YOHANAN GRINSHPON YOGIC REVOLUTION AND TOKENS OF CONSERVATISM IN VY ASA-YOGA 1.

Yoga embodies a conspicuously high potential for alternative, even revolutionary modes of experience, knowledge and values. The yogin featured in Pata~ njala-yoga can change the natural (physical) order of the world, moving freely through solids etc.; 1 he is also capable of manipulating other aspects of his environment. Thus, he transforms the instinctual behavior of other creatures, 2 creates financial resources by meditation,3 employs alternative ways of learning and knowledge, etc. Indeed, the yogin crosses boundaries withinsam . s ara, seeking visible transcendence, different from ultimate liberation (which is invisible transcendence). 4 Yoga creates an alternative universe, different not only from our ordinary sam . saric one, but to some extent also from the accepted universe of the Hindu thinkers of old such as Vyasa. 5 2.Yogic meditation underlies the yoga-universe. The meditative experience along with its causal and epistemological implications is the true core of yoga. Vyasa captures this meaning of Pata~ njala-yoga when he says: yoga issam adhi(yogah . sam adhih. ). 6 The meditative yogin is ultimately autonomous, 7 free of traditional wisdom ( agama, etc.), discursive thinking and sensual stimulation. Most telling among Pata~ njalis statements in this respect is YS 1.6. Pata~ njali views here the three means of right knowledge as a vr . tti, a mental activity to be eradicated along with others (such as a mistaken or empty cognition). 8 Indeed, the meditating yogin achieves an alarming independence of nature, culture and society. Whatever the ontological modality of the unfolding meditative experience, classical yoga outlines a meditationproduced universe which is different from that shared by most of the Hindu philosophers and commentators. The revolutionary potential of yoga is a challenge for intellectuals such as Vyasa, who reflects on the measure of commensurability of yogic experience and possibilities with his own self-understanding. How does Vyasa interpret the revolutionary possibilities of yoga as these are expressed in Pata~ njalis Yogas utra? Does Vyasas accommodation of

Journal of Indian Philosophy 25: 129138, 1997. c 1997Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands. 130 YOHANAN GRINSHPON yogic alternative culture to his own involves a significant banalization of Pata~ njalis conception of the yoga-universe? To what extent do intellectuals or commentators affiliated with yoga creatively develop and gloss over these possibilities? 3.Vyasa is evidently the most important commentator in the tradition known as Pata~ njala-yoga. His commentary on Pata~ njalis Yogas utra has become a paradigm for interpretations of thes utrasup to this day. Patterns of his thought and self-understanding are thus crucial for the history of yoga. The relationship of Pata~ njalis Yogas utra with Vyasasbh as. yais of course very complex and cannot be adequately described without considering the two texts in their entirety. However, the tokens of conservatism on Vyasas part highlight a certain aspect of this relationship. 3.1The main proposition laid down in this paper is that Vyasas attitude toward the revolutionary potential of yoga, as it is often suggested by Pata~ njali, is largely conservative, 9 and sometimes amounts to an apparent banalization of Pata~ njalis messages. The meaning of conservatism in this context is that the commentators primary concern in his intellectual endeavor is to accommodate various aspects of the yoga-universe into his own well-established, not necessarily yogic view of man and the world. While such a concern is of course necessarily legitimate, its measure and effects should be understood, if one is to be open to the otherness of the yoga-universe. 4.The following is a discussion of five episodes in Vyasas Yogabhas . ya. These episodes are tokens of Vyasas conservatism. Vyasa describes the yogin who potentially defies the laws of nature as a person who prefers nonetheless conformity to the existing order. 10 Although capable of creating a new physics, full of marvelous benefits, the yogin sticks to the universe of old, complying with the wish of authority in the shape of thep urva-siddha. 11 The yogin called upon by Pata~ njali to cultivate equanimity (upeks. a) toward evil people and thus to erase the distinction between good and evil (or dharmaand adharma), is looked upon by Vyasa with certain ambivalence and he is denied the benefits of meditation. 12 The yogin who can know geography by intense meditation (rather than by study) finds out information which is well-known from other traditional sources. 13 Likewise is the case with the knowledge produced by meditation when compared with that revealed in the Veda. 14

