4 Chapter-2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE 2.1.

Research Status of Tomato crop for pulping Many investigators carried out considerable research work in developing mechanical processes in the past to harvest the tomato crop for effective processing, with special emphasis on strength of tomato skin for un-ruptured mechanical harvesting. The review of literature also revealed that researchers have attempted to study various forms of tomato processing such as extraction of tomato juice, freezing of tomatoes and tomato paste, peeling of tomatoes and pulping of tomatoes for safe human consumptions. Tomato pulping machines were designed and fabricated to ease the processing of tomatoes and reduce the drudgery of farm labor. Enormous work was also performed with regards to study of chemical and physical characteristics of tomato pulp for sorting useful effects for human health. A detailed review of past investigations with regards to parameters mentioned in above paragraph is given below. The review for the tomato crop and different types of pulp extracting machines has been discussed at length. The search from the journals, the internet and from library books was carried out for this purpose. It was relevant to isolate the crop and machine review according to certain characteristics such as the role of harvesting machines for ripe tomatoes, physical and chemical characteristics of tomatoes, various tomato processing machines for extraction of pulp etc. 2.1.1. Mechanical harvesting Meester (2007), stated that the invented system was a compact fruit-vine harvester and separation system in which the harvested fruit traveled along a vertical plane inside the harvester during processing, followed by a single turn for output. The system included a machine and related methods for harvesting vine-borne crops. The machine was relatively compact, and provided for vine borne crops to be severed, separated, cleaned and machinesorted along a straight path before making a single turn prior to exit. Harvested fruit passing through the machine experienced fewer drops than in other harvesters, thereby reducing the potential for fruit damage. The machine incorporated a blower and/or suction system for efficient removal of unwanted dirt, vegetation and debris, and an optional roller to prevent clogging of the suction system. *The harvesting machine developed was not selective for ripe or unripe tomatoes which every tomato extraction machine requires as a foremost condition. Note - *In italics are the criticism of the reviewed literature

5 Schultz et al., (2006), stated that among the advantages of processing tomatoes in the field, compared with processing solely at a cannery, were increased yield and reduced waste. Mechanically harvested tomatoes were processed at 500 lb/hr through a mobile field unit within six hour after harvest during the 1969 season. Processing within six hour from harvest prevented a loss of about 9.5% of the ripe tomatoes that occurred when processing was delayed by 24 hr. An increase of 4.3% in solids recovery was obtained by acid treatment of the hot macerate, bringing the total increase to 13.8% for field processing. Either the single strength or concentrated material was suitable for bulk transport to a cannery for storage, additional concentration, or immediate formulation into sauces, catsup and other tomato products. Mechanical extraction of tomato juice and separation of peel and seed process is a missing link in this mobile field unit. Brannstrom (2004), reported that a new and more efficient tomato harvesting machine was capable of simultaneously severing up to three (3) rows of tomato vines or other similar crops. The harvesting machine comprises pick up means adjacent to the forward end of the machine for picking up and severing vinous crops from the field, where the crops remained attached to the vines, as the vines were severed. The pickup means conveyors carry the crops and vines rearwardly and upwardly. The harvesting machine further comprises separating means for separating crops from the vines. The present invention comprises improvements to the pickup means and the separating means. These improvements allow a harvester to gather vines and crops from up to three adjacent rows simultaneously, and to process the increased volume of vines and crops without overloading the processing equipment. The harvesting machine is of little significance for tomato juice producers because of the incapability of segregating mature and immature bulk product. Bettencourt and Bettencourt (1986), stated that a tomato harvester having a standard tractor pulling a non-self powered harvester assembly partially supported on wheels and partially supported by the tractor. The harvester assembly had a main frame made up of two parallel longitudinal beams joined together by three transverse cross members, all lying approximately on the same horizontal plane. Brackets secured to the beams and extending down below them supported a pair of two-wheel truck assemblies, the wheels lying below the frame. The frame carried a pivotally attached pickup unit, with a cutter, a separator unit for separating the tomatoes from the plants, and a conveyor system for transporting the collected tomatoes and delivering them to bin-trailers. A tongue comprises the sole structural member tying together the harvester assembly and the tractor, and carried hydraulic conduits leading

6 from stated tractor power-take-off unit to operate the powered devices of the harvester assembly, including apparatus for automatically keeping the cutter at a constant depth below ground. The harvester carried a hydraulic fluid storage tank and a hydraulic fluid cooling device. The tractor trailed machine is a new addition in harvesting with no facility of selecting mature or ripe tomatoes for further processing purposes. Bettencourt and Freeman (1982), developed a tomato harvester pickup and harvesting method. A pickup conveyor with a relatively flat pickup angle was combined with an overhead assist system. The rear end of each guideway was steeply upwardly and rearwardly inclined but forward of the pickup conveyor. A corresponding plurality of powered endless overhead assist chains were supported by the front and rear ends of the assist frame and the guideways for movement in a path extending horizontally rearwardly along the guideways, then up steeply with increasing spacing from the pickup conveyor to the rear end, and then downwardly and forwardly to the front end. From each chain a series of flexible projections extend out substantially normally. When the assist chain moves along its guideway, some projections extend down into tomato vines and engage them, and then they carry the vines upwardly steeply along the steeply inclined portion of the loop. A series of vine releasing tines extend downwardly and then rearwardly and act to free the cut vines from the assist chains when the vines lie over the pickup conveyor, thereby insuring transfer of the vines fully to the pickup conveyor. The option for sorting ripe and unripe tomatoes is not considered during harvesting mechanically. Bianchi (1981), stated that a harvester for green tomatoes growing on vines in a row having a frame mounted for travel along such a row, a knife borne by the frame to sever such vines in the row, a conveyor for elevating the severed vines in the frame, an aqueous bath, a vibrating conveyor above the tank adapted to receive vines with tomatoes adherent thereto from the elevating conveyor and to shake tomatoes from the vines for descent into the tank, a straining conveyor in the bath adapted to strain tomatoes from the bath and to elevate them therefrom, and a source of air under pressure directed at tomatoes removed from the bath to dry surface moisture therefrom. The clean tomatoes without segregation into red and green harvested product are a matter of concern for processing purposes. Cortopassi and Cortopassi (1979), reported that a tomato harvester supported on a draft propelled chassis and having a pair of header conveyors was tested to simultaneously harvest two adjacent crop rows. The chassis was supported on wheels so spaced relative to

7 one another that they may travel between the crop rows and an adjustable draft tongue enabled a draft vehicle for the harvester to be positioned in aligned spanning relationship to a crop row ahead of the harvester. During harvesting, the crop, including the vines therefore, was lifted by the harvester and conveyed longitudinally over its length. A shaker conveyor having means to continuously vary the ratio of conveyor speed to oscillation rate subjected the harvested vines to shaking to break attached tomatoes away from the vines. A separator was provided to separate loose tomatoes and dirt clods from the vines in advance of the shaker conveyor. Collecting conveyors collected loose tomatoes and dirt clods and preliminarily separated dirt clods from the tomatoes. Final sorting was provided by singulating the tomatoes and subjecting them to electronic sorting. The facility of color sorting is a pre-requisite for tomato a processing purpose which is not provided in the harvesting machine. Bettencourt and Marshall (1977), stated that tomatoes were mechanically harvested by moving a mechanical harvester through a row of growing tomato plants, severing the plants below ground, and picking up the severed plants along with loose tomatoes and some dirt clods, while returning loose dirt to the ground. The severed tomato plants were separated from the loose tomatoes and dirt clods and were shaken to remove the tomatoes from the plants. These tomatoes were recovered and conveyed forwardly past sorters. In the meantime the originally loose tomatoes and clods were passed rearwardly countercurrently to the mainstream of tomatoes, by the sorters for recovery of good loose tomatoes. Preferably, the pickup was made at about 15% slower than the ground speed of the harvester, while the separation between plants and the clods and loose tomatoes was made at the ground speed and the separated plants were carried away from that separation step at a speed about 15% greater than the ground speed of the harvester. The machine collects the tomato crop irrespective of the size and ripeness characteristics. Bettencourt and Marshall (1976), stated that an improved tomato harvester severed tomato plants just below the ground and picked up the plants. Dirt clods, along with some loose tomatoes, were mechanically separated from the plants, and the plants were thereupon subjected to increasingly vigorous shaking by walking bars having plural upstanding resilient inverted vee projections to remove the tomatoes. The tomatoes were free of chaff, twigs and other foreign matter and were then carried on a pair of main sorting conveyors past sorters who removed culls. At the same time the clods and loose tomatoes passed counter-currently by the same sorters, some of whom selected the good loose tomatoes and placed them onto

