Report No.

FHWA-RD-75-48

A REVIEW OF ENGINEERING EXPERIENCES WITH EXPANSIVE SOILS IN HIGHWAY SUBGRADES

D.R. Snethen and others
U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station

June 1975 Interim Report

This document is available to the public through the National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161

F O R

E X H I B I T

O N L Y

Please Do Not Remove

Prepared for FEDERAL HIGHWAY ADMINISTRATION Offices of Research & Development Washington, 0.0. 20590

NOTICE T h i s document i s disseminated under t h e s p o n s o r s h i p of t h e Department of T r a n s p o r t a t i o n i n t h e i n t e r e s t of i n f o r m a t i o n exchange. The United S t a t e s Government assumes no l i a b i l i t y f o r i t s c o n t e n t s o r u s e t h e r e o f . The c o n t e n t s of t h i s r e p o r t r e f l e c t t h e views of t h e U . S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment S t a t i o n , which i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e f a c t s and t h e accuracy of t h e d a t a p r e s e n t e d h e r e i n . The c o n t e n t s do not n e c e s s a r i l y r e f l e c t t h e o f f i c i a l views o r p o l i c y of t h e Department of T r a n s p o r t a t i o n . This r e p o r t does not c o n s t i t u t e a s t a n d a r d , s p e c i f i c a t i o n , o r regulation. The United S t a t e s Government does not endorse p r o d u c t s o r manufacturers. Trade o r m a n u f a c t u r e r s ' names appear h e r e i n o n l y because t h e y a r e cons i d e r e d e s s e n t i a l t o t h e o b j e c t of t h i s document. S u f f i c i e n t c o p i e s of t h i s r e p o r t a r e b e i n g d i s t r i b u t e d by F H W A bulletin t o p r o v i d e a minimum of two c o p i e s t o each r e g i o n a l o f f i c e , two c o p i e s t o each d i v i s i o n o f f i c e and f o u r c o p i e s t o each S t a t e highway agency. D i r e c t d i s t r i b u t i o n i s being made t o t h e d i v i s i o n o f f i c e s .

Technical
1. Report No.

keport

Documentation

Page

1
I

2. Government A c c e s s ~ o n No

3. R e c ~ p ~ e n t C 's atalog No

4.

Title

a n d Subtlfle

Report Date

A 3EVIEW OF ENGINEERING EXPERIENCES SOILS IN EIGHWAY SUBGRA3ES

7.
Author's)

KITH

EX?AKS17<E

June 1975
6. P e r l o r r n ~ n O ~r g o n l z o t ~ o n C o d e

8. P e r i o r m ~ n g O r g o n i z a t ~ o nR e p o r t

N O .

C.

Donald R. Snethen, Frank 'C. Townsend, Lawrence Johnson, 3avid M. Patrick, Philip J. 'Vedros
N a m e ond A d d r e s s 10 Work U n ~ tN O . ( T R A I S )

P e ~ f o r r n ~O n r~ ganization

Soil Fecha2ics Divisio~ Scils azd ?avernents Laborazory U. S. Army Engineer Wzterways Experinent P . 0. Box 631, Vicksburg, PS 3 9 1 8 0
12. S p o n s o r i n g A g e n c y N a m e a n d A d d r e s s

FCP 34~1-132
11. Contract or

Grant

NO.

Station

Intra-Gxernmenr Fcrchase Order NO. b-1-0195

13
14.
T y p e o f R e p o r t a n d P e r ~ o dC o v e r e d

Offices of Research and Gevelopment Federal Eigh.way Administration U. S. Department of Transpcrtation Washington, D. C. 2C593
1 5 . Supplementary

Interm

Report

Sponsoring Agency Code

){-Csii

Notrr

FHWA Contract Manager

1 6 . Abstract

- ?reston

C.

Sxth

(H3.S-21)

Volzme change resulting from moistxre variaticns in expansive soil sgbgrades is estimated to cause damage t o , s t r e e t s and highways in excess of $1.1 billion annually in the United Szates. Expansl.ve sc:ls a r e S O a r e a l l y extensive within parts of the 3nited States that alterati3- of the highway routes to avoid the material is virtuzlly inpossikle. This report presents the results of a review of current literature corrkined wlth jetails of ex?erie-ces of selected scate highway agencies on prcceciures fcr copizg with problem associated with expansive soil subgraies. The report disccsses the geologic, mineralogic, physical, and physicochernical ~rcperties which ixfluence the volume change characteristics of expansive soils. Currer.tly csed Eechniqses for samplxg, ider.tifying, ani testing expans;ve materials aze reviewed and Ciscussed. Treatment alzernatives for the creventicn cr redcctron of cetrimental volume change cf expansive soil subgrades beneath new an3 exiszing pavemects are presented and disccssed.

17. K e y W o r d s

18 D l s t r ~ b u t l o n S t a t e m e n t

Expansive solls klighways Soil mclsture Subgrades

L

Th-s socument is ava~lable to : h e p~bllc tnrougn t h e Natlonal Technical Informat-on Service, S ~ r ~ n leld, gf VA 22161
8.S e c u r i t y
21. N o . o f Pages 22. Price

19. S e c u r i t y C l o s s i f . ( o f t h i s report)

Clossif. ( o f this

Unclassified
Form DOT F 1700.7 (8-72)

Unclassified
Reproduction of completed

137
poge a u t h o r i z e d

PREFACE

The study of the nethodology for prediction and minimization of detrimental volume change of expansive soils in highway subgrades is a

4-yr investigazion f3;nded by

Highway Administration, under

the

Department of

Transportation, Federal Order No.

Intra-Government

Purchase

4-1-0195, Work Unit No. FCP 3401-132. The work was initiated during June r,ents Laboratory (s&PL) of the U. Station Group, (WES), Vicksburg,

1974 b y

the Soils and Pave-

s, Army

Engineer Waterways Experiment Donald R. the Snethe?, Research

Mississippi.

Dr.

Soil Mechanics

Division

(SMD), was

principal

investiga~or

during the period of this report.

The work reported herein was perChief, Laboratory Re-

forned by Dr. Snethen; Dr. Frank C. Townsend,

search Facility, SMD, Dr. Lawrence D. Johnsoc, Research Grcup, SKD; Dr. David M. Patrick, Engineeri~g Geology Research Facility, E~gineer-

ing Geology and Rock Mechanics Division; and Mr. Philip J. Vedros, Special Projects Branch, Pavement Investigation the direct Division, S&PL. supervision of The

investigstion was

accomplished under

Mr. Clifford L. McAnear, Chief, SMD, and under the general supervision of Mr. James P. Sale, Chief, S&PL. Director o f WES during the conduct o f this portion o f the study and preparation of the report was COL G. H. Hilt, CE. tor was Mr. F. R. Brown. Technical 3irec-

Page CONVERSIOK FACTORS. U . S . CUSTOMARY T3 E T R I C . . . . . . . . . . UNITS OF MEASUREMENT INTROCUCTION FROPERTIXS 3F EXPANSIVE .

(SI)

. . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SOILS

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Geolcgy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mineralogy Physical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Physicochemical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Microscale Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SAMPLING. IDENTIFICATION. Sampllng Techniques Laboratory Idenzlflcacicn

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
AND TESTING CF EXPANSIVE SCILS a : Testlng Techlques

. . . . . .

P?LCONSTNCTIOK TECENIQUES FOR MINIKIZIN; CETRIYSNTAL L'OLITE CHANGE 05 EXPAKSIVE SCIL SUEGNCES . . . . . . . . . . .

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fetkods cf Controlling Volume Chsnge of Expacsive Soils . . . Summ~ry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . POSTCONSTRUCTION TECHKIQUES FOR MINIFIZINC CHANGES OF EXPANSIVE SOIL SU25WDES . Introdxction 3emedial Mezhods fcr Summary . . . . . . Treatlnp Expansive T S 3ETRIMENTAL V3L'JE

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Soil FOR Subgrades

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
HIGHNAYS CN

. . .

PAVEMTNT CESIGK AN3 CONSTR'JCTION I . . EX3ANSIVE SOIL SJBGWJES

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . State Eighway Agency Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Maintenance Pr~ced-yes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUWARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WFEFENCZS

LIST C? FISS'RXS

1 First order physiographic continental United Stazes .

provinces

within the

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2 Distribution of potentially expansive materials in the Unized States: FHWA Regions 1. 3. and 5 . . . . . . .

. .

iii

Distribution o f potentially expansive materials in United States: FHWARegion 4 . . . . . . . . . . Distribution of potentially expansive United States: FHWA Region 6 . . . materials in in in

. . . . . .
the

the

15,16
17,18
19,20

. . . . . . . . . . . . .
the the

Distrlbution .of potentially expa~sive materials United Scates: FHWA Regions 7 arid 8 . . . . . Distribution of U n i ~ e d States: potentially expansive materials FHWA regions 9 and 10 . . . .

. . . . . . . .

Typical structural configurations of clay Deflocculated clay mineral surface water (illite) and (montmoril1on:te) . . . .

. . . . .; . . minerals . . . . . .

21,22
28

associations showing surface and interlayer water

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
density and particle

34

Moldlng water content versus cry orlentation . . . . . . . . . . X-radiograph o f undisturbed

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . clay shale sample . . . . . . . .

37

42
68

Correlation of percent swell, liquid limit, and dry uzit w e i g h t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Typical construction of moist_re barriers used by Colorado Department o f Hlghways . . . . . . . . the

. .

. . . . . . . . . . . .

74
76 90 90 92
1 0 0

Membrane section on Kaycee Project showing moisture buildup under center portion o f roadway:from hydrogenesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Percentage of expansion for under a 1-psi surcharge . . various placement

conditions

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . .

Total uplift press7Jre caused by wetting for various placement conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Effects of method of compaction on swell pressure saturation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Electrochemical stabilization Canal, California . . . . . experiment,

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Friant-Kern

LIST OF TABLES

Tabulation of Potentially Expansive Materials the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . Typical Values of Free Swell for C o m o n Clay M i n e r a l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cation Exchange Capacities o f Clay Minerals Natural Microscale Mechanisms Causing Volume Change i n Expansive Soils . . . . . . . . .

in

. . . . . . . . .

23,24
33

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . .

49
50

Indirect Techniques for Identification/Cl~ssification of Expansive Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Techniques for Quantitatively Measur:r,g Change 3 f 3xpanslve Sells . . . . . . . . . .

. . .

58

6 D;rect

Volume

. . . . . . . .

7Methods for Volure Change Contrcl Uslng A d d l t ~ v e s .

. . . . .

62 8 1

CONVERSION

FACTCRS, J. S. CUSTOMARY TO METRIC UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

(SI)

U. S. customary m i t s of measurercect used in this report can be converted to metric (SI) units as follows:
$

Multiply inches feet rr.iles (U. S. statute) sq;are square gallons pounds zons feet yards
(3. S. liquid)

By
2.54

To centimeters rneters kilometers square square cubic

Obtain

0.3048 1.609344
0.092903

meters r,eters decimeters

0.836127k 3.785412
3.4535924

(mass) (200C lb) square

kilograms kilograms
kilograms kilograms

907.185
4.882429 cubic f o o ~ square

pounds (mass) per foot pounds pounds inch tons (mass) per (force) per

per square meter

per cubic meter

16.0185
6894.757

pascals kllonewtcns Celsius or per sqcare meter

(force) per

sqsare foot

Fahrenheit

degrees

95.7606 519

Kelvin

degrees"

To obtain Celsius (C) temperature readings from Fahrenheit (F) readiggs, use the following formula: C = ( 5 / 9 ) ( ~ 32). To obtain Kelvin (K) readings, use: K = ( 5 / 9 ) ( ~ 32) t 273.15.

REVIEW ' 0

ENGINEZXKG SOILS IK

EXPERIEKCES

WITH

EXPAKSIVE

HIGHWAY

SY3GRXES

1.

Volume

change

resulting

fro-

r.3;sture

varlazl3r.s

: 1

expanslve ln

soil subgrades 1s estxated to cause d m a g e to streets anc hghways excess and of

$1.1 bllllon
United

a:nuall;i, States.
A

p a r z l ~ ~ l a r l y1 : .

southeastern

1972 survey 2 o - =he hlghway departCclurzbla, ano F~erto 3 : c c tnelr geograph;cal

: h e

western,

central,

nents In the 50 states, 2strlct that ticn. Vnited rial

of

1nd;cated :urlsdlc-

36 states have expanslve

soils wlth;n

Zxpansive scils are so a r e a l l y extensive w ~ z h i n parts cf the States that alteration of : h e is virtually highway rcutes zc avcld the matecurrently used prosolls i~possible. In addition, the

cedures for the deslgn and do cct

constructlor. of paverents tke variety as evlde-ced of by factors the

cn expa-slve and

systematically conslder change

condltlons occurrence

which

Influence volurre

contlnded

of warped and cracked pavements i- are-s where expansil~e soils exist. Thus more treating accurate methods expansive clays to techniqaes . The U. S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment S t a t ~ o n(WES) are needed for

identifying,
design,

zesting, and and

improve

highway

ccnstrucr;on,

xaintenance
2.

has recently undertaken a clogy for

4-yr study entitled "Developrent o f Methodsf Derrircental Vclume Change of S.~bgracies,"sponsored by zhe Federal High(a) acd

Prediction and Yininizaticn Clays in Highway (FHWA). of

Expansive way the

Adininistration eszablishment of

The stzdy has as its m j 3 r objectives areas of sixilar natural

physiographic

smrces

manifestations

swelling

behavior, ( b ) the development of expedient

procedures for identifying expansive clays, testirg prccedures for qsantitatively

( c ) the developr.ent of
rate cf vclume

[aro.mt aca

change) describing the behavior of expansive clays, (d) the development and evaluation of innovative tecknclogies fcr prevezticn of

detrimental swell under rew and existicg pavements, anopment of recommended

(e) the develanB

desigr. cri~eria, cocstructior. procedcres,

speciflcatlons fcr the economical cocstructlon of w ;ave~,ents and aaintenance or reconstruction of existing pavements oc expansive clays. All of the majcr objectives involve speclflc probierns w h i ~ h have been studied by numerous Independent and university researchers and staze highway agencies. Ir. crder to fully understand the problems and :he sol,itions afforded them by the varlous individuals acd agencies ccccerned, a technical literature review acd state highway agency contact program was undertaker.. 3 e icfcrm;tion for the tezhniczl literature review was assexbled with tie aid of three ma:or coxpuzer information retrieval systems; namely, Highway Research Inforxation Service (HRIS), Kational T e c h i c a l Icformaticn Service ( K E S ) , and the Defense Documentation Center (DDC) facilities. The state highway ageccy contacts were limited to those states having a greater distributicn acd f r e y e n c y of occurrence of prcblems with expansive soils as specified by the 'HWA. A total of fourteen state highway ageccies located in the w s t e r n and central United States were coctacted. Suksequect to preliminary discussicns eleven of these agencies were visited to discuss in detall their prob., lems with expansive s o , i ~ s . 9 1 e -1tera~ure review and inforsaticn derived from the aqency contacts provide an updated surncary of engirieericg expe>

rierces with expansive soils in hlghway subgrades . The information , . . coilected also provlced qdidance for detailing specific research topics included in this study. This report represents the results cf the efforts expended on the review cf current literature ccnbined with details of experiences of various srate highway agencies in c o ~ i n g with the problem expansive sol-s. 3 , The p r p o s e of this report is to present a sumrnzry of technologies used to identify, test, and treat e x p a ~ s i v e clays. The report disccsses the geologic, in era logic, physical, and physicochemical
3f
,

properties of expansive materials. Currently used techriques for identifying and testing expansive materials are categorized and evaluated with respect to the applicability to highway engineering. Treatment techniques usec, : n research studies and routine construction practice are presented acd discussed. State highway agency practices with regard to constrcction guidelines and specifications for highways on
8

expansive gard

clays scccess

are of

presented.
techniques
.,

&.era:

C - c i - L s l o ~ s are

drawn

wlth

re-

to

clsc,~ssed.

