BULLETIN NO.

Black Halftone Prints

WARREN How will it print?

This bulletin is issued by S. D. Warren Company to aid the graphic arts community in dealing with the complexities of the printing process. Information contained herein combines the findings of scientists and the observations of experienced craftspeople. No scientist will claim that existing knowledge is complete, and no sincere craftsperson will pose as a final authority. The text of this bulletin, therefore, represents merely the considered opinions of experienced and thoughtful analysts.

Black Halftone Prints

A halftone is an illusion. What appears to you in print as a black and white photograph is in reality a dot pattern, a halftone, that your eyes interpret as a continuous image. How a pattern of dots and spaces can reproduce the subtle tones and details of a photograph is an intriguing process. In this booklet you'll learn much about how it is done. You'll also learn what kind of photograph to start with, what precautions you should take in platemaking and printing, what special effects you can achieve, and what impact your paper choice will have on final results. We'll pay particular attention to the matter of contrast. For contrast in your photograph determines both its range of tones and its image detail. And matching this contrast, through the many steps in making a halftone, is your key to faithful reproduction. Knowing well the possibilities that halftones afford, and the limitations they impose, will provide you with many avenues to more creative design and production.

What can happen to a photograph from camera to press?

The quality of the halftones that you see in most publications today is superb. But even with your best efforts and very sophisticated technology and materials, it's inevitable that a photograph will lose something when it's reproduced as a halftone. Matching contrast is that tough! The problems you face in achieving exact reproduction are 1) the physical properties of the halftone itself, 2) the limitations of conventional printing methods, and 3) the many steps required in conveying a photographic image to a press sheet. If you examine any photograph with a magnifier, you'll see that its image consists of a fine grain pattern. These grains are so small that it is difficult to discern individual particles. Tones blend together smoothly and the edge detail of objects is very sharp. Were you next to examine a halftone reproduction of this photograph, you would see that it is composed of dots instead of grain and that these dots are large enough to be seen separately. Because of their size, halftone dots do not blend tones as smoothly or maintain edge detail as sharply as photographic grain. But they are still small enough in comparison with the total image to give you the illusion of a photograph at normal viewing distance. If a photographic image is degraded in the halftone process, then why not print it directly? Why must you use halftones? The answer to this question lies in the "all-or-nothing rule" that offset, letterpress, and other conventional printing methods are bound by. They can only apply or withhold a uniform density of ink. A solid. Every part of a printed image line, dot, letter, or irregular shape receives this same density. And where there is no image, the paper remains clear. Intermediate tones cannot be printed. For line copy, which contains only solid forms, all-or-nothing is adequate. But to reproduce a photograph, which contains many greys between solid black and paper white, an additional step is required. Hence, the halftone. With the magnifier again, look closely at any of the halftones reproduced in this booklet.* Notice how their tones are formed. In the dark or shadow areas are large dots separated by small spaces; in the highlight areas, small dots separated by large spaces; and in the intermediate greys, dots and spaces of various sizes. Your control of the size and placement of halftone dots enables you to approximate the tones of a photograph with a single density of ink. Making a halftone by first copying the photograph onto film through a screen that produces the required dot pattern, then transferring this pattern to a press plate must be done with extreme care if good reproduction is to be achieved. Your choice and handling of film, screen ruling and density, exposure and developing techniques, all are critical. Next comes stripping, which must be clean and accurate; and platemaking, in which exposure and use of chemicals must be exact if the negative image is to transfer faithfully and the plate to have good press stability. At the press stage, every bit of skill that an operator brings to the running of any job is needed to keep dots sharp and spaces clear. Finally comes the question of how well a paper suits the halftones you're printing. Stock selection should actually be one of your first considerations in planning a job. For its surface is the ultimate factor in determining whether or not you get the reproduction you're aiming for. All the effort that has been expended in earlier stages of the halftone process will be wasted if your paper is not right for the job.

*Note: The illustration on the opposite page is not a halftone but a continuous tone reproduction. Examine it with your magnifier and you'll see that its structure is not composed of halftone dots, but more closely resembles the grain pattern of an actual photograph. We've used this continuous tone to simulate an actual photograph and provide a basis for comparison as you examine halftones. While continuous tone reproductions are the closest match to photographs, they are difficult and expensive to make. Which is the reason for the popularity of halftones.

Quality control based on a 10-step grey scale

i j \

1 2 3 4 5 6

Let's now look at how to go about insuring good halftone reproduction. Since one of your primary objectives is to match contrast, this is what you'll consider first. To your left is a 10-step grey scale. The number of different tones in a black and white photograph is theoretically infinite; but for convenience sake, you work with a representative number. They range on the scale in graduated steps from paper white to full intensity black. On the page opposite is a photograph or a halftone reproduction of a photograph with as wide a range of tones as you're ever likely to be working with. The highlights are at step 1; the shadows, at step 10; the midtones fall at various points in between. This grey scale makes it relatively easy to find values for all the larger, more important tone areas. The key ones are the darkest and lightest, for they define the density range* you're attempting to match. Another one that you'll be concerned with is the midtone (between steps 5 and 6). Many of the more important image areas, such as human features or product details, fall here. When you copy a photograph onto halftone negative film, you copy the grey scale, too. And by comparing the film image with the original scale, tone for tone, you can determine the intensity, number, and types of exposure needed. As you will see later, it usually takes more than one to record a full range of tones. In the pocket on page 49 of this booklet, there is a grey scale that has been hole punched. It's even easier to do your scanning with it. For as you move over a photograph's surface, matching tones will show through. Another and still more accurate way of determining density is with a densitometer. This is a fairly simple photo-electric device that "reads" tones in much finer steps than you can by eye.
'Density is a measure of opacity, related to the percentage of an area's dot coverage. Density range, therefore, expresses the difference between brightest highlights and darkest shadows.