8 the main sorting conveyor while the loose culls and clods were conveyed to the ground for disposal. The tomatoes of all types ripe and unripe require separate processing activity. Friedel Jr. et al., (1976), reported about a tomato harvester with improved maneuverability and versatility. An improved spinner gave better action in wet soil. The driver obtained improved visibility from an improved canopy structure and was given controls that were easier to identify. An improved collecting conveyor provided balance between the two sides. The conveyor system was improved, in many ways, with better transmission between the conveyors and better access to cleaning. An improved output conveyor and drop loader were also provided. The bulk of the tomatoes require segregation with respect to size and color which the machine lacks. 2.1.2. Effect of Temperature Tehrani and Ghandi (2007), reported that evaluation of the consistency of tomato concentrate with different Brix level (Bx) showed that the error in consistency measurement of tomato concentrate by Bostwick method increased especially at high Bx. The studies indicated that the drying rate of insoluble solids and the lack of reconstituting properties of their solids caused error in consistency measurements. In this research the effect of variety, concentration and temperature on consistency measurements was evaluated to determine variation of error in Bostwick consistometer and to modify it. The results showed that variety had no effect on the accuracy of consistency measurement by Bostwick method, but concentration and temperature had a highly significant effect on the accuracy of this assay and thus the error of Bostwick consistometer increased, especially at high Bx. Also heating of diluted tomato concentrate (up to 45 C) and then cooling it could decrease the error of consistency measurement considerably. Consistency could also be estimated accurately by using the Correlation between Bx, temperature and Bostwick consistency (R2 = 0.94). Thakur et al., (2007) studied the effects of heating time and temperature, pH, and soluble solid levels on serum viscosity and serum color of tomato juice. The samples were canned in 18 mL TDT cans and exposed to processing temperatures of 88, 102, and 112oC for 30, 60, and 120 min respectively. Depending upon the time and temperature of heating, and initial viscosity of the serum, the losses in viscosity ranged from 3.055.6% and were higher in serum with higher initial viscosity. Percent losses in serum viscosity during heating of juice increased (660%) with increase in pH (3.84.9) and soluble solids (624) in the juice. An increase in pH and soluble solids also enhanced heat induced browning in the serum

9 with values varying from 0.12.69. The normal temperature effects (70oC) on the tomato juice were not recorded. Mallidis et al., (2007), stated that the heat resistance characteristics of Bacillus coagulans (NRRL B-1103) spores suspended in buffer (pH 7.0, 4.5), tomato serum and tomato paste were studied. It was found that the heat resistance of spores was reduced significantly when buffer of pH 4.5, tomato serum or tomato paste was used as suspension medium instead of buffer pH 7.0. This effect was more apparent at higher temperatures. It was concluded that a thermal process of F105C = 3 min was capable of causing at least 3D destruction of spores of the most heat resistant strains of B. coagulans. The samples at normal temperatures needed to be taken into account for the analysis and comparison purposes. Bartley et al., (2007), stated that the heat stability of pectinesterase (PE) and invertase in tomato pulp was investigated to examine the feasibility of using invertase inactivation to predict pectinesterase inactivation. Both invertase and PE were inactivated at 80oC in macerated tomato pulp. Between temperatures of 65 to 75oC invertase was less heat stable than PE. Results indicated that when temperature above 80oC were reached, almost instantaneously, it would be feasible to use invertase activity as measured by sucrose level to predict PE activity. No mention is there about the availability of extracted material at normal temperature. Caradec and Nelson (2006), reported that Tomato juice was canned and exposed to processing temperatures of 82, 102 and 112C. Serum viscosity was measured after 30, 60, and 120 min at each temperature. Heat treatment affected serum viscosity. A temperature of 82C applied for 2 hr resulted in a 17-30% loss of serum viscosity depending on the cultivar. Treatment at 112C applied for 2 hr caused 67-82% loss, again depending on the cultivar. The normal temperature extracted tomato juice sample was not considered for the experiment. Athanasia et al., (2006), stated that Lycopene was the principle pigment found in tomatoes and was important not only because of the color it imparts but also because of the recognized health benefits associated with its presence. Heating and drying of tomato products under different processing conditions to manufacture tomato juice, pulp, powder etc. may cause degradation of lycopene. For an exact calculation of the rest concentration of a nutrient in a drying process one would have to know the material temperature and water

10 concentration at each moment and the dependence of degradation reaction rate constant on temperature and moisture content. The objective of this study was to determine a mathematical model of the reaction kinetic of lycopene degradation to describe the rate of lycopene loss in a drying process of tomato pulp. Tomato pulps with different moisture contents were heated at specified temperatures for different time periods. A mathematical model giving rate constant of lycopene degradation as a function of material temperature and moisture content was derived from the changes of lycopene concentration at equal time intervals. This model was used to simulate the lycopene loss during two drying processes of tomato pulp. The first process was the concentration of tomato pulp with total solids concentration of 14% to approximately 40% final moisture content, whereas the second one was the spray drying of tomato pulp. It was concluded that there was a close agreement between the experimental and predicted values of lycopene loss during the tomato pulp concentration confirming the validity of the proposed model for this process. However, for the spray drying process a correction coefficient was introduced in the model, due to the more intense exposure of product surface to air. The study did not incorporate the extracted tomato juice at normal temperatures for establishing lycopene quality. Plazl et al., (2005), stated a mathematical model for the time prediction of threedimensional temperature distributions in the bottled tomato based dip (originally named Ajvar) during industrial pasteurization was presented. A model followed the pasteurization process through six zones of industrial pasteurizator with different operational conditions. The thermal diffusivity of tomato based dip was experimentally determined. The numerical method of finite differences was used to solve a three-dimensional heat conduction equation with variable boundary and initial conditions. The temperature predictions obtained by dynamic model enabled considerable optimization of the described industrial process of canned food pasteurization. No mention in the study regarding the provision of tomato juice / pulp extracted under normal conditions for study purpose. Shahidi and Rad (2004), said that bulk tomato paste was produced in concentrations higher than 35% (350 Brix scale) and its packaging was not hermetic. In recent years, the production of this product in Iran had considerably increased. One of the most important problems in the tomato paste industry of Iran was the preservation of bulk tomato paste. Shelf-life of tomato paste depends on many factors such as initial quality of tomato paste, cooling conditions, salting, packaging, handling, and cold storage. The product factors evaluated in this study included: (1) microbial parameters such as total count, acid-resistant

