6

Modelsof PA
I m u s tC r e a t e a S y s t e no t r be enslav'c bly e r n o t h eM r an's; I will not Reason ancl C o m l t a r em : y b u s i n e sis s to Create.

ru.y .r c ut e tn,,,'I:" i?i]','?l' t;

A l t h o trg hi t i s ve ry i n stru cti ve ( ancl useful!) to seehow numbertheor ycan be formalizeclvvitltinPA, the stuclyof PA starts to becomeinteresting w h e nwe co n si d e th r e fo rma lsystem fr om u,itltout.lnthis chapter we tzr ke otrr first look ert nonstandarcl moclelsof PA, and our investigationis f o c u s e ci o n th e o rcl e r-typ e o i thesem odels,zr ncl in par ticular tlieir initial segments. O u r fi rsto b se rva ti o n i s th a t pr operinitialsegm ents always exist.( Ther e z r r ei n fa ct a t l e a st 2 n ,,o f them, as we shzillsoon see.) Let M FpA be n o n s ta n d zrrd , d zrn l e ta e M\N . The initial segment aNis defined to be {b e MIA/lFb ( c" for somerze Ny ilnclis consiclerecl as an 9.a-structr.rre in the obvioLrs way by consiclering the r e s t r i c ti o no s f +,', { i t'tM to nN,( lt is easyto seethat aNis closecl uncler *. .; incleec i f{ x , 1 1 a " , t h e n x l y , x . y < a , , . c t , , : u 2 , I ,n . f a c ta Ni s t h e s n t a l l est i n i ti a l se g me n to f M that contains a ancl is closecl uncler+ ,..) c l e a r l y a '+ M, si n ce b y E xer cise5 .g M contains b: ct" ancl( as n is n o n - sta n cl a rcl > r.l) " a ' fo r e a chn e N, so b > aN. I n f a ct, th i s a rg u me n tsh o wsthzr taN cannot satisfyPA, for if nNFPA t h e n , b y E ,xe rci se 5 .9 a g a i n ,aNwoulcl containan elementc sr .r ch that a N F l c ; , ,l:A V i < a ( ( c ) , * t :t r . ( r ) , ) , T h i s f o rmu l ai s A 1 y, so b y C o r ollar y 2.8 t u l F ( c ) u :I A V i < a ( ( c ) , *r : a . ( c ) i ) )n " fo r e a chrze N, so c) /r N, contr aclictiou. s o l v lF (r),,-, aNcloes, however , s a t i s f ya l l l I, se n te n ce s th a t ar e tr r :e in fu|, by Cor ollar y 2.8 again. In p a r t i cu l a r th i s rn e zrnth s a t a Nsatisfies \r ,fA,,, that is, the theor yPA together w i t l r a l l i n sta n ceo s f th e a xi o mof indLr ction up to l> , Y d ,b ( 0 ( r 1 0,) A V ; < b ( 0 ( c 1 , x ) - , 0 ( a x, * l ) ) + V . r < b 0 ( a ,x ) ) 69

70

Nlodels of PA

re stri cte d to A ,, fo rmulas0( a,x) .' t ( lt follows fr om this that 1A,,can not p ro veth e e xi ste n ce gr owth- see Exer cis e o f functions of exponentiiil 6.5 b e l o w . T h e re i s a g reat clealof inter estin linding out which number th e o re ti c W ilkie has sta te me n ts a re pr ovablein 1A,,alone.For exanr ple, r,vh e th e r a ske d the infinitude ./A 1p 1ro v es of pr im es.Ir r spiteof a gr eatdeal o f e ffo rt,th i s q u e sti o n is still unanswer ed.) It i s cl e a rth a t a Nfa i l edto satisfy PA because it was ' too sm all' ( r ela ti v e to a ). Ou r se co n d a tte mptm ight be to consicler 1 : e xp 1 rl ( a){:b e M IM Fb ( exp,,( a) for somen e N} This wh e re e xp 6 (a ):a a n d exp,+ t( o) :67cxP"\( t) . initial segmentis clos ed u n d e re xp o n e n ti a ti o as n well as *,., but it is still too smallto satisfy Pz l ( Exer cise:M ake thi s si n ce i t d o e s n o t co ntain the num ber exp,,( a) . primitive-recursive the argumentrigorousby defining function exp1,(c) in 5 .10.) P A , u si n gE xe rci se many allowsus to constr uct T h e mo ra lo f a l l th i s is, whilstthisappr oach interesting initial segments of.M, we must be rathermore cleverif we want of M satisfying PA itself. This to constructnonstandard initial segments and the next few chaptersare devoted to developingthe machineryfor d o i n g th i s, a n d o f th e utmostim por tance is the m ain r esult of the nex t section: ouerspill.