What makes a photograph good copy

A good halftone begins with a good photograph. Because our concern here is reproduction, we'll assume that you're satisfied with the composition of the photograph you're using and will deal only with those qualities that affect how successfully you can turn it into a halftone.

CONTRAST
Your primary concern will be contrast. Think in terms of tonal separation: the difference in grey value between different areas of the image. Contrast determines how well details are delineated, as adjacent tones separate to create sharp edges. It also creates texture smooth or rough, softly modulated or intricately patterned. Contrast provides richness, gives subjects dimension, and can produce the illusion of great depth. Printers usually want a photograph with "snap" and "plenty of contrast." Don't confuse this with "contrasty," a photograph dominated by deep shadows massed against chalky highlights. Here you have neither detail nor a wide range of tones.

Give them a photograph with good "picture contrast," that is, with important subjects standing out from their backgrounds. Dark subjects against light backgrounds, and light against dark. But provide less "image contrast," the degree of variation among tones in the subjects themselves. For as you will see later in this booklet, it is difficult for the halftone maker to capture all the tones in a good photograph. Some are sacrificed. The result can be increased contrast in midtone areas . . . as intermediate greys drop out... even though overall contrast is reduced by the halftone's inability to reflect the solid blacks and whites of a photograph. Be sure to discuss with your printer, before the job goes on press, exactly what you expect from each halftone. He has many "tricks" at his disposal to help assure that you get what you're aiming for.

flat contrBst

high contrast

i %.:;;

overexposure

LIGHTING AND EXPOSURE

I i
;

111\ 11";

* 1 1 : Si !!N; ' fla f

One of the keys to contrast is lighting. Even with subjects and backgrounds that in themselves either have or lack natural contrast, the ultimate result depends on how the photographer handles light... both in and outside of the studio.

f jllfitll t .. 1 1 1 11 - I

mwmwmmn mmnmiitmi

A particularly good way of handling outdoor light is with a polarizing filter. Because it eliminates reflections from all but metallic surfaces, this filter strengthens many tones and improves their separation.

i i i l l l l l i if]1illill;*:il
"^IBIilllllilll!!!II WWUWMWil'0^I
Siiiilllil1!!!

Also important to contrast is exposure. It's true that some exposure problems can be compensated for in film development and print making. But no amount of manipulation can add shadow detail that didn't register because of insufficient exposure or highlights that were blocked out because of too much.
underexposure

S f l i l l t l l l l l i i l IIUlilMmtiH, "11 1 1 1 1 1 1 ! .'.. 1 Mi 1

i iii

out of focus print

FOCUS
Sharp focus is so obvious a requirement that it hardly seems necessary to discuss. Yet the impact of too many halftones is lost because they aren't in focus, are improperly focused, or lack appropriate depth-of-field (the image area in which all elements appear sharp). It's imperative that the photographer know exactly what parts of the image are important and should be emphasized , what should be deemphasized, and what overall effect you're aiming for. Also be sure that the enlargement you're working from is really sharp. Don't spoil a good photograph by accepting sloppy darkroom work.

GRAIN
As you saw earlier, a photographic image is composed of grain particles. Except for achieving special aesthetic effects, you will want the finest grain possible. Again, this is a requirement to discuss beforehand with your photographer, since choice of film and method of processing, even to some extent, handling of light, determines grain size.

polarization filter

PAPER SHADE AND SURFACE

Photographic paper varies considerably in shade and surface texture. It can range from blue-white to warm-white or cream, and can produce images that range from blue-black to neutral-, warm-, or even brown-black. Surfaces range from smooth and glossy to heavily textured matte, with many variations in between. Your best choice for reproduction is a white, glossy base yielding a blue- or neutral-black image. While warm tone, even tinted photographs look beautiful on a gallery wall, they must be filtered and often require special exposure when being shot as halftone negatives. Your surface should be smooth not textured, for a textured surface scatters light, resulting in loss of detail. Many graphic arts people are also moving away from glossy surfaced prints since they easily scratch and are more difficult to retouch. A popular choice today is a smooth luster or semi-gloss.

o filter

' : ,',,, :.:. . ^ : ; y ^r ; i 4^ m;-

CAMERA FORMAT, NEGATIVE AND PRINT SIZE

J a I II
**^

Ask your photographer to shoot with as large a format camera as practical, especially for product and other studio work. You'll get better detail in a print made from a large negative than from a small one. The small image must be enlarged many times to make a print suitable for most reproduction. In the process, photographic grain loses sharpness, obscuring fine detail and degrading overall appearance.

unretouched photo

Unless you need candid, on-location shots where only the 35mm format has sufficient speed and flexibility, go to 21/4, 4 x 5 or 8 x 10. 4 x 5 and 8x10 view cameras offer the added advantages of producing greater depth-of-field and maintaining parallel lines. Both qualities are particularly important in product shots. How large a print should you supply your printer with? The rules of thumb are that it's better to reduce from a larger print to a smaller reproduction and that the difference between the two sizes shouldn't be more than five times. Five-time reduction is the maximum that most copy cameras can make. To go beyond that requires two steps, with additional loss of fidelity.