11 microorganisms, and Howard Mould Count; and (2) physico-chemical parameters such as acidity, pH, amount of lactic acid (D and L forms), and total dry matter. Experimental data showed that using high brix (35-38) in producing tomato paste along-with salting the product surface and storing it at 0C had only a limiting effect on microbial changes and could not prevent their growth completely. However, salting treatment had a great effect on surface growth of fungi and their ability to produce colonies and mycelia. On the basis of the results obtained from this study, cooling of bulk tomato paste in ambient temperature was critical to bulk tomato paste production process and also had an important effect on the quality and shelf-life of the product. The study did not account for the cold pulp / juice being mechanically produced. Ho (2003), reported that the lycopene content in the ripening fruit increased when the temperature increased up to 30oC, but then decreased at higher temperatures. The machine used for hot pulping of tomato at a temperature range of 70oC to 80oC was adversely affecting the lycopene content as well as discoloring the tomato pulp at 80oC. The recovery of lycopene content under normal temperature conditions was not considered. Ho (2003), stated that there is a 4-fold difference in lycopene content among cultivars. This study emphasized on various varieties giving different levels of production during hot pulping of tomato and the resultant was a low quality product for two of the cultivars due to greater time of heating. No investigation was made to find the effect on the quality of cultivars by extracting tomato pulp under normal temperature conditions. Snchez et al., (2003), said that the addition of tomato slurry into tomato juice exerts on the viscous flow and linear viscoelastic behavior of the final tomato paste. With this aim, five tomato paste samples, manufactured at industrial scale, had been studied. Three breaking temperatures and two different screen sizes were used to prepare four regular tomato paste samples. Moreover, a tomato paste sample with addition of "treated tomato slurry" was manufactured using a breaking temperature of 80 C and a sieve screen size of 1.2 mm. The results obtained suggest that the addition of treated tomato slurry may be of great interest for tomato paste production. The samples of cold tomato pulp / juice were not sampled for analysis. Takeoka et al., (2001), reported that thermal processing of tomatoes into paste can result in a decrease in lycopene concentration of 9-28%. Longer processing times, required to

12 achieve the desired final solids level, may be associated with increased losses. The tests were not conducted on the tomato pulp extracts under normal temperature conditions. Shi and Le Maguer (2000), described that lycopene is the most abundant carotenoid in ripe tomatoes. The recovery of lycopene reduced during heating phenomena when mechanical pulping was performed. Shi and Le Maguer (2000), reported that thermal processing generally causes some loss of lycopene in tomato based food. They reported that heating tomato juice for 7 min at 90 and 100oC resulted in a 1.1 and 1.7% decrease in lycopene content, respectively. They also reported that the use of fine screens in juice extraction enhances the oxidation of lycopene due to the large surface area exposed to air and metal. There was no report of the effect of processing cold pulped tomato being mechanically extracted. Tamburini et al., (1999), reported that the heat treatment of tomato juice slightly lowered the initial lycopene content using stainless steel manual tomato machine. They also reported that the hot-break juice extraction technique might lessen the initial lycopene content because of the severe heat effect. No effort was made to study the response of cold pulped tomato to increased temperatures. Lomelin and Vaqueiro (1991) selected red, ripe tomatoes and washed them with a biocide and then rinsed them with fresh water. The rinsed tomatoes were cut into approximately cubical chunks and blanched by heating the chunks to a temperature at or below the boiling point of water for a period of less than 10 minutes to inactivate the enzymes contained in the tomato. The blanched tomatoes were cooled to room temperature and then pulped. After removing skin and seeds to form tomato juice from the pulp chunks, the juice was evaporated under vacuum to form a paste-like concentrate having a solid content from about 20 to 35%. Air trapped in the concentrate was removed. The concentrate was then formed into pieces and dried until the moisture content of the pieces was between about 3 and 4%. The process of mechanically extracting tomato juice and separating seed and peel at normal temperature was left without any investigation. Tenuta (1981), reported a method of solid freezing tomatoes free of preservatives for cutting, shaping and placement into plastic bags. The method included reducing the ambient temperature of the tomatoes to a freezing temperature of -30 C., cracking the external membrane of the tomatoes by subjecting them to a temperature between 30 C. to 35 C. for a

13 total temperature gradient of T between 60 C to 65 C. above the freezing temperature, by dipping the tomatoes into backwater supplied from a heat exchanger associated with a cooling device for supplying the low temperature cooling or freezing temperature of -30 C., then peeling the external membrane from the tomatoes and reducing the temperature of the peeled tomatoes again to a freezing temperature. 2.1.3. Physiochemical Effect Floros et al., (2006), reported that the apparent diffusivity (D) of NaOH through the skin of processing tomatoes was estimated for various concentrations and temperatures as it relates to chemical peeling. For concentrations of 2M NaOH or greater, D was independent of concentration, which allowed the Fick's law of diffusion to be used for simulation of the events during chemical peeling. The temperature dependence of D was of the Arrhenius type (for temperatures greater than 50C) with an estimated activation energy Ea = 71.2 KJ/mol. The use of chemical in comparison to mechanical means of removal of peel remains a question for environmentalists. Shomer and Merin (2006) showed that microfiltration of reconsituted aqueous peel extract resulted in linear flux decline with time. Feed stream of reconstituted peel extract did not foul the membrane and flux decline was due solely to increased retentate viscosity. Cloud was concentrated up to 6.3% of washed dry matter, compared with 1.5% achieved by vacuum heat concentration. Permeate was at a constant low viscosity during filtration experiment, free of insolubles, and crystal clear. Soluble sugars did not contribute to fouling gel layer; their permeation flux was constant, and was only a function of viscosity. Soluble high-molecularweight polymers, such as pectins, cause membrane fouling and flux depression. Fluxes for soluble constituents, sucrose and pectin were higher than those of reconstituted peel extract with similar viscosity. The use of heat or chemical for removal of tomato peel cannot be justified unless compared to mechanical removal of tomato peel. Chang et al., (2005), reported that two varieties of tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.), I-Tien-Hung (ITH) and Sheng-Neu (SN), were used to study the effects of different drying processes, freeze-dried (FD) and hot-air-dried (AD), on the antioxidant properties of tomatoes. In the quantitative analysis of antioxidative components, fresh SN samples had the highest amount of ascorbic acid but the lowest amount of total flavonoids. AD-ITH and AD-SN had the highest content of total phenolics, and AD-SN contained the highest amount of lycopene. In the analysis of reducing power, methanolic

14 extract (ME) from FD tomato gave the highest reducing power while the butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) and -tocopherol had the lowest. For the ferrous ion chelating power, MEs from AD tomatoes had the highest values while BHA and -tocopherol exhibited no ferrous ion chelating power. In the analysis of 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) scavenging ability, all the tomato samples exhibited the same activity as that of BHA. The study on cold pulp / juice of tomato being mechanically extracted is not incorporated in the analyzing process. Pacheco and Massaguer (2005), stated this research validated the commercial process applied to tomato pulp (pH 4.3 and 8 Brix) packed in Tetra Brik packages. Spores of Bacillus coagulans and Neosartorya fischeri were selected as targets. The heat resistance of both microorganisms, tested independently, was compared. The redesigned thermal processes were carried out in a aseptic processing and tested by indirect inoculation and retrieval with spores immobilized in alginate/tomato balls. The results showed that processes for 30 s at 115oC or greater did not allow the survival of heat-resistant molds. For bacterial spores, processes for 30 s at 109oC or greater showed no survivors. Although, 30 s at 115C will control both types of spoilage spores, concern for possible C. botulinum growth attributed to metabiosis in product with varying initial populations of molds and residual oxygen content dictated, a process recommendation of 60 s at 126C for safety reasons. The work on tomato extracts through mechanical means without seed and peel is not mentioned. Zelkha et al., (2005), stated that the invention related to a tomato pulp composition wherein the particle size was not greater than 2.5 which did not contain seeds or peels from the tomato and had a lycopene concentration which was 5 to 15 folds higher than the lycopene concentration in the tomatoes from which stated pulp was obtained. The invention further provided an industrial process for obtaining tomato pulp and tomato concentrate from tomato juice. The invention further provided a method for controlling the viscosity and lycopene concentration of tomato products, tomato concentrate or modified tomato juice, by separating a part of the pulp from the tomato juice from which stated tomato products were obtained. The handling of tomato extract at normal temperature, with or without mechanical process is not considered. Creed et al., (2000), tested a tomato peel material acidification system (10) including a receiving tank (32), a pump (36), acid injection devices (46, 48), mixing devices (38, 39), and a return line (52) for recirculating tomato peel material with an acid level that was too

15 high. PH sensor probes (56, 58, 60) test the pH level of the tomato peel and acid mixture and appropriate controls direct the opening and closing of valves (50, 51, 54, 55) to re-direct the mixture back into the receiving tank. A comparison between chemical use and mechanical extraction of lycopene from tomato peel is considered in this experiment. Nielsen et al., (1998), described the tomato quality is primarily based on uniform shape and freedom from growth and handling defects. They developed a technique to correlate the attributes of size, color, shape and abnormalities, obtained from tomato images, with the inner quality of the tomato samples. The tomato quality with respect to normal temperature extraction of pulp was not discussed in the manuscript. 2.2. Status of Tomato Research in Pakistan The research work in Pakistan was limited to growing various cultivars of Tomato. The main emphasis was on the investigation into physical properties, yield and development of dieses resistant hybrids of tomato.