By his practice of meditation the yogin reaches deep levels of consciousness. He is capable of knowing ultimate truths independently of any source other than meditation. However, the truths YOGIC REVOLUTION AND TOKENS OF CONSERVATISM IN VY ASA-YOGA131 revealed to him by means of yogic meditation are essentially those made known by the Veda.15 4.1It may be pre-mature to view Vyasa as a staunch conservative on the evidence of the episodes discussed below. However, such episodes are tokens of conservatism, not insignificant in the overall assessment of Vyasas intellectual identity and self-understanding as a commentator. 5.Pata~ njalis YS 3.45 adds to the list of supra-normal powers of the yogin, a list which occupies most of the thirdp adaof the Yogas utras. In YS 3.45 the classical powers (mah asiddhis) such as becoming minute (an. im adi) are mentioned. The yogin obtains the power of becoming small and so forth, as well as other bodily perfections. He is not obstructed by the resistance of the objects. The yoga universe is soft and fluid, and the boundary between possible and impossible does not seem rigid. There is an evident sense of freedom in the transcendence of the ordinary, sam . saric limitations. In YSBh 3.45 Vyasa adds some concrete details to the s utra. He says that the yogin is capable of defying the nature of the earth by penetrating it, the nature of water by not being immersed in it and of controlling the gross elements as well as their more subtle causes (va sitvam . bh uta-bhautikes. uva s bhavati). 5.1How does Vyasa welcome this coming into being of the yoga universe? He does not deny the feasibility of the new physics, but he seems to raise an objection in terms of its desirability. In his commentary on YS 3.45, Vyasa denies the willingness on the part of the adept yogin to interfere with the laws of nature which control this world. He explains that the order of the world as we know it is essentially sanctioned by thep urva-siddha, the perfect being of old, apparently Isvara. Wishing to comply with the will of the p urva-siddha, though he is capable of disrupting the order of things, the yogin does not do it (na ca sakto pi pad artha-vipary asam . karoti). Thus, the sense of yogic conservatism in Vyasas proposition is direct and explicit. The yogin featured by Vyasa imposes severe restrictions upon himself for the sake of preserving the existing universe. The invocation of the will of Isvara adds a dimension of sanctity to the ordinary, non-yogic existence and thus an enhanced sense of conservatism to Vyasas general attitude and approach. 16 6.Among the various practices and exercises which underlie the yoga-universe outlined by Pata~ njali there are some designed to create an emotional climate different from the one based upon natural instincts and psychology. The cultivation of certain feelings is part of the reversal of

natural or conditioned responses in the training offered in the Yogas utra. There are corresponding benefits (powers) related to the cultivation of 132 YOHANAN GRINSHPON the respective feelings. 17 According to Vyasas YSBh 3.23, the yogin who applies yogic meditation (sam . yama) to feelings such as friendship (maitry adi) becomes capable of such feelings (maitry adis. usam. yam an maitry adi-bal any asya bhavanti). Vacaspati mentions the capability of the yogin to promote the happiness of others by his power of friendship etc. 18 The feelings referred to in YS 3.23 are the four basic Buddhist virtues, and are the same as those listed by Pata~ njali in YS 1.33 (maitr-karun . amudit a-upeks. an. am . sukha-duh . kha-pun . y apun. ya-vis . ay an. am . bh avan ata s citta-pras adanam). In thiss utra,Pata~ njali associates each feeling with a certain class of people toward whom it should be cultivated. Thus, friendliness (maitr) should apply toward successful, happy people. Compassion (karun . a) should be exercised toward miserable ones, and joy (mudit a) toward people of virtue (pun. ya). Equanimity (upeks. a) should be applied to impure persons (apun. ya). 6.1In his Yogabh as . yaon YS 1.33 Vyasa changes nothing of the import of thes utra. However, in his bh as. yaon YS 3.23, Vyasa offers an interpretation which deviates from the apparent meaning of Pata~ njalis s utra. As seen above, in YS 3.23 Pata~ njali proposes that meditation on feelings such as friendliness (maitry adi) gives rise to certain powers. But in Vyasas view there is a difference. With respect to the fourth feeling referred to in YS 1.33, namely the feeling of equanimity (upeks. a), to be exercised toward people of bad nature (apun. y atmaka), Vyasa