HANDLING
Protect your photographs. They're a major investment. Have them mounted on board. They're then less likely to crack in handling and shipping. And if covered with tissue, their surfaces won't be dull or smudged by fingerprints. This is especially important if they've been retouched.

nm
I . I II II " " .. ; ll S I II \

"' "IsllS

Bill i l l l l i i illllill 111:11 IffiCflBls JlSllilJIlllllllIM llljllll

.Jlillllllll ilillSllj|l!i:

II

..li^llll IBI^^piUl'11111 u 3JSHHPMHK

11

r&touch&d photo

RETOUCHING
Even after expending much skill and effort in taking or finding a photograph for reproduction, still you may not have exactly what you want. Overall contrast may be too high or too low, or may vary noticeably among a group of photographs that are to appear together. The subject may have been especially difficult, like machinery or glassware, and you may want to improve upon or emphasize a particular detail. You may even decide after shooting that the background or certain objects in the photograph are distracting and should be subordinated. Your solution to these and other such problems, assuming that you decide not to reshoot, is retouching. This is a job for a specialist and can be quite costly. Yet it is sometimes the only way to obtain a desired effect. With an airbrush, continuous-tone shading films, a selection of fine tipped pens, and bristle brushes, an experienced retoucher can produce remarkable alterations.

12

llllllillllllllllllliilllP1*1
'llIPiillllilliilL...

Offset platemaking

Making a halftone is a photographic process that usually involves two steps: converting a photograph into anegative dot pattern on film, and then using this film to make a positive image on a press plate.

SHOOTING THE NEGATIVE

This is your critical step, for here dot size is determined. And dot size, remember, accounts for the contrast or different tones in your reproduction of a photograph. You form these dots with a halftone screen, located between the photograph and the film. Most screens today are contact screens, so called because they are used in direct contact with film in the camera. On the screen is a grid of vignetted dots, arranged in crossing lines. Glass screens, which have been replaced almost entirely by film-base contact screens, are etched with solid lines in this same crisscross grid. Both types of screens are available in sizes of 50 to 300 lines per inch, but 85 to 150 are the most common. Line measure, or screen ruling, is an important factor in making a halftone, for the more lines per lineal inch that a screen has, the more accurate its rendering. In shooting the negative, a photograph is placed on a copyboard in front of the camera and lighted uniformly from edge to edge. As this light is reflected back from the photograph and passes through the screen, it is focused on the film as a pattern of halftone dots. Each opening in the screen's grid acts as a tiny lens, producing one dot. Large dots are created by intense light reflected from highlights, intermediate dots by light from the midrange, and small ones by light from the shadows.* Several exposures are usually required to make this negative because a halftone screen, with just one exposure, cannot form dots whose range in size corresponds exactly with the density range of most photographs. Although the dots representing midtones may be of proper size, those in the highlights will be too small, and in the shadows, they may not form at

all. Such a negative would produce a halftone lacking highlight and shadow detail. To alter a screen's range so that it matches the photograph's, producing all dots of required size, supplementary exposures are made. If, for example, shadow dots are not formed during the main exposure, so that the shadows would print solid with no detail, the screen's density range is narrower than the photograph's and must be extended. We do this with a flash exposure through the screen only. No image is projected from the photograph at this time. Flashing is accomplished under appropriate safelight conditions by simply opening the camera back (where the film and screen are held together in a vacuum frame) and giving the film a short exposuring with yellow light. Pinpoint dots then form in the shadows, but highlights and midtones will be changed very little because such an exposure is insufficient to enlarge dots, which in those areas, already exist. If, on the other hand, the dots in the highlight area are too small to create desired detail and tone separation, a bump exposure is given. For this, the screen is removed and the film exposed only to the photograph. In bumping, shadow dots are not enlarged. The light intensity reflected from the dark areas of a photograph is too low to affect them. Bumping is needed less frequently than flashing since most contact screens have bump or highlighting built in. In addition to or instead of these supplementary exposures, screen range can be controlled by using filters during the main exposure. A yellow filter extends the screen; a magenta one compresses it.
*Note that we are referring to the negative image. In a printed halftone, which is positive, the pattern is reversed, i.e., the small dots are in the highlights.

Other problems and considerations in shooting the negative

lens flare normal halftone screen

14

FLARE
' v
One of the most commonly encountered problems in shooting your negative is flare -which is stray non-image light that adds unwanted exposure. Its effect is similar to flashing; but because it is difficult to control, the result is often poor contrast, fog, or loss of image detail. Various conditions contribute to flare: extraneous room or window light, copyboard reflections, dirty lenses and filters, camera leaks and interior reflections from the lens barrel or bellows. Although some degree of flare is always present, you can minimize it by eliminating these conditions. Test kits for measuring flare are available from most commercial film manufacturers.

.^, ^

,,.^"T''

Mi 0:

ULTRA-VIOLET ENERGY
Most of the photographs that you copy are printed on photographic papers containing image-enhancing brighteners. These brighteners convert ultraviolet (UV) energy emitted by the copy lights into visible light by a process called "fluorescence." The result is usually an underexposed negative. Since the effect of brighteners varies from paper to paper, it is impossible to precalculate the additional exposure needed for each. So you have to attack the problem at its source. This means either to use low-UV lighting or to cover your existing lights with a UV inhibitor, such as Mylar film.

