Date Title Aim

: : Tensile Test : 1. To observe the nature of the tensile stress- strain curves obtained for mid steel and tor steel. 2. To measure the important parameters from these curves.

a. For Mild steel i. Yield stress ii. Tensile strength iii. Limit of proportionality iv. Percentage elongation v. Percentage reduce in area b. For Tor steel i. Tensile strength ii. Percentage elongation iii. Percentage reduce in area iv. Proof stress at 0.2% strain Apparatus : a. b. c. d. e. Theory Hounsfield Tensometer Universal Elongation gauge Universal Reduction in area gauge Micro meter screw gauge Vernier Caliper

: when a metal is stretched in tension it first extends by increasing its interatomic distance. If the force is removed the atoms come back their equilibrium position and so the extension is reversible. This is termed as Elastic Deformation. During the elastic deformation of metals it has been observed that stress (defined as force divided by the nominal area) is approximately proportional to strain (defined as change in length divided by the initial length). At higher stresses atomic sliding or slip may take place giving rise to lager extensions foe small increase for small increases in stress. This is termed as plastic deformation which is irreversible as the atoms slip to new equilibrium positions. Stress () = Load / Original cross sectional area Strain () = elongation / original length

Figure (1) Figure1 shows a typical load extension curve obtained from a tensile test of a metal. AO is a straight line and is the region in which Hooks law is obeyed. The slope of this line gives the youngs modulus. Point A is called the Limit of Proportionality. The point B is the elastic limit and it is the point beyond which the specimens no longer retain to original length. C is the point of proof stress - a third point is sometimes used to describe the yield stress of the material. This is the point at which the specimen has undergone a certain (arbitrary) value of permanent strain, usually 0.2%. The stress at this point is then known as the 0.2% proof stress. This is used because the precise positions of A and B are often difficult to define, and depend to some extent on the accuracy of the testing machine. The stress at B is known as the yield stress. Beyond the point B the specimen extends plastically. D gives the maximum load applied to the specimen during the test. This load divided by the original area is called the Ultimate tensile stress. At E the specimen fails and the stress at that point is termed as fracture strength. The extension to fracture expressed as a percentage of its original length is termed as the Percentage Elongation. Percentage Elongation = (l0-lf) x100 / lf = f x 100 Where lf - final length, l0 initial length and f - strain

If the specimen fails by necking down, the reduction in the area of cross section at the neck expressed as a percentage of the original area is termed as Percentage reduction in area. Percentage reduction in area = (A0-Af) x100 / Af Where Af - final length, A0 initial length

Stress-strain behavior of mild steel and tor steel displays an unusual yielding phenomenon as shown in figure (2).when the materials yield at point B, the stress necessary to continue deformation falls to C. B is known as the Upper yield point and C is the Lower yield point. D is the maximum load point and its called ultimate tensile stress, that is the place where necking is starts.

L0 = gauge length
d = gauge diameter

0.2% offset from strain axis

Procedure

1. Firstly we measured the gauge length and gauge diameter dimensions of the Mild steel specimen using micrometer screw gauge and vernier caliper. 2. Before tested we placed unbroken mild steel specimen in universal reduction area gauge at zero reading and closed the two arms top touch it and locked. 3. Then unbroken specimen placed in the universal elongation gauge. After positioned the cradle at the appropriate gauge length, moved the pivoted arm to the left until its reading is zero and locked it. 4. Placed the mild steel specimen in the Hounsfield tensometer by using chucks. 5. Then rotate the Tensometer handle gradually to apply force to specimen until it brakes. 6. During rotating, noted the number of revelations and corresponding force from the mercury column at each step. 7. After failed the specimen moved the chucks, removed the broken specimen and moved broken ends towards the pivot in the universal reduction in area gauge until both arms touch it. Then measured and noted the percentage reduction in area at the neck. 8. Then fixed the two ends at the broken test piece together and press against the left side by the arm in the universal elongation gauge and measured and noted the percentage elongation. 9. Then get the tor steel specimen and did above steps and noted its readings.