says in YSBh 3.23 that it is significantly different from the others. He resorts to the nature of the objects of yogic meditation as a reason to reject the possibility of practising such a feeling. The reason is, he says, thatupeks. atoward people of bad conduct is not a feeling (bh avan a), and thussam adhicannot be applied to it. Thus, unlimited powers cannot be derived from such a meditation, sincesam . yama is impossible (bh avan atah. sam adhir yah. sa sam . yamah . . tato bal any abandhya-vry an. ij ayante. p apa- sles . upeks. anatubh avan a. tata sca tasy am . n asti sam adhir iti. ato na balam upeks. atas, tatra sam . yam abhav ad iti). 6.2However, Vyasas reason for the exclusion ofupeks. afrom the other three feelings is not fully convincing. If he resorts to the possibility of yogic meditation (to apply to objects such asupeks. a), then such a move does not seem reasonable. According to Vyasas own YSBh 3.23, the yogin seems to be proficient in friendship by means of practising friendship directlyupon well-off creatures (tatra bh utes. u sukhites. u maitrm . bhavayitv a, maitr-balam . labhate). Thus, in this context Vyasa does not mention yogic meditation (sam adhiorsam . yama) at all. And YOGIC REVOLUTION AND TOKENS OF CONSERVATISM IN VY ASA-YOGA133 the same pattern recurs as Vyasa refers to the acquisition of the power of compassion as due to practisingkarun . ain relation to afflicted persons (duh. khites . u karun. am .

bhavayitv a, karun. a-balam . labhate). And similarly with the acquisition of the feeling of joy (mudit a); yogic meditation is not referred to as a necessary vehicle in the production of the respective benefits. However, as seen above, with respect to the production of the power of overlooking the faults of evil people, 19 Vyasa introduces the impossibility of applying yogic meditation to equanimity, which is his reason to exclude upeks. afrom being an elevated feeling to be practised. In the absence of any reference to meditation in the case of the production of powers such as friendlessness, etc., it is likely that Vyasas resort tosam adhiandsam . yamain order to rule out the benefits of applyingupeks. ato evil people does not come out of his care about the proper objects of yogic meditation. Rather, it could stem from a particular interest such as the refusal to forgive evil behavior or to disregard the difference between good and bad people. Bad people, Vyasa seems to suggest, should be punished or denounced. Their impure behavior is not to be overlooked. Thus, Vyasas somewhat idiosyncratic commentary on YS 3.23 is a token of conservatism. 7.The acquisition of knowledge by the alternative channel of yogic meditation is one of the more important aspects of the yoga-universe prescribed (or described) by Pata~ njali. YS 3.26 (bhuvana-j~ n anam . s urye sam . yam at) is one of the s utraswhich deal with the cognitive supranormal attainments. Thes utrastates that the application of yogic meditation (sam . yama) to the sun 20 produces knowledge of the entire universe. 7.1Vyasasbh as . yaon YS 3.26 is one of his longer ones. He goes into much detail in the description of the various worlds and their inhabitants. He refers to the location of the seven worlds (sapta-loka), and then to the six great hells (mah a-naraka), where creatures live long, terrible lives, suffering the pains consequent upon the accumulation ofkarma. 21 He proceeds in hisbh as. yaby listing the seven nether worlds (sapta-p atala) and the earth with its mountains, oceans 22 and continents, etc. This knowledge of geography is thus obtained by means of meditation on one point (s urya). However, this most detailed description is familiar also to people who are not proficient in yogic meditation. Vyasas geography,