6.T OVERSPILL 1of a model ME PA is a c1!*ofM subset Recallfrom p. 22 that a non-empty function. under the successor M i tf xl ye Il x e l a nd / is closed th a t 1 L S a p r opercu! of M ( i.e.1is not equalto the dom ai nof . , i S u p p o se "t - M); th e n 1 i s..n o j a d e .finable- ,subsgt of M ; for if aeM and E( x,r 7)is an 9^-formula with I:{belvllMFE(b,a)}, + I, a) ) , since .1is non- emptyand i s th e n MF E (0 , a ) A Y x(q( x, a) - > cp( x function, ancl so by induction in M , cl o se d u n d e r th e su ccessor that 1 is a pr oper cttt. T he the assum ption MF V xq (x, a ), co n tra dicting saysjust this. lemma,clueto Abraham Robinson,essentially ouerspill d let 1 be a pr o per Let MF PA be non- standarand

''

4 . 1 , t h i s t h e o r y t u r n so u t t o b c c q t r i v a l c ntto B y a n a r g u m e n ts i n i l a r t o t h a t i n P r o p o s i t i o n ' 1 A , ' 'l o r i t . w i t h o u t a m b i g u i t yu s e t h c n o t a t i 0 n w e c a n , s o e A,,), t h e t h e o r yP A - + { 1 0 1 0

Ouer.spill cut o['.&1. Suppose rie lvl anclcp(x,d)is trn -Zo-fcrrmirla such that tulFcp(b, ri) for all b e L Tlrerrthere is c) I ir"r tll suchthat lvlFVx< ccp( x,cl) .

'71

Pr o of. If th e a ssu rn p ti o n s the theor emwer e t r u e , b L r t of not the conclus i o n,th e n l w o u l d b e cl e fi necl by the for m ula i , r ' ,' ' ' yy<xcp(y,A). D

T he o ve rsp i l l e mrn a i s u seda gr eatdeal"usuzr lly in the case when1: N . T h e re a re a l sotw o u se fu var l iants.

fCf@rLet

MF pA be nonsrandard a n d 1 a p r o p e rc u t o f M . S u p p o s e

rp(x,u) is an /o-formula with a e M, zrndt h a t f o r a l l x e 1 t h e r ee x i s t s ye1 such that

lVlFy>xAcp(y,ci) ( i . e . th e re a re 'u n b o u n d e clly m anyy e 1 satisl' ying cp( y, r i) ' ) . Then for each c > 1 i n M t h e r e e x i s tb se M w i t h l < b < c a n c l M Fcp(b,ci) ( i . e . ' t h e r ea r e a r b i t r a r i l s y m a l lb > l s a t i s f y i nc gp ( b , t 7 ) ' ) . Pr o of. A p p l y L e mma6 .1 to the for mula fy(r <y <c Acp(y, c7)), w h e rec e M i s a n a rb i tra ry elem entsatisfying c) I.

tr

y) a n cp(x, ,!uYyliQl(U-nel-qlp_!J).Let d e MF PA, I c M a propercur ancl fToimuiT. Then:

( a ) i f M F c p ( cr, i ) f o r c ) 1 i n M , t h e n M E V x > b q ( x , a ) f o r s o m eb e l ; ( b ) i f fo r a l l c> I i n fu lth e reexists x > 1 with M Fcp( x,r 7) Ax( c, thenfor all b e I t h e r ee x i s t s y e 1 w i t h f u l E y >b A c p ( y ,d ) . Proof. (a) Suppose there are unbounclecily murny x e I satisfying l v l F - 1 8 (x, a ). T h e n Mfl cp (x, a) for sor ne x> I by Lenr ma( r .2. (b) Suppose be 1 and X4|-tcp(y,c7 ) r a l l y > b i r r / . T h e n M P y< b y fo ( r . l t h e r e i s c : > 1 w i t h M F V y< c : aEj,A) for all yel, so by Lernrna ( y < b V - l q ( y , a ) ) , s o t h e a s s u m p t i otn o (b) fails. n A s a si mp l ea p p l i ca ti o o rrf theselemr nas, let MF PA be nonstanciiiranci cl