Mild steel No. of Revolutions 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 Force (Tons) elongatio n strain stress 0 0 0 0 0.0048 0.0006 0.01 0.085 85 2 0.0097 0.0043 0.07 0.17 7 42 0.0146 0.0074 0.12 0.255 55 43 0.0195 0.0093 0.15 0.34 4 03 0.0244 0.0124 0.2 0.425 25 05 0.0293 0.0155 0.25 0.51 1 06 0.0341 0.0186 0.3 0.595 95 07 0.0390 0.0217 0.35 0.68 8 08 0.0439 0.0248 0.4 0.765 66 09 0.0488 0.0279 0.45 0.85 51 1 0.0537 0.0316 0.51 0.935 36 32 0.0586 0.0353 0.57 1.02 21 53 0.0635 0.0384 0.62 1.105 06 54 0.0683 0.0396 0.64 1.19 91 95 0.0732 0.0390 0.63 1.275 76 75 0.0781 0.0390 0.63 1.36 61 75 0.0830 0.0390 0.63 1.445 46 75 0.0879 0.0409 0.66 1.53 31 35 0.0928 0.0427 0.69 1.615 16 96 0.0977 0.0440 0.71 1.7 01 36 0.1025 0.0452 0.73 1.785 86 77 0.1074 0.0465 0.75 1.87 71 17 0.1123 0.0483 0.78 1.955 56 78 0.1172 0.0489 0.79 2.04 41 98 0.1221 0.0502 0.81 2.125 26 39 0.1270 0.0508 0.82 2.21 11 59

27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56

0.83 0.84 0.85 0.86 0.87 0.89 0.9 0.9 0.91 0.92 0.92 0.93 0.93 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.97 0.96 0.96 0.94 0.94 0.93

2.295 2.38 2.465 2.55 2.635 2.72 2.805 2.89 2.975 3.06 3.145 3.23 3.315 3.4 3.485 3.57 3.655 3.74 3.825 3.91 3.995 4.08 4.165 4.25 4.335 4.42 4.505 4.59 4.675 4.76

0.1318 97 0.1367 82 0.1416 67 0.1465 52 0.1514 37 0.1563 22 0.1612 07 0.1660 92 0.1709 77 0.1758 62 0.1807 47 0.1856 32 0.1905 17 0.1954 02 0.2002 87 0.2051 72 0.2100 57 0.2149 43 0.2198 28 0.2247 13 0.2295 98 0.2344 83 0.2393 68 0.2442 53 0.2491 38 0.2540 23 0.2589 08 0.2637 93 0.2686 78 0.2735 63

0.0514 79 0.0520 99 0.0527 2 0.0533 4 0.0539 6 0.0552 01 0.0558 21 0.0558 21 0.0564 41 0.0570 61 0.0570 61 0.0576 82 0.0576 82 0.0583 02 0.0583 02 0.0583 02 0.0589 22 0.0589 22 0.0589 22 0.0595 42 0.0595 42 0.0595 42 0.0595 42 0.0595 42 0.0601 63 0.0595 42 0.0595 42 0.0583 02 0.0583 02 0.0576 82

57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68

0.92 0.91 0.9 0.89 0.88 0.87 0.85 0.82 0.81 0.8 0.78 0.75

4.845 4.93 5.015 5.1 5.185 5.27 5.355 5.44 5.525 5.61 5.695 5.78

0.2784 48 0.2833 33 0.2882 18 0.2931 03 0.2979 89 0.3028 74 0.3077 59 0.3126 44 0.3175 29 0.3224 14 0.3272 99 0.3321 84

0.0570 61 0.0564 41 0.0558 21 0.0552 01 0.0545 8 0.0539 6 0.0527 2 0.0508 59 0.0502 39 0.0496 19 0.0483 78 0.0465 17

Tor steel No. of Revolutions 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 Force (Tons) elongatio n strain stress 0 0 0 0 0.0049 0.0006 0.01 0.085 13 2 0.0098 0.0012 0.02 0.17 27 4 0.0147 0.0018 0.03 0.255 4 61 0.0196 0.0031 0.05 0.34 53 01 0.0245 0.0043 0.07 0.425 66 42 0.0294 0.0074 0.12 0.51 8 43 0.0343 0.0093 0.15 0.595 93 03 0.0393 0.0117 0.19 0.68 06 84 0.0442 0.0142 0.23 0.765 2 65 0.0491 0.0167 0.27 0.85 33 46 0.0540 0.0198 0.32 0.935 46 47 0.0589 0.0223 0.36 1.02 6 28 0.0638 0.0254 0.41 1.105 73 3 0.0687 0.0285 0.46 1.19 86 31 0.0736 0.0316 0.51 1.275 99 32 0.0786 0.0347 0.56 1.36 13 33 0.0835 0.0378 0.61 1.445 26 34 0.0884 0.0409 0.66 1.53 39 35 0.0933 0.0427 0.69 1.615 53 96 0.0982 0.0434 0.7 1.7 66 16 0.1031 0.0458 0.74 1.785 79 97 0.1080 0.0471 0.76 1.87 92 38 0.1130 0.0489 0.79 1.955 06 98 0.1179 0.0496 0.8 2.04 19 19 0.1228 0.0508 0.82 2.125 32 59 0.1277 0.0527 0.85 2.21 46 2 0.1326 0.0539 0.87 2.295 59 6