apparently to be known through the application of yogic meditation to the sun, 23 can also be known from other sources such as the Epics and the Puran . as. There is nothing new in the results obtained here by yogic meditation. The radically alternative means of knowledge at the yogins disposal produces no new cognitions. Among the commentators, 134 YOHANAN GRINSHPON the author of the Vivaran . a is the only one who ventures to bring forth the proposition (or objection) that Vyasas lengthy description of the sacred universe in YSBh 3.26 is redundant since it is well known to be available from other sources such as all the Puran . as (bh as. yam . tu gat artham . , sarva-pur an . a-prasiddhatv at). 7.2In this case, yogic meditation is, in Vyasas view, a vehicle of re-enactment or confirmation of knowledge well known to have been obtained from other sources. In this way, he integrates yogic meditation within the Brahmanical universe and identity. Rather than being a channel of experience and knowledge which potentially challenges Brahmanical perception and sensitivities, yogic meditation produces results identical with well known, mainstream truths. Moreover, yogic meditation corroborates these truths, as it does also with respect to the truths revealed in the Veda. 8.The Veda is a central component of Hindu identity. The way of integrating Vedic authority within the texture and meanings which underlie the yoga-universe is patently most important as a feature of classical yoga. In particular, of course, the resolution of the tension between the Veda and yogic meditation as means of knowledge (pram an. a)isof much interest in this context. As mentioned above, in YS 1.6 Pata~ njali includes the standard pram an. as(pratyaks. a, anum ana, agama) among the mind-fluctuations (vr . ttis) to be controlled or annihilated. 24 Thus, the inclusion of sacred tradition ( agama) as a mind-fluctuation on the same par as others such as wrong cognition (viparyaya) 25 or empty cognition (vikalpa) 26 could express a radical mystico-yogic orientation on Pata~ njalis part. Within such an

orientation, the tension between yogic meditation and the Veda as means of knowledge would become impossible to resolve. However, the resolution of such a tension must be of a crucial significance for Vyasa, if he is to accommodate yogic meditation within a Veda-accepting point of view. 8.1In YS 1.35 Pata~ njali says that the arising of object-related (meditational) activities brings about the stability of the mind. 27 Vyasa says that certain supra-normal sensations arise by focusing attention on certain areas in the body. Thus, for example, the mental activity of the one who concentrates on the tip of his nose (n asik agra) brings about an awareness of a celestial smell (divya-gandha-sam . vit). If the same kind of attention is focused on the tip of the tongue (jihv agra) a celestial taste is produced, and so forth. Such meditational activities, says Vyasa, are conducive to the formation of stability of mind. This stability of mind is the underlying theme of all the parikarma-s utraswhich Pata~ njali assembles in YS 1.3340. However, among the benefits of activities YOGIC REVOLUTION AND TOKENS OF CONSERVATISM IN VY ASA-YOGA135 such as the focusing of attention on the tip of the nose, etc. Vyasa mentions epistemological attainments beyond the benefits suggested by the s utra-k ara. Concentration on selected bodily spots removes doubts and constitutes an introduction to knowledge produced bysam adhi (sam . sayam . vidhamanti sam adhi-praj~ n ay am . ca dv ar-bhavantiti). Thus, yogic concentration becomes of much significance in Vyasasbh as. ya. Indeed, Vyasa proceeds in his YSBh 1.35, struggling to define the value of yogic meditation within a context of Veda-acceptance and affirmation. He says that the means of right knowledge (pram an. a)such as scripture, reasoning and the testimony of great teachers do express the truth with respect to various objects. Such objects are seen (by virtue of thepram an . as) according to their real nature (yath a-bh utam). However, adds Vyasa, even if there is (only) one truth (object) which is not experienced directly, then everything might become as if remote and obscure with respect to subtle truths such as Liberation (yady api hi tat tac ch astr anum an ac aryopade sair avagatam arthatattvam . sadbh utam eva bhavaty etes. am . yath a-bh ut artha-pratip adana-s amarthy at tath api y avad eka-de so pi ka scin na svakaran . a-sam . vedyo bhavati t avat sarvam .

paroks. am iv apavarg adis . us uks. mes. v-arthes . u). At this point in hisYSBh1.35Vyasa makes clear the reason why yogic meditation is necessary. (The indirect apprehension) does not make ones mind firm in its truthful conception (na dr. d. h am buddhim utp adayati). Yogic meditation confirms the truths accepted through the standard channels of knowledge (pram an. a). More specifically, yogic meditation could make indirectly obtained cognitions into direct perception (tasm ac ch astr anum an ac aryopade sopodbalan artham ev ava syam . ka scid vi ses . ah. pratyaks. -karttavyad . ). In this matter, as one particular object taught by the Veda becomes directly experienced, 28 everything subtle taught by scripture, up to the attainment of Liberation becomes trustworthy and reliable. This is precisely the purpose of the purification of mind prescribed (in thes utra)(tatra tad-upadis . t . arthaika-de sasya pratyaks . atve sati sarvam . sus uks . ma-vis. ayam apy aa. pavarg at su sradhyateetad artham evedam . citta-parikarma nirdi syate). 8.2Thus, yogic practice is presented by VyasainYSBh1.35asa necessary supplement to the authority of the Veda. There are, however, a few points of significance which are not quite clear in Vyasas commentary. How is meditation on bodily spots relevant to the truth of the Veda? How is the transition from meditation on the tip of the nose to the realization of the truth of liberation made? Can yogic meditation discover of itself Vedic truths? 136 YOHANAN GRINSHPON