2.2.1. Tomato research in the province of Punjab Chisti et al., (2004), performed a study at Vegetables Research Institute, AARI, Faisalabad and University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan during 2004-05. Plant material comprised 12 parental lines and their 66 F1-hybrids (direct crosses). Observations were recorded for days to flowering, number of flowers per cluster, number of fruits per cluster, number of marketable fruits per plant, fruit length, fruit width, fruit weight, fruit yield per plant, pericarp thickness, fruit firmness at red stage, total soluble solids and pH of juice. Analysis of variance revealed highly significant differences among genotypes, parents and hybrids for all characters. Mean squares due to GCA and SCA were significant for all characters. The ratio of 2g/ s2s indicated that non-additive variance prevailed in genetic determination for most of the characters. None of the parents exhibited good GCA effects for all characters. The crosses UC-134 x Roma, 88572 x Lyp No. 1 and Cchaus x Rio Fuego were identified as best combinations on the basis of yield performance. No tests under normal temperatures had been performed to assess the juice / pulp extraction rate of the variety. 2.2.2. Tomato research in Sindh province of Pakistan Panhwar (2004), reported that in the year 1999-00 tomatoes in Pakistan were grown on 29300 hectares out of which Sindh covered an area of 6300 hectares. For the same year its

16 production in Pakistan was 311600 tonnes, while in Sindh its production was 32000 tonnes. Its yield in Pakistan was 10600 tonnes per hectare in Sindh , its yield was 5100 tonnes per hectares. The genetically improved varieties produced fruits, having controlled and reduced pectin degrading enzyme, but its nutritional value was similar to that of conventionally bred counterpart, but this variety had longer shelf life, stayed fresh longer, had delaying ripening gene and had altered pectin enzyme activities. The improved varieties also showed improvement in color intensity with more sugar content, could stand high temperature and humidity with growing abilities at high altitudes and resistant to many diseases and drought. 2.2.3. Tomato research in N.W.F.P. Hussain (2006), reported that a research project entitled "Growth, yield and economic dynamics of intercropping in vegetables" was conducted at Horticultural Research Farm, Malkander, NWFP Agricultural University, Peshawar (Pakistan) during 1998-2000. Summer and winter vegetables were evaluated alone and in various combinations for their growth and yield performances under competition. Each plot was 4x4 meters whereas number of rows varied depending on the kind of vegetables. In summer, tomato was intercropped with okra, potato, corn, chili and eggplant whereas among winter vegetables, pea was tested in combination with cauliflower, potato, lettuce, radish, turnip, coriander and spinach. All vegetables generally yielded more when grown as a single crop. But the focus of this study was to evaluate them in combinations. Pea + radish intercropping was found to be the most economical. This combination gave significantly maximum net income of Rs. 181648 ha-1 due to the highest land equivalent ratio (1.54), followed by yield of pea and radish (6.5 and 68.2 t ha-1 respectively) resulting in net income of Rs. 80800 ha-l from pea -lettuce combination, which yielded (7.0 and 5.5 t ha-1 respectively). Pea intercropped with spinach and potato remained least economical and resulted in the minimum net income of Rs. 432l5 and Rs. 44949 ha-1 respectively. Similarly, summer vegetables showed more yields when grown as single crops, than their respective yields in intercropping except tomato grown in okra and corn. The best companion of tomato was okra and their combination gave maximum net income of Rs. 134241ha-1 due to maximum yield of tomato (27.61 t ha-l) as compared to that in sole crop (20.34 t ha-l) and high market price of both vegetables. Tomato + corn combination resulted highest net income of Rs. 12579 due to high yields of tomato in intercropping and stability of corn yield in both years. The maximum net income was also due to market price of tomato and corn. The least income (Rs.59486 ha-l) had been recorded from intercropping tomato with potato due to high reduction in yield of both vegetables and

17 high cost of production. These results had shown heavy reduction in yields of all vegetables (grown alone or in combination) in the hot summer of 2000 compared to those in the mild summer of 1999. The temperature difference in both years was apparently negligible (0.92C) but it showed that even such minor fluctuations in temperature could hardly devastate crop yields. Post harvest processing possibilities of tomato crop and the rate of tomato extract was not incorporated. 2.2.4. Tomato research in Baluchistan province Anonymous (2007), report about Balochistan produces a variety of fruits and vegetables almost round the year. It was the largest producer of temperate fruits. Among vegetables, tomato was the second major vegetable produced in the country and area under its cultivation was 46,2000 hectares with production of 468.146 MT during 2005-6. Three varieties - Roma, Nagina and Pokit- were cultivated in Pakistan. Tomato had a limited storage life and cannot be stored over extended periods. The problem was further confounded by lack of cold chain system. Therefore its prices highly fluctuate. Prices fall to the lowest ebb during periods of market gluts and losses were also significantly high. Contrary to this, tomato paste had extended shelf life/storage periods even under ordinary conditions. Conversion of tomato into paste provides a way out with a positive outcome both commercially and financially. Pakistan Horticulture Development and Export Board (PHDEB) had estimated that Balochistan over the last two years had emerged as a major producer of tomato with 42 percent share in national production, followed by NWFP 34.5 percent, Punjab 14.5 percent and Sindh nine percent share. Killa Saifullah was the leading producer of tomato in Balochistan as well as in the country. Food processors were the major consumers of tomato paste in the local market, followed by hotels and restaurants and household. The current estimated consumption of tomato paste/pulp in the country was around 4,000-4,500 MT. Some of the food processors partially meet their paste/pulp requirement through in-house production while others depend on imported paste/local pulp produced by cottage industry. Establishment of a tomato paste plant in the country could significantly reduce dependence of local ketchup industry/hotels on imported paste and thus save valuable foreign exchange. The paste was currently being imported mainly from China, Iran and Turkey. Around 2400 MT of tomato paste was imported during the year 2005-6. Landed cost of paste from Iran and China ranged between Rs 45/kg to Rs 55/kg, while that from Turkey it was around Rs 62-65/kg. Per capita consumption of tomato paste was still

18 very low as compared to developed countries. For example, US consumption of tomato paste per capita was 30 kg per year, EU countries consume 15 kg per capita, and Turkey consumes one kilogram per capita. As compared to these figures, per capita consumption in Pakistan was negligible. It shows that there was still big potential for demand from the local market, which was expected to rise with the passage of time. Based on the information from the past data and discussions held with food processors and hotels/restaurants, it was expected that demand for tomato paste in the country will grow at 15 percent per annum in future. There is no mention of mechanical handling of tomato crop for extraction of juice / pulp under normal temperature conditions. 2.3. Crop Parameters

2.3.1 Textural analysis of Tomato Arazuri et al., (2006), reported that most of mechanical actions affecting tomatoes were produced during harvest and transport degrading tomato quality. In order to determine the influence of mechanical harvest, tomato varieties were mechanically harvested and evaluated in the laboratory. Impact test showed loss firmness in tomato from the bottom of the trailer up to 30%. The loss of tomato skin resistance to crack was about 6%. The tests on cold tomato juice / pulp being mechanically extracted under normal temperature conditions and their extraction rate are missing in the analysis. Renquist and Reid (1998), stated that tomato color is associated with ripeness rate and was used to determine the harvesting time. The more frequent parameter in the canning industry to characterise the colour was the ratio a to b, where a and b were two of the colour coordinates of the CieLab system. Positive values of a correspond to red colour and negative values to green. Positive values of b correspond to yellow and negative values to blue colour. According to De la Torre, Ballesteros, Lopez, Ortiz, and Ruiz (2001) the range of the a/b ratio goes from 0.4 when tomatoes were green to 3.0 when they were overripe. Cuartero et al., (1996) reported that the soluble solids content was one of the most important quality parameters in processing tomato. 5065% of soluble solids contents were sugars, glucose and fructose, and their amount and roportion influence the organoleptic quality of tomatoes. The remaining soluble solids were mainly citric and malic acids, lipids and other components in low concentrations (Nuez, 1995). The widely used method to determine soluble solids content was refractometry.

