

  OM


In ∆OMN, NM
2 3
Q

2 OM
but ON
  11 OQ

.
N M P 9 9
1
4


2 OM
Therefore NM
  11 OQ

  OM


9 9


5k.
Let NM
2k, MP
3k, then MQ
8k and PQ 11
 11


 OM   OQ
a. P divides NQ in the ratio 5:5
1:1. 9 9
11


b. Q divides NM in the ratio NQ:QM
10:8
 (OM  OQ ).

5:4. 9

  OQ
In ∆OMQ, OM

QM

.


11 QM
Therefore NM

9

QM
NM
 and N, M and Q are collinear. We note


>
QM
that
NM

, NM

 and QM
 have the same
direction; therefore we find Q between N and M,
and N divides MQ in the ratio 11:2.

84 Chapter 6: Linear Combinations

 9 9
11 Substitute in ➁: (1  7s)a

sa
  (1  k)d
  7kd

2 2
M
   
N 9 9 9
2
Q 1  7s  s a

  k  7k d

9 2 2 2

   
23 9 23
1  s a

  k d

b. Since M divides NQ in the ratio 11:9 2 2 2


9 ON
OM
  11 OQ

. a
 and d
 are linearly independent.
2 2
23 9 23
or Therefore 1  s
0 and   k
0
2 2 2
2 9


2 OM
Since ON
  11 OQ

 s
 k

9 9 23 23


2OM
9ON
  11OQ



21a

BR

4d

CR
1
23 23


9ON

  11OQ


2OM

2a

RP

9d

RQ
23 23


9ON
and OM
11


   OQ .
2 2

:
RP
therefore
BR


21:2.

:
RQ
therefore
CR


14:9.

9. A R divides BP in the ratio 21:2 and R divides CQ in the

→
ratio 14:9.
c
→
Q 3b 10. A
→ → D
a sc →
→ → E (1 – k)d
kd sa P kd
→
K
→
6c →
4a (1 – s)c
→
R
→

→
→ 4b
(1 – s)a (1 – k)d B → →
C
3b F b

B C
In parallelogram ABCD, let


3b
, FC
BF

b
, AD


4b
, AE


a
, EB


4a
, DC





c
, QB
In ∆ABC, let AQ

6c
,
5a
, FK


(1  s)c
, KA


sc
, EK


kd
,


3b
, PC
AP

4b
,


(1  k)d
.
KD


(1  s)a
, RP
BR

sa
,
In ∆AEK, kd

a
  sc
. ➀


(1  k)d
, RQ
CR

kd
.
In ∆ABF, 5a

c
  3b

In ∆BQR (1  s)a

6c
  kd
 ➀
1 3
In quad AQRP, c

3b
  2a
  kd
. a

c
  b
.
5 5
Substitute in ➀: (1  s)a

18b
  6sa
  6kd
  kd
 1
 3
Substitute in ➀: kd
c  b
  sc



(1  7s)a

18b
  7kd
. ➁ 5 5

 
1 3
In ∆PCR: 4b

sa
 (1  k)d
 kd

  s c
  b
. ➁
5 5
1 1
b

sa
  (1  k)d
.


In ∆AKD, 4b
sc  (1  k)d

4 4
1 1
b

sc
  (1  k)d
.
4 4

Chapter 6: Linear Combinations 85

 Substitute in ➁:
Now AD
 


1 b
  c
 · b
  c


 · BC
2 
 
1 3 3
kd

  s c
  sc
  (1  k)d


1
5 20 20
 b
 · b
  c
 · c

2
   
3 3 1 3
k    k d

  s  s c


1
20 20 5 20

b

2 
c

2 .
2
2k  d

(  s)c
.
23 3 1 23
0 20 5 20 But
b



c

, therefore AD

 · BC


0 and AD

 ⊥ BC

.

Since c
 and d
 are linearly independent, The median to the base of an isosceles triangle is

23 3 1 23 perpendicular to the base.

k  
0 and   s
0
20 20 5 20
3 4 12.
k
 s

23 23
180º


3d
,
therefore EK

19c
,
FK
23 23 A

M


20d

KD

4c

KA
23 23 →
a


:
KE
and
DK


20:3.

:
KF
and
AX


4:19. → B
b
O
Therefore K divides DE in the ratio 20:3 and AF in the
ratio 4:19.