PXOFE3TIES

CF

EXPANSIVE

SOILS

Geology

4.
Uzited mentation, acticg

,Ive materials i n t h e T h e origin and distribution cf expan-. fznction of the geologic history, clinatic conditio~s. These have contributed three to the sedlfactors, forma-

States are generally a and present or local in

individually

corkiration,

tion of earth materials

whick. r,ay present

serio.2~ design and cocstruc-

tion problems by the sorption of water and resclting increase in the volume of the naterial. any earth The term "expansive which exhibit material" as csed here volume charges

signifies

naterials

significant

in the presence of water.

5.
gories or

These

expansive

materials

may

be

subdivided These

into three are

cate-

the basis

of physical

characteristics.

expansive expasive

argillaceo~s argillaceo-s

rocks, expansive soils.

argillaceous

sediments,

and

This subdivision

1s geologic

in context and re-

lates nore to sedinentologic aspects and mineralogy The term or to th.e amount of volume "argillaceous" signifies which are that

%he geologic history than to

the material contains considerchange

change exhibited ky the material.

able clay-size particles to occur.

csually necessary

for vcl-me

6. The terrc "argillaceous rocks" refers to relatively hard,

indurated c l a y shales c r clay stones which have been buried, c o n s o l 2 dated, and at least partially cemented. Argillaceous sediments include

those materials of Mesozoic ciently buried, consolidated,

age cr younger that have not been ssffior cemented to be included in the cate-

gory of rocks. which

Thls is an arbitrary basis and materials exist for this d i s t i ~ c ~ i o n . The argillaceous soils

it is diffic~lt to make

or residual existing

soils refer to the altered materials which have formed upoc or sediments. These residual scils nay owe their expan-

rocks

sive character to the parent material and/or to th.e weathering processes under which the soils were formed. Although each category

of ,ma-

terial possesses different intrinsic properties, each m a y exhibit varying

degrees of expansion due to the presence of actlve clay ~ l c e r a l s In the material.

7.
cond1t:ons ally nct

The

actlve

clay

mlr.erals and

lzclude

ncn=rror,llcnlte,

mlxez-layer
;rider

co~blratlons of r-ontmorl1lon:te

zther clayaminerals, r .

scrxe

c h l o r i t e s ard verrnlculites.
considered actlve lf suff;clent alzhc,;gh arcunzs

Kacllnltes a n d i l l i t e s a r e usuccntr;octe
1r.

thcy may

tc

expansive The ~naer

properties

are presert

the rater;al.

nlneraloglcal aspects of the prsklem "Xireralogy." lonite is

Expansiveness

are discussed In rcre cetall by ~ l n e r a l s other

caused

t h m montmorilh e distrlDuticn facilitate of

discussed materials

under is

"Yineralogy."

I?. gexral,
ccnditiors of

expansive the

contrclled ana

Cy

thcse

w'c;ck

fcrma-tion,

accunl;lat;on,

preservatlcn

mcrtmcr;llo~~:e.

Format lor.

8.
natlon,

The

fol1ow:ng

cond:t:cns,

e-ther

:nclv:dually

or

In

corrbl(a)

lead to the format~on cr crlgl?

(b) aiagenetic

of expa7.s17<e xaterlals: preexisting . e l s

weathering,

alteration

cf

and

(c) nydrothermal alteration. Of t h e s e ccnditicns, weatherlng a n d diagenesis are probably the more lmpcrtan:.
"or

exa~ple:

2,

Montcorillonite will fcrr from : h e weathering of volc a n i c a s h o r ~ r i m a r ysilicate minerals s u c h a s feldspars, pyroxenes, cr arrphibcles ur.der those conjitions which result in che rezexticn cf bases a?.d sllica within the weathering syste?,. These conditions are ,promoted by insufficient leaching of : h e scil prcflle by downward movicg water due tc low permeability, and excessive evapcration in regicr>s of aridlty. 3 The distincticn between diagenesis and wea~hering, althcugh somewhat vague, 1s between alteraticn which occurs at depch (dlaqenesis) or within : h e top few feet of the soil profile (wea~heri?g). 20th involve sirrilar chern;cal and physical crccesses acd bcrh cccur in and as a result cf gro.2-dwarer. The diage?.etic fornation cf monxorillonite res:lts fron the de7J:tr;fica:ion of volcanic ash part:cles or shards which have accmulated 4 ?he shards are more as sedirents : n sedimen~ary casir~s. cr less amorpho,;~, range in size fror, sand z o clay, and are chemically quize umtabie. The instabillzy and rhe intermediate between rhyollte composition, which is 3fte: ard basalt and thus rich. ; n silica as xell as bases, usually lead to tke formarion of n0ntmor:llocite. The shards m a y o c c u r intermixed with c t h e r land- o r basin-derived

b.

sediments or as relatively psre discrete layers several feet tk-ick. Discrete layers of'volcanic ash which have altered to rnontmorillonize are termed ber.tonite. Accumulation

9,
those ash. areas

Sedimentary which

accumulations

of

montmorillcnite nontmcrillonite

originate anclcr

in

receive

land-derived

volcanic

sediments.

The areas must either lie near or be stream-connected was formed by weathering ash andor 1 : e can be

to land areas where montmoril1on:te sufficiently near volcanic areas

suck. :hat.volcanic

sediments

carried either in the air or by streams c3 the areas of accumulaticn.

;O.
conducive clay-size sedinentary relatively tabulation accunulaticn

The energy conditions at the depositiocal areas must be to the deposition particles. and accumulaticn o# essentially silt- and

These ccn6itions may exist in several types of The and principal controlling energies. conditions The are

environments. flat gradients shows of typical volcanic

mimu mum

wave

following for the

sedinectary ash and

environments

suitable clay:

montmorillonite Snvircnments

Marine Neritic Bathyl

Sedimentary Mixed

Continental Lacustrine Floodplain Bolson ( p l a y a )

Deltaic

Abyssal
11.

The

pertinent

characteristics

of

the

environments

listed

in

the tabulation relate to the size and shape of the sedimentary deposit. The marine environments, particularly the b a t h y l ahd a b y s s a l , may be

areally

extensive, while

the

coctinental

enviro~ments are

limited

a r e a l l y and nay even consist of isolated deposits.

Preservation 12. The preservation of sedimentary deposits of montmor:llonite from the time

involves all those factors which may affect the material that it was depcsited unt;l basically, this falls within
it

is exposed at the earth's surface; lixits cf diagenesis. The diagenetic

the

factors that nay affect a sedimentary deposit consist cf the following: (a) deep burial resulting

in high lithostatic (overburden) pressure,

( b ) temperature

xcreases s3lu:ions,

resultq f&c:crs tne

,

frcrr, :he tt.a: lave

.

bcrlal,

( c ) cnemcai

effects fcrmay

p r o d ~ c e d by
.*
-2,

pore 'hese

ar.d ( d ) t m e expcsed t o h g c p r e s s u r e s .
cc-irlbutec cf
,

dlagenetic ky time

the ?sh

matlon
wi:h

of

montmcrlllonlte whether

de-~l:rlf:c?t:sn c l ~ l a a t e l y -ea2
,

vo-canlc
:he

sufficient ash. less

and Burial prodnced older

tc
cr

d e s t r , ~ c : l c c of
.
,

t h e mineral, volcanic siderably 9ese clay lonite Also,

sr:gl:a--y rocks than

cf

..

f r o c ash or
,

by weatkerlng of co:-

Thus the rccks is ccnsis:

(Faleozcic ar,d o l d e r ) ex21blt Ilesszcic..

rnontmorillonite

Cenozoic-a~e rocks.
, . .

older

nzinly

ncr,s~e--1ng :--lte
,

a
.

ztlcrite tr:e xor,trnorllsrciuced.

.

minerals. structure tne

I t i s believed t k t u i t h t n e and burl;altered rocks an3 ar! i l l l t e l i k e exhlrlt wh::h mxed-layer a r e the

str~cture is zxrb:n?;lccs resclt

3f

Paleozoic

cf

nc~trccrll-

l o n l t e and other

c-ay

rvnerals and

3:aGenesls. sedi~er~ts which property

"he

4 ,
and rocks may affect

Fhysical results thelr

chexiczl
ic

w e a t h e r i ~ g of t h e properties Tne zore of cf

argl-:3cec;s t!)ese and

..

i n changes

mterlals sf feet.

expansiveness.

weathering

alteration nay vary i n deptn f r o x a few ;?.ekes t o :ens

actual
climate

thickness

of

the

weathering

znx
..

1s g e c e r a l l y wn:ch

depecden:

upo~ vol-

and

topography. a r e discussed Physii~l

The in

weatnerlcg processes the fo--3wicg

txc

play a f f e c t
physical

,me change

pa rag rap?.^.

15,
burden partlcle :s by

w e a ~ h e r l n q . The release

r , s s t ircportart past if cr
,

weathering processes removal reor:entatlon

are stress result:n:

5ue t;

Zurrent :?lease
.
In

overis siaply

an8 c y c l i c wertlng and ~ r y l ~ q .S t r e s s from rerrcval

ex:srniperiods

-caas. t n a t water to :he ht.lch

sit?

Cycllc wettlng and drylng 1s a physicochemical process adsorbed on c l a y rclceral durlcg cracks
In

s ~ r f a c e s d u r l ~ g we: ?he precess d l s r ~ p t :he

arAd 1s removed cf dcuble-layer

t3

evapcratlon of on and

dry

perlcds.

ccctr:~u;es ?t.e ex-ent Jpon t-e

ceveiopmen: water

and nay

nr9an:zat:on

t h e excandab-? affect

c-ay m l r e r a l s .

wettlng and drylnq nature of rcpting t k i s process

volur~e z h a q e decerds the p t e s t i a l rocks,

In

t h e rr.aterlais and t h e type cf may a c t u a l l ; ~ decrease warer. cccble-layer Firgillaceous

mlnerals preset:. v3lume however,

For

sedixents exhiblt

ck,ange b y 31s-

m?y

an increase

in volune change

since zhe process

contributes

to breaking

dow?. the rock by cracking and the acliissicr! of water. weathering argillaceous

Generally, for the

of this type resulEs in an increase in plasticity rock. weathering. The chemical

16. Chemical
rial.

weatheri~g processes

are

those wkich produce a change i ? . the chemical constituency of the rrateThe changes may be small, such as the exchange cf i~terlayer the destruction types. of min-

c a t i o ~ s on clay minerals, or large, involving eral constituents and the fcrnat:on chenical
weathering

of new mineral to be

Those this study

processes

believed

imporcart in

are as follows: a. Cazion exchange. Cation exchange will occur in the zone of weathering when a chemical energy gradient exists between the groundwater and the clay ~inerals. The gradient, if present, tends to affect a replacement of t h e cations o n clay minerals b y cations i n the groundwater. The existence of the energy gradiect is Bependent upon size of, charge ef, and co-cen~ration C l f ferences between the ions in the groundwater and those on c1,ay minerals. The replacing power of the common cations generally decreases in zhe following order: magnesi.;m, calcium, potassicm, and sodium. This means that other parav,eters being eqaal, magnesium will replace calciurm easier than calcium will replace magnesiux. The replacement may be partFally a function of clay mineral type and therefcre the replacement series may not hold for all cases. A case in point is potassium which on some clays is tightly bonded and is removed with difficulty. T h e type cation i n t h e groundwater a n d on the clay minerals in argillaceous rocks or sediment m a y b e quite variab:Le. The cations present in groundwater are dependent generally upon present climate. Sodium is ccmmonly associated with arid climates whereas calcium and magnesium tend to predominate under wetter conditions; furthermore, the arid climates usually exhibit higher cation concentra~ion in groundwater than. the wetter climates. The cations commonly present on nontmorillonite are calcium, magnesium, and sodiun. These may occur in variable proportions but generally one cation will predominate. The type of cation is determined by the chemistry of the erLvironnent of fornation, chemistry of parent material, a n d t h e cher?.ical effects produced d u r ~ n gdiagenesis. Often, but ~ o t excl~~sively, montmorillonite derived from volcanic ash devitrification in marine environments carries sodium, whereas montmorillonite of

siailar calcicm
b. -

o r i g i n prod!iced cr magnesi.~~.

ln

cccmarice

ervironments

carries

Solutlcr.. Groundwater movlng t h r o ~ q h t h e sediments or rocks may p o s s e s s s c f f l c : e ; t , a c l d l t y tha: t n e r c r e s c l u b l e r r i n e r a l s s c z h a s c a l c i t e or gypsum a r e removed by " ' s c l u t ~ o :. _h:s p r c c e s s c e c r e a s e s rock s t r e r ! ? t 5 and a l s o p e r x i t s t h e en:ry c f x o l s r c r e t o t h e :lay m n e r a l s . Oxldatlo?.. 3 e p r e s e c c e 2f cxyger. c r c x i d ; z l r g aqe?.ts I n grcundwater r a y cx:d:ze x n e r a l zcrponencs such a s ir. a Pick. pH eer,v;ro.m,er.z: The p y r i t e , which i s uns:al=le o x l d a t i o c sf t h e m i n e r a l r e s u l t s is i t s r e m c - ~ a l , a c ; P c r e a s e i n a c l d s p a c e , a c 3 possibly t h e h r n a t l z n of new m i n e r z l t y p e s . f o r ~ ~ a t l o7 n . :be
In

c.

17. New m i c e r a l
cf
oxidation formazlon of lower new n l n e r a l

zhemical s:acle
. .

weathering resclt ~c :re

processes In the xeatherlng resxlts t:r8e

an6 s o l u t i o n may,

certain

z:rccrr,sEances,

t y p e s whlch a r e rrcre m i n e r a l s ar;d of:en

thar, r-he o r i ; i n a l ceavlng.

are r,yxateb. and

IS

91:s

i n an i n c r e a s e i n :he s u r f a c e by

vclume of t h e r i a - e r l a l 9 e voluaetrlc lncrzases

e x p r e s s e d a:
by

:a;sez

zew m r . e r a l

The volume cent Distrikutien

increases of
The

a r e base6 cpcr a K a t e r i a l materials invclves cf :n:s

.
,

c o n s i s t i n g of 1 3 per-

original

materiai. expansive following cisccssion eistrikutioc The highway of sources agecc;es,

:he

8 ,
conpcsitions, nectal provided by

characterisics,
In
,

and state

e x p a n s i v e ma:er:als geolzglc a ~ ~s d cll

[he
. .

zcr,tidata the pcbllshed

Unite5
by

States.

~ n f o r x a c l o n 13:-uce Taps crganlza:lcns,

various

Government

agencies

ac5 private

ace

combined

experiences

of

geologistsand

e n ~ i n e e r s within

the

Soils

and

WES. 19. The discussior, of expansive materials by physiographic province. Figure 1 illustrates physlographlc provinces that were selected to form presentatlo2. The areal cistrlbu::oc and degree
Fave~.ents Laboratory,
expansive materials

has been categorized the first-order tne basls of the of expanslveness of

Figures 2-6

within the United S ~ a t e s a r e shown i n

acd described

ir!

Table 1.

The information pertaining t o the physio-

graphic provinces is preliminary 2s presented in this report. Further cietails acd disc~ssions of the provinces will be presented in a subsequent report. 2 3 , The distribution ci expansive materials shown in 2 - 6 kas been categorized on two bases: ( a ) degree of expanslveness and (b) expected frequency cf ocwrrence of expanslve naterlals. The bases for categorlzatlcn are q~alltatlve. Three majcr sources of 1nformat;on fcrmed the bases for classlficatlonal dec;slons. Flrstly, the reported ccccrrences of expanslve razerlais as lnalcated In published literature or otker sources of data which revealed actual problems or fallures d to expansive naterlsls. 7hese sources were not necessarl:y limited to hlghway subgrades. Secondly, inaterlals maps provlded scmnar,es of lllustr~ted earth materlal properties pertinent zc thls

study. Reference 10 was used .to delineate areas of argil-aceous . materials, and the sclls surveys ' - were used t o substar.tlate suspected cccurrences of expanslve materials. Ilhlrd, geolcglc naps and crcss sections were usec t o i d e n t i f y and delineate areas of argillaceaous rocks and s e d l m e ~ t s whlch were belleves to possess expanslve properties. 1 2 - 2 0 These zhree general scurces were combined to produce four mapping categories tkat reflect the degree of expanslveness and expected frequency of occurrefice. ?he four categories are as follows: 1, H i m y expansive and/or high frequency of occurrence. 2 . Medium. Moderately expansive and/or moderate frequency of occurrecce. 21.