12

lVlcxleis of PA

l e t rre 1 V /\ N . C o n si cl ethe clefinecl by' r cut r r r ltr uttr't {lt e lvl l M Fb" { a for all n e N}. I t i s a s i r n p km : a t t e rt < ts e et h a f n r l ^irs c l o s e c u lncler * a n c l. . t h a t { t q e t l t " t . ( ln fact nr ' r u of M r- r ot is the lar gestsegnr ent zrn cl th a t N -" cl l r'r c"NL c o n t a i n i na g. ) the for mul z t We ca n p ro ve N *a rlftr using over spill by consicler ing n" t|(y.u):f;r(r >!Ax' <c). Clearly MFtlt(n, c ) f o r e a c hn e N , s i n c e ceM MFc> sr ome b > N , i . e .f o r s o m e N ( a . B y o v e r s p rtlv l lFtp(b,a)fo e. 4 b A c t{ ' r u , s o a s b > N c r ' > c "f o r a l l n e N , h e n c ec o t ' n ' \ N . E x e r c i s 6 a lso that ar lf' r FP,4 ancl t zrke s th i s mu ch fu rth e r , using over spillto show ,tttrt) a b"' for ttll b e M.
Exercisesfor Section 6.1 ( r . 1 S h o wt h a t o v e r s p i lflo r a r b i t r a r y ny s h o w i n g c u t s1 i s e q u i v a l e ntto i n c l u c t i o b t h e L e m m a6 . 1 , t h e n ac nl c ls a t i s f i e s c o n c l u s i o o nf t h a t ,i f A 4 E P A - i s n o n s t a n c l a r A4F PA. (llint: If t1eIVIand q is an //,1-formula so that cp(x AV x(rp(x,c1)---> + | , a)) cl) M Fcp(0, <xcp(y, d)}.) consicle 7r: { . re M l i V I F Y y cutN is not lirst-orcler. 6e . 1 ,o v e r s p i lfto r t h e s t a n d a r d to t E,xercis 6.2 In contrzrs tvt> tvt suchthat, for extension \rlF-PA-has an elementary Slrowthat any rtrodel every11 e ful and every EQ, cl) N ) & 7 F V . r ( b ( p ( x , 1f7 o)r s o m e b > Ni n & 7 . U f E @ , a )f o r a l l i r e ( H i n t :S h o wf i r s tt h z r i t f M F P A - , t 7 e M a n dq ( x , y ) i s a n 9 n - f o r n t u l i tt,h e nt h e r ei s a n M ' > & 1s u c ht h a t c p ( n , af )o r a l ln e N ) , 4 , / ' F V , r <b E ( * , a ) f o r s o m eb > N i n & / ' . IVIF a , E ( u s i n gt h e nv e r a n d o v e r a g a i nf o r d i f f e r e n t N o w i t e r a t et h i s c o n s t r u c t i oo to ) o b t a i nt h e r e q u i r e d , e m m a0 . 6 ,w h e r en e c e s s a r y yh a i n sL lemma o n e l e m e n t a rc r n o d cM l .) 0(x,I) is a A11 formrtla,/ceN and and suppose 6.3'' Let MFPA be nonstanclarcl i n & 1 s . t . t h e r e i s D > N t h a t D e c l u c e N F 0 ( r z/,i ) f o r a l l n e N . l v t F Y x < b ] ( x ,k ) . 0(.r,y) to be A,,? do you neecl Whcre in your zrrgutnent with n ) N. 6.4 Let MF Prl be nonstunclarcl I b"<a<(b + l)''' a t re l e m e n b t s . t .I V F (a) Foreach tt contains n > 0 i n N s h o wt l " t t M t h a t t h e r ei s s h o wt l t a t a t ' N t P Ab y s h o w i n g Herrce s u c hb , l v l F b t ' > c t . a n cf lor eacfu that fulFc' ) n. c dr"\ sr-rch

The ortler-typeof a model of PA

na t-)

(b) Show that for no b e lvl can it be the case that bNr- arlNr. (Llint: Consider the formula ly(h' <yA-y' < d).) 6.5(a) Let T be a 11' axiomatized 9n-theory containing PA SLrpposef+ fivt<t(x)-1e(i, v) is consistent for all .-f,.-tennsI(.f), where 0 is a fixecl A1y f o r m u l a . D e d u c ef r o m t h e c o r n p a c t n e sts h e o r e mt h a t t h e r e i s a m o d e l M F T w i t h a fixed tuple a e M such that MF Vt < /(d)_lO(tt,!) for alt terrns r(a). c.IVI , where b : max(d,2). Show that Now considerbNr