11. A

Given a circle with centre O, AB is a chord with

midpoint M.
→
→
c b

b
, OA
Let OB

a
.


and
OB
Since
OA

are radii
a



b

and in ∆OAB,
∠OAB
∠OBA

and the angle between AB
 and
a
 is 180° 
.
B D C

Since M is the midpoint of AB


c
, AC
∆ABC is isosceles with AB

b
,

1a
  1b
.
OM
2 2
and
c



b

.
AD is a median, D is the midpoint of BC.
Now OM
2 


1 a
  b
 · AB

 · AB


1
  1b
 · AB

a
 · AB



1b
  1c

Therefore AD 2 2
2 2
1


a


AB


cos(180° 
) 


b
  c
.
BC 2
1

b


AB


cos
.
2

But
a



b

.

Therefore OM
 · AB


0 and OM
 ⊥ AB
,
i.e., a line through the centre of a circle and the
midpoint of a chord is perpendicular to the chord.

86 Chapter 6: Linear Combinations

13. A

2PQ
therefore AC


 · AC
and AC

2PQ

 · 2PQ


→
c →

2
4
PQ

AC

2. ➀
b


2
4
SR
Similarly in ∆ADC,
AC

2. ➁
E F


By joining SP, BD, and RQ we have DB
2SP
→


2
4
SP

DB

2 ➂
→
c b

2RQ
and DB
,
DB


2
4
RQ


2. ➃
Adding ➀, ➁, ➂, ➃:
B C

2 
AC

AC

2 
DB


2 
DB


2


2  4
SR

4
PQ

2  4
SP


2  4
RQ


2.
∆ABC is isosceles with AB
AC. CE and BF
Divide by 2:
are medians.


EA
Let BE

c



2 
DB

AC 


2
2
PQ


2 
SR


2 
SP


2 
RQ


2 .



FC
AF

b
.


2PQ
Since AC

2SR
, PQRS is a parallelogram.
Since
2c



2b

and
c



b

. We have seen that the sum of the squares of the


c
  2b

In ∆AEC, EC diagonals of a parallelogram is equal to the sum of the

 · EC


(c
  2b
) · (c
  2b
) squares of the four sides. PR and SQ are the diagonals
EC

c
 · c
  4c
 · b
  4b
 · b
 of parallelogram PQRS, therefore


c

2  4c
 · b
  4
b

2.

2 
SQ

PR

2

PQ



SR


2 
SP


2 
RQ


2
But
c



b




2
5
b

2  4c
 · b
.
therefore
EC


2 
DB
and
AC

2
2
PR



2 
SQ


2



2c
  b

In ∆BAF, BF i.e., the sum of the squares of the diagonals of a

 · BF
BF

4c
 · c
  4c
 · b
  b
 · b
 quadrilateral is equal to twice the sum of the squares
of the line segments joining the midpoints of the

4
c

2  4c
 · b
 
b

2. opposite sides.
But
c



b




2
5
b

2  4c
 · b


BF 15. A


2

BF
therefore
EC

2 and
EC




BF


.

The medians to the equal sides of an isosceles triangle

are equal.
F E
14. B
P Q
A

B C
D
S
Q
a. AB
  1AC

 · (QD
)
AB

 · (QD

  CE

)
D 2

 · (QD

AB
  DF

)
R (F and D are midpoints of BA and BC, therefore
C

1CA
DF

CD

)
2
ABCD is a quadrilateral. P, Q, R, and S are the
 · QF

AB

midpoints of the sides as shown in the diagram.
 ⊥ QF

0 (since AB
).
In ∆ABC, P and Q are the midpoints of AB and CB

Chapter 6: Linear Combinations 87

 b. AC
  1AB

 · (QD
)
AC

 · (QD

  BF

) 3. a.
2

 · (QD

AC
  DE

) B

 · QD

AC


 ⊥ QE

0 (since AC
).
→
b

 · QD
c. Since AB


  1AC


0
AC
2 
  1AB

 · QD

2  
A
AB
  1AB

 · QD
 · AC


AC
  1AC

 · QD
 · AB

 →
2 2 c
O

 · QD
AB
  AC

 · QD


0
→

 · (AB
QD
  AC

)
0 a

 · CB
QD

0.