15

elliptical dot screen

scanned

halftone

SMALLEST DOT PRINTABLE

Dot coverage in the highlight area should be approximately 95% in order to produce a 5% dot on the printed sheet. The exact size of this printed dot will vary with your ink, with the ink hold-out property of your paper, and with your press conditions. You should aim to make the highlight dot as small as can be maintained consistently through platemaking and printing.

ELIMINATING TONE BREAKS WITH ELLIPTICAL DOT SCREENS

The typical 50% middletone dot is square, connecting with other dots at its corners to form a checkerboard pattern. Where this pattern occurs, there is a slight increase in density, called a "tone break," which is unflattering to reproductions of people and to other subjects with soft middletones. Skin texture, especially of faces, becomes noticeably coarse. To create a softer effect, use an elliptical dot screen. It produces a 50% dot that is diamond- or football-shaped, connecting only at its ends.

SCANNED HALFTONES
To further refine tonal gradation, the original photograph can be electronically scanned instead of producing a conventional halftone dot. This method of producing black and white halftones enables you to produce a smoother tonal gradation so that finer detail can be captured from the original.

16

65 line screen

85 line screen

120 line screen

150 line screen

200 line screen

17

SCREEN SIZE

with your ink/paper combination. Shadows can print no darker than the maximum density of ink used; highlights no brighter than the paper itself.

When determining screen size, it's necessary to think "systematically." Which means that you cannot assume that a finer screen always yields better reproduction. Two other components of the system are equally important: paper quality and press conditions. A rough, uncoated paper like newsprint readily absorbs ink, causing dot spread. On such a paper, fine screens will plug up and detail and tone separation are lost.

DEVELOPMENT
In developing a negative, your objective is to get out of it what your exposure put into it. This means good dot formation and the right tone values and density range. It's not likely that you'll be disappointed if
normal ink/paper contrast

you follow manufacturer's directions and standardize your processes, so that temperatures, times, and agitation are uniform for all negatives. You must also, of course, take care that chemicals are mixed properly and are never used beyond their effective lifetime. Automatic processers make standardizing easier, but they must be monitored closely to give optimum results. There will be times, however, when you may want to depart from your usual procedures. It's possible to compensate for exposure errors by altering development

Halftones on newsprint are usually run with 85-110 line screens. It's when you're using a smooth, highly coated stock that fine screens, even up to 300 lines, are appropriate. With the high ink holdout such a paper affords, dots retain sharp edges and the spaces between them remain open.

Secondly, the use of a fine screen requires that extra care be taken in presswork. Ink flow must be carefully controlled and all press components must be in perfect adjustment.

PAPER REFLECTANCE AND INK/PAPER CONTRAST

Some papers reflect more light and, therefore, are brighter than others. On these bright papers you can reproduce photographs with long density ranges.

But density range will be compressed when you're using a less bright paper. For then one separation, particularly in the shadows, is more difficult to achieve.

Density range may also have to be adjusted o the limits of contrast that can be achieved

" " '

18

times. For example, if your bump exposure was too short, you can increase highlight dot size by developing your negative longer. Not recommended as an ongoing procedure, this trick can save film and help to meet an occasional deadline.

Your two objectives in platemaking are to transfer the film image as faithfully as possible and to give the plate good press stability. You accomplish this by careful control through all steps: perfect contact in the vacuum frame, exact exposure and development, and proper handling of the plate after processing. By following manufacturer's instructions and then establishing special procedures required by your own facilities and schedules, you should encounter few, if any, problems in platemaking. Here, however, are some points to keep in mind.
plugged halftone

THE FLAT

STRIPPING
With halftone negatives properly exposed and developed, you are ready to assemble them along with line copy negatives in a flat, from which the press plate will be made.* This flat is a sheet either of opaque plastic or of colored paper called "goldenrod." Each negative is placed in position and secured with tape. Windows are cut so that image areas show through. Correct alignment and positioning, absence of dust and dirt, complete blocking of non-image areas, and careful use of tape to avoid build-up . . . are all essential. For you must prevent light leaks that can cause flare and improper exposure of the plate.

Make sure that your flat is absolutely clean and, when placing it in the vacuum frame, that its emulsion side faces the plate. This is to prevent the film base from acting as a spacer, which may allow light to creep in and expose a larger area than intended. Then, allow enough time for a sufficient vacuum to be created so that the film is in perfect contact with the plate. Trapped air can produce light leaks.

PLATEMAKING
The typical process for transferring a halftone image from film, which has been assembled in a flat, to plate is by contact exposure in a vacuum frame. This hardens the image, making it insoluble in water so that when developed, it remains and the non-image area is washed away.

*A plate made with negative film is known as negative working. For exceptionally long runs, however, positive working plates are often used. These are made with positive film, produced from the original negatives and handled in the flat like the negatives described here.

19

EXPOSURE
If you overexpose a plate, you cause dot spread. Highlights turn grey and shadows fill in. There is even the possibility of burning through the center of the spreading dots so that instead of being solid, they become tiny "donuts." With underexposure, highlights drop out, although shadows are not affected appreciably. But the main problem with underexposure is press stability. For your
underexposure

emulsion may not harden and the plate wears before the job is completed. To avoid incorrect exposure, include an exposure guide on your flat. It will tell you, like a grey scale on your original copy, what adjustments to make.