19 Ruiz and Rodriguez (1983), concluded that the resistance of fruits to breakage is of great importance when obtaining tomato varieties. Breakage due to impacts or an excessive compression happens in soft fruits or in those having a low skin resistance. In addition cracked tomatoes were more susceptible to be affected by plagues and diseases, and show a worse appearance. In previous reports about skin resistance measurements (Ruiz, 1975), the puncture test was the most common technique (Catala, Cuartero, Palomares, & Nuez, 1982). However, Desmet, Lammertyn, Scheerlinck, Verlinden, and Nicola (2002) used the impact test and found a relationship between impact energy and the skin resistance to crack. Marsh et al., (1979), concluded that the consistency and serum separation were found to be unrelated quality attributes. When consistency was standardized to a given Bostwick level, serum separation varied from none to considerable. Consistency was found to be directly dependent upon the fraction of water insoluble solids (WIS) of the total solids (TS) of the tomato pulp used. Serum separation was found to depend upon the break system employed. Retention of at least 80% of the tomatoes' original serum viscosity was required for minimal serum flow. The data suggested that serum separation best measures quality, whereas the percentage of WIS in the total solids of a pulp determines the ratio of tomato solids to sugar required to achieve a standardized consistency level, making this ratio a measure of yield. The data also indicated that automation of catsup making was possible provided the "yield factor" was determined by the method described, or the WIS and TS contents of the pulp were known beforehand. The experiment was not conducted on the mechanically extracted tomato juice / pulp under normal temperature conditions. 2.3.2 Physical characteristics of Tomato Garcia and Barret (2006), said that the peelability was an important quality parameter in the selection of tomato cultivars (cvs.) for whole peeled and diced processing. Six processing tomato cvs. were evaluated in two consecutive years to examine the effects of cv., maturity and physical attributes on peelability and yield. Physical attributes of the raw tomatoes (size, weight, pericarp wall thickness, color) and processed paste quality (pH, titratable acidity, soluble solids, Bostwick consistency, serum viscosity, color) were determined. Large variations in physical attributes and paste quality were observed in selected tomato cvs. and maturities. In general, most of the attributes indicative of the paste quality were more desirable at a less mature (e.g., pink) stage and declined with maturity. Statistical analysis suggested that there were significant differences in percentage of peeled

20 tomatoes, peel index, and yields of whole peeled and diced tomatoes between two consecutive growing years. No work is mentioned regarding compression and puncture tests on different varieties of tomatoes. Lopez (2001), stated that the selection of tomato variety had a strong influence on fruit lycopene content. It was found that the recovery of tomato pulp by hot pulping method caused quality deterioration of lycopene content and mechanical components of varied metals also adversely affected product quality. Thakur et al., (1996), stated that the main quality parameters related to these industrial products are color, consistency, flavor, serum separation, nutritional value, total acidity and pH. The study revealed that tt higher revolutions and inconstant temperature results in pour quality of tomato pulp with respect to color and flavor. The tests were not performed under normal temperature conditions of tomato crop. Gloud (1992), described that majority of tomatoes are consumed in the form of industrially processed products. Tomato fruit is processed in a large variety of products such as tomato juice, canned tomato, tomato ketchup, tomato soup, tomato paste, tomato pulp and tomato puree. More than 80% of the processing of tomatoes was done by hot pulping method resulting in dis-colored tomato pulp with low viscosity level. Processing of tomatoes was done under higher temperature conditions, whereas under normal temperature conditions no work has been registered. DSouza et al., (1992), investigated that deep red color was observed with the skin of the ripened tomato and its segregationwasdoneat70oCbutthepulpqualitywasslightlyreduced.
Mechanical means under normal temperature conditions were not adopted to segregate dark red colorofthetomatoskin.

2.3.3 Chemical characteristics of Tomato Stadtman et al., (2006), said that there was less titratable acidity in tomato juice that had been processed by a "hot-break" procedure to inactivate pectolytic enzymes than in juice of tomatoes from the same lot of fruit that had been extracted cold. These differences in titratable acidity could be attributed to the activity of the pectolytic enzymes in the "coldbreak" juice which produced acidic breakdown products from the pectins. The effect of normal temperature extract of tomato juice / pulp has not been incorporated for analysis purposes.

21 Gallaher et al., (1999), reported that a process for high pressure, high shear homogenization of a tomato-based product, such as a ketchup or a sauce, was performed to increase the product's viscosity without significant loss of other important product characteristics such as liquid retention, color, texture, etc. The method also provided for a homogenized tomato-based product with significantly reduced tomato solids content, without the loss of other important product characteristics. In one embodiment, a tomato paste, puree, juice or mixture of tomato solids, which may be blended and cooked at elevated temperatures, was introduced into a high pressure, high shear homogenizer and was homogenized at pressures from about 34.5 MPa psi (345 bar) to in excess of about 100 MPa (1000 bar) and was transferred to an appropriate dispensing container. In other embodiments, the tomato mixture may be blended with a food grade acid such as acetic acid (in the form of vinegar); and may include four percent corn syrup or one percent starch to increase or stabilize the viscosity of the product. The study on using normal temperature extracted tomato juice / pulp is needed to justify the comparative acceptability. 2.4. Fabrication of tomato pulp machine

2.4.1. Tomato hot pulp machines Okitani et al., (2006), reported that the effect of heating on the free amino acid composition of processed tomato products, heated pulps, pures and pastes was examined. The major components of the fresh pulp were glutamic acid, -aminobutyric acid, aspartic acid, glutamine and asparagine. The heating process caused about a 40% loss of the total amino acids, which was attributable mostly to decreases in glutamic acid, glutamine and aspartic acid. Neither aromatic amino acids nor basic amino acids decreased in this process. Additional low temperature heating applied to the heated pulp to manufacture pures and pastes caused less effects than the high temperature heating used to prepare the pulp. Creed et al., (2000), developed a tomato lye applicator including a pre-heat apparatus mounted to the shell of applicator for pre-heating tomatoes prior to submerging in a lye solution bath. Pre-heat apparatus included a conveyor and steam connections for heating enclosure so that as tomatoes move from inlet to applicator inlet, the skins of the tomatoes were pre-heated to an amount sufficient to enhance skin loosening by the lye solution. Briefly described, the lye applicator of the present invention included a lye solution bath for submerging of the product for a period of time, and an applicator conveyor for moving the product through the lye solution bath. The lye applicator conveyor included an upper run