 · QD
d. Since CB

0, CB

 ⊥ QD

. Q is common to
the perpendicular bisectors QE, QF, and QD,

ra

BA
hence the perpendicular bisectors are concurrent.

sb

OB
From the graph a

(2, 4), b

(8, 7), and
Chapter 6 Test c

(13, 2).
If c

ra
  sb
, then
1. a. Three vectors u
, v
, and w

 are linearly independent.
2r  8s
13 ➀
Let
u


3,
v

2, and
w


1 and their
4r  7s
2 ➁
directions be along the x, y, and z axes respectively. ➀2 4r  16s
26 ➂
These vectors do not lie in the same plane since each is ➁➂ 23s
28
perpendicular to the plane defined by the other two, they 28
s
.
are not coplanar hence are linearly independent. 23

b. The cross product of any two vectors u
 and v
, u

  v
, is a
vector perpendicular to both u
 and v
. Now if (u
  v
) · w


28
 
Substituting in ➀, 2r  8 
13
23

 will also be perpendicular to u
  v
 hence parallel

0, w 75
2r

23
to both u
 and v
. Thus, u
, v
, and w
 are coplanar. If
75
(u
  v
) · w

 ≠ 0, u
, v
, and w

 are linearly independent. r
.
46
75 28
2. 10 Then c

 a
   b
.
3 46 23
Q P
R

P divides QR in the ratio 10:3.


3 OQ
a. OP
10


   OR .
7 7
b. R divides QP in the ratio 7:3


3 OQ
therefore OR
  7 OP

.
10 10

88 Chapter 6: Linear Combinations

4. 6. a. A(4, 2, 8), B(1, 4, 2), P(1, 8, 2)


(5, 10, 10)
5(1, 2, 2)
AP


(2, 4, 4)
2(1, 2, 2).
BP


5BP
→
w B Since AP
, A, B, and P are collinear.
2
→
u

sOA
b. Let OP
  tOB


20º (1, 8, 2)
s(4, 2, 8)  t(1, 4, 2).
35º Equating components:
C
A 4s  t
1 ➀
→
v 2s  4t
8 divide by 2: s  2t
4 ➁
8s  2t
2 divide by 2: 4s  t
1 ➂
u
, v
, and w

 are coplanar
2  ➀  ➁: 9s
6

u


5,
v


12,
w


18, and angles as shown in
2
the diagram. s
.
3


u
, draw a line parallel to w
From the head of AB
 8
Substitute in ➀   t
1
meeting v
 at C. 3


av
 and
Let AC 5
t
.


bw
. 3
CB


2OA
  5OB

.
Now u

av
  bw

. Therefore OP
3 3
In ∆ABC, ∠BAC
35°, ∠ACB
180°  55°
or

125°
and ∠ABC
20°.

5BP
From a: AP

2
From the sine law
3 2
a
v

b
w


u




 A P
sin 20° sin 35° sin 125° B

u

sin 20°
u

sin 35°
a
  b
 
 in the ratio 5:2
Therefore P divides AB
v
 sin 125°



w

sin 125°


2OA
and OP
  5OB

.
a
0.1739. b
0.1945. 3 3
Therefore u

0.17v
  0.19w

.
7. D
P
5. a. 5 2 6

A P G F A

S
F divides AP in the ratio 13:8. Q
F divides PQ in the ratio 4:3
8:6.
B
b. P divides AG in the ratio 5:2.
R
C

Chapter 6: Linear Combinations 89

 Given quadrilateral ABCD with midpoints P, Q, R,
and S as shown. Join PS, AC, and QR.

 and DC
In ∆PAC, P and S are midpoints of DA



1AC
therefore PS

2


1AC
Similarly in ∆BAC: QR

2


QR
therefore PS
 and PQRS is a parallelogram. (In
a quadrilateral, if one pair of opposite sides are equal
and parallel, the quadrilateral is a parallelogram.)

8. A

sc→ →
tb

D E
→ →
(1 – s)c (1 – t)b

B C

In ∆ABC, D and E are in AB and AC respectively so


kBC
that DE
.


sc
, DB
Let AD

(1  s)c
, AB


c



tb
, EC
AE

(1  t)b
, AC


b
.


sc
  tb
.
In ∆ADE, DE
In ∆ABC, BC

c
  b
.
Since DE

kBC

sc
  tb

k(c
  b
)
kc
  kb

(k  s)c
  (k  t)b
.
c
 and b
 are linearly independent.
Therefore k  s
0 and kt
0
s
k. t
k.


kc

Now AD

kb

AE


kAB
AD
.

kAC
AE
.

90 Chapter 6: Linear Combinations