DEVELOPMENT
In development, automatic processing has eliminated many of the difficulties once encountered in platemaking. But you must

be sure your processor is functioning correctly. And if you hand develop, follow manufacturer's instructions exactly. This will prevent plugging of dot areas (from old developer contaminating sponges and other tools), blinding (an image that appears strong on the plate but prints weak because of excess gum), scumming (where non-image areas accept ink), and streaks (from tired chemicals or improper agitation). Then check your plate for a clean, sharp image. There should be a dot pattern overall, with no plugged areas. Pinholes can easily be filled with touche or a soft pencil. And, of course, there should be no streaks or scratches.

Wg^ml%

SHELF LIFE
Remember that any plate that you use has a particular shelf life. Follow manufacturer's recommendations on proper storage so that your plates are in perfect condition when you're ready to use them.

20

On press

Running a halftone job is like running any other, except that it's more exacting. Too much ink or too little, an unbalanced fountain solution, plates or blankets improperly packed, rollers out of adjustment, worn or outdated plates . . . allow any of these conditions and your halftones will fall short of your aims. But even when all is running perfectly, you must expect some loss from the plate to the printed image, usually in the form of dot gain and, therefore, increased contrast. Minimizing this loss takes skill and experience. For an important halftone job, therefore, you'll want a shop's top pressman. He's your best assurance of customer satisfaction. Assuming that a press is in top mechanical condition, these are the pressman's main concerns . . . the fine tuning.

INK AND WATER

Once you have selected an ink with sufficient density, your concern is with its application, particularly in relation to water. Excess ink and insufficient water will cause either scumming or slurring, especially when the plate has not been processed correctly. In scumming, the plate picks up ink in its clear areas and applies them to the non-image areas of the sheet. In slurring, dots are distorted in the running direction, which causes shadows to fill in and "fringes" to appear on the rear edges of solids. When the proportions are reversed, with too much water and not enough ink, the result will be a halftone that is grey and weak.

PH
You must also consider the Ph of your water solution, for if it's too high, the image wears away and causes highlight dot loss or sharpening. If it's too low, the image goes blind so that it is weak overall.

VISCOSITY
For clean image definition, ink viscosity (its tack and flow) must be carefully adjusted to your paper. If the ink is too tacky because of insufficient solvent or dampening water, or because it

22

dries out during the frequent stops in makeready, it will pull, pick, and even tear your paper. If the tack is too low, it will spread the halftone dots and print an image with values higher than those of the plate image. And because of its "soupy" condition, it may also penetrate the paper and reduce ink gloss. In either case, you must carefully watch solvent and fountain solution. You may also want to use a special start-up ink if your regular one becomes too tacky during preparation.

ANTI-OFFSET MEASURES
Offset, or set-off, is wet ink that is transferred from one sheet to another as they come off press and are being stacked. Needless to say, offset spoils halftones. There are, however, several ways you can avoid it. One is to use an ink that is strong enough in pigment to provide sufficient covering density with a very thin film, which is quick drying. Another is to add a drying compound to your ink formula. You may also want to consider an anti-offset spray, which is applied by a device that can be added to most printing units.

PLATE AND BLANKET PACKING

If either is overpacked, your halftone will print long with flattened dots. There may even be blanket slippage, causing streaks. Underpacking produces a short image with a weak dot. When adding or removing plate or blanket packing, you must remember, of course, to repack the other to compensate for the increase in or loss of pressure.

IMPRESSION CYLINDER AND FORM ROLLERS

Excessive pressure on the impression cylinder will often cause the blanket to slip against the paper and slur, distorting the dots, as described above, in the running

too much ink

23

direction. When the pressure is too great on the form rollers, the plate wears, dots flatten, and the roller may even bounce from the cylinder gap to the leading edge of the plate. This ruptures the ink film and produces streaks in the image.

water mix, producing muddy, plugged images.

QUALITY CONTROLS DENSITOMETER

To assure halftone consistency across a sheet, from sheet to sheet, and between proofs and production sheets, many pressmen find a reflection densitometer of considerable help. Although decisions on fine tuning are ultimately made by an experienced eye, once the decisions are made, a densitometer makes sure they are adhered to. With a good understanding of how to interpret its readings and how to maintain it in good working order, you'll find your densitometer an invaluable aid to achieving quality reproduction.

QUALITY CONTROLS STAR TARGET

A relatively simple way of checking dot formation while a job is running is to use a star target. This small circular pattern of solid and clear pie-shaped wedges is reproduced along with your original copy and, therefore, appears on the printed sheet. If the center of the target is filled in, the halftone dots are spreading. If the center is more open on the sheet than on your plate, then the dots are sharpening. Knowing either condition, you can make appropriate press adjustments or, if the problem is serious, remake the plate.

PLATES

A plate worn by gritty ink, overpacking, or hard form rollers will produce weak images.

Although a deep grained plate will withstand these conditions for a longer period of time, a smooth plate will produce dots of consistently better quality.

And whether smooth or grained, an outdated plate, on which the image has dried out, loses its sensitivity so that ink and

not enough ink

24

double-dot

25

Special

effects

double-dot with black & gray

n making halftones, your objective usually will be to match the original photograph as losely as you can. There are occasions, however, when you will want something different: a graphic effect, drama, or emphasis that cannot be achieved through traight reproduction.

Many such effects are at your disposal. And they are easier to create than often upposed . . . in the photographer's darkroom, by a photo lab, or by the printer himself.

Here are some of them.