22 before the lye solution bath and an applicator inlet positioned along the upper run of the applicator conveyor, through which product was be delivered into the lye applicator and onto the applicator conveyor. The upper run of the applicator conveyor between the applicator inlet to the lye solution bath had a length sufficient to provide enough pre-heating to the product to allow for one of reduced lye solution concentration and reduced time for submerging of the product. According to an aspect of the invention, the lye applicator included a source of additional pre-heating along the upper run of the applicator conveyor. Preferably, the source of additional pre-heating included steam pipes. According to another aspect of the invention, the applicator conveyor was positioned sufficiently below the applicator inlet so that product delivered into the applicator inlet fell onto the applicator conveyor in a manner creating agitation of the product, in order to enhance pre-heating. According to another aspect of the invention, the upper run of the applicator conveyor was at least as long as half the length of the applicator conveyor through the lye solution bath. According to another aspect of the invention, the lye applicator further comprised a pre-heat apparatus external of the lye applicator for pre-heating the product prior to entry into the lye applicator. Preferably, the pre-heat apparatus included a heated enclosure through which the product moved prior to entry into the lye applicator. According to another aspect of the invention, the heated enclosure included a conveyor for moving the product. Preferably, the heated enclosure extended along a portion of the upper side of the lye applicator. These and other features, objects, and advantages of the present invention will become apparent from the following description of the best mode for carrying out the invention, when read in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, and the claims, which were all incorporated herein as part of the disclosure of the invention. Consideration for cold pulping of tomato to extract juice / pulp mechanically had been ignored and no option to save seed from heat. Chiang et al., (1995), reported that tomato based products, such as tomato puree, tomato paste, tomato sauce, and the like, having improved flavor characteristics, were produced by the modified hot break process of this invention. In this modified process whole tomatoes were subjected to an initial heating step which affected only limited heat penetration of the tomatoes. The whole tomatoes were blanched in water having a temperature above 185 F. (85 C.) for a short period of time to inactivate only those enzymes, primarily pectic enzymes, located at or near the surface of the tomatoes. Tomato enzymes located interior of the pericarp were not destroyed in this initial heating step. The tomatoes were then cooled to reduce the surface temperature of the tomatoes below about

23 110F/43C, and the cooled tomatoes were macerated in the presence of added alkali and a food grade alcohol, to provide a tomato slurry having a pH of between 4.7 and 5.1 and a temperature of below about 95F/35C. The tomato slurry was acidified to a normal tomato pH and the acidified slurry was then processed by conventional hot break procedures in which the slurry was heated to inactivate all enzymes and the slurry was pumped through a pulper and a finisher, and was then concentrated to a desired level of tomato solids. Tomato products produced by this invention had sweeter, fruitier and less sour taste characteristics than tomato products produced by conventional hot break procedures. An extra process of heating and cooling of tomato just to remove peel causes destruction seed viability which could have been restored by mechanical extraction process. 2.4.2. Tomato cold pulp machine Lin et al., (2005), said that the tomato fruit paste prepared by hot-or cold-break processing was extracted with water to obtain water-soluble pectin (HP or CP) and a waterinsoluble matter (HR or CR). HP yield was approximately twice that of CP, while those of the water-insoluble matters were similar. Comparing sugar compositions, HP (GalA-rich) was remarkably different from CP (neutral sugars-rich), although their water-insoluble matters were similar. This result indicated that the solubilizations of cell-wall-associated pectins in HB and CB were similar, but the release of GalA by endogenous pectin-degrading enzymes in CB was remarkable. Fractions separated by a DEAEcellulose column from HP (HP3, HP4, HP5) were also rich in GalA, while those from CP (CP2, CP3, CP4) were all rich in neutral sugar. However, the ratios of individual sugars of CP fractions were very different. Unlike the neutral sugar-rich fractions, the GalA-rich ones treated with polygalacturonase were mostly degraded. In addition, the chemical structure of HP5 (homogalacturonan) and CP4 (rhamnogalacturonan) were compared after mild acid hydrolysis. The experiment comparison required detailed sample tests for hot and cold pulps mentioning processing method of extraction of tomato juice / pulp. Silvestrini (1985), reported the process of separating the pulp from the skin of fruit, such as tomatoes, in which each fruit was gripped and transported by mechanism along a continuously circular path, a cut to the skin of the fruit was produced by cutting device adjacent the path and the pulp was urged away from the gripping and transporting apparatus at a pulp discharge position while the skin remains gripped by that apparatus to separate the pulp from the skin. Then object of the invention to provide an apparatus for separating the pulp from the skin of fruit, such as tomatoes, which operate in a substantially continuous

24 manner without the use of chemical elements or mechanical elements which may damage the pulp. The further object of this invention to provide an apparatus which was capable of handling, without adjustment, fruit of different sizes and shapes, and which permitted the recovery for subsequent packing of juice produced during the peeling of the fruit. To achieve the foregoing, as well as other objects, an apparatus was provided for separating the pulp from the skin of fruit, such as tomatoes, which were supplied to the apparatus. This apparatus provided for gripping and transporting each of the supplied fruit along a path between a receiving position and a pulp discharge position, with the mechanism for gripping and transporting comprising two members for grippingly contacting the outer surface of the fruit skin on opposite sides of a plane extending through the fruit. A cut was produced, by a suitable mechanism, through a portion of the fruit skin remote from the gripping and transporting mechanism and in a plane extending generally through the fruit, and then the pulp was urged away from the gripping and transporting mechanism through the cut in the skin by additional apparatus while the skin was retained and gripped, whereby the pulp may be separated from the skin. The removal of seed from juice / pulp of tomato cannot be ignored and the invention capability seems silent to handle this factor. 2.4.3. Tomato seed extracting machines Kimmel et al., (2006), reported that a method of making chunk tomato pieces from tomatoes. The tomatoes were introduced into a tomato preparation system where they were cleaned, de-stemmed, peeled and chopped. This creates a mixture of tomato chunks, seeds and juice. The tomato chunks were separated from the seeds and juice. The juice was separated from the seeds and subsequently added back to the chunks in proper proportions. The research did not consider the cold pulp / juice being mechanically produced. Jumah et al., (2004), said that the effect of varying drying air temperature, air velocity, initial total solids, and starch addition on the drying rate of tomato paste were studied using a tray dryer. The increase in the inlet air temperature in the ranged 60-100C markedly increased tomato paste drying rate. Also, increasing air velocity (0.8-1.2 m/s) increased the drying rate of tomato paste. Increasing tomato paste initial total solids had a significant effect on the time required to reach the equilibrium moisture content. Starch was added at different amounts (0.0-1.0 kg dry starch/ kg dried tomato paste); it had a significantly increasing effect on tomato paste drying rate. Mechanical pulling out of tomato juice / pulp was not considered in the study.

25 Kerr (1962), reported that for the growing tomatoes to produce the seeds, fruits were generally picked by hand when they attained full red color. Then the tomato fruits were cut across the equator, squeezed and the juice with seeds was poured into a container. The seeds were separated by three methods; fermentation, with sodium carbonate and with hydrochloric acid. The rest of the fruit after squeeze will be thrown. It was concluded that over-ripe fruits should not be selected for the seed extraction since the over-ripening of the fruits in the tomato plants lowers the quality and vigor of the seeds. In the fermentation method, the pulp with the seeds was left for fermentation for about one to four days. The numbers of the days required for the fermentation of the tomato seed depend upon the temperature of the environment. If it was low temperature, longer duration was required to break the gelatinous coating of seeds. The tomato seeds could not be kept for fermentation for longer duration if the temperature was above 320C since it reduced the germination percentage of the tomato seeds. After fermentation the seeds were then washed and separated with the help of water. The wet seeds should be shade-dried. In the sodium carbonate method, pulp with the tomato seeds was mixed with aqua solution of 10% sodium carbonate in equal volume and kept overnight. Then the seeds were taken for washing out water, sodium carbonate and gelatinous coating of the seeds in a sieve. The moist seeds should be shade-dried. This was a quick and safe method of the extraction of the tomato seeds. In the hydrochloric acid method, concentrated hydrochloric acid was mixed in tomato pulp at the rate of 250 ml hydrochloric acid into the 10 Liter tomato pulp with the seeds. The mixture was stirred and left for half an hour. Utmost care was taken to make sure that the acid should be poured into the pulp. Dont pour the pulp into the acid. After half an hour the tomato seeds were washed in clean water and they should be shade-dried. This was very quick method. The tomato seeds extracted by the method were very bright and clean. Only seed extraction is given importance in this study, preservation of tomato juice / pulp is not taken into account. 2.4.4. Tomato skin/peel-color extracting machines Borchini et al., (2006), reported that the plant consisted of an Archimedes screw in where the water arrives and into which arrive the working waste such as tomato-peel, seeds, molds and impurities that then gravitationally arrive into a cyclone with water where a first separation was actuated such as the tomato-peels float and stay on the surface whereas the other waster precipitate on the bottom. Actuated the peel/water separation, through a separation filter stated peels arrive to a second separation filter, to a slanting collecting line and to a compacting device. Then the peels arrived to a collecting tank where were mixed