Figure

1.

First

order

physiographic

provinces

wi t-hin

the

cont i r i e n t a l

United

St-ates

,3.

Low. Generally of low expansive c h a r a c t e r #and/or low frequency of occurrecce. Ncnexpansive. These areas are mair,ly underlain by r,aterials which, by their physical makeup, do not exhibit expansive proper~ies acd wk.lch, gpcn weatherir.g, do not develop expansive soils. following premises guided che map categorization:

4,

22.

The a. -

Any area underlain by argillaceous rocks, sediments, or soils will exhibit some degree of expansiveness. The degree of expansiveness is a fmction of the amouzt of expandable clay minerals present. Generally, : h e Mesozolc and Cenozolc rocks and sediments contain significantly more montmorillonite than the Paleozoic (or older) rocks. Areas underlain by rocks or sediments of mixed textural compositicns (e. g., sandy shales or sandy clays) or shales or clays interbedded with other rock types or sediments are considered on the basis cf geologic age and the amount of argillzceous materlal present. Generally those arezs lying north of the glacial boundary are categorized as no-expansive due to the cover of glacial drift. Whether : h e drift itself is expansive is a function of drifE texture and the mineralogy of the source material. The till deposited in Montana and the Dakotas is partially compose,d of material d e r ~ v e dfrom expansive, Cretaceous shales i n this regicn; thus this till may show considerably mcre expacsive properties thac tills in other regicns. Also, the argi1laceo.d~ sediments deposited in Pleis; d tocene lakes nay be of ssch texcure a ine era logy that they also possess liinited expansive properties. From a regional standpoint, those soils derived from the weathering of igneous and metamol'phic rocks are considereC nonexpansive. These soils may contain some expansive clay ninerals but their concentra~ion and the general soil texture preclude appreciable volume change. Also, in temperate areas these soils are uscally limited in thickness. The cazegorization does nct consider climate or other environmental aspects. These sublects will be addressed in a later report. Argillaceous rocks or sediments originally ccmpcsed of expandable-type c l a y rinerals do not exhibit significanz voluae change when subjected to tectonic folding, deep burial, or metamorph~sm.

. c. -

d.

e. -

f. -

g.

CI

h.

llap compiled by D H Patrack, H. K. Wmds, and Freder~ckL. Smtth. Engincelmg Geology and Rock M e c h a n a D w s ~ o n U. , 5. Army Enplneer Waterways Ewer~menlStat~on.Vtcksburg, Ms.

Yap comp~ledby D. M Patr~ck.ti K Woods and Freder~ckL Smith. Engmeerlng Geology and Rock Mechan~csDlv~s~on. U S Army Eng~new Waterways Exper~mentStat~on,V~cksturg.Ms.

Map complied by 0 . M. P a t r ~ c k ,H. K. Woods, and Fredetlck L. Sm~th. Eng~neerng Geology and Rock Mechanics O v i s ~ o n U. , 5. Army Eng~neerWaterways Exper~mentStation, V ~ c k r b u r g ,Ms.

Table 1 Tabi:at>cn
YO ' -

o r Potentially ExDansive Materials :n

the U n ~ t e dStates M a p ' . Category

Physioara~hicProvince Name

Prcdomlnant Gec;o~lc Cnlt

Ceolc~icAge Mlccene Mlacene Miocene Hiscene

Eocene

Location or Unit CA CA CA CA OR OR XA

Remarks The Tertiary section generally consists of interbedded sendstone, shale, chert, and volcanice Ir,terbedded sandstones and shales vlCh some coal seams Prcdom~nate material i s volcanic Interbedded sandstones and shales may occur throughout, particularly ~n western foot hllls

Western Mountains cf Reefrldge !onterey the Pacific Coast Rincon Range Ternbler Tyee Lhpqua PugeS Cp Sierra Cascade Cascade Cp Columbia Cp Yolcanics

Paleocene-Eocme Mlocere Pliocene Ylocenc' Pa:eazoic to Cenoz31c PBieozoic to Cenomic Plioccre Pleistocene P1e:stocene

3R

dA NV CA MA CA CA

P n c i f ~ cTrough

lrautdale Santa Clara Riverbank

Great Valley matcrlals charecterired by local areas of low, w e l l potential derived from bordering mountains. Some scattered deposits of bentonite Some scattered bentonites and :urf~ Playa deposits may exhibit limlted sueli potent~al. Some scattered bentonltes and tuffs

Colmbla Plateau
Basin and Range

Cer.araic Y ~ l l e y flil materials Volcanics Creenrlver Wasatch Klrkland shale L e w s shale

Mancos

UA. OR, ID, NV

Pleistocene Tertlery Eocene

Escene

OR. CA. N V . LT. AZ, NM. TX OR. CA. NV. LT, AZ. NM. TX CO. CO, CO, CC, CO, CO, CO.

Colaredo Plateau

Mowry Dakota

Upper Cretaceous Upper Cretaceous Upper Cretaceous Upper Cretsceous JurassicCretaceous

Trlass::

LT, NM LIT. NM m. NM. AZ LT, NM, AZ LT. NH, A2 LT, NM, AZ VT. NM, AZ

Interbedded sandstones and shales

Interbedded sandstones and shales

NM. A Z Locally some smdetone and ~lltstone Locslly some slltstmc Shales, sandstones, and limestones

Northern Rocky Mountain$

Montana Cp

Cretaceous Cretacecus Jurassic Jurassic

~iddle' Rocky Mountaln9

Wlndriver Fort Unior. Lance Montana Cp Colorado Cp Morrison Metamrphic granitlc

rocks

Eocene Eocene Cretaceous Cretaceous Cretaceous Jurass:cCretsceous

Precambrian Precambrian b n t a n a and Colorado Cps may be present locally vlth some Tertiary volcanic end =,>nor m o u n t s of Pennsylvania limestone (sandy or shaly). Some mixtures of metamorph~c rocks with sands and gravels of Poiaian Canyor, fm
W W,

Southern Rocky buntalns

Metamorphic granitic racks Metamorphic granitlc racks

10

Great Plains

Lance Fort Union Thermopol is Montana Cp Colarads Cp Movry Morrlson Cgallala

DOckm Permian Red Beds Virg!llian Series

Pliocene Pliocene Pliocene Crctlceous Cretaceous Cretaceous Cretaceous Pliocene

Eocene "irlassic Permian Pennsylvanian Pennsylvsnian Pennsylvanian

w.
W.

HP
HP

'W, W.

HP, CO. NM HP. CO. NM

Generally "onexpansive but bentonite layers are locally present

HP, CO. YM 0, MT. CC, NM W . HP. CO. NM. SD. NE. KS. OK, TX

MI. SD
CO. KS, NE. KS. KS. NM. OK, KS. OK. OK.

TX TX
OK, TX.
W)

TX.
TX,

H)
H)

Central and Eastern Lowlands Lalrentiar. Uplands

Glacial lake deposits

Pleistocene

ND. SD. HN. IL, IN. OH. MI, NE. IA. KS. NY. m, MU\. MC. W ! XY, WI, MI NY, WI. MI NY. WI, MI
f f i , OK. MO

Some Paleozoic shales locally present whlch may exhibit low swell Abundance a? glacial materlal a t varying thickness May contaln some montmorlllonlte i n m ~ r e d layer C o r ~

Cambrlen Cambrian Cambriar M~ssiss:ppian Pississlpp:on

AR. OK. MO

Interlor Lou Plains

Yermac :sap,e

Ser~es Int bedded shale, sandstone, an3 iXestane Upper O r d o v l c l a r Upper Ordavlc,an
KY. IN KY. IN

Klndcrhack Chester Eerles Flchnono Kaysvllle Eden

(Continued)

'

i c P e r *.-

Tar 3," physlagraphlc r F o v ? ? c e s , F l a r e ' b m c ~ l c a l map c a t e p a r l e s correspond as rcllovs,

1. 1

hlgh expansion, 2

medlwr expansion. 3

:ow

expansion, and b

nocexpanslve.

23

A:,

X,
CA.

It",
:I?,

>.,
A:.

? A . Y'?,

X , \A, K sc, ' Y ; , , Y

SC, . A .

7:L.i. ~ c p - n : f s ~ c u k r . 3 . - r, .x.p ac , ns : ;c vu c d ro Cc~ kL : . - F .,-r Lr...,. i:c

;,.

.
1 .

'-

:-I-ILIR:

LA,

w,

?;;, < Y

La, !v, A?, w

L4, WE, 7 ,

LA,

u?

i. -

A.

Volcanic areas consis~ing mainly of extruded basalts and kindred rocks Ray also contair, tuffs and volca~ic ash depcsits which have devitrified acd altered to montmorillonite. Areas along the glaciated bcucdary may have such a thic ccver c f drlft that the expansive character of the materials under the drift nay predominate.

23. 'Expar,sive, argillaceous rocks, sedinents, an5 soils generally suite pose6 owe their
expansive

character

to

:heir

cons~ituect clay mineral

, past and present loadi:.g

a q 1 ; e o : s environme?.ts.

histcry, and t~ their nat.;ral and in-

Swelling may alsc be due tc chemical res~l: i~ the forr,achanges exhibite5 varicl;s

crocesses acting oc c e r t a ~ n nonclay n n e r a l s which tion of new mir.erals of lesser der.sity. The by argillaceous materials and external are relazed to the vclume

in~eracticns of

intrinsic : n

f a z ~ o r s of

:-arying inte~sities a c t i n g a l o n e or sectio:. jeals with the effeczs prothe minerals

unison npon the syster,. T k : s

duces by and Clay the

the r,ir.eral cor,pocents a-3 aql;eous environment.

reiaticnships

between

21-26 miceralogy
24.
T h e clay minerals corprlse a g r o u p of hydrous aluminobelongicg tc the p h y l ~ o ~ i l i c a t e an5 dcuble chair., in Ehese area, grcups are characterized

silicate minerals inosilicate by

groups.

The mirerals sxrface

small grair

size, large the

an5 ucbalanced are xainly

electrical
platelike where-

charges.

Srructurally,

phyllcsilicates

as the inosilicates are iubular ir, shape. of mcst group. turai concern w i : h respec: to vclume

The clay ziicerais that are chyli3silicate

chacge are in : h e

The exteFt to which water is ~rrbibed is a fxncticz of the szrucconfigcration, clay mineral the size, and water cheristry. cf :hree of general the

25.
aluminum octahedral

Strncturally, whict are and

phyllosilicates
by

ccnsist

configurations

distinguished silica

h e

arrangexenys The

octahedral layer or

teirahedral ccnsists

layers. of

alumir:um and/or magnesium

gibbsite

layer

aiumi?.um

i o n s . i n sixfold coordination with hydroxyl or oxygen.

tetrahedral layer has siliccn ions in fcurfold These three coEfiguratior.s ray be ionlc substitutions within both

The

silica with oxyge?.

coordination

further subdivided on the basis of structxral layers, Clay e.g., aluminun which for have

silic~n, and iron or magnesium a1umin.m or trivalent octahedral, termej

for aluminum.

minerals

ions in the octahedral

layers are termed di-

whereas those which contain magnesium o r divalent ions a r e

trioctahedral.

26. The clay minerals are classified in che following fashion:

a. Two-layer clays consist o f o n e silica tetrahedral layer bo?ded to one aluminum octahedral layer. Kaolinite is the common mineral, in which the octahedral layer contaics mainly alur8izum; serpentine consists of a r.agnesium-rich octahedral layer. Three-layer clays have one octahedral layer bonded between two tetrahedral layers; examples cf this type are illite, vermiculite, and montmorillonite. Tine term moztmorillonite, as used here, bdicates the dioctahedral nagnesium bearing 'member of the smectite group. These ainerals may occur as di- or trioctahedral.

b. -

c . Mixed-layer clays consist of interstratifications of the two- acd three-layer clay minerals previously described. The mixing may be regular or random. Examples of regular mixing include chlorite, a threelayer plus octahedral layer repetition. Another common reqtilar nixed-layer clay is montmcrillonitechlorite. The randomly mixed-layer clays consist of any of xany possible ccmbinations.

The

structural

configurations

of

these three

classes

of

clay minerals

are shown in Figure

7.
origin by weathericg In these processes or diagenetic alteration

27.
due of

The small grain size and resulting large surface area are

to the clay nineral's preexisting

minerals.

alteratior, beglns at very spreads have physical

small centers or points throughout the grain.

on the grain surfaces and eventually The resultant throughout alteration the product but may lacks

crystallographic continuity.

continuity

surface

Thus the size of the clay rineral is inherited from the center.

size of the lnitial weathering

CATEGORY

THI CKN ESS

CONFIGURATION

2-LAYER

CLAY

MINERALS

OCTAHEDRAL TETRAHEDRAL

3-LAYER

CLAY

MINERALS

10-1 5 A

r-R' ( /

TETRAHEDRAL OCTAHEDRAL TETRAHEDRAL

ILLlTE
VERMICULITE MONTMORILLONITE

MIXED-LAYER MINERALS: REGULAR

CLAY

f a
(

OCTAHEDRAL TETRAHEDRAL OCTAHEDRAL TETRAHEDRAL

CHLORITE

MONTMORILLONITE CHLORITE

INTERLAYERED MONTMORILLONITE
AND CHLORITE

I
RANDOM VARIABLE

(-I

MONTMORILLONITE CHLORITE

MONTMORILLONITE CHLORITE CHLORITE MONTMORILLONITE MONTMORILLONITE

MIXED-LAYER AND CHLORITE

MONTMORILLONITE

Figure

7.

Typical

st.ruct.urd1

corlfiyurations

of

clay

minerals

...,

...

...

. . ...

- . . --

. . ... . . -

- .