DOUBLE DOT

The double-dot halftone technique allows ou to more closely match the full tonal ange of your original photograph. The esult can be spectacular. Two negatives re used to make two plates. The first negative is essentially normal except that it mphasizes highlight contrast, with just nough flash exposure to produce a dot in he shadows large enough to keep them om printing solid. The second negative eceives a long main exposure to record maximum shadow contrast and does not xtend into the highlights at all. To keep it om overprinting the first negative, you hoot this one through a screen angled t 75.

You might carry the process one step arther and print the double dot with two ifferent black inks, one warm in tone, or with a black and a grey for even richer ones.

26

duotone black & green

27

fake duotone black & 20% screen of green

DUOTONES
These are halftones printed in two colors, one which is usually black. Duotones can be produced in many ways with effects that are virtually limitless. The simplest dutones consist of double dots equal in value but in slightly different register. Another technique is to run the two colors screened at different angles. The most spectacular duotones are those made with a high key and a low key negative, each recording a different portion of the negative. For example, one of the colors might run mainly in the highlight areas, leaving the shadows black. Or it might run in the midtones and shadows, and the highlights printed without any dots at all, resulting in an extremely wide density range. There is also a technique sometimes known as fake duotone, which is simply a normal black halftone overprinting a light screen of color. It's easier and cheaper than a real duotone, but lacks contrast and, of course, sparkling whites are precluded.

28

high contrast line conversion

29

posterization

COMBINED EFFECTS
These are the main but not the only effects that can be achieved with halftones. You may want to look into such others as solarization, reticulation, and bas relief. What can be achieved by combining two or more of them is limited only by your imagination. Here are a few samples to get it started.

HIGH CONTRAST LINE CONVERSION

Many special effects begin with a high-contrast line conversion. This is simply a black and white image with no intermediate greys so that only the basic shapes of the original photograph remain. The technique works best with simple composition and is accomplished with high contrast film, which automatically drops out the lighter greys and records the darker ones as black.

POSTERIZATION

In posterization, you reduce the overall tonal range to a limited number of distinct greys, giving the effect of a poster. Again it's best to work with a photograph of simple composition. For each tone that you want, a separate negative is made. Then they are either used in combination for succeeding steps in platemaking or to make a composite negative.

30

coarse vertical line

SCREEN CONVERSIONS
These are the easiest. Instead of a conventional halftone screen, you shoot through one that is composed of straight, circular, or wavy lines; dot lines, elliptical dots, or a pebble grain pattern. To achieve maximum impact, all these screens are relatively coarse, not often having more than 80 lines per lineal inch.

normal vertical line

^aSF

31

coarse horizontal wavy line

circular

32

tone line

33

tone line

TONE LINE

With a tone line conversion, you get the effect of a pen and ink drawing. It's produced with a positive and a negative of the same image, both made on high-contrast film. You place these back to back, along with a sheet of fresh film, in a contact frame and expose to a light source angled at 45. The complementary dark areas of the positive/negative combination block out all light except that passing through at the edge of the image. To form a complete outline, place the frame on a turntable and rotate it during the exposure.

34

mezzotint black & green

MEZZOTINT AND ETCHTONE

Both effects combine a screen, such as previously described, and at least one additional color. To make a mezzotint, you begin with a mezzoprint screen, which produces the random, non-directional pattern you see here. For an etchtone, you use an etched screen, which gives the sharp, hard effect of a steel engraving. Next is to prepare either an overall screen with light coverage or a second negative in the duotone manner.

COARSE SCREENS
Conventional screens can also be used to produce special effects. You might select one that is coarser than you'd ordinarily use so that its dot pattern is apparent. Or you could try an unusual angle. Since 45 hides the screen, use 90. Then it runs horizontally and vertically, making the dot pattern stand out.

etchtone black & 20% screen of green

M M p#&

"; > -.

lliiillliiiil

35

very coarse screen

36

varnishing

VARNISHING
Varnish can be used "as a second color" to create various interesting effects. It acts as a lens, accenting the ink film and increasing contrast. Most commonly, varnish is applied, like a tint, over the entire image to heighten gloss, even on a coated stock. The snap and brilliance of halftones given this treatment can be extraordinary. Another way of using varnish is in limited areas. Spot varnishing, as this is called, highlights and brings special attention to key details.

JMJJ

; liP | ;

37

S.D.\Afetrren Paper Stocks

SCOTT OFFSET 50 pound

f'
"*# $* yn

45

LUSTPO GLOSS, 80 pound

47

LUSTERKOTE,

8pt.

48

Conclusion

What's the next black and white halftone project on your schedule? A sales promotion brochure? A direct mail circular? Your annual catalog? Already you've begun copy, photography, and design. Perhaps even selected a printer. But how about paper? If you want really good halftones, now is the time to decide. When buying paper for any project, you must consider basis weight, bulk, and opacity. For a halftone project, you must pay attention also to the paper's brightness and surface. These are the two characteristics that most affect halftone quality. A bright paper with a highly refined surface produces dazzling whites, rich blacks, and a full spectrum of greys. The smooth, coated surface gives you high ink hold-out. Halftone dots aren't absorbed into the body of the paper. So they don't spread or lose their edge sharpness. And without exposure to paper fibers, light scatter is minimal. When a paper is bright and white, you get improved contrast. Because it reflects more light, it yields a broader range of tones.