28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57

0.87 0.9 0.91 0.91 0.93 0.94 0.94 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.95 0.96 0.96 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.94 0.94 0.93 0.93 0.92 0.92 0.9

2.38 2.465 2.55 2.635 2.72 2.805 2.89 2.975 3.06 3.145 3.23 3.315 3.4 3.485 3.57 3.655 3.74 3.825 3.91 3.995 4.08 4.165 4.25 4.335 4.42 4.505 4.59 4.675 4.76 4.845

0.1375 72 0.1424 86 0.1473 99 0.1523 12 0.1572 25 0.1621 39 0.1670 52 0.1719 65 0.1768 79 0.1817 92 0.1867 05 0.1916 18 0.1965 32 0.2014 45 0.2063 58 0.2112 72 0.2161 85 0.2210 98 0.2260 12 0.2309 25 0.2358 38 0.2407 51 0.2456 65 0.2505 78 0.2554 91 0.2604 05 0.2653 18 0.2702 31 0.2751 45 0.2800 58

0.0539 6 0.0558 21 0.0564 41 0.0564 41 0.0576 82 0.0583 02 0.0583 02 0.0589 22 0.0589 22 0.0589 22 0.0595 42 0.0595 42 0.0595 42 0.0595 42 0.0595 42 0.0595 42 0.0589 22 0.0595 42 0.0595 42 0.0589 22 0.0589 22 0.0589 22 0.0589 22 0.0583 02 0.0583 02 0.0576 82 0.0576 82 0.0570 61 0.0570 61 0.0558 21

58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68

0.9 0.88 0.86 0.85 0.84 0.83 0.81 0.79 0.77 0.77 0.74

4.93 5.015 5.1 5.185 5.27 5.355 5.44 5.525 5.61 5.695 5.78

0.2849 71 0.2898 84 0.2947 98 0.2997 11 0.3046 24 0.3095 38 0.3144 51 0.3193 64 0.3242 77 0.3291 91 0.3341 04

0.0558 21 0.0545 8 0.0533 4 0.0527 2 0.0520 99 0.0514 79 0.0502 39 0.0489 98 0.0477 58 0.0477 58 0.0458 97

Calculations

: Mild steel = 22 x (2.265)2 / 7 mm2 = 16.123 mm2

Cross sectional area of the mild steel specimen

1. Upper yield stress

= =

0.64 x 1000 kg x 9.81ms-2 / 16.123 mm2 389.406 N/mm2 0.63 x 1000 kg x 9.81ms-2 / 16.123 mm2 383.321 N/mm2 0.97 x 1000 kg x 9.81ms-2 / 16.123 mm2 590.196 N/mm2 0.85 x 1000 kg x 9.81ms-2 / 16.123 mm2 517.180 N/mm2

2. Lower yield stress

= =

3. Maximum yield stress = = 4. Fracture yield stress = =

Calculations

: Tor steel

Cross sectional area of the mild steel specimen

= 22 x (2.265)2 / 7 mm2 = 16.123 mm2

1.

Maximum stress =

0.96 x 1000 kg x 9.81ms-2 / 16.123 mm2

584.109 N/mm2 = 0.87 x 1000 kg x 9.81ms-2 / 16.123 mm2

2.

Lower yield stress =

529.349 N/mm2 = 0.69 x 1000 kg x 9.81ms-2 / 16.123 mm2

3.

Maximum yield stress =

419.828 N/mm2 = 0.74 x 1000 kg x 9.81ms-2 / 16.123 mm2

4.

Fracture yield stress =

450.251 N/mm2

Discussion

1. Comparison of stress-strain curves of the two metal and alsoof the other materials

The relationship between the stress and strain that a material displays is known as a Stress-Strain curve. It is unique for each material and is found by recording the amount of deformation (strain) at distinct intervals of tensile or compressive loading. These curves reveal many of the properties of a material (including data to establish the Modulus of Elasticity, E). Mild steel, cast iron and aluminium alloys illustrate their respective properties. It can be seen that the concrete curve is almost a straight line. There is an abrupt end to the curve. This, and the fact that it is a very steep line, indicate that it is a brittle material. The curve for cast iron has a slight curve to it. It is also a brittle material. Both of these materials will fail with little warning once their limits are surpassed. Notice that the curve for mild steel seems to have a long gently curving "tail". This indicates a behavior that is distinctly different than either concrete or cast iron. The graph shows that after certain point mild steel will continue to strain (in the case of tension, to stretch) as the stress (the loading) remains more or less constant. The steel will actually stretch like taffy. This is a material property which indicates a high ductility. There are a number of significant points on a stress-strain curve that help one understand and predict the way every building material will behave.