28,

Those clay minerals exhibiting high v o l m e change do sc

,

because of electrlca- charge characteristics, degree of crystallinity, 2nd size. Clay minerals possessing internally unbalanced electrical charges due to lattice substitctions maictaic electrical bzlance by These cations locazed oc the surfaces and edges of the minerals. caticns nay be easily hydrated and thus affect the development of .. double-layer water on the clay. The effects of degree of crysta_-inity on sweillng rr.ay depend upon the particular clay mineral. Generally, the effects cf size are such that volume change is increased when clay decreased. Montmcrillonite. The clay montmoriilonite, alzhongh dioctahedral, csually contains some magnesium scbstit2ted for alumincm In the cctahedral layer. This substit,~ticn results in a lattice charqe deficiency which+is n p y t r a l i z e 9+ by the preserxe ! c cations s;ch as Na , Ca , or 1 ' 4 g on interlayer positions. Although these ions possess ionic radii that would permit occupancy of the space within the hexagonal opening at the surface of the tetrahedral layers, the ions are hydrated acd as a result of increased iocic radii must occupy space on 2nd above the tetr~hedral layers. Sncb. a positioc props adjacent layers apart an5 permits access of nore water tc interlayer positions. Since the interlayer icr.s balance charge deficiences in the octahedral layer, the ions are weakly held and thus may be removed by ion exchange. Ordinarily, montmorilloni~e .. exists as extremely sm;-- particles with. dimension on the order of a few tens of Angstrom units. Verrnicu1i:e. As a preface to the disccssion of the swelling vermiculites an6 chlorites, i : should be emphasized chat these materials are not the common examples of megascopic minerals associated with the metamorphic rocks, but rather are fice-graiced weathering and diagenetic alteration products that have fcrned from preexisting mica, illite, chlorite, an6 vermic., u-ite. These fine-grained chlcrites and vermiculites possess praperties similar to those of mantmcrillonite, particularly with respect to swelling and cation exchange. The similarities complicate mineral ideczification, an6 it is quite likely that swei-ing chlorites and verrr.ic1~lites have been identified as montmorillonites in routine X-ray analyses. Anotk.er source of c o n f u s i o ~ stems from the fact that these minerals often occur as mixed-layer interstratifications with rriontmorillonite a : other clay minerals. 9 e clay
7 .

v e r r i c u l i t e s a r e three-layer c l a y mlnerals e x h i C l t i n g l a x i d e variety cf p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s anci v a r i a b l e cherlcal coestituer.cies. Charge r%fic;enc;es c r exi;. both t e t r a h e d r a l a r d c c t a h e d z a l c e s s e s may exis: layers. The n e t charge 1 s zegat1r.e an2 d s u a l l y ++ , b a l a n c e d b y ~ n t e r l a y e rM g a + , o r K+ l o n s . A l u r . N inum m y s u b s t i t u t e f o r s i l i c o n : n sc-e v e r m i c u l i t e , whereas c t h e r verKicul:tes contai?. cc t e t r a h e d r a l a l u m i n ~ r , . The f o r ~ e r v a r i e t i e s a r e more s i m i l a r t c t h e coarse-grained v e r n i c c l i t e , whereas t h e l a t t e r resemkle nortmrillcrite. 'he r n t e r l a y e r ca-io7.s a r e hycirated and c o n t r o l t h e exzent t o wh:ck :he r i n e r a l expacds.
c. -

Chlorite. The 5ir.e-grained ci-,lori:e r a y be considered a r e g u l a r m~xeci-layer i n t e r s - r a r i f i c a t l o c of a d i - c r n e octahedral-ty~e trioctahecral three-layer clay a l a y e r c o n t a i n i n g r . a g n e s i u m . A p p a r e n t l y , t h e amount of s w e l l i n g e x h i b i t e d by t h i s rr,azerial i s dependent upon t h e c c n t i n v i t y o f t h i s o c t a h e d r a l - t y p e l a y e r . A s w i t h ~ e r r r ~ i c u l i t et ,h e s w e l l i n g chlorites o f t e n o c c u r I n m l x e ~ - l a y e r a s s c c i a t i o n s wl-h ether cl-y m i n e r a l s . Fixed-layer types. Regular and random rnlxed-layer cornbinaticns cf r , c n t ~ o r i l l o n i t e , chlcrize, and v e r r i c c l i t e with o t h e r c l a y s may be of irnsortarce i n contributing to expar,siveness. Generally, t h e amoxet of expansion wo,:ld be i n s r o p o r t i c n t o t h e a m m t of r b o ~ . t m o r i l l m i ~o er c t h e r e x p n s l v e c l a y ~ . i n e r a l s p r e s e n t state^ elsewhere, t h e i n t h e r,ixed l a y e r a s s c c i a t i o n . As a m x t cf m ~ n t r n c r i l l c r ~ i t ep r e s e c r i n t h e 'aleozoic rocks i s u s u a l l y s i g n ~ f i c a c t l y l e s s tl-.a? t h a t i n t h e Kesozcic and Tertiary r c c k s ; h o ~ e v e r , t h l s mineral may be p r e s e r t a s a mixed-layer corponect and t h u s c c n z r i b u t e t o t h e expansivecess of t k e s e clcier r o c k s . Kaoli-ite. The c l a y ? , i r e r a l k a c l i n i t e e x h i b i t s very r,incr interlayer swelliq. This i s explained by t h e v l r t u a l abseEce of i o n i c s u b s t i z u t i c : rn e l t h e r t h e t e t r a - o r c c z a h e a r a l l a y e r s wl-.ich r e s u l t s i n m r e o r l e s s complete e 1 e c : r i c ~ l neutra1:ty and :he absence A l s o , t h e individual t w o of compezsating c n t i c n s . l a y e r s t r c c t c r e s a r e mcre t i g h t l y Conded t o g e t h e r by t h e o ~ p c s i n g e l e c t r i c a l chzrqes on :he a d j a c e n t o c t a and t e t r a h e c i r a l l a y e r s . T h e r e f c r e , t h e volume change exhibited by t h i s ~ i n e r a l i s ~ s i ? . l y d_e t o water scrbeci cn t h e p e r i p h e r y cf i n d i v i d u a l g r a i n s . Illite. Tk:s t h r e e - l a y e r c l a y mir.era1 a l s o e x h i b i t s very rnizor i n t e r l a y e r s w e l l i n g . This r e s x l t s frcm t h e presence of ncnhycirated K+ i o n s i n i c ~ e r l a y e r p o s i t i ~ n s wi:hin + t h e hexagozal openings cf :he t e t r a h e d r a l l a y e r . The K s a t i s f i e s c h a r g e d e f i c i e n c i e s r e s i d i n g r n z i n l y on

d.

e.

f, -

the tetrahedral layer and is thus tightly bonded. These characteristics effectively preclsde the admissicn cf significant amouncs of water between the cnit layers. Clay mineral-water interaction 2l-23,27 29. The electrical charges exhibited by clay mineral ,grains

are caused by the following: (a) charge deficiencies d ~ eto lcnlc sukstitution within the lattice, (b) broken bonds at grain edges, ( c ) imperfeczions withln the lattice, and i d ) the pclar nature of lcns exposed at clay surfaces. '21s last cause incicdes :he regazlve elec, , trical 'charge of oxygen in the silicon tetrahedral layer ard a pos::lve char.ge due to the hydroxyl porticn ir. the aluminum octahedral layer. lattice lmperfectlons ard arcken bcnds may produce elther a posltlve o r neqative charge, whereas ionic substituticn cs,:ally resclts in a cegative charge 3 0 , The magcltude ard location cf these electrical charges are different for the varlous clay minerals and are fundamental in explaining the ability of some minerals to imbibe significantly m3re water than cthers. W a ~ e r asscclated h : w the clay rrlnerals conslsts of three types:
I

2,

Eydroxyi cr b o x d water. This water forms a part of the octahedral layer anc cannot be removed ky heatlng at temperatures below 400C for most clay rnir,erals. Interlayer water. : h ; s 1s double-layer water w!-.lch occurs between clay rnlneral surfaces In some clays. 1 : 1s gradually removed by heating ~p to 150-200C.

b.
c. -

31. shrinkage are called expansive clay minerals ar.d inclcde montmorilicnlte, vermiccllte, chlorite, and mixed-layer cornbl~ations of these minerais with each other or with other zlay rinerals. Halloysite, t!-.e tubular, hydrous member of the kaolini~e group may aiso exhibit expan-

Fore water. 3 1 s water occurs In the open spaces between gralrs and also constltufes the more tlghtly bocnd dcuble-layer water on grain surfaces. 9.1s .. water 1s essentla--y removed by drylng at room temperatcres and completely renoved by heatlng a : approximately 100C. The clay rnlnerals which exhlbli a?preclable expanslcn cr

sive properties.

Kaolinite and i l l i t e generally do not exhibit volume

change tc are called

'the extent of acntxorillanite, vermicclite, : r nonswel1:ng clay i e r a Table

2

chlarite a?.C

lists

sone recresenza-

tive free swell data f3r the common clay r.inerals.

32.

The

distizc:ior.s

betwee:.

swellizg

x,c! nonswelling

clays

and

between interlayer a n d pore water a r e illustrated i n Flgure 8. T h e clay particles are represented in the defl3cculareB state. The lower

diagram shows a three-layer morillcnite with water

swelling clay s ~ c h as ver~iculi:e

or mont-

in interlayer

a?.d pcre areas, while the upper

diagram shows a n3nswellir.g clay s ~ c h as illite :iitl-. s~~rroundingpcre water.

33.

The

docble-layer

water

adscrbed 'cetweer. clay

layers

in

expardable clays and the water edscrbed : o possess properties

the surfaces 3f other clays fro? a thcse sf the waEer cert3in degree cf

1., pore spaces.

7

which are The

somewhat different water exhibics

double-layer

crystallinity which is n3t a cro?erry linity is greates: 0,~tward from

cf the core water.

T h e crystal-

adjacent to the clay mineral

itself and decreases

the rcineral s.drface.

The thickness of =he criented water abr.~pt acpears

: and whether the decrease in crystallizity is graoual r

tc be dependent c y n the nature cf the clay mineral c d the type cation present. Yontrnoril1o:ite e~l-~ikizs larger thickcesses sf

oriented water

than che cther clay mir.erals. thcse whose water hydrated

Those cations which encr nochyBrated size can

hance'the orie~tation are be accormodatea within the

s:ructure,

f r example, Bo cot.

sadiurr ar.d

lithium fit, whereas

calciun and mgnesium

Physical

Fropertles

34.
behavioral defined beec

Physical

prcpercies of

3f

expazsive material

scils

which

detersice

the

characteristics

the

have

Beer. er.un.erated and have

in a nultitade of pub1icat;sns.
to

Ic rr,any cases, a : t e : p t s
and

made

isclate the individzal pr2perties

explain the behavicr

on the basis of a single prcperty or a coxbiratian 3f single property contribztions. However, in b o ~ h the laborztory and field si~uaticns,

t h e actual behavior i s a function of ccrrbinaticns andinterrelztionships

Table 2 Typical Values of Free Swell for Cornon (From Reference

22)

Clay Minerals Clay Yineral

Free Swell,* $

ScCiun montmorillonite Calciun mqntrnorillonite

1400-2000

45-145

Verxiculite*" Chloritek*

Illite

Kaolini t e
Halloysite Yixed layer
typet

**

"est data based on swell in water cf 13 cc of dried, crushed material passing No. 30 sieve and retained on the No. 50 sieve. Free swell is variable and dependent on size and crystallinity. t Free swell is variable and dependent on amount of expandable clay minerals present. 33

SURFACE AND PORE WATER

ILL I TE

MONTMORILLONITE

F i g u r e 8. 3ef 1 o c c ; l a t e d clay m n e r a i a s s c c l a t l x s showmg s u r f a c e water ( i l l i t e ) a n d surface and l n t e r l a y e r water (montmorlllo?.ite)

among the properties. ?he foliowing clscussions are based on a twofold categorization of the physical properties in order to point cut 2nd
(1) the Intrinsic properties explain some of these interrelationships: cf the materials which contrlbcte to or lnfluence the actual volume change and appiy : c bcth laboratory a2c In sltu materials and ( 2 ) tke properties, or rore precisely, tne arrDlent env;ronmental condltlons

.,

whlcn erhance the probablllty and magcltude of expansivlty and apply more to in situ materials
properties Ir.trlnslc 35. The intrlnslc propertles which lnfluence tne behavlcr of expansive materials are presented in che following paragraphs. Conflneaent, time, and tenperature are not intrinsic properties 2s defined in tne previous paragraph; however, they are factors which influerce :he role of the intrinsic properties in detemining the amoun: and rate of volume change in both iaboratory and in situ conditions and as such are discussed nnder this general ~ o p i c . 36. soil ~ompcsition. 21928-43 This irciudes the type and anount of clay mineral withi? the soil and the size and specific surface area of the clay minerals. ! h e type and amount of clay mineral are the intrinsic fzctcrs which determine whether cr not the material

w:ll expand. In other hords, the potentla- for vo-ume change rests on the ~lneraloglc composltlon; and the rema1n;ng ;ntrlns;c factors, comblned wltn the arblent envlronmentai condltlons, deternlne tne extert or magnitude of volume change.

37. T."le slze of the c-ay rrlneral partlc-es In

layer water cn the partlcle perlpr,ery. Generally,

expansive

mates;zes

rials affects volume change by controlling the development cf double-

sma-A partlcle

..

result In large effective surface areas whlch permlt considerable thicknesses of double--aye: water to surr3und the lrdlvldual particles. 121s 1s particularly mportant for clay mlnerals whlch so not exhlblt interlayer sweliing slnce the expansivity of the materials is almost entirely due to sorption of peripheral water. Clay x i ~ e r a l size is not an independent pararreter, but often IS a characterlsti- cf the speclflc .. clay mineral. For example, mont11rorlllonlte occurs as extremely sna,-

particles

which

m y

be

considered

ccllcid.

In

the

corc?etely

dispersed,

deflocculated c o n d i t o n , sizes on the crder of a few , u.1. . ' t present.

cells m y be

Cn zhe other hand, kaolizlte xay occar as rather large par-

ticles which rnay be of illite, tween and area anj nixed-layer montmorillonize specific increases
;- c, ,.

a,
ard

fine silt size. clays are

Chlcrlze,

verx~cullte, size bemineral size

generally In

intermediate

kaolir.ite. are

sumrary, clay

surface with

area

inversely proporzioral mineral partlcle size

s ~ c h t h ~ t surface fray, kaolinite to

decreasing

ncntrnorillonite. Cry density. 28,41,43-49 The dry densizy is the rnaqnitude of vclaxe expansive soil change. with
EZ

ixportanc

factor swelling sity higher greater

in determining pressure constant

The swell or i-creasing Cry den-

cf an

i-creases

for

moistcre result ir

ccntent. clcser This

The

reascn, simcly stated, is that spacing, tk.erefcre causing or higher mcre osmo~ic

densities particle,

carticle particle

izteraction. water greater

:zteracz:or.,

precisely, reculsive rexolded indirect

double-layer forces and a and

interacticn, r e s x l ~ s in vol.xe chanqe. Anozher volume

This holds trce for both irrportant change is and scmewhat

unjis~xrbed materials. of dry density

.

influence

~ t s inzerrelaticn-

ships with density of soil fabric

some of the cther ir~trinsic factzrs. a xaterial, particularly

:r

Fcr example, the dry influence : h e

compaczed

scils, will cf the

(interparticle

arrangezent) .

Details

kfluence have
: 1

been described by Pacey" Flgure 9. contents, increases,

i 9

and Seed and Chan 51 an2 are depicted

Fcr a givec csmpactlon

effcrt anc at lsw ifiitial misture As ' h e ~ c i s t u r e conzent

a less orle~ted fabrlc 1s cctalnes. the soil fabric is m r e Scil oriented. fabrlc. 2 7 , 3 1 , 3 3 , 4 1 , 4 3 , 5 0 , 5 1 or arrangemezt in space

The soil fabric refers tc particles.

: h e

crientation

zf the cs?.stituen:

In the case of ;rgillaceous of the arrangements with the n o n c l a y

seckmerts and racks, ,he

fabric consists

of zk.e plaze1ik.e clay ~ ~ i n e r a l s witk e6ch other and type cf clay ~ ~ i n e r a l arrangement $me ieqrse the
direction

cm,ponents. W e

presen-,
rial.

will

irfluence

the

amsun:

anci t c

(lateral or vertical) cf vslune

chanqe exhibited by

an excansive mace-

The f a b r i c s e x h i b i ~ e d by

a r g i l l a c e o s sediments and

rocks are

L 8
MOLDING WATER CONTENT. %

20

22

24

26

28

30

32

34

MOLDING WATER CONTENT, %

a. BOSTON BLUE CLAY (FROM REFERENCE 50)

b. COMPACTED SAMPLES OF

KAOLINITE (FROM REFERENCE 51)

Figure

9.

Molding water content versus dry density and particle orientation

complex,

variable, in occur an in

difficult

zo

observe, a n d have not been specifically Indivld,~al ciay

3

categorized generally

acceptable manzer . elther

rrineral

clatelets

agglcmer~ted cf

no:agglc~erated grxcs sf
,

arrangemerts. platelets arrange-

Agglomerazed

arrangezents

ccnslst

lndepeczent

which may be associa~ed ir s e ~ e r a l ways, whlle

nonac;glcmerated

men=s are void of discernible grcups and zhe fabric 1s uclrorm

40. T h e lndlvldual clay rlneral platelets w : t n : n

ckese two arrangements may slze face
exist

e:ther

of

as ;ns:-~,2,al

m 1 z s of : h e , r , : t s

snallest

(dlspersea) or as small bocklets cf :ndlvldaal coritacts of the individcal '~nlts (aqgregate6).

blth face-to-

If the dispersec cr
~zheru n : t s is denoted and as

aggregated units exist with no pcints of conzact with are surrounded by

A

doable-layer water, contacE

the

associatior

deflocculated.

flocculated asssciat:on

1s one In whlch mlts. rocks

the dispersed

cr aggregated units are 1 ; .

v;ltk ad:acer.t seclmenczry

4:.

