Lesson 4: Coagulation and Flocculation

Coagulant Chemicals Types of Coagulants

Coagulant chemicals come in two main types - primary coagulants and coagulant aids. Primary coagulants neutralize the electrical charges of particles in the water which causes the particles to clump together. Coagulant aids add density to slowsettling flocs and add toughness to the flocs so that they will not break up during the mixing and settling processes. Primary coagulants are always used in the coagulation/flocculation process. Coagulant aids, in contrast, are not always required and are generally used to reduce flocculation time. Chemically, coagulant chemicals are either metallic salts (such as alum) or polymers. Polymers are man-made organic compounds made up of a long chain of smaller molecules. Polymers can be either cationic (positively charged), anionic(negatively charged), or nonionic (neutrally charged.) The table below shows many of the common coagulant chemicals and lists whether they are used as primary coagulants or as coagulant aids. Different sources of water need different coagulants, but the most commonly used are alum and ferric sulfate.

Chemical Name

Chemical Formula Primary Coagulant Coagulant Aid

Aluminum sulfate (Alum) Ferrous sulfate Ferric sulfate Ferric chloride Cationic polymer

Al2(SO4)3 14 H2O FeSO4 7 H2O Fe2(SO4)3 9 H2O FeCl3 6 H2O Various

X X X X X X* X* X* X X X X X X X X X

Calcium hydroxide (Lime) Ca(OH)2 Calcium oxide (Quicklime) CaO Sodium aluminate Bentonite Calcium carbonate Sodium silicate Anionic polymer Nonionic polymer Na2Al2O4 Clay CaCO3 Na2SiO3 Various Various

*Used as a primary coagulant only in water softening processes.

Alum
There are a variety of primary coagulants which can be used in a water treatment plant. One of the earliest, and still the most extensively used, is aluminum sulfate, also known as alum. Alum can be bought in liquid form with a concentration of 8.3%, or in dry form with a concentration of 17%. When alum is added to water, it reacts with the water and results in positively charged ions.

Coagulant Aids
Nearly all coagulant aids are very expensive, so care must be taken to use the proper amount of these chemicals. In many cases, coagulant aids are not required during the normal operation of the treatment plant, but are used during emergency treatment of water which has not been adequately treated in the flocculation and sedimentation basin. A couple of coagulant aids will be considered below.

Lime is a coagulant aid used to increase the alkalinity of the water. The increase in alkalinity results in an increase in ions(electrically charged particles) in the water, some of which are positively charged. These positively charged particles attract the colloidal particles in the water, forming floc. Bentonite is a type of clay used as a weighting agent in water high in color and low in turbidity and mineral content. This type of water usually would not form floc large enough to settle out of the water. The bentonite joins with the small floc, making the floc heavier and thus making it settle more quickly.

Factors Influencing Coagulation Introduction

In a well-run water treatment plant, adjustments are often necessary in order to maximize the coagulation/flocculation process. These adjustments are a reaction to changes in the raw water entering the plant. Coagulation will be affected by changes in the water's pH, alkalinity, temperature, time, velocity and zeta potential. The effectiveness of a coagulant is generally pH dependent. Water with a color will coagulate better at low pH (4.4-6) with alum. Alkalinity is needed to provide anions, such as (OH) for forming insoluble compounds to precipitate them out. It could be naturally present in the water or needed to be added as hydroxides, carbonates, or bicarbonates. Generally 1 part alum uses 0.5 parts alkalinity for proper coagulation. The higher the temperature, the faster the reaction, and the more effective is the coagulation. Winter temperature will slow down the reaction rate, which can be helped by an extended detention time. Mostly, it is naturally provided due to lower water demand in winter. Time is an important factor as well. Proper mixing and detention times are very important to coagulation.

The higher velocity causes the shearing or breaking of floc particles, and lower velocity will let them settle in the flocculation basins. Velocity around 1 ft/sec in the flocculation basins should be maintained. Zeta potential is the charge at the boundary of the colloidal turbidity particle and the surrounding water. The higher the charge the more is the repulsion between the turbidity particles, less the coagulation, and vice versa. Higher zeta potential requires the higher coagulant dose. An effective coagulation is aimed at reducing zeta potential charge to almost 0.

Coagulant
The proper type and concentration of coagulant are essential to the coagulation process. The coagulant choice will depend on the conditions at the plant. The concentration of coagulant also depends on the water conditions, and a jar test can be used to determine the correct concentration to use at any given time. Coagulants are usually fed into the water using a gravimetric feeder or a metering pump. A gravimetric feeder feeds dry chemicals into the water by weight. A metering pump feeds a wet solution (a liquid) into the water by pumping a volume of solution with each stroke or rotation. Improper coagulation related to coagulant may result from:

Using old chemicals Using the wrong coagulant Using the wrong concentration of coagulant. This may result from setting the wrong feed rate on the gravimetric feeder or metering pump or from a malfunction of the equipment.

Common Coagulation and Flocculation Problems

Review
Coagulation/flocculation is a process used to remove turbidity, color, and some bacteria from water. In the flash mix chamber, chemicals are added to the water and mixed violently for less than a minute. These coagulants consist of primary coagulants and/or coagulant aids. Then, in the flocculation basin, the water is gently stirred for 30 to 45 minutes to give the chemicals time to act and to promote floc formation. The floc then settles out in the sedimentation basin. Coagulation removes colloids and suspended solids from the water. These particles have a negative charge, so the positively charged coagulant chemicals neutralize them during coagulation. Then, during flocculation, the particles are drawn together by van der Waal's forces, forming floc. The coagulation/flocculation process is affected by pH, salts, alkalinity, turbidity, temperature, mixing, and coagulant chemicals.

References
Alabama Department of Environmental Management. 1989. Water Works Operator Manual. Belmont Water Treatment Association. 1997. Coagulation. Nearly all of the section "Factors Influencing Coagulation" is drawn directly from this site. Kerri, K.D. 2002. Water Treatment Plant Operation. California State University: Sacramento.

Assignments Read about detention times on page 110 of your text and answer the following question: (25 points) 1. A water treatment plant treats a flow of 1.7 MGD. The flocculation basin is 6 feet deep, 17 feet wide and 40 feet long. Calculate the detention time in minutes. Read about chemical feeder settings on page 117 of your text and answer the following question: (25 points) 2. The optimum liquid alum dose from the jar tests is 10 mg/L. Determine the setting on the liquid alum chemical feeder in gallons per day when the flow is 2.8 MGD. The liquid alum delivered to the plant contains 4.83 pounds of alum per gallon of liquid solution.

3. Complete Assignment 4 on Coagulation and Flocculation. You

may do the Assignment online to get credit or print it out and send it to the instructor.(50 points)

Labs Read the following jar test lab procedure. You may have test questions come from this lab.

Quiz Answer the questions in the Lesson 4 quiz . When you have gotten all the answers correct, print the page and either mail or fax it to the instructor. You may also take the quiz online and submit your grade directly into the database for grading purposes.