T+ aivt-11(i,t). b^rF
Deduce Purikh',stheorem,that if 0(i,t) is A,, and TtViat9G,r), then TtViAt < t(i)0(i, y) for some9o-term r(.r). (b) Show that 1A, is a IIl axiomatized theory. Conclude from Parikh'stheorem t h a t 1 A , , F V x 3 y 4 ( x , yw ) ,h e r e4 i s a n y ) 1 f o r m u l ar e p r e s e n t i n g ' y : 2 "i n N . (c) By considering the formula y), 0 ( x ,y ) : ( Yz - l q ( x , z ) ) V r t @ , w h e r er t @ , y )a g a i nr e p r e s e n t s ' y : 2 " , s h o wt h a t t h e c o n c l u s i otn o (a) mayfail if t h e a s s u m p t i otn h a t 0 e A , , 1 id sr o p p e d .

6.2 THEORDER-TYPE O F A M O D E L O FP A lf M is an 9n-structure then M | < denotes the reduct of M to the l a n g ua g e with the samedom ainasNI but with only { < }, i .e . th e stru ctur e the o n e r e l a ti o n , n a me l y<. It i s evident that if M F PA- the M | < satisfies elz(nsnt, theory To,5of a dl;glg!-qfineqr.ptd,er. w-ithno -l.ast firs.t-eleme-ry! Q111a x i o ma ti ze d by
7p151:

Y x]tx{x V x, y, z(x < yAy < z- - > x I z) Y x ,y ( x < y V y < x V x : y ) (> * <yV w: y)))) Vx(ayQ<x)-- ayj <xAYw(w <x---z I w\/ z : h/)) YxazQ < z AV w(x I w--> lzV x(zl xf x: z).

Te62: 7p1.3: Ters4: Zp,s5: Zo'16:

oof the language theory, i.e., for any sentence is a.g-g-ryplete In fact Zp15 ( For a pr oof of this see Exer cise6.6 or { < i e i th e r fo ,rl -o o r T D rsF- lo. ( B r i d g e , l g l 7 , S e cti o n 4 .3, p. 129- 33) .) Zp1, has 2no non- isom or phic em pty)linear lyor der ecl c o u n ta b l e mo cl e l s, fo r i f (A ,'- o) is any ( possibly

14 -----J ( .
N

of PA tulodeis
... . . . )

copies of Z indexed by ,4 many N e+ Z ' A Fig.3 Theorcler-typ set then N+Z . AFTDs,where the model N+Z' A is that with dornain N U ( Z x , , 1 ) ( t h i s u n i o n w i l l . b e a s s u m e dt o b e d i s j o i n t ) a n d o r c l e r< c l e f i n e d

by, ( a ) n < ( r , o ) f o r a l l n e N a n d( 2 , a ) e Z x A ; ( b ) < re stri cte d to N i s the natur alor der on N; ( . ) ( r ,, a , ) 1 ( t r . , o r . ) i f f ( c r l e a z o r ( a ,: a 2 a o d z r < z z ) ) f o r a l l ( 2 , , a 1 ) , ( z z ,a z )e Z x A , a n dw h e r e2 1 1 2 2i s t h e u s u a o l r d e ro n Z . T h e o r d e rN + Z . A i s t h e l i n e a ro r d e rs h o w ni n F i g . 3 . o u t a p r o o ft h a ti f A + B t h e nN + Z ' A * N + Z - ' B , W e s h a l ln o w s k e t c h are isomorphicto some N + Z . A for some and that all modelsof Zp15 be the { r ,- leas t l in e a rl y o rd e re dse t A . Let ( M , < r ) FTo' r , and let 0p1 define and functions S and P on M elementof M (givenby the axiom Zo'16) by S(t) : the uniqueY e M s't" M Ex < y A V w ( x< w - + ( y < * V y : w ) ) P ( x ): t h e u n i q u e Ye M s.t' (* < yV w:y)), ifx*0 11 M Fy < . r A V w (w I x - - > :0,u,. and P(0p1) - o n M b y a - b i f f b : P ( " ) ( ao )r re elation anequivalenc N e x tw e d e f i n e 6 :5 (" )(c) fo r so men e N. W e leaveit to the r eaderto checkthe follow i ng facts: classof r elation ( we denotethe equivalence (o ) - i s a n e q u i va l ence aeM by [a]); a l i n earor der ( on M l- givenby [n] < fblea <n b and (b ) <r, i n d u ce s

[n)+fbl;

(c) if 4:(lvl

\ [0,v/])/- and <,1 is the linear orclergiven in (b), then

(M,<r')=N+Z'A' are of the form N + Z ' A, and by It followsthat all modelsof Zp15 set aboveit is easyto seethat the ordered the construction examining Thus (up to isomorphism). from (M, <") is uniclue (A, 1o) obtainecl . there te h a t ,s i n c e N + Z A - N + Z . B i f f A = 8 . F r o mt h i sw e c a nd e c l u c
l e t sz l , t h e r e a r e 2 N n c o u n t a b l el i n e a r l y o r c l e r e cs a r e u p t o i s o m o r p h i s m2 N u countable moclelsof T'r'..