Generally,

sedxerts

2nd

exhlhlt

323serv-

able fabrics which may be

categor~zed hlth

respect to ge3retry alone

withcut regard t o whether Or nct t h e i n d l v i d u ~ lunits a r e surrounded by double-layer water. These fabrlcs ray be elther parallel cr random. of the clay ~lazeiets are ; s ,sually parallel =c bed-

The parallel fabrlc lmplies that a ;na;or:ty ir an aggregated parallel

ding.

arrangewzz which

The

rancon fabrlc lmplles a less or-entec arrangerent cf clay

42. Pore water properties. 34,40,41,43,52,53

volume charge in expansive solis is : h e

phenoaencr availa-

cf

h e direct result of :

bility and variation in the quanzity of water in the scil. the properties of the water wlll have a slgniflcart expansive behavior. The volume char.ge of
expansive

Therefore, on the

: f i f : , e ? c e

soils is prirarily aB-

dce zo the hydrazion of tke clay xnerals or, nore precisely, : h e

sorptlcn of water ~c1ec;les to zhe exterlor anc lnterlor surfzces cf the clay m n e r a l particle. to balance the 1nherer.t change def:cleccy
IS

of the anount anc

lens

TP.e degree of hyaratlo?

1~fl;enced by

: h e

h e type of ions adsorbed on : in tb.e pore fluids.

particle and the arra~nt an2 z s e of

Pore

fluids

containing

high

concentrations of

cations, i .e., soluble salts, tend to reduce the magnitude of volume

change of an expansive scil. icnic chanqe . concentraticns may
On the other hand, pore fluicis with low

actually

leach. out

the'charge balancing

cations

and cerenting agents and render the soil more

susceptible to volume

43,

Confinement. 28'29331-33y445 54-59

The application of a surwill obviously re&uce In the laboratory

charge or external

load to an expansive material

the amount of volume change that is likely to occur. measurement of swelling pressure, less than

1 percer.t deformation cf

the testing device may result in large errors in nagnitude of the swelling pressure. For In situ conditions, the presence of a layer of raterial may
eliminate

nonexpansive frorr, the mert has sense

overburden

the

probabil~ty of

damage

underlying its greatest

expansive material.

It may be noted that confine-

influence on expansive The greater the

soils in a stress-relateci conflnernent, the Generally, the greater load applied

(swelling pressure) .

the stress and che smaller the deforrration.

by a pavement is far less than that required to maintain minimal deformation; are more therefore, related problems with expansive clays in highway subgracies

to deformation. The influence of time on v3lcrr.e which has its major impact on

44. Time,28,32,33,44,55,57-59
change is another interrelated property the rate at which expansion occurs.

The time to the first occurrence

of volume change and the rate of expansion are functions of the p e n e ability of the scil and tke availability of water. Expansion occurs as

soon as moisture is made available and continues until En equilibrium

condition is reached with regard to the source cf water.or the hydra-

tion of the clay minerals.

45,
discussion

Permeability.

54,57360-62

As

indicated in the previous

on the influence of time oc volume change, the permeability The perme-

plays an important role in the time rate of volcme change. ability is a soil fabric.

function of the initial moisture content, dry density, and For compacted soils, the permeability is greater at the

lower noisture concents and dry densities and decreases to s o w relatively constant value at about the optirrum moisture content. Above

maxmurn dry densl:y the interacticn for cf

1s t n a t the

tne x : i s t h e cl;se

available f c r rclst3:re
particle

moverent op:lrurl, the vcids

a r e a t a mnlrum because 3f necessary as

- ,

sFac:ng.

Above :he soils,

double-laller rrcvenen:. and

3

water

a l s 3 rr,in:rr,:zes s i c 3 exFars:.de zrac:is.

mclstcre fractures, i:s

:n
by

perrceabili~y is :lssures,

n o r m a l l y enhanced

s ~ c h strxtcral

'5iscorLtin,~ities tecperaIure t.
In

desiccation
on
;r,

46.
prlnar;-y cf
,

Temperature. 29,44,63,64, -he 1nfl.ience cf

effect Iccrezses is te~ye~ature tend decreases
.

:s :he

lirnite5 t o

the viscosity an& specific 3 r a v i t y depress result result

3

t h e adsorbe5 water. water, while Of withlr moiscsre, the

double-layer expasion. rnovenent gradients

wi--

ternperacnre
.

double-izyer thermal

r,cre imporance
,

the influence cf as at Khter vaczr

texFeraLIJre o? :he sf f,lqkser teniperzture theratl gradien~s floh.

of

both vapor aca -lqu:i,

sol^

nass.

n i g r a t e towzrd a cooler area I n an e f f o r t t c equzllze the thermal Liqci'd m3istl;re xsveme?c

t3

energy i n t h e system. occurs men:s tribute as and to a

by

cherr,ccsmotic film analcascs includes thase cf are fehtures :he fracture r

electrocsmot:c

rocks the

dlsccczin~~itles ~:~,lzh cop-

nochonogenei:y

Ka:erlsl. zones,

2f mast ccncern with

fissures, crtcks, cf and ccp7'

respec+ t o
micro- and

v o l , ~ r , e change

~acrofaults. 9 e have develcped contribute release

if

struc~ural disc~nti~citles a as a r i s ' l l t fzulc:ng possibly for :he occurrence

i?. t h e
t:

exhibi: stress rcck m s s . _ne

variable crientaricns i n d i t i o n s which ccnditions cation, ?he of stress vhick

space and c r l g i c a t e frac:cri:g prcviie

,

n a ~ c r a l sedi~~er.cs or a d

~ r c l c d e desictectsnic :he is loadi~g.

..

dcring

~cl3adir.g~ 2nd
. -. -:eir,

structures,

r3t

cemenzed,

avenues

Lntroductlo;. gerera--y c3nin

m o i s t ~ r e i c t o t h e expansi~:e s c l - . lf t h e upper r a t e r l a l

c e n t r a t e d i n the zpper l a y e r s w::h:r. ever,

a fev f e e t cf

s.;rface.

ow-

l s r e a c x d , r.ew

s t r o c t c r e s wlll appear

the

overburden

press:;re

was

redu,ce2.

Tigure

12

68 s ~ ~ cX-raiiogr-;3.hs ~ s

of approximately the upper 6 f t # of P;erre

shale ((K) from southeastern

%lorado. 6 9 y 7 0 The rad:ographs reveal ihe exrent of fract~rlng in tnls nateriai. Some cf the fractures have been fllied wit9 gypsun cement :denoted GFI . ?he notati'on FC refers to a fossil shell. 48. Cernectation. 56971-74 Cementation refers to the adhesive actlcc of mlneral cements whlch coa: and bono the particulate constltuects together in sedimentary rocks. The presecce or absecce cf t'kese cexezls may determine whetner a particular materlal shcuid be ciasslfled as a rock or a sediment. It seens logical that naterlals exhlbltlng a high degree of cerrentatlon wo;;d possess less expansive properties tnac materials lacklng cemenrs. 9,e presence cf cemect prodcces two e f f e c ~ s : the development cf bocds between polnts of conract wnlcn decrease the likelihood of the d:splacemec: of adjacent particles acd :he coatlng of individual par~icles which reduces the ability of the ciay minerals to lmbibe water. 49. The common cemen~ing agent may elther be crystalline or
(calcite), ircn oxides cr hydro,xides amorphous and consists of CaCO 3 (hematite or goethite), and various forms of silica. The degree of resistance to weathering and strength decreases in the order 3f silica, iron, and carbonate. The carbonates, however, probably comprise the mcst common ce~.ent in sedimen~ary rocks. Siiicecus cements are common1y . , associated with ben~onites a ; d other rocks wnlch coczain mcntmorillonite derived from the devi~rification of volcan-c ash. In these cases the

devltrlflcatlon of the ash produces slllca In excess of :hat cecessary to produce montmorlllonlte. Tke excess slllca may be renoved from the 2or.e of alteration and redeposited elsewhere ln the system by groundwater. tary The redepcsited silica produces indurated zones in the sedimensequence. 50. Kkether carbonate cements wculd enhance or retard the volume change exhibited in a highway subgrade is dependent gpon the elevation of the grade with respect to natcral gro,.nd surface, ard the

A :able of factcrs for converting U. S. customary units of measurement to metric (SI) units is presented or, page 7.

amb;ent weathered would the

clinatic ic

., co?al;lo?.s

Cecaxse

the

carbo-zte

rizerals

are easily
a cut

moist to of

climates. the

The expossre cf

or

-r e s k r

. 71acer:z~ I, n

contribute
probability

removal

carbonate a?.d

ceTlents 2r.c

th.;s

increase

moisture

xbikitian sea;T,er,tarq cf

- ~ c ; ; ~ . e ckange. possess a 5c tc Jegree r.ct as :s cf e x h i-A'ccmpacti'cn apparer.t?y ic-

51. S o ~ e a r g i l l a c e c c s
soundness appreciable
I

rccks

and

induration

i.-.d:cat:ve These

c e . - ~ e r ~ t a t i o n ,b,;t referred

mineral opposed bcnds

cere-ts. to

haT:e beer.

shales derived divid-a1 azd

(as frm

cemer~taticn s h a l * s ) . have develope: These at

The cs?.:azt

i?.ciuratix

which

~ 3 i r . t between ~ cr:,bzClq.

clay

ciceral by

particles. aiagenesis rocks clay as of

bor.&s

are

::r?e-relate2 is

have

developed cf of

chzracteristic

older the bonds,

( d i a ~ e n e t r c Cor,cs) . Thts chencmencn . , a = & oczcrs ~ 2 r i n g arjd beca.;se cf t h e

recrystallization tc illite. the These

xicerals, well as t'r,e

i. e l

Tcnzmorill~nite alteri-g ci:a:ges, ze:B

t3

cor.cmizzn: in tk.e

decrease

possibiliry aiagenetic of xaterials

vzlxe

cl-a.ge

macerial. and chemical ccn&:ticcs The

52.
alterations or

effects. as a are

43,73
result

Long-terinphysical cf changes ;ern& In s,:ch the'

ir.
. ,

ov;erb.:rden

grounciwater

envirorment are
co

generclly reflecrec

ziagenezic

faczors.

aiagenetlc particle minerals

factors

generally

pkenc~ena as contaczs

interclay cf

bonding under a

due high.

r e c r y s t a l l i z a t ~ c r . cf stress

cetween

overburcier of

zor,d:ticns of
.

cr

by

ceTentaticn frcx the

p a r t ~ c l e s as groucdwater. betwee? cf the

result In

precip:cat:cz

cer,entlng age?.ts
,

general, and

t k ~ciifferences remolded

1 ;

cehzvior are

of : o

expar,sive the

sails

unclsturbed bonds.

s-zzes

relare2

presecce

diagenetic

Env~ronmental conditions

53.
zre

The
i

envirocmectal the following

cor.a:txcs

which

:nfluer,ce

vslume

change

presented

paragraphs. The ~rccerties oi ;ncl:Be

-

54.
the Lhe sorl tctal

soil profile layer

p r o f i l e . 30,39,43,45,55,57,59,60,66 which

may

enhance

cr

~ c ; l u e r , c e voluxe
1 . 3

change

thckness, an5

variations of

:he

thickness, and of layers cf

&epth ke1o.d ncre soil, sf perrreable zke rrois:.;re

ground

surface,

tb-e preser,ce :he thicker vclcme

lenses layer

Katerials. greater the

Obviously, total

the

expa?.sive
a

poteztial

charlge

providizg

sc,;rce

is available throughout

the

layer.

Variations

in thickness

of the layer

will result in variaticns of the magnitjides of v o l u m precisely, like differential volume change. Ciffereritial

c h a ~ g e , or more expansion, lust

differential

settlerent, is the major problem with regard to damThe depth of the layer below gro,xd surface may influence since the deeper the material, the

age to structures.

actually be a positive

greater the confinemnt cn the expansive soil. the

ateri rial,

In addition, the deeper

the less likely the expansive soil will be affected by The presence cf lenses or layers of avenues for the ingressicn of water.

seasonal higher

rnoistijre varl'ations.

perceability will provide

In facz, a

ass of scil which requires that mcisture aust move fror, its
occurs, the aven:es of rnaiszure

extrercities will take rcch longer to develop its total volume becsuse as the mcist.~re is introduce5 and expacsion transfer are sonewhat decreased.

Lenses or layers of mcre porous mate-

rial withi: relctively

the mass tezd to overskdow this advantage since they are a contin~oas socrce Depth of of moisture.

55.
desiccatron

desiccaticn.

30,3l,39,48,55-57365 $66 The

and rate of volurne change. the material ih which

is xportant to the magnitude

The thickness of the desiccated a moisture deficiency of exists.

: I

layer represents

addition, the layer nornally has a cracks) available for movement of

large number noisture irto

avenues

(desiccat:cn

the material.

The depth of desiccation is generally de-

fined as : h e

depth to which a differezce exists between the equillbzium resulti7g the from minimal amhien: soil loss of moiszure ~ois~ure contenz to the profile

noisture conte-t profile atmospkre

(evapcratior:) and

in which the soil straturn is in equilibrium with its environmect (climate and overburden). In simpler terms, the depth of desiccation influences are reflected in tke soil

is that depth to wkich evaporation x3isture content profile.

Generally, the hotter and drier the climate, Changes : i the overbur&en condi19-

the greater the depth of desiccation. h e tions and the proximity of :

grcundwater table have an inportant

TO

fluence on the depth of 5esiccat:on. for definina the value.

date, no absol.jte method

exists

56.

~ e c z h of

seasor,al rnoisture

variation. 30,39,43,55,57,62,75-78

This by

concrises seascnal

some

thiokcess in

cf

the

s)drface n a t e r l a l
. ,

which ce in

1s

, -:?.riue:ced

variations of

c 1 1 t c C nolszure are

I . 2ccur

. h . xcs-ld
15

expected, which followed the

the

greazer

depths

seasonal

change

arezs 2rsxqh:s

s e ~ s z n a l c l i r r a ~ i c chmges

greatest,

. e l

isnq

by

back

to

Bepths

durirg

the

war3er

secszr.~. ft.

Seas3zal I?.

mistxre and

varlarlons semiari2 Seasom1 czcdiaoiswir,hir

have beer

recortec

t o depths

c f 10-12

:emperaLe

c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s , t h e depth i s normally between moist,;re tions; tl;re variatiocs however, coztent. the I are relatively :reps constart 2s the :owarc seasc?.al for e

tc

7 ft.

zlirrati:

gereral other

a z = ~ m , ; l a t i c r cf var:sE:a?s
will

total occ,r

worcs,

moisture type anC

content physical then that

tc

soxe

equilibrlx 0ftk.e chznqe

a-

.<2lue which expansive

;s

dece2dent I:

cn

:he

concition the volurr,e be:na

nazerlal. vzria:;;: :me.

seems fur.ction

obviocs wlth the

;s

a;seasonal

zotal

ancunt

a c c u m ~ - a t l o r w;tA?

shrubs, tion cures by and the by

and

some

grasses

are In are
will

cozducive where

to

noisture

mr;7emez:

or

deple-

transpiraticn. as pavements ccver volune

areas

~;egezaticn i s the rrcisture

suck.

replacez, ten5 to

renoY<e2 and s r r u c . , rhaz i ; . ~ s ce1r.g ~dsed the struct.;re syster,s

will

vegetative the close

accxr,ulz:e x i

bereazt large c:ty

.,

enhance
i-

charge. ts

'degerarion paverencs

rc3:

lccated s 3 ~ l ti n chancre.

prcximity

ii.e., a?.d

s:reets) zi:rere:zial
? -

re-

differential

~ o i s t u r e conditons

tkus

volume

58.
Crainage scurce verge with s:des tlon of

Surface to

cra;:age

charac:er:s:lcs.