26 with the juice of the tomato to arrive then, peels and juice, to a first disintegrator device, to a second disintegrator device, to a collecting tank to a transferring pump and at the end to a deaerator that, eliminated air, sends the product to the homogenizer and at the end to a concentrator. Conclusion: Kailappan et al., (2005), the author explained about fabrication of tomato seed extractor having a capacity of 180 kg of fruit/hr. the unit constituted of a fruit squeezing chambers, and seed separating unit. A rotating screw auger pressed and squeezed tomato fruit through pulley and motor shaft and worm gear mechanism with a 1440 rpm one hp motor reducing the speed within 50 to-200 rpm range, discharging the product into seed separating chamber where water spray separates seed from flesh a fruit. The highest seed extraction efficiency was 98.8 % at 7.5 l/m. water flow rate with 340 mm auger length and 150 rpm shaft speed. The auger and screw mechanism was used and water application seemed necessary for this machine. Present work is based on mechanical amendment to the fruit for extraction of pulp and separation from tomato peel. Silvestrini (1982), reported that apparatus and methods were described for separating the pulp from the skin of fruit, such as tomatoes, in which each fruit was gripped and transported by a mechanism along a predetermined path, a cut to the skin of the fruit was produced by cutting device adjacent to the path and the pulp was urged away from the gripping and transporting apparatus at a pulp discharge position while the skin remained gripped by that apparatus to separate the pulp from the skin. There is no mention about the fate of the seed during and after skin removal process of the tomato. Schaeffer and Leroy (1978), fabricated a cutter construction for a vegetable peeler that has a cylindrically electrically rotatable body with a longitudinal mounting shaft and a plurality of longitudinally extending slots coextensive with and equally spaced around the body and a cutter blade disposed lengthwise from the body outer end to the inner end in each slot. In this general arrangement an improved slot and blade configuration is provided wherein each blade is disposed in its own slot with its entire cutting edge angled or slanted in the direction of rotation and with a high point in an operable permissible range above the body periphery a maximum of 0.030 inches (0.75 mm) and a minimum of 0.008 inches (0.20 mm). A clearance recess is provided below and coextensive with each blade and extending substantially at right angles to the blades in the direction of rotation. It has a peripheral width from substantially 0 inches to 0.180 inches (4.5 mm). Thus, the width of the recess varies

27 inversely with the blade height within the range so that clogging of peelings and cutting of the user's skin is at a minimum. A preferred specific range is defined and the cylindrical peeler may have a flared end shield on the inner end to guide peelings away from the shaft and the recesses and the peeler may have a spaced knob on the outer end for removing the shaft and cutter without contacting the knife surfaces on the cutter. The study did not show the any method of seed extraction during and after skin removal process of the tomato. 2.4.5. Modern trends in tomato pulping Winship and Bauer (2005), presented a split stream method for processing tomatoes. The benefits of split stream processing could be more fully realized when the split streams were re-combined under specific processing conditions. In particular, under specified conditions of shear and heat, the potential viscosity of the thick stream was fully harvested. The amount of shear used in accordance with the invention was significantly greater than the amount required to reconstitute at least some prior pastes. For a more complete of the above and other features and advantages of the invention, reference should be made to the following description of the preferred embodiment. In accordance with the invention, recombination of the thick and thin streams under the conditions of the invention permitted formation of a thicker paste than would had been expected. Thus, either a thicker paste product resulted, or, the thicker paste could be diluted, thereby conserving resources and minimizing cost to the consumer. If desired, in accordance with the invention a paste could be produced having tomato soluble solids level reductions of up to 20%, especially from 5 to 10% with little or no reduction in Bostwick viscosity. The invention thus permitted manufacture of a thicker product from the re-combined stream while the enhanced flavor of split stream processed products was obtained. In accordance with a preferred aspect of the invention, the streams were recombined in an amount of approximately 90% of the normal recombination amount for the thick stream and 75% of the normal amount for the thin stream. Use of lower amounts of the streams relative to normal recombination ratios provided more water for hydration and preserved tomato resources. It was expected that beneficial results would be obtained when the amounts ranged from 60 to 100% of the normal amount for the thick steam and from 40 to 100% of the normal amount for the thick stream. Preferably, the thick and thin streams were recombined and subjected to shear in a first step. In one or more subsequent steps, then, the recombined and sheared streams were again sheared and were heated. In the first shearing step, the re-combined streams were preferably subjected to shear in the range of from 150 sec-1 to 1000 sec-1, especially from 300 sec-1 to 600 sec-1. The heating step involve

28 subjecting the recombined stream, preferably before or during shearing, to temperatures of from at least 130F to 212F., especially from 145F to 165F. The work involves shearing and temperature which seams an expensive process of extracting tomato juice / pulp as well as prospect of seed viability also diminishes in such processing activities. Battistini (1986), investigated that the present invention related to a new and useful tomato peeling device which operated through vacuum and temperature and which by employing simple and common elements rendered high performance and reduced manufacturing costs. The device was mainly comprised of an endless conveyor joined to two lateral chains guided by coaxial wheels travelling in a path of a rotary cylindrical drum which was connected to a vacuum pump, all of the cited elements being capable of treating fresh tomatoes and delivering pulp devoid of skin. The invention incorporates heating system which directly destroy the biological characters of seed. Levati (1982), stated that an improved process for peeling tomatoes under vacuum comprised the step of instantaneously connecting the container of the tomatoes to a vacuum vessel and, immediately after, the step of closing this connection and connecting the stated container to a vacuum pump. The vacuum applied to the tomatoes was fluctuated downwardly for peeling the tomatoes. Also, disclosed was a machine for peeling tomatoes which comprised flexibles pipes connecting the containers of the tomatoes to a vacuum vessel and/or a vacuum pump via a de-humidifier. The de-humidifier use for peeling of tomato is an expensive process whereas no arrangement for securing biological seeds is available. Levati (1977), stated that machine for peeling tomatoes consisted of series of trays placed on a conveyor, and a series of covers arranged to seal stated trays; each cover was connected to a tank under vacuum. The object of the present invention was to provide an improved process and machine which eliminate the aforementioned disadvantages. With regard to the process, it had been surprisingly discovered that if the degree of vacuum created in the trays was increased to a comparatively large extent, i.e. by creating a higher suction of the order of 50-150 mm. Hg. absolute pressure, an improved peeling could be obtained in a time of not greater than 5 seconds. The accomplishment of a process of the aforementioned type which substantially comprised scalding the tomatoes for a very short time, of the order of 5-15 seconds, followed by suddenly placing the fruit under vacuum and then rapidly oscillating the pressure, had made it necessary to create a peeling machine which safeguards

29 the wholeness of the tomato at the high production speeds required. The machine according to the invention differs from known machines used for this purpose by the fact that in it, the scalded tomatoes were placed in individual trays into which they were inserted by falling and from which they leave again by falling, without ever coming into contact with pushing means which could damage them or compromise their wholeness. Furthermore the small number of tomatoes contained in each individual tray prevents the tomatoes pressing on each other, which could damage their wholeness. Finally, the machine according to the present invention included static seal members without any mutual rubbing parts thus increasing the life of these latter. The mechanical means of skin removal of tomato is not the only requirement of the producer who desires to have his own seed for future cultivation purposes. 2.5. Uses of Tomato by-products Movaghar (1988), reported a yellow coloring composition, useful in coloring foods, was prepared by extraction of effective amounts of coloring compounds from tomatoe peel. Tomato peels were ground before color extraction using polar extraction solvents having at 25C a dielectric constant ranging from about 20 to 30. The author did not take into account of ripe and unripe tomatoes in this study.