The impact of paper on halftone quality is easy to see in the preceding samples. Each reproduces the halftone in a particular way. The more refined the surface, the finer the reproduction. But remember that not every halftone job requires a refined surface. Offset, for example, is an uncoated paper manufactured primarily for linework and text. But as you have seen here, if the sheet is bright and white enough, and if it has high enough opacity, you will find it more than satisfactory for many projects that include halftones. Coated Matte, with a smoother surface, is the type of paper that is often used in place of a wove offset or text paper when halftones are to be featured. It gives a smooth, non-glare surface, with higher brightness and good ink hold-out, all at an economy price. Dull Coated is an example of an "elegant" surface. For glare-free reproduction of halftones plus text that's easy to read, such a paper is hard to beat. And when you choose a sheet that is sufficiently white and bright, you are assured a broad contrast range and clear definition of even the finest detail. Textured coated papers provide an "extra dimension" that is particularly effective when you wish to reinforce the depth and texture of some of your halftones. Gloss Coated is a highly refined surface which is usually selected for catalogs, brochures, and annual reports where there is need to handle equally well a wide variety of halftones.

And with acast coated paper, like the final sample, you get a mirror-like surface that produces a complete range of tones, from pure whites to the richest and deepest of blacks. Which paper would be the best choice for your project? Why not talk with your paper merchant? They can explain more about these and the many other types in the S.D. Warren line. S.D. Warren Company has been manufacturing high quality printing papers for over 100 years. So whatever your specifications, you'll find a paper in the Warren line with the surface and brightness . . . on which you can print halftones of exceptional beauty and impact.

50

Warren Paper Merchants

Alabama
Birmingham Huntsville Madison Mobile Dillard Paper Co. Sloan Paper Co. Sloan Paper Co. Athens Paper Strickland Paper Co. Unijax, Inc. Zellerbach Paper Co Zellerbach Paper Co. Zellerbach Paper Co. Peoria Rock Island

Hawaii
Honolulu HOPACO Zellerbach Paper Co. Dixon Paper Co. Zellerbach Paper Co. Crescent Paper Co. Bradner Smith & Co. Leslie/Chicago Paper Div. Hobart/Mclntosh Paper Co. LaSalle Messinger Paper Co Midland Paper Co. Tobey Peoria Paper Co. Leslie Paper

Michigan
Detroit Grand Rapids Lansing Saginaw Chope-Union Paper Co. Seaman-Patrick Paper Co. Carpenter Paper Co. Quimby-Walstrom Paper Co Copco Papers/Dudley Division Copco Papers/Dudley Division Leslie Paper Inter-City Paper Co.

Idaho
Boise

Alaska
Anchorage

Illinois
Champaign Chicago

Arizona
Phoenix Tucson

Minnesota
Minneapolis

Arkansas
Little Rock Western Paper Co.

Mississippi
Jackson Sloan Paper Co.

California
Fresno Los Angeles Sacramento San Diego San Francisco Zellerbach Paper Co. LaSalle Paper Co. Zellerbach Paper Co. Zellerbach Paper Co. Zellerbach Paper Co. Zellerbach Paper Co.

Missouri
Kansas City St. Louis Midwestern Paper Co. Tobey Fine Papers Shaughnessy-Kniep-Hawe Paper Co. Tobey Fine Papers Midwestern Paper Co.

Indiana
Fort Wayne Indianapolis South Bend Taylor Martin Papers Crescent Paper Co. RIS Paper Co., Inc. RIS Paper Co., Inc.

Iowa
Cedar Rapids Des Moines Sioux City Midwestern Paper Co. Leslie Paper Midwestern Paper Co. Midwestern Paper Co.

Springfield

Colorado
Colorado Springs Denver Dixon Paper Co. Carpenter Paper Co. Dixon Paper Co. Zellerbach Paper Co. Dixon Paper Co.

Montana
Billings Great Falls Dixon Paper Co. Zellerbach Paper Co.

Nebraska
Lincoln Omaha Carpenter Paper Co. Western Paper Co. Carpenter Paper Co. Western Paper Co.

Kansas
Topeka Wichita Midwestern Paper Co. Western Paper Co.

Grand Junction

Connecticut
South Windsor West Haven Carter Rice Lindenmeyr-Munroe Carter Rice

Kentucky
Lexington Louisville Athens Paper Athens Paper Louisville/Southeastern Paper Co.

Nevada
Las Vegas Reno LaSalle Paper Co. Zellerbach Paper Co. Zellerbach Paper Co.

Florida
Jacksonville Miami Orlando Tampa Palmer Paper Co. Zellerbach Paper Co. Palmer Paper Co. Zellerbach Paper Co. Palmer Paper Co. Zellerbach Paper Co. Palmer Paper Co. Zellerbach Paper Co.

Louisiana
Baton Rouge Lafayette New Orleans Shreveport Butler Paper Butler Paper Palmer Paper Co. Unijax, Inc. Butler Paper Western Paper Co.

New Hampshire
Concord Carter Rice

New Jersey
Lyndhurst Newark Rutherford Trenton BulkleyDunton Central Paper Co. Lindenmeyr Paper Corp. Central Paper Co.

Georgia
Atlanta Augusta Columbus Macon Rome Dillard Paper Co. Sloan Paper Co. Dillard Paper Co. Sloan Paper Co. Dillard Paper Co. Dillard Paper Co.

Maine
Portland C.H.Robinson Co. Carter Rice

New Mexico
Albuquerque Dixon Paper Co.

Maryland
Baltimore Landover Savage Baltimore-Warner Paper Co. Butler Paper Stanford Paper Co. Zellerbach Paper Co. Wilcox Walter Furlong Paper Co.