33,6~78,79
conan3
k
,

?ccr

sirface a zk,e

leads

~,oiszure a~cumlatior. cr for e x p a n s i r ~ e subgrazes dra-:-.age s3ils is a

xhiah

can

provicie

moisture Pcor on

f l ~ r a i c:hr-ugh

slopes. highways of of

surface

freq;erAt ~ r c k l e a ~s s o c l a t e a ir of CL:, ?raCe, a : & :s upkill a fc-ic-

expansive

ar12 ; c a r s The exxenr

transitlor. the

sect:o?s.

tke

~;fllr,rat:on

transverse

and longitudinal gradients in the ditches and the

type

of

material

in

-,he

sectior,.

The prcblerr.

COL~:!

he e l l x l n a t e d by

r;,o~viq

the c:tches Modes a

,

.,

as f a r away as possible of moiszure

f r m t h e highway and assuring In s i t ; that is, s o l l s a r e genscl- particles,

,

crcper g r a d i e c t s so t h a t t h e surface water can be remcved.

59.

t r a n s f e r . 29943 system;

e r a l l y cocsidered t o be water, a
>

a three-phase
;

I c scch

system i'c i s possible f o r water t o mcve or a ccnbinaticc cf borh. These rodes

.
,

e i t h e r i n the l i q u i d phase c r vapcr phase, For water the

system
t3

nove i n e i t h e r phase, a r,ode of capi;larity, is of gravity,

t h e r e must be a d r i v i n g f c r c e within are generally Gravitaphase

,

t o provide 2s

transfer. and
.

described

t i o n a l rr,ovement cf water which d i f f e r e n t i a l riurr. tion cofidition. Examples of the

. prixarl-y

:herml -imited

gradients. t o t i e -;quid

in
* ,

3eads will

cause the m ~ i s t u r e t~ seek an e q u i l i b .

cf

surface water, again primarily

g r a ~ i t a t i o ~ a ncvemect l a r e simple :nr;_tra, . . . l a t e r a l seepage from aval-ZD-e so;rces, and t h e groundwater limited ccnbine
,

cpward mcvemen:
larity is

table. the fine

Transfer of water by c a p i l liquid pore phase. openir.gs, :he and nature of the surface

to to

clay biater

s o i l s , which of level.

possess water

extrerely capl--ary
..

t e ~ s i c n effects

imbibe m i s t u r e witkin

from the grcundt h e groundthe s c i l . then a to If

The zone of

r i s e i s the l a y e r of material d i t h e i n f l a e n c e of s i z e s of

r e c t l y above t h e submerged m a t e r i a l

wazer t a b l e and can extend upward from :he pavertects coctinco,;s a r e constr1~cted wl:hin source of water is as a r e s u l t of this

groundwater t a b l e f o r considcapillary rise, is phase

,

e r a b l e d i s t a n c e s depending oc t h e e f f e c t i v e pore zone cf

a v a i l a b l e t o t h e expansive s-bqrade. thermal q r a c i e n t s with the vapcr

.

Moisture r r a n s f e r both t h e l l q a - d Tke placer.ect of ambient perature.

..

appliczble

acd vapcr phases, conditions at

predominant.

a struc'cure ever an expansive s o l - x i l l a l t e r i z s

temperature

g e n e r a l l y decreasing -,he subgrade terntemperat3re in the surrounding are2 it

Water vapor the system.

a higher

~ i ; - x i g r a t e t o the cooler area l n an e f f c r t t o equalize t h e thermal

energies of
wl-l
,

As t h e vapor moves i n t o t h e cooler a r e a , f r e e water.

"is

..

condense and form a sol;rce of

i s the b a s i s l i q c i d water

hydrogenesis n a t ~ r e to

a s described by Brakey. 80,81 The movemect 3f electrcosnotic flow.

46

by therrcal g r a d i e n t s cccurs a s a therxoosmotic f i l m ar.d 1s s l n i l a r i n

the

mcdes

of

m i s t ~ r e t r a ~ s f e r i? 3f the water wl-.:ch

para?raph cacse v-luge l

59

Sisc-ssed change.
-

scx
- ,

of

the

pcssible rainfall or is

sources tkrcugh

Ir!r:ltrat:cc cr

cf
cracks) This c i ~ r -ec 1~ ; ~ , verrical 1s

pavement slcpes fact is

~rsper e :he primry

rorc.:s sccrce

xterial cf

zhrough evider.t

t h e verge fr3m on rhe the

f r e e water. are cr

t h ~ t seaso'al a ~ , c , c n t of suc!.

~ l s t c r e var:ations rainfall. 2s the Lateral

dependent

f requerJcy and

~ . i g r a t : o n of another curring through

moisrure

from

s3urces

~rcu,-..d+:atert a b l e are zhe

possible scurces such

- source or r r e e w a t e r .
of water; as r cr hc;.;ever,
, ,

These

r.at.:rall;~ ccca-seky Tar. In-

5-ar5a:ior.s whizh 'aulty

.

car. be cs.:lc cr

activities t e water

irr:gatic-, zcnditiccs. sewage')

of

i:fl.:ecce'surface 1eak:ng affect have s;bsurface arrbienz prsfs,;ne

filtraticn utilities t:re o?

and
(:

.e.,

x u L c acversely reservcirs cc,;ls

nciseffects

co~dizions. groundwater

1xpcu:ckent

conditions.

Physicochemical

'rcpertles
,

61.
behavicral men: and

Important

physicochemical
of expznsivt

prcperties sciis

lr.:l,~ence =he i3-ic

the er.viron-

characterisrics
he

inclxcie

( i o n s adscrbed on the exckange In

c l a y rni:!erals cf 4a;er :he clly

ar.5 p r e s e c t miner~ls.
R :

ic t h e p r e warer)
1 - f i ~ e n z e of ~ a r a j r a p h 42. lcnlc

czpacltles the xre

coscer.tratlons Adscrced

b~ere c:scusse3

l o n s . 21,27,34,40,43,52

62.
cf volur,e attach

The change

assorbed tkro.:gh tc rhe

cazicns their

en

clay

ninerals

i n f l ~ e n c e the car:ans charge io-s

degree

hyErat:or, as

~ r ~ p e r z i e s .The a result ~f of the tke

themselves of the in

clay p a r t i c l e s Ic zhe ior.s,

de-

ficiency and which

particles. size.

przsence ir crcier

water,

hydrate

increase can be

Cornor.

adsorbe5 on io?ic and the radius, thus fac: the

clay ricerals the greazer :he

a r e t;a the

+,

ir.creas:nq

Ca

++ ,

Mg , and K
is

lscic

+.

,, raa::,

The

smaller icn occ.:r. greater

the

axunt

of

hy5rat:cn that
will

he

undergoes .4ence, volume

greater

vclme

change

likely a

ro

thar

scjicr-r,:ntmcrillon-tes
calci.:r,-r,2c:mor:ll2r'.i:es.

zn5ergo

c h a ~ g e thac

Cationexchange

capacity

21,27,34,50
(CEC) is a measure of the

63.
adsorption

The cation exchange capacity characzerlstics

cf clay minerals

acd is an indicat~r of the

type and ar;ounE of free cazions that are adsorbee on the swelling behavior cf expansive clays. The CEC is usually defined as the total

axount of exchargeable in milliequivalents per

cations a soil is capaBle of adsorbing, expressed 100 grams of soil. Researchers have found thaz

all clay soils pcssess a C2C value. tions cf the CEC cf a give: b i l i ~ y and and ccncentrations 3f scil: ions

Several factors result in variaparticle size, terrperatcze, availa-

in

sclution, clay xineral

struct.:re,

iscmorphic

sxbstit~tioc.

64.
mineral, mineral,
(b)

In geceral, there are three malor causes fcr cation ex(a) broken bones aro.:ni : h e edges of the clay

change cf clay ~.inerals:

sukstizution \+:thin

the lattice structzre 3f zhe clay

and ( c ) replacement of the hydrogen of exposed hydroxyls by may Be exchangeable. Some representative
CEC

c a ~ i o n s which

val.:es

for

various clay ~inerals are presectee in Table 3. pacsive properties of clay minerals increase with

12 general, the ex-

increasing

CEC.

~4:croscale

Mechanisns

65.

The

develcpment

of an understanding

3f the rnicroscale

necharisms is sonewhat hampered by

the lack cf a?. adequate description

of the mechanisms and the role they play in m k i n g an expa?sive clay .-expar.sive." been described factors The neckanisms listed in Table in tke literature.

are those which have with the and

These should cot be conf.:sed which icf1,:ence

physical

previously

described

zhe nagnit.:de

rate of volume chacge.

66.Tlqroughout
varying degrees of

the literature these mechanisms have been given for zhe causes of expansivity. systen, it is

responsikilizy

Act~ally, with a reascnable knowledge of the clay-water

kard to imagice anything other thac a corrbination of the mechanisms being responsible of for volame each mechanisn change. toward The probler the is deterninizg The zhe

contribution

total phecomenon.

Tacle 3

Catlon Exchanqe C a p a c i t i e s of Clay Mlnerals

(Frzr

+$ere -.ce 21)

"--.
Clay
Kcera1

M;lllequlvalents

per 100 g

Halloysite, 2 H20
b!on;morillonize

Chlorite

---+-

"

Table Natural Mechanism Osmotic repulsion Microscale Mechanisms Causinq

4
Volume Change in Expansive Soils on Volume Chanqe

Explanat-ion P r e s s u r e g r d d i e n t s developed i n t h e d o u b l e - l a y e r water due t o v a r i a t i o n s i n t.he i o n i c c o n c e n t r a Lion i n t h e double l a y e r . The g r e a t e s t concent r a t i o n o c c u r s n e a r t h e c l d y p a r t i c l e and d e c r e a s e s outward t.o the bounhry of t.he double layer

influence

The d o u b l e - l a y e r boundary a c t s a s an osmotic membrane when exposed t o an external source of free water; t h a t i s , it. t r i e s t o draw the water into the double layer t o reduce the ionic concentration.. The result i s an increase in the doublelayer water volume and the developrlt. of repuls i v e l o r c e s between i n t e r a c t l n q double l a y e r s . The net result i s an ircredse in the volime of the so11 mass In the an effort t o satisfy the charge h a l a n c e , volume of water in the double layer w i l l continue to ircrease ~:nt.ii a volume change of t.he s o i l mass o c c u r s t h e c-it.iocs resultinq ir, hydrate, t h e i r i o r . 1 ~ r a d i i net voluw change of the i~crease, sol1 mass
d

Clay p a r t i c l e att.ract.ion
i'f

@
Catlor; hydratio~ der Fjaal

Clay particles possess a net negatlve charqe or, thelr s u r f a c e s and edges which r e s u l t in a t t r a c t i v e f o r c e s l o r v a r i o u s c a t i o n s and i r : p a r t i c u l a r f o r dipolar molec~iies such as water. This mkes up the major "k,olding" f o r c e f o r t h e d o c b l e - l a y e r water The p h y s l c a i k.ydration of ca!.lons a t t a c h e d t.o t h e c l d y p a r t i c l e scbst~tcteti into or

As

Lordon-van forces

Secorddrv v d l e n c e l o r c e s a r i s i n q from t k e i r t e r l o c k l n g of e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d s of moleccle a s s o c ~ a t e d with movements of e l e c t r o n s i n t h e i r o r b i t s . The phenomenon f r e q ~ e r t s molecules In which t h e e l e c tron s h e l l s a r e c o t completely Tilled Movement of water ict.0 a mass of clay particles res c l t i n q from s c r f a c e t e n s i o n e f f e c t s of wat.er acd a i r mixtures i n the pores of the clay mass. Comp r e s s i v e f o r c e s a r e a p p l i e d t o Lhe c l a y p a r t i c l e s by the menisci of the water In the pores

The i n t e r l o c k i n q of e l e c t . r i c a 1 f i e l d s c a u s e s
c h a r g e imbalar.ce whl ch c r e a t e s an f o r c e f o r molecules such a s water

attract-lve

Capillary imblbitlon

PLS

free water becomes available t.o the cldy mass, the pore water mecisci begin t o erlarge and the c:)rnp~essive force:; a r e r e l a x e d . The c d p i l l a ry film will enlarqe d i d resljli in a v o l ~ m char,ge or supply water for one of the other mechanisms

E1dst.i~

relaxation

readjmtment of clay particles in the d i a q e n e t ~ c fdctors

due

to

sow

chanqe

Volume change r e s u l t s from p d r t l c l e r e o r i e n t a t - i o n and/or chdnges in soil st.nict.ure due to chdnges i n t h e diciqenet.ic f a c t o r s

g e r . e r ~ l inference volume change is

of

the

literat,re

'is
fc.;r

-hat cf

the m j c r six

c o r z l c r . cf

the

a t t r i k u z a b l e CO particle rensirlng

the

~.echanisms: zsnctic
capillary

rep::lsion, imbibi:;on.

clay The

at-racticn, twc

cctior.

hyd7--;-~ * & 3 - & ~ . xC; . ~ reccgnised

,

~ e c h a c i s x are

tc

be

presect explazn

but a r e of a l e s s e r conseq_er.ce and s c ~ e w h a t m r e z ; r S i c u l t

physically. co+ir.ed soil and and The inflcences
ES

-cv

of

the tezal

fcxr sci:

mxsr

~echanisms are z cf term the taken

gererally f r m the suct-or.

described Tctal

the

sucticn, sun

physicist. r,a:rlx

scii

suction

1 s :he the

zsrncz:;

s ~ c z i o n . 3l;mtitaz~vely, mechar,ism

osnctiz s.:ct:cri,

suction -he

i ~ c l a d e s the three expansive of scil

osmozic rzjor

repxlsion

anC; !natr;x ar.5

renainln?
3 :

~ e c h a n i s m s . The

rzgnizuae :he

rate

of

v c l ~ r ~ change e rate sf char.ge asing ccntent magnizude tc

c l a y s may be suctior. field ships. vclume as

e s c i c ~ t e d frcm i n d i c a t e & by an5 of

mgnitu'Ae and 5ifL - . ~- - -~

rncistcre

2 n tk.eor1es

scecified relzzis7.as5 rate &e.~elop cornf

conditicns
In

scil th;s

sucticr.-vol8 ab:lity to

razio-water :he

light a to

eszlmaze k s beec

change,

co~siderable effcrt rneascre tozal

5311

expended 1:s
.

instrumentation ponents. with fying tke :he This

. ~ l x t i o and ~ cf soil s.:c:icn zo

~ndepe:der.t

approach, r,easure.-ent

csrrelatio:. Frorrlse for are fcr ir.derelazively the veri-

various

i r . f l ; ~ e n c i n g f a c ~ o r s , eppears nech.ar.:srns. The tesying

hcid

micrcscale measur5r.g

crocedilres suczicn

pendently
simple

t o ~ a l , c s - . o ~ i c , and 3nce
he

matric

and

straighzforward.

ssil

scctios

c c c p ~ n e z t s an5

physical sibillty

an2 physicochemical p r o p e r t i e s (have beer, e v a l u a t e & , t h e posexlsts fcr developing cl-,e a betzer .;c5erstan5ir.g volarne

~f
ck.ange

hter-

relstionships physical

between

xecb.anisms xi.:rne

czuslnq

~5

the

parameters

i n f 1uencir.q

change.

SWPLIKG,

JCEIiTI?ICATI~N, AND

TESTING

CF

3XPANSITJE SOILS

67. Expazsive soils are distinguishable fror; other soils by their

ability to swell f r c ~ imbibition chacge. scil An acceptable apprsach cf moisture tc evaluate Soil wizh resclting volune cf expansive of the route, the behavior inveszigation s~:ls,

subgr~des ir.volves a of the

subsurfaze

identification
this

potentially

expansive

a ~ d estir.ation cf 8asec on a-d pavement deflne

zhe ir, sitc volume change behavior of the expar,sive soils. infcrxation a s.;itable The an6 ecocomical subsurface sol1 treatment

design car. be selected.

soil

ir.vestigaticn will

the physical limits of zhe materials the soils for volume prcvide pacsive pctenzial soil samples change with for

and the relative vulnerability cf

respect to axCient cccditions, an& will testizg. Idenzificatioc of the ex-

laboratcry

soils will for

indicate the scil strata that possess change.

the highesz

volume

Soil samples from tkese straza ray be to de-

selected for laboratory tests f r m which Bata can'be colleczed

scribe the in situ volume change behavior cf the expansive soils and forrr zhe basis for the best possible d e s i g ~ s based on currect technolcgy.