2.5.1. History of by-product use

2.5.2. New trends in using by products Calvo et al., (2008), found that a dry fermented sausage enriched in lycopene, of good sensory quality had been produced containing a level of lycopene that could increase the intake of this carotene in the diet. It was the first time that dry tomato peel, a by-product of the tomato processing was used as a source of lycopene for food. The direct use of this byproduct, avoiding lycopene extraction had obvious advantages. The author observed during the tests that tomato industries yield a high amount of by-products mainly tomato peel and seeds. Since tomato peel was rich in lycopene, the direct addition of peel to food products could be a way to use this by-product to obtain a new products enriched in lycopene. This work described experiments performed to develop dry fermented sausages (salchichon) containing this carotene 0, 0.6, 0.9 and 1.2% (w/w) of dry tomato peel was added to the meat mixture used in sausage manufacture. A slight losts of lycopene was detected after 21 days ripening, however, levels remained between 0.26 and 0.58 mg of lycopene/100 g of sausage. The sensory and textural properties and overall acceptability of all sausages were good,

30 indicating that tomato peel could be added to dry fermented sausages to produce a meat product enriched in lycopene. The textural properties of tomato by-products are described in the following paragraphs: i. Lycopene quantification: One gram of dry tomato peel or 30 g of dry fermented

sausage were mixed with 60 ml of 10% KOH-methanol for 10 s using an Ultraturrax macerator (Janke & Kaudel, IKA). The mixture was stirred using a magnetic stirrer under darkness at 40 _C for 2 h. After saponification, 60 ml of distilled water, 30 ml of petroleum ether and three ml methanol were added and the mixture was shaken vigorously, the petroleum ether containing the lycopene and other lipid-soluble components were collected and stored at 4oC in the dark. The water phase was mixed again with 30 ml petroleum ether and 3 ml methanol with shaking. The petroleum ether was removed as before and the water phase was mixed again with 30 ml of petroleum ether and three ml methanol. The extraction of lycopene from the aqueous phase was performed until the petroleum ether had no colour. ii. Textural analysis: The textural properties were evaluated using the Stable Micro

System Mod. TA.XT 2i/25 texturometer. Textural profile analysis (TPA) test (Bourne, 1978) was performed using the central cores of five slices of each sample (1 cm high and 2.5 cm diameter) which were compressed twice to 50% of their original height. The following parameters were determined: hardness, maximum force required to compress the sample. springiness, ability of the sample to recover its original form after the deforming force was removed. Cohesiveness (ratio), extent to which the sample could be deformed prior to rupture. adhesiveness, work necessary to pull the compressing plunger away from the sample. chewiness, work to masticate the sample for swallowing. work of shearing, the work needed to move the blade thought the sample, was estimated with a Warner Bratzler blade attached to the same texture analyser. In both tests, the crosshead speed was 2 mm/s and at least five replicates were measured from two sausages of each batch. iii. Physico-chemical composition: Dry tomato peel had a pH value of 4.45. However, the

addition of peel did not significantly (p > 0.05) affect the pH of the fermented sausages after 0 days of storage, irrespective of concentration. A decrease in the pH value of meat products containing tomato paste had been reported by Candogan (2002) and Deda et al., (2007). The decrease could be due to the high concentrations 10% to a 15% of tomato product added by these authors, whereas we added a maximum of 1.2% of dry tomato peel. The pH value after

31 21 days of ripening decreased to 4.49 in the control samples, no significant (p < 0.05) influence of tomato peel addition was found. iv. Lycopene concentration: Lycopene concentration of the dry tomato peel was 55.7

0.92 mg/100 g of peel. The lycopene concentration of the fermented sausages containing peel after 0 and 21 days of ripening. The results were expressed as mg of lycopene/100 g of sausage and as mg of lycopene/100 g of dry matter. The concentration of lycopene (mg/100 g of sausage) after zero days of ripening was lower than expected taking into account the amount of this carotene in the added tomato peel. This could be due to: a non homogeneous distribution of backfat in sausages and the use of saponification during carotenoid extraction making it difficult to get good separation among lipidic and aqueous phases inhibiting the complete extraction of carotenes, as lycopene, from the lipidic phase. v. Colour properties: The addition of dry tomato peel affected significantly (p < 0.05) all

colour parameters of the final product. Controls had the highest (p < 0.05) lightness and the lowest (p < 0.05) redness, yellowness and as a consequence the lowest hue angle and saturation index. The increase in a* and b* values in batches A, B, and C was due to the lycopene colour; no significant (p > 0.05) differences between these batches were observed. The biggest difference between the controls and the lycopene enriched batches was observed in the b* parameter, where values for batches A, B and C were almost twofold higher than the controls. This could be due to the loss of lycopene during ripening. In fact, it was known that inadequate storage of tomato peel could change its colour from red to orange due to oxidation of carotenoids, mainly lycopene. We observed a red colour when the meat mixture was mixed with the dry tomato peel (data not shown). However, after 21 days of ripening the changes in tomato peel colour described above, could mask the natural red colour of the sausages with a tendency to an orange colour. vi. Textural properties: In general terms, some differences were observed between

controls and batches containing dry tomato peel, while batches A, B and C did not differ (p > 0.05). Significant (p < 0.05) differences were observed in hardness, cohesiveness and work of shearing. In all cases hardness increased when dry tomato peel was added. Similar results where observed in relation to work of shearing. However, cohesiveness followed a different pattern, as with more tomato peel added, the lower the cohesiveness. The increase of hardness and work of shearing could be explained by the presence of fibre in the tomato peel. It had been reported by Knoblich, Anderson, and Latshaw (2005) that this by-product had an

32 acid detergent fibre content close to 30 g/100 g of dry matter. This was composed mainly of cellulose and lignin, which could modify the textural properties yielding a harder sausage. Similar results had been obtained by Garca et al., (2002) and Garca, Caceres, and Selgas (2007) when adding cereals and fruit fibres to dry and cooked sausages. Garca, Caceres, and Selgas (2007) also reported a marked increase in hardness when wheat or oat fibres were added to dry fermented sausages, as consequence of their insoluble dietary fibre content. However, in the case of cohesiveness, the fibre could cause a difference in the opposite direction since the components of this type of fibre had a complex structure, even crystalline making it easier to break into small pieces in the mouth favouring mastication. The study thoroughly investigated presence of lycopene in tomato whereas no mention about the possibility of extracting lycopene by mechanical means and without destroying seed for further propagation was made. Review of literature was done to cite the work already conducted on tomato crop. From mechanical harvesting to preparation of tomato pulp, many methods have been reviewed. It was found that little work has been done in finding out ways and means to extract pulp from the tomato without using excessive energy in particular in the form of heat processes and chemical applications. The mechanical means of processing tomatoes under normal temperature conditions was found to be an option to be tested on tomato crop. Literature lacked information about cold pulping of tomato by applying mechanical means. Additionally, seed is also an important component of tomato crop and farmers prefer to avail the facility of such a machine which could help extract pulp and preserve seed viability. Therefore, initiative was taken to conduct experiments on tomato crop with the cold pulping machine.