8.3A second programmaticbh as. yain which Vyasa focuses on the relationship of yogic meditation and the authority of the Veda is his presentation of the nature ofsam adhi, following Pata~ njali in YS 1.4145. In YS 1.43 (smr . ti-pari suddhau svar upa- s unyev artha-m atranirbh as a nirvitark a)Pata~ njali describes an advanced state of meditation (nirvitarka-sam apatti) consequent upon the purification of memory (smr . ti-pari suddhi) in this context as the purification of the mind of its conventions of speech ( sabda-sam . keta). 29 Among the expressions of conventional speech are reasoning (anum ana) and scripture ( sruta). At this point, Vyasa defines yogic meditation as a full-fledgedpram an. a, of a much higher status than the standard means of knowledge. Yogic meditation is the ultimate perception of truth. The other, verbalized means of knowledge depend on the perception which consists of yogic contact with its objects.tat param . pratyaks. am . tac ca srut anum anayor bjam. tatah . srut anum ane prabhavatah. . Thus, Vyasa sees the Veda as derivative, secondary to the non-verbal meditative state of yogic consciousness from which Vedic teachings seem to spring. 8.4Vyasas conception in YSBh 1.43, of the relationship of yogic meditation and the Veda, is his most emphatic expression of the value and validity of the yoga-universe. The Veda does not seem non-human (apaurus. eya) in his YSBh 1.43, to be revealed or confirmed by yogic mental attainments. Rather, the Veda is the creation of yogins deeply immersed in meditation. Not only does such meditation corroborate Ve d ic tr u th s a s Vyasa conceives yogic meditation according to YSBh 1.35 it is their source. 8.5However different does Vyasas conception of the status of yogic meditation look according to YSBh 1.35 and 1.43, it shares in bothbh as. yasan element of central importance. In both cases there is an agreement between Vedic teaching and the truth revealed by yogic meditation. Whether yogic meditation corroborates already-known Vedic truths (as seems to be Vyasas suggestion in YSBh 1.35) or whether meditation produces the visions incorporated in the scriptures, the message of the Veda and the truth of yoga is the same. 9.A certain sense of conservatism is present and built-in in any case of understanding the foreign. Indeed, the boundary between creative openness to the other and a certain (unavoidable and legitimate) banalization of the deeply foreign message is hard to determine.

However, with respect to the otherness of yoga-universe caution is doubly recommended. Taking into account the tokens of conservative orientation on Vyasas part, a renewed sense of the otherness embedded in Pata~ njalis Yogas utra could perhaps be more accessible. YOGIC REVOLUTION AND TOKENS OF CONSERVATISM IN VY ASA-YOGA137 NOTES 1 Cf. Vyasas YSBh 3.45 and the discussion below. 2 Cf. YS 2.35. Pata~ njali describes the yogin established in the practice of noninjury (ahim . s a) as creating peace in his environment. According to Vacaspati, the natural animosity among various species stops in the vicinity of the yogin. 3 Cf. YS 2.37. 4 The yogin-mystic can abolishsam . s araaltogether. This type of transcendence is essentially invisible. Upon reachingmoks. aorkaivalya, it is primarily the inner condition which is involved (transformed). Thus, for example, in the tradition of Pata~ njala-yoga the progress towardkaivalyaimplies changes in the gun. a-constitution of the yogin, reduction of impurities (kle sa), the arising of a certain insight (viveka-khy ati)etc. Crossing boundaries withinsam . s arais different, being of immediate visible consequences. Immersed in deep meditational states yogins are said to be capable of becoming small or large, avoiding the resistance of seemingly solid objects, overcoming disease, hunger and thirst, etc. 5 Indian sages and scholars of old were of course aware of various aspects of yoga alternative universe. Above all, the powers consequent upon the application of yogic meditation as well as those which result from practices related totapas etc. were familiar to them. Moreover, some of the phenomena associated with the yoga universe were perhaps taken for granted by such scholars. however, to some extent the yoga universe was an alterative one, as can be seen from the tokens of conservatism discussed below. In particular, the tension between yogic meditation and the Veda as two competing means of knowledge (see below) reflects the anomistic potential of yoga. 6 YSBh. 1.1. 7 M. Eliade refers to the meditative methods described in the Yogas utra as techniques of autonomy. Cf. Yoga; Immortality and Freedom, rep. 1975, pp. 4795. 8 In the famous YS 1.2 (yoga s citta-vr . tti-nirodhah . )Pata~ njali states that yoga is the cessation (or eradication) of mental activities. In YS 1.61.11 he mentions the means of right knowledge (pram an. a), mistaken cognition (viparyaya), empty