The orcler'-type of u mod.elof PA

75

R e tL rrn i nto g mo cl e l s o f a rithmetic now, wc woulcllike to know: givena n o n sta n d a rd mo d e l ME P A , r ,vhich of the possiblem oclels of Ip1, can i V I| < b e ?T h e ra th e rsu rp risir r answer r is that, if M is cor .r ntable, ther e is o n l y on e p o ssi b i l i ty l o r th e o r cler ' - type of lVl | < . T t t e o n E v6 r .4. Let MEPA be nonstandard for T.h e n f u l | < = N + Z . A ( ,r ) s o m el i n e a rl y o rcl e re cl se t (,4, satisfying the theor yDLO axiomatizecl by

DL O 1 :

(x Vx_-lx Vx, l, z( x< y Ay < z- - -x 1 z) Y x ,y ( x < y V x : y V y < x ) Yx , y ( x 1 y - r A z Q < z A z < y ) ) V x a y ,z ( y < x A x < z ) . w h e r eQ i s t h e s e to f

DLOz..
DL O 3 : DL O 4 : DL O 5 :

I n p a r t i c u l a ri , f M i s c o u n t a b l et,h e nM = N + 2 . Q , r a t i o na l s w i th i ts n a tu ra lo rd er .

Pr o o f. It i s a w e l l -kn o w n th eor emof Cantor ' s ( and a ver ypopularexer cise t o g i ve to u n d e rg ra cl u a te mathem aticians!) that any countablestr uctur e ( A, 1 ,r) sa ti sfyi n g D L O i s isom or phic to ( 8, <) . A pr oof appear sin Br i d ge (7 9 7 7 , p p .1 0 7 -9 ), for example.( DLO, by the way, standsfor d e n sel i n e a ro rd e r.) T h i s sh owsit is sufficient to pr ove thzr M t f <=N+ . V , A f o r s o m e( A , < n ) F D L O . Sincethe functionsS(x) anclP(x) definecl above are obviouslyx * 1 and x - 1 i n M w e ca n re -i n te rpr et the equivalence r elation - by, a- b iif MFa*n:byn:b+n f o r s o m en e N . S o ,a s b e f o r e l,e t

A : ( M\ [ o ] ) / with its order <n inducedfrom M | < by

lo)< olble[r] +lb) & tutFa<b.

W e m u s tc h e c k( A , { n ) F D L O . Noticethat [a]eA iff a>N. Suppose lnl<^[b] where a, beM are n o n sta n d a rd T . h e n fu l F a {b ancl MFAx@*n1xAx*n<b) f o r e a chn e N . H e n ce ,b y o ver spill, ther er sc e fulwith c) N ancld e lvl s.t.
MFal cld\d-t clb

76

tulodels of PA

< o [ b ) , tlrus s o [ n ]< n [ r L ] .4FD LO4.To check DLOS holds, s u p p o sn e) N . Then

.,1;).L;l
'f rtlultt-l

n12u

i o r e a c hn N , s o

-^ IL;]l

fa)<,'[2a].

f o r a l i n e a ro r d e r ,s o t h e y a r e D L O I , D L O 2 , D L O 3 a r ej u s t t h e a x i o m s n the theor em. This pr oves a u to ma ti ca l lsa y ti sfi e d. T h e o re m6 .4 i s a l sov er y useful:we can deducefr om it that counta bl e numberof cuts. o f P A h a veth e maxim umpossible mo d e l s Then M h as and nonstandar d. Co n o r-rn n v6 .5 . L e t MFPA be countable p ro p e rcu ts1 . 2N ,, Proof. By the theorem, there is an order-isomorphism f:M | {-+ N + image V Z.8.If ScQ satisfie sx e S V y e Q ( y < x ' - > l e S ) t h e nt h e i n v e r s e d i s t i n cs t u c hS ' , S z c Q g i v e u n d e r / o f N + 2 . S i s a c u t I o f M , a n dc l e a r l y follows,sincethe cuts/1,Ir of M.The cor ollar y r i sei n th i s w a y to d i sti nct with the cutsthey make in Q, via the r e a l sR a re i n 1 -1 co rr espondence ma p r-{QeQlqcr} an d th e ca rd i n a l i ty o f R is 2R,,. !