68.The nature o f volurr,e change beneath pavements

in the verti-

cal ciirecticn often takes the form of a general .;pw~rd novement beginnicg shortly afzer the start of c o n s t r u c t i o n ans coctin.;ing an ecuilibriun subgrade yoisture condition is achieved. occur Cyclic at the
expar.sicn-concractiofis

until

sf the subgrade soils usually

peri~eter of pavements which are related to the rainfall and evapotranscirazion. drainage. rer,oval of deficiency Lccal expansio~. cay also cccur frcm ponaing and pocr

C.;ts in highway sections may lead zc local keavicg d>;e to surcharge presslxe a-d of the slibgrade soils. subsequent increase in the moisture

69. The amount ar,d rate of v~li;rr,echange that actually accGmulates in an expansive fo.;ndation tors that have previoasly been soil is a co~.plex functioz of nany facdisc~ssed. Therefore, t~ make s h o ~ l d be an accurate given zo

estiaate of the ic

sit^ behavior, some corsiderat;oc

factcrs as poss~ble, both factors are variable from

as zany of the irif1uenci;g ecocomical. The economic

~echnological and location ta locazion

and
will

are be

outside

the
i-

sccpe

cf

rk.is

effcrt.

The base2
2 :

technclogical the cLrrent

aspects srate cf

Ciscussed

succeeciizg

seczicrs

the a r t .

70.
predicting for scme cf

N2rr:ero.d~ proced.;res volume the change

have

beer

developed far

for

ldenzifying thzt

an5

or v e r ~ i c a l hea7:e
facLors. potencia1 loaciicg sirulate type

conCiti3r.s

account are
,

field-related witfi maxiram and

t3

Icientificaticc swell baseci or.

proce2ares
,

usmlly some fying often swell

ccncerned soil

c3r8pcs1;1~~ for for c~:.ait:cns

.
,

known heave

struczLro

c3r,diriorLs. hpcrta-t cf

?roced:res

qua~tiand

:sually swell

azter,pt &:a

ir

si:,;

require test.

f r c ~ scze

cne-cixecsicnal

ccrsclidaticc

71.
lineating of data a gFven as

Th.e

sanplir,g 3f acd to

scils

In

qe-eral

is

far cf

the the

pl;rpose
specific

of

de-

the

hcrizcntal and

verzizal

bcandaries

e1er.e-ts such prop-

profile

prorv7ide l a b o r a t c r y cons3lidaz:3nr a qlvec

spec;r?e.-.s or

f r o 3 which

classification, car. can be be

sLrezgck, ?or

c ~ h e r perzicent exp1cra:cry judgme?.t f3:ndazion. ;acixiccs im~crtzt. materials :s ,;se

erties, fornation give For good an the

deterrrined.

pro;ecz, acd

good

into

c o r r h i ~ e d with of the behavicr in

experience of the

en2:neerir.g

overview design cf

srrcczure areas,

cc i t s
the

highways ard

sxpar.sive s c i l techr->iques i s sarpling the

t3

of

explcration

sarcplicg anci

extremely expansive

72.
Expansive Terrace the

~xploratio? because

3f of

par-

z i c ~ l a r l y impcrtant soils vary

cf

naEure fir? very

the

raterials suck as

~nvclved. the Prairie as

fror, m e d i x of Lculsiana, shales varying of

r,ater:als,
bars

fcrmations or

to the

rcck

xazerials, Fla:?.s

such

Pierre

Mancos to the

Ncrtb.er? of

and

Central are

areas. of

Ccmplementary in the situ

cieqrees

firsness

large

,:aria=ions

rnoisture

content, to p.ear

i.e., or

f r c m l e s s tnan a h o ~ ~ teh e plastic

5 percent
linit

f c r some cf some 3f as a near arC the the

shale materials materials. and Nith

for

softer

Fir,ally, bedding s.~ch a

such planes variety

str,ct;;ral can sf xake

dxcont:nx:ties sample reccvery problems

fisszres, i~pcs-

slickensiCes, siCle task.

fielci-relazed

,, ever-sresent requirenect for r,inir,al zls:urSance,

, .

it is cbviocs h a t
.
.

a variezy of samplicg techniqnes must be a v a l ~ a c - e to the ecglneer to zbtain good undisturbed samples. 73. ! h e applicaticn cf ccrrerzly a v a l - a ~ ~ esarrpling :ech.niq:es
.
1 -

is dependent or the var-ables disccssed in the previous paragraph as .. as the type of tests that are plannej. For simp1y delineaticg the , , , s.~bs,jrface ccnditions, classlflcation testing (i.e., speclrlc gravity,
r ,

grain-size distribuzion, Atterberq lirnizs) and f o r physicochemical teste l auger bcrings can prcvide the ;ecessary tj7pe and 2mo~r.t of sample. , , Fcr compacticn tests and test methods for deficlng effeczs of soil stabi;izers whlch require larger sample quantities, large borings or pit samples car provide the required an,onnz. ".us a :he discussion has been l i ~ i t e d to tests which. require disturbed samples. For teess such .. es ccnsolidation (includicg swe-- and sweli press.:re) ar5 s~rengtk. cnciist,irbed sampies ere reqclred. Undisturbed sampiinq techniaues 82,83 74. Ucdlsturbes sampllng zechlq-es generaliy used 1r. expansive clays and sheles l n c l ~ d e p.~sh-tube acd rctary core barrel sanplers. push-tube samplers .'consist of thin-walled, seanless, siainless steel tubes (2.C-5.0 in. ID) that ;re advanced into :he sail ky hydraglic cr falling weight systems. Variatiocs of :he push-tube s ~ m p l e r s invoive :he . ~ s e cf pistons wlthin the sampling tube to ~ a k e advactage of the vacuum created during sarfipling. The slmplest fcrm of push-zube does not have a piston; instead, the drivlng head is affixed to the sampling tube and has a pressure release valve (ball type) to kleed off the compressed , . . air and o : close acd fcrrrl a vacuum on the sarnple durisg x;t.?arzwal cf the sampler. A second vzriaticn is the free piston or sernifixed pist'31-1 cush-cube sartpler in which. the plstoc is held at the laver ecd of t h .. sarpling tube durinq icsertioc of the sanpler a?.d ?--owed to rest or the samsle during the push. In this way, :he vaccum 1s agair. used only during the witk.drawal cf the sampler. The third variation is t5e fixedFistcn p.ish-tube sampler in whick, the plston is connected or fixed ~o the Crill rig during the push and the vacuun assists juring the pushing cf the sanp;er as weil as during the withdrawal. push-tube samplers

are best suized for rredlurc-stiff sr sclrr clays ,~h:ck

--

are,free cf graT--

els or small rocks which could d x a g e =he 1eadir.g edge cf the :;be.

75.
barrel Pitcher, cr

Rctary

core barrel The

smplers x a ; . 2cukle-barrel

be zateqcrlzee as type, s,;ct, as

double-

single-barrel.

;er:scn,

cr WEC

samplers, zcnsists nf zc c,;ter barrel with a cczter shoe

tc advacce the sanpler anC an inner barrel with a cutter eCqe tz trim an5 contain the sa3cle. simply a core barrel w : t h to a5vance and conzain : h e
h

fineis
.

single-zarrel

rntary

ccrt?
.,

saxpler
. .

a ci~zterstot; .is:ally sample. The

xizk. a xamon: sarplers

fieas,
EX

dcuble-barrei

best

suited for hard'soils 'and soi'ls zcr.tai:-.irg qra7:el.

Single-barrel sam-

plers are best suized zo samy;llng rzck.

Sample cisturbance

76. The s,b;ecz

when sampling acd cccurs juring sampliq : s

of

sncle exeacslve

ciist;rbar.ce na~er:als. lixteC : c

is p.rtici:larl;. The
, ,,rbance dir-..

important which cf the

test-ng

cr:rari?l~

=he exErer1t:es

s a q l e and is the result cf fricti-nal resistance betxeen =he s a : , p l e t..re , , anc the soil. In most cases this is c f rir.cr consequence anC car.
,

be minimized by conrrolling the angle c f the frictional resistance betweer : h e

the c . : t t : r . g a d

eCqe a z 2 reeucicg

smcle

=he sa71y;ler. The re-

d.:cticn

of the resistacce wizhin zhe sa3pler car. be achieves by =he of lubricant such as slliccn cr Teflcn :he sFra:;s, by pcllshing

acplicaticn the inner

surface, or by platicg s e x n d 2r.d probably

inner s.~rface, i.e., ck.rome platin?.

'(7. A

m r e ~roblexaziz tyce cf dist:rhance, cf neasurec celurne change, is z i . e is ex~rided f r m zhe sarpler,

at least with respect to the naqr2lt,Be stress relief a sanple undergces wher. 1 :

sealed, an6 zhen store6 prior to fes~i7.g. Tkis zype cf Bistzrbacce will allow some particle recrien~aticn Sue t- szress rellef anc nay eve? is con4,:cive tc x l s t u r e hy a

result in volume change if tk.e envircnmr.t accumulation. The effect of t h : s

zLrpe of 2st.irbance zap. ke red.:ced sa~.eler 3r ,:sing

testing che material

in rings cuz direcrly f r c ~ .: h e

sampler co~sisting cf a series of ring:.

If ttlis is ;ct

feasible, then

the sar,ple skould be stcred iz the saFpler :nzil ready to begin. and

the testing crcgram is

If this is not possible a d the samcle must be exzruded

sealed, then the exposure time shccld be an acsolsze ~~icimurnanB the

sealer material generally c3nditions : h e

of

the highesz qaality that saxples

available.

When required, it is storeC under :nformaticn on

recommended

3f expa-sive

soils be Hcwever,

si~ilar to the in siru envir0nr;er.t.

effeczs cf storing sa7,ples of expansive soil prior to testing is and requires further clarif-cation. Test1r.g Tech-~ques

ex~rexely limited

Labora~crv Identlficat-on

and

78. The purpose of identlficaLi3n azd zesting of expansive scils

is to qualitatively havior of the soils. and The quanzltatlvely obvious need cescribe for zke vclurce change beis fcr c,alitative identification

to forewarn the engineer during the clan?.lng stages of zhe potenzial vslure charge and zo generally classlfy the potentla1 u : t k severity. Qdantltative
3

regErc t3 the sbtaln rneasur-

probable

testing

1s

necessary

tc

able properties change

for predictirg will

eszima:icg
In

the magnitcCe to ascerzain

of vclume apprcxiaate a threefold possible.

the naterial and/or of a. -

experience

crder

treatnent

design

altercatives.

Nith this in r , i : d , testing ~ e c h i q u e s is

categorization

identif~cation and

I-direct techniques i- u h : c h one or m r e of the relateC i~trinsic prsperties are measured and conplenected with experience tc provide ~ndicators of poter.:ial volu7.e charge. These may be grouped according to scil ccmposition; physicochemical, physical, ar,d index properties; and c;rreztly used soil classificatio: system. Direct techniques which involve aczual neasureme?t 3f volure change in an odoreter-type tesEing apparatus. These are gezerally gro>;ped info swell or swell pressure tests depending on the need for deformation or stressrelated data. Corrblr,at:m technlq-es 1 : : hhich aata from the lndlrect and dlrect technlques are ccrrelated either directly or by statistical reduction to cievelop general classifications with regard to ?robable severity.
following discasslons

L.,

1 )

c.

79. The
niques published viously

are an attempt tc define zhe techregard to the categories pretech.c:q.ies ce1:neat:on are

in the literatl~re with As uould be

described.

expected, the available

In

quite varled d : a may be subjective.

numerous, and

sone

cases

categcrical

Indirect

techniques 2isc:ss:on of ic earlier secziens and of the recsrt ixiicaze^ xi-,;ch a ir.fcr

80.
large number

intrinsi charge.

pr'aperzies the

a ~ h i e n t ccnziitions

fl i ~ e n c e volume qualifying

Hence,

varic,Ey is

cr

inclrec: nanerous

,,

:echr,iq,es and x:aried.

potential

volume

chanqe

~ c s tas

Table ? d e f i n e s and d e s c r i b e s a r r a j o r i t y c f t h e p u b l i s h e d t e ~ : ~ n i g u e s .

81.
mterials material expansive surfaces and

An

indicaticn deduced simple is

i :

cf

:.he the

c3zer.t:ally f l e i d by The

excanslve of

r.ature

earzk cf the

nay be by

exanlnaticn

excosxres cf

fie15

tests.

o u ~ c r s p appearencce afzer crackir.2 of

k.iqb.ly The

raterials exhibit cf

~ s u a l l y qcite sb,rlr,kage co:s:~ly poiygons che

, .

cilszinctive arcds and

5esiccatior.. which reflect clay the

polygor,al clay of and the

tr-e percentage 7,Lnerals. smaller of

ti02
I1

~ h epresence is also
,

expar.dable ttat

The s i z e the polygons,

:=alcatiyre i n of cl3y. The

.,

the 3f

higher

ar,s;;r.t

extrene a

case

material surface

composed

s-ciun-xon~rcrillonh r e s ~ l t s c the size ard of texEcre of

deslccaThis rccks

which

possesses
IS

pcpcsrr. and cther

popcorn" t e x t u r e
in

cornmn

o2 c u t c r c c s

bentor.ite

rich

mcnzmoril1sn;te. The reaction sf a prcsuned

t2

82.
also be grates, for upon and

expansive :he

mazerial

~ i t k wacer

may

~ n f o r n a t i v e . The is dispersed also

exte:iK in wazer

whlzh

zaterial

slakes, :ts

c;isintethirst

glves

sose

Lr,dicaticr. s f which slake

water the

and

i ~ s cemectazicr.. cf rr.ay water be a:& highly and is

Materials ~ k i c t , ;(her expar.Qable. easily

imediately alxs:

introduction disperses, slakes

s t ~ r r e d , beccme Agair.,

completely

sodiumcir,erals and The

mcntmoril1oni:e

readily

disperse&. clay the

83.
their comcn
Table

The

accurate

i d e n t : f ~ c a z i o r : and must be

s t u & y of in

expandable techniques

properties used are and

acmnplished rcuzice 2r.d

labora~ory. in

relatively

are

describe6 h a - ~ e =he

5.

Many

private to

go-:ernrr,er.tal these

crcja.-.lzat:ons

cersocnel :he

and

eqilipment

perfarrr

1 c i e n t i f i : a ~ i c ~ analyses.

?rcbably

most important t e c h n i q u e
relatively f a s t , uses
anti

IS

X-ray d : f f r a c t i o n

(XRD).