cognition (vikalpa), sleep (nidr a) and memory (smr . ti) as the mental activities to be abolished. In YS YS 1.12 Pata~ njali says that the means whereby these mental conditions are stopped are practice (abhy asa) and detachment (vair agya). 9 Conservatism is a trait related both to persons (he is conservative by nature) and also to certain types of view. The impersonal air seems to fit certain aspirations (or pretensions) associated with some sorts of intellectual activist. Todays academics and Indian intellectuals of old share the preference for the impersonal tone in the presentation of their ideas. However, despite the impersonal style of Indian s astra literature (Cf. Halbfass, W. India and Europe, 1988, p. 390) it is desirable to be alert for the sake of sensitive reading to tokens of personality, personal predilections, etc. 10 Cf. the discussion below of YSBh 3.45. 11 Ibid. 12 Cf. the discussion below of YSBh 3.23. 13 Cf. the discussion below of YSBh 3.26. 14 Cf. the discussion below of YSBh 1.35 and 1.43. 15 Vyasa is aware of the tension between yogic meditation and the Veda as competing means of knowledge. See the discussion below of YSBh 1.35 and 1.43. 16 Vyasas commentary on YS 3.45 may also be understood as an attempt to explain the fact that the siddhis (such as are listed in YSBh 3.45) are not to be seen. 138 YOHANAN GRINSHPON Indeed, disbelief in the facts apparently reported by Pata~ njali could augment Vyasas conservatism. 17 Pata~ njali does not specify the powers which result from meditating on feelings such as friendliness (maitry adis. u bal ani) (YS 3.23). 18 TV 3.23. 19 Cf. Aran. ya, H. (1983) in his translation of YSBh 1.33. 20 The nature of the object of meditation in this case is controversial. Vacaspati considerss uryain this context as the opening of the energy-channel known as the sus . umn. a-nad (Cf. TV 3.26). King Bhoja takes s uryato be the real (physical) sun (Cf. BV 3.26). Vyasa and Vij~ nabhiks . u suggest thats uryais a sacred spot in the Hindu mythical space. 21 yatra sva-karmop arjita-duh.

kha-vedan ah. pr an. inah . kas . t . am ayuh. drghak alam aks. ipya j ayante. 22 Vyasa specifies the taste of the various oceans. They taste like sugarcane, wine, butter, curd, cream and milk. 23 Towards the end of his commentary (YSBh 3.26) Vyasa suggests that this knowledge of mythical geography could also be obtained by the application ofsam . yama to other objects (anyatr api) than the opening of the sun. This suggestion is most unusual in Vyasas Yogabhas . ya. Indeed, it contradicts the most essential rule in the teaching of the siddhis, namely that yogic meditation applied to a specific object yields a certain (specific) power. 24 Cf. YS 1.2. 25 Cf. YS 1.8. 26 Cf. YS 1.9. 27 YS 1.35:vis . ayavatv apravr. ttir utpann a manasah. sthiti-nibandhan. 28 Cf. YSBh 1.49. 29 A similar interest in the purification of the mind from the connections of speech is shown in YSBh 3.17. Tel Aviv University 3 Nakdimon St Jerusalem 19183 Israel