Concrete

2. Application of the parameters obtained from the experiment Airplane industry

Peel tests on airframe composites Shear and tensile strength testing of fasteners e.g. bolts, nuts and screws Tensile & material strength testing of adhesive bonds, aircraft textiles and carpets, cables,

hoses and tubing, gaskets and o-rings, seat belts, welded and crimped joints, wiring looms and harnesses Automotive Industry
Quality assessment through tensile testing of interior fittings including: airbags, carpets,

dashboards, electrical harness (incl. crimped terminals pull-off force), handles, laminated trim, mirrors, seals and seatbelts and handbrake levers. Quality assessment through tensile testing of exteriors fittings including: bumper mouldings and trims, door and window seals, emblems and number plates, mirrors and mud flaps Beverage Industry
Peel strength of induction-sealed foils and labels Tensile force required to open 'ring-pulls' on bevcans Testing cork extraction force

Construction Industry
Bond strength testing of adhesives, mastics, sealants and bonds between brick and foam

layers Tensile and material strength testing of geotextiles and safety support netting Electrical and Electronics Industry

Connector withdrawal force Pull-off forces of crimped, welded or soldered electrical contacts Component-to-PCB pull-off force PCB material tensile strength

Medical Device Industry

Hypodermic needle-to-hub retention force Tensile strength and elongation at break of medical tubing, bandages, dressings and tapes Joint strength of IV connector fittings Suture-to-needle crimp pull out test Tensile strength of suture material and knotting Joint strength and material elongation of respiratory masks Elongation and tensile strength of examination gloves Mechanical strength of orthopaedic implant components

Packaging Industry Adhesive/peel testing of adhesive bonds, container seals and labels Force associated with opening snap-caps, pop-caps and other push pull closures Elongation of plastic packaging materials Paper and Board Industry

Openability of card and paper based packaging Folding characteristics of boxes and cartons Force to separate multi-part documents Durability of documents

Pharmaceuticals Industry
Pull off force of phial caps

Plastics, Rubber and Elastomers Industry

Joint strength of interlocking plastic components Assessment of material tensile properties Adhesion / peel testing of plastic labels, ID and credit cards

Safety, Health, Fitness and Leisure Industry

Tensile testing of safety support netting Ergonomic risk evaluations Elastic properties of racquet strings

Textiles Industry
'Pull-off' characteristics of buttons, stitched-on decorations, press studs, poppers, zip

fasteners, hook-and-loop fasteners Strength testing of vulnerable seams 3. Comparison of test results and the factors causing them Mild steel Youngs modulus = = = = (0.6 x 1000 x 9.81) / (16.123) MPa (12.5 x 0.085) / (17.4) 5978.534 MPa 30% 64%

Elongation Reduction in area Tor steel Youngs modulus

= = = =

(0.75 x 1000 x 9.81) / (16.123) MPa (18.3 x 0.085) / (17.3) 5075.28 MPa 30% 60%

Elongation Reduction in area

4. Significant of the stress-strain carve of mild steel

5. Different types of specimens

Various shoulder styles for tensile specimens. Keys A through C are for round specimens, whereas keys D and E are for flat specimens. Key: A. A threaded shoulder for use with a threaded grip B. A round shoulder for use with serrated grips C. A butt end shoulder for use with a split collar D. A flat shoulder for used with serrated grips E. A flat shoulder with a through hole for a pinned grip 6. Other method of determining same parameters High Force Electromechanical Tester 60kN From Tinius Olsen

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7. Particular method of testing In tensile testing we get stress as a load divided by cross section area. But during applying force gradually cross sectional area should be reduce. But in calculation we not include that reduction area in specimen. That will affect to the stress calculation and it indicates greater value than the actual value. This is the error in tensile test. This stress called as a engineering stress and actual value called as a true stress. Engineering stress = load Cross sectional area

8. Method to determine youngs modulus and proof stress using the Hounsfield tensometer firstly me fix the tor steel specimen in tensometer apply force gradually. Then remove the specimen and measure the length. When the point where change the length is the point of the proof stress

Reference

http://www.mathalino.com/reviewer/mechanics-and/-strength-ofmaterials/stress-strain-diagram http://www.instron.us/wa/home/default_en.aspx?ref=http%3a%2f %2fwww.google.com%2furl http://www.azom.com/materials-equipment.aspx?cat=43 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tensile_testing