Massachusetts
Boston Carter Rice The Century Paper Co., Inc. Lindenmeyr-Munroe OH. Robinson Co. Carter Rice

Woburn Worcester

51

New York
Hudson Valley Paper Co. Hudson Valley Paper Co. Seneca Paper Co. Ailing and Cory Seneca Paper Co. Ailing and Cory Baldwin Paper Co. Bulkley Dunton Lindenmeyr Paper Corp. Marquardt&Co., Inc. Ailing and Cory Seneca Paper Co. Ailing and Cory Seneca Paper Co. Ailing and Cory

South Carolina
Charleston Columbia Greenville Dillard Paper Co. Dillard Paper Co. Caskie Paper Co., Inc. Dillard Paper Co.

Export and Foreign

New York City, N.Y Canada Calgary Edmonton Montreal Ottawa Regina Saskatoon Toronto Vancouver Winnipeg Australia New Zealand Moller&Rothe, Inc. Barber-Ellis Barber-Ellis Les papiers graphiques Buntin Reid Paper Barber-Ellis Barber-Ellis Buntin Reid Paper Graphic Papers Barber-Ellis Barber-Ellis Edwards Dunlop and B.J. Ball B.J. Ball (N.Z.) Ltd.

Albany Binghamton

Buffalo

New York City

Tennessee
Chattanooga Knoxville Memphis Nashville Athens Paper Co. Sloan Paper Co. Dillard Paper Co. Western Paper Co. Athens Paper Cordage Papers/Nashville Division Sloan Paper Co.

Rochester

Syracuse

Utica

Texas
Amarillo Austin Dallas El Paso Fort Worth Houston Lubbock San Antonio Waco Dixon Paper Co. Monarch Paper Co. Olmsted-Kirk Paper Co. Monarch Paper Co. Olmsted-Kirk Paper Co. Dixon Paper Co. Monarch Paper Co. Olmsted-Kirk Paper Co. Monarch Paper Co. Olmsted-Kirk Paper Co. Dixon Paper Co. Monarch Paper Co. Olmsted-Kirk Paper Co.

North Carolina
Caskie Paper Co., Inc. Dillard Paper Co. Zellerbach Paper Co. Caskie Paper Co., Inc. Dillard Paper Co. Zellerbach Paper Co. Dillard Paper Co. Zellerbach Paper Co. Dillard Paper Co. Dillard Paper Co.

Charlotte

Fayetteville Greensboro

Raleigh

Wilmington Winston-Salem

Ohio
Cordage Papers/Cincinnati Division RIS Paper Co., Inc. Ailing and Cory Millcraft Paper Co. Cordage Papers/Columbus Division Millcraft Paper Co. Cordage Papers/Dayton Division RIS Paper Co., Inc. Commerce Paper Co. Western Paper Co. Zellerbach Paper Co. Western Paper Co.

Cincinnati

Utah
Salt Lake City Dixon Paper Co. Zellerbach Paper Co. Hudson Valley Paper Co.

Cleveland

Columbus

Vermont
Burlington

Cuyahoga Falls Dayton

Virginia
Bristol Lynchburg Norfolk Richmond Roanoke Dillard Paper Co. Caskie Paper Co., Inc. Dillard Paper Co. Dillard Paper Co. Dillard Paper Co. Virginia Paper Co. Dillard Paper Co.

Toledo

Oklahoma

Oklahoma City Tulsa

Washington
Seattle Spokane Zellerbach Paper Co. Zellerbach Paper Co.

Oregon
Zellerbach Paper Co.

Portland

Pennsylvania
Ailing and Cory Ailing and Cory Ailing and Cory Lindenmeyr Paper Corp. Ailing and Cory Lindenmeyr Paper Corp. Ailing and Cory Cordage Papers/Pittsburgh Division Ailing and Cory

West Virginia
Huntington Cordage Papers/Huntington

llentown Erie Harrisburg ancaster Philadelphia

Wisconsin
Appleton Madison Milwaukee New Berlin Universal Paper Corp Universal Paper Corp H.M.BouerCo. Reliable Paper Co. Universal Paper Corp

ittsburgh

cranton

Rhode Island
Carter Rice TheRourke-Eno Paper Co., Inc.

awtucket umford

52

FOR FURTHER READING

E.I. DuPont De Nemours & Co. The Contact Screen Story (A-80172) Wilmington DE: 1972 Eastman Kodak Company Basic Photography for the Graphic Arts, Third Edition (No. Q-1) Rochester NY: 1977 Eastman Kodak Company Guidelines for Better Platemaking, Second Edition (No. Q-213) Rochester NY: 1976 Eastman Kodak Company Halftone Methods for the Graphic Arts, Third Edition (No. Q-3) Rochester NY: 1976 Edward J. Kelly with David B. Crouse and Robert R. Supansic Web Offset Press Operating Pittsburgh: Graphic Arts Technical Foundation, Inc., 1974 Otto Litzel Darkroom Magic New York: Amphoto, 1967 Robert D. Routh Photographies Los Angeles: Peterson Publishing Company, 1976 S.D. Warren Company How to Plan Printing Boston: 1978

Cover printed on LUSTRO GLOSS COVER, basis 20 x 26100/200M Text pages printed on LUSTRO DULL, basis 25 x 3880/160M 1988, S.D. Warren Company, a Subsidiary of Scott Paper Company.

S.D. WARREN COMPANY, A SUBSIDIARY OF SCOTT PAPER COMPANY, BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS 02110

vi^W v - w

yn

MBMSMMKRH