C o mp a reC o ro l l a ry 6.5 with Exer cise2.13 which showed that n onmo d e l so f P A - needonly have Np pr oper cuts! sta n d a rd T h e a rg u me n jtu st g ivencan be easlymodifiedto give Then M has2"" and nonstandard. 6,6. Let MF PA be countable Tugonetvt ' . under *, p ro p e rcu ts.Ic, M th a t ar e closed

- on Mby Proof.Redefine neN. a - b i f fM F h < ( u + 2 ) " Va < ( b * 2 ) " f o rs o m e

is linearly ee l a t i o n ,A : ( M \ [ 0 ] ) / IS again an equivalencr Then by l n l < , , [ b ] i f f l a l + f b ) a n d t u l F c r l b . I n f a c t ( A , < o ) F D L O ordered

Thc orrLer-typc rl'u ntocLel of Ptl a g a i ns , i n c ci f [ a ] < , ,[ b ] , t h e nN < a ( b ancl

77

lvlEax(f u + 2 ) "< " r< ( x+ 2 ) ". <b )

f o r e a c hn e N . S o b y o v e r s p i ltlh e r ca r e c r , r / - ' N i n [ V l ,s o t h a t

ME(u+2)'<d<(d*2|<b
( h c r e w e a re u si n gE ,xe rcise 5.8 ar r cl the fact that exponcntiation can be c l e f i rreicl n P rl b y a si n g l e for r nula) It . followsthat [a] <,,ldlcn [1r ], anclso ( r l , 1 n ) E D L O 4 . D L O 5 i s p r o v e ci ln a s i n r i l a w r ay. ( ,r ) - ' ( Q, <) . Inver sc T h u s th e re i s a n o rcl e r - isor nor phisr n ( A, : f images o f c u t s5 , . : { c l eS l q c r } ( w h e r er e R ) y i e l c li n i t i a ls e g m e n to sf f u l t h a t a re cl o se du n d e r * a n d ., and clistinct yield cuts,5,, clistinct S, initial s e g me n ts, a s re q u i re cl . n Exercise.s for Section6.2
6.6 Pnrve that any countal'rle model (A, <n) of DLO is isornorphic to (4, <). DedLrce th'atDLO is cornplete. 6 . 1 S h o wt h a t 7 1 ; 1i s c o m p l e t e a sf o l l o w s : (a) Let MFTD$ be countable, and clefirre 0, P(x), anclS(.r)on &1using7l)rs6, fr)rs4 anclT1;1*5 respectively, by lirsrortler forrnulas in the language of 7ur.. (b) Now define- on arbitraryrnoclels of Tr1*by
a - b i f f V , , . r o r ( P ( " ) ( a )b : V , S ( ' ' ) ( n:)1 r ; . S l i o w t h a t i f M F T D $ , u , b e M F u < b a n c l [ a l + [ b ] , t h e n t h e r e i s a r ne l e n r e n t a r y extensior lv t l'> M with ce M'satisfyingful'Fct--c(D a n c ll u l + [ c ) + l b ) . S i m i l a r l y i ,f ueful zrnd lul+ft)) show that there is arr elenterrtaryextension M'> ful with b, c e l V [ 'F b < u ( c a n c l [ 0 ] + l b l + [ a ] + l c ) . ( c ) U s i n g ( b ) a n c la u n i o n o f c h a i n sa r g u m e n t ,s h o w t l i a t a n y c o u n t a b l em o c l e l? 1 ; 1 * i s : r n e l e m e n t a r ys u b s t r u c t u r e o f a m o d e l & 1 = N + 2 . Q . D e c l u c et h a t a n y t w o countable moclels Mt, Ivl2FTpl*can be elenrentarily er-nbeclclecl in a cornttrotr extensiorr lV7, ancl hence T1;;* is cornplete. ( r . 8 M o c l i f y t h e p r o o f o f T h e o r e r n ( r . 4 t o s h o w t h a t a n y n o n s t a n d a r cllv l F P A satisfying wherc AF DLO. o v e r s p i l lf o r t h e s t a n c l a r c l c u t h a so r c l e r - t y p e N + Z .,21 N