Ti-s cethccl i s
ac:L;raze zhe

small nay

a m a ~ ~ z of s a

rraterial,

pernits

identification, anounz of

provide

se~.iquan:i:a::ve presenE,

e s t i ~ a z i c r . of

expandable

clay

minerals

P h i s rnl

a . -

Eulk s ~ x ~ l e The . XFL s n a l y s i s sf :he b,:lk sample icier.z i f r e s -he o v e r a l l cmpssit:cn and i s 2 b a s i s f c r esz:n mazing t h e r e l a t i v e a m c x z sf c l a y ~ i c e r a l s p r e s e n t : t h e sarcple. This , ~ s c a l l : ; b e 3 r.cc l l c w f c r irery prec i s e i d e ~ t i f i c a t : c c sf i:divi&:al clay Ticera1 types. Seciinented-oriente5 clay-s:ze fractio:. (-4 x c r o x e t e r s ) . Th:s provides f 3 r r c r e z e z a i l e 5 i d e n,--:-a,-cn -'z'---cf t h e c l z y k n e r a l corpcner.ts k t x y n e t aececz montmorillon l t e i z t h e presence f : vrricu1:te or c k l c r i ~ e . Sclvazec, seci~ented-cr:er.=emd clay-size ~ r a c z i c n . The a s c i t i c n 3f a p c l z r , c r q a n i c a l c o h o l sxch as e-hylene g l y c a l 3 r g l y ~ e r c l zo t h e s e d h e n t e c c l a y $111 expan5 t h e s t r ~ c t u r a ll s t t i c e s c f r c n t r n c r i l l c n : t e a n d expan5 :hl;s perri: the s i v e c h l o r i t e s ar,d ver:!ic;lites ideztifica:icr, cf t h e s e r l ~ e r a l .s ?:her te-b-' ...-aues scch a s h e a t i ? g T L S ~ he ~ s e 5t o d:s=:nguish bezween mcnzmcrillorite, exca?dzble verrLc-lites, cr expandable c h l o r i t e s i f tklese l a z z i r two zypes a r e r,c: ir. a mixedlayer co~b:nazlcc. after these
1~1t:il a n c l y s e s

5.

c. -

85.
XRD

Generally,

have

beer

racie,

cf

=he s o l v a ~ e d s a a c l e

alore

8 6 . ~ h er o s t w l d e l y u s e d L n d ~ c a t c rg r o u p f o r ~ d e n t : f : e a t l o n /

experience

has

shown

tha:

the

volu-e

-hange

behavior

correlates

reason-

a b l y w e l l w i t h l i q u i d lir,it, p l a s t i c i t y i n d e x , and s h r i n k a g e l i n i t . ; n nost azd staze cricr highway experience agencies, wick. csed a ccrbinaricn
wizk.:n

cf a

cbser7;e3 gl-~er, area ?cr res;lz:r.p

AtterBerg are -he

I :

lkits primry

materials for is

~ d e ~ t l f l c a t l o r rr,ethods .

expazslve below a-d

23

sells. the

exarr~le,

Louisiana
expansive
If

if

the

liquid
will

llxt

53,

distress is zf

fro-

soils

be

minlxl

s p e c ~ z : treatre?: zten scre tge :s

req~ired. treatrer,:, above 7 3 , highxay zke plasIf

the

liquid

limlt
is

1 s betweer

C O and 'C,
If 1;se fcr the
,

usually :hen

line,

cieerned is

necessary.

l i q c i z 1:rriz r:lls. 5:.

- ,

the material rely o : is

discarde5 for ir-.dex;

: 1

3ther Kansas

state
if

agencies tic:ty

plasticity

example,
4

lnciex

belox

15, t h e n m ~ n i r n a l problems a r e a n t i c : p a t e d .

tke p l a s t i c i t y index is between pected a d some minimal

1 5 and 35, mc&erate problers are exIf the plasticity

treatnenz is considered.

index is greater zhan 35, the mterial r,ust be treated t3 r.i-imize the problem or discarded. ktterberg The South Dakota Department of Transportazion Soil has

ccrxelated

li~.its (liquid li~.its) wizh

the

Conservaticn--

Service Pedological Soil S,~rveys and developed a nap showirg the distribution of soils within specified limits of the liquid linit acd use change.

this as an indicator cf potential volume

87.

In

sumnary, it is evidert from the literature that only a for Sev-

few of zhe indirect techniqces are capable of general application the recognition of the po~ential volcne eral procedures are available change of the
expansive

soils.

for deficing

clay mineral The

constit-ents

and thus a reasonable ties have shown general application is

indicazion cf swell potential. correlations with swell the somewhat i-.indereC by

index properhowever, cf degrees

reasonable

sctential;

relative

vclume change fro?

oze area to another.

Ir other words, zhe swell

pctential in one srea defined by a given range of izdex prcperties may cause micimal problems, while T h : s the same linit m y inclcate sericl-s prob-

lens in azother area. =ion techniq.:es volume

~ o i n z s to the pcssible areas in which

zeed for identificaof

for physiographic

the rneck.anisss

chznge are bssically ccndizions are

s i x l a r and zhe variations ~,inimal.

in arrbient en-

vironmental Direct

techniy~es

C8.
titatively

The Essess

direct techr:iq.;es the volcre

include all

those methods of

which

quanscils.

change

characteriszics

expansive

In their basic forms, the neasured volume change characteristics are

swell and swelllng pressure. determine wk.ich of The the applied loads and structural rigidity stress) these generally characteristics (deforxation or

control the design of a specific structure. characteristics procedures. If is acc3mplished defcrmation by the use

The 3,easurement cf of odomezer-type are

testing req~ired,

the

(swell) characteristics

the speciren on which the lEformatioz is desired is loaded to some seating lcad cr some s.:rck.arge tc overburdened pressxre decernined by experience cr related

conditlo-s, then izundated and allowed zo swell ~o

the are

percent required,

s~iell. the

If t h e ' s t r e s s c:riaracteristics

(swelling ' p r e s s u r e )
had cr precietermalnzain a p ~ l l e d to

specimen

1s :hen

loaded

ro

scme 2r.d a

seatlng loa5

~ i n e d surcharge a constar,:

pressLre,

in.;?.%rrd

volume. that

T h i s l c a d defines t h e s w e l l l n g p r e s s u r e . An a l t e r -

nace allow Ten

procedure :he its

his to

been swell,

_sed the: The

for apply

defir.:ng e?.oush

swel1:r.g 1366 t c these the ~f

press.:re retxrr. Cas;c

is the

ts
speci-

specime:

to

c r i g i - a l heiqhc. the have

2 o r h : n a ~ i o z zf ;h:h infl,e?.ce

variables neasuEecrsced~res

( t e s t i n g mezhcci) ment cf v o l ~ m e chanqe caxplicaze&. prcceciures in

fzctors

labcratary :es:inq

rrLaae h e

s:a:carciiza:io:

sorewhat published

T a b l e 6 d e f i n e s a n d d e s c r ~ b e ss c x e o f t:?e v a r i ~ u s which soils has the sweli %en a ann s\cel:ing ;ress,re of bcth

. ~ n d i s t u r b e d a ~ dr e z c l d e 5

have

Teaswen. aescribed volume =h.c labcratcry as: relazed

89,
variables

Krazyzski

44

def:?eci

which

influence Initizl Izitial Soil

=he m e a s u r e ~ e z t ~f r c i s z . ~ r e czrtent.
dry

c'r.any

a. -

. c. e. -

decsity.

fabric. 1ozd. ctaracter:stlcs. for for swell. remolden samples. seq.;ence)

d, f.

Ssrckarge Soluzicn Time

allowe5 zime

g,
h.

Curing

Stress

t l s t ~ r y (loadlcg

.
I t i s h i s opinio:: xeasLrement ter. of

Tertperazare . that a
reliable

and

reprodcc:ble
.,

test,,
least are nzt

f3r

=he c;irecz cf tke becan

volume

change

shoulci azci

standarxze texperatxre

az

elghz

variables. as

Lcading

sequence the

necessary seq.Jence the

cause,

describe& i n which basic

3revious

~aragrapk, the s being iscally above h e

loadi-g x d

deternine t:or.s dard late To In

characteristic

xeaslirec, ~lnlmal. factors as

variaa scanslm-

laboratcry should

temperazures consijer

are

Iseall;l, well
will

methcd the date,

each. of cosxtlons
.,

the

as

expeczec no

loadizg

:ha= Dee-

strxczure
t3

urcergc sia~late

reliable

o r c c e d ~ r e has

aevel-pez

adegxzely

'dong

and Yong

Ear.

.Zdrt

as
t:E

cre.:::ds
,,,?

z:c:?~r?
tel
E,::.::r

except
. .
:-

- -.......... - - --:.----..-.* .... r.s

*.

:?a:

z"

ax.:.xa.

5-r::a:qe

eqi-

15

22353.

a-.A.

t.:2.

~1::?3.:$5

92.
;

?ne t i r e r a c e 1299138-141

2:

d~~elsc-er,:

;3l17e ~capac-e c f
. .

~k,z:ge

1s

factsr

w:~cF,
are

cLrrer.t :es:lnq
7-+ d aLimates are

crccedures -re gener---y

..

: c

defl~lng beer. rnaie

or

slculatlng. anc

rnade

y
, ,

s i r

izcs:l:dati:n ha-;e :echiq~es

tne3ry

scrneiihat
- ,

q u e s t h r ~ b l e . 2e:er.t

aicar.ces irite

tnrougn t h e use

11nlte difizrenee 138and

elenen:"'

anC

Clrect to

techniques severity fcr of cltimate

:3

prxide

betzer ar.d

, zlass:::cat:sr.

?r;:Fs ccrre-j:::fi
,

xl:h es:im:izr, ~ o r n -

reqarC

,.-' j'u-une

c!.ar:ge

develcy: ?.izr.:::st:~e zcancfily e

techiques

v o l u r ~ chanqe.

vclurre

change;

k.cwewr,

:fi

szxe

czszs

e?uatxfis

r e

obtair.ei

94. 3 ~ r e a u of Reclamaticn re:hod. 28 This rethe; invclves the

direct correlation of cbserved volme linut. c h a ~ g e with The measured colloidal csntent, ~ l a s t i c 5.-.sex, and fror odometer to
ties

shrinkage

volume change is zaken fro7 air-dry

swell tests

sing

1 psl

surcharge press.;res

sa:uratlon.

The degree of expanslcn ana llmlts of correlatecl proper-

are shown In the followi~g tabilat~on: Date from Index Tests Zollold Ccn:e?t PI %-I Ilm % Pr~bacle Expansl3r.

(18
15-26 25-4;

SL

<15
l3-23 -. 20-2> 28 Zxperience has expected change. shown :hat

% '15
10-16 --- i
1CI

Degree cf Exoanslor.
L 0w Yedlum ~:gh Very h g h

<lo

13-2C
20-30

>35
and provides

(11

'30
czrrelates

this nethod a gcod

reasonably

well

with

behavior

indicator cf pozential

vol.~me

The major criticisms of tke method are zhat the collcidal a?d that tes: is net a rcuti?e test in maray agency laboratories. methcd.
In a discussion to Holtz's paper pre-

c c n z e ~ t ~ndlcates amcunc kuz not the type of clay c3rszlt:e~ts the hydroneter
j

Altreyer

sentlng the JSER ~ e t h o d , Altmeyer brought the method swell and a d suggested a methcd based
he

out cke ma;or

crlzicls~,s to

on ccrrelatlons between ~ e r c e n t The cercent swell

shrinkage limit and linear shrlnkspe.

is determined : n AkS?TO

ac oooneter test on comcacted saxples

(95% standard

T-99 dens~zy) under 650-psf surcharge. are tabulated as fcllcws: Probable Swell

The results of his recon-

mendations

Linear Shrinkage

Shrinkage Lk,i~ >12 13-12 <lo

Degree of Expansio; Ncncritical Marginal Critical

<5

<o. 5
0.5-1.5

5-8
>8

>1.5

One ricor criticism t3 this method is izs lack of appllcatioc to in sit2 oehsvior since the aaza were collected on remclded samples.

96. Seed, Woodward, and Lilncgren xethoc. 106, i42

tlal cf a? from odcmezer zests asing labcratory prepared and

The

swell pozeyswell

expansive soil is deflned f r m ccrrelattlo3s of percent compacted

sanples

1-psi

scrcharge with perter,: clay size (-2~m)a56 s c i l a c ~ i v i t y . A st&--

PIV

- . *

. -

Exr,3nslc:.

: : , 7;
kCil.J3.

- . L-5 :-;:
d

>25
c r i t i c i s m cf represent in

Eigk .,:er:,. . :?:.-I

t i e n e t h c d i s t h a t rh? T;:l:x si:u r,a:erial b.b?slc)r C~:?,JSE

chacgs >;as x a s . ~ r e i cn

sar.plss of

cf

the

uzr:e3

CCT,~~S:~:CE

presswe under 200-psf s ~ r c h a r q e a t the er.6 c f 2 k c ) r e l a t e d with t h e PYC r a t l a g .

1s 2eflr.e;

ar.d ccr-

?t.e degree

3f

exparsi3r. r e l a t e d c s rT?,-

equivalent and the shr:ckaqe gories are 2s fo--cxs:

..

irsing tt.ese parmezers,

cmblr.ea

?YC rstizg was dezerniwd and tie res,;ltinq deqree of expznsion cste-

ine apparent siort:oming m t e r ; zherefcre, fact, the oethcd required. 99. Chen ( i , elininate reiatlve measure swell data ing

is :hat

the sacple must be run in the F',JC

the sddltisna! carameters are ncr a8iva:tagec,;s. In 1s scmewhzt m r e c o n ~ l i c a ~ e d b e c z ~ s e cf tb-e exTra data nethod. lo5 in an effort tc simplify the CEBR nethod the neei for h.ydrometer 27alysis) and -3 prcvide scr,e of soil density, 2 correla~ion w ~ s made between odcneter scrcharge) and percert pass-

(undisturbed s m p l e under 0.5-tsf

The resulting c1~ss:flcatio:

of the degree cf expanslcn is as f3llows Prcbable Excanslcn

<1

Laboratory acd Fleld Cata L : Std Penezratlcn < N o . 200 % Blows per foot
(30
30-60

Deqree cf Ex~anslcn
LOW

(30 30-40

60-95 '95

40-60
>60

(10 10-20 20-30

'30

1-5

3-:C

>lo

Mealum ~-gh very k.lg.7

I'

Although attempts have been made to correlate decsity with s t a d a r d peretration and have been q.~ite successful in cchesior,;ess materials, the extrapclation to cchesive materials (especiaily cvercccsolidated clays) has net been very meanlngfu-. 1 Sorochank method. 56 7he :3rre.atlon i n v o l ~ e i re.az:ng the
n "

swelllng lncex

(vold razlo, e , afcer free expansi3n alvlced by the

1rlt:al sample vo:d ratlo, e o ) o : the plastlclty lndex. !he resultlrg aegrees cf exparslon hltb. regard io correlated paraneters zre as follows:

Natural

Xater

Ccntent

Llq,~ld L l r : :

lation of odometer swell jazz

(1-psi s x c 5 a r g e ) w i t h . l l i q u i d limit ar.5

LIQUID

LIMIT,

7,

Flw-e

11.
w e l g : :

correlat;on

of

percer.t

swell,

.iqUid IlmLz,

dry unit

(fron Reference 144)

where

S
D

predlczed plasticizy clay

swell icdex,

percertage percen:

PI
C
.

csrtent,

percen: ccczen:

= iritial

r,ois:ure

where

P
The

predicted wizh the

swe1li:g

Fress.;re, odcxzer :he

'

psi v;as
3 :

correlaticc with

meas,:reC mezhod

Caza area
/C

very izs
.

qoc~.

:<ere a g a i ~ , scr.e-

experience what
--, -

o-tsi5e

5e7<eicprnefit i s

limited. Kmornik of acd 3 a v i ~ ~ e t h c s -'" . Tk:s ~ h i c h pro.::zes

,

is

&nother

stat:st:cal precilcting

compariscn

rneasurec

data

relazicnskip

fcr

swelllng pressure us;ng

llquld 11mit (LL), r.atura1 dry cienslty ( y ) , and

lela:..o:ship f3r preClcZe2

natural moisture csntent (wi). The

cressure

d Sb.elli~a

:s:

log

F =

-2.132 +
and with

O.O~O~(LL) + o . o o o ~ ~ ~0.o269(wi) (~~)

are in

The

cry

densizy As

s w e l l i n g press,:re :he ~ i r e c z a;.d

kg/cm
ac

.
ro ,miversally of assessnent lccalized =he techwizhin

:C3.
applicable :he areas niques po:ential have

~ndirec: teckicues, for accurace

techciqce voluxe indicated

h ~ s been charge. reasor&ly

describe3 .+o;iever, goc5

experiences using

res,:lts

T,any of

~revio:sly

described.

PXECONST3LCTICN TECHNIQZES F3R MINIMIZING DETRIYZNTAL VOLUME CHANGZ 07 EXPANSIVE SCIL 53EGRk3ES

Introdcction

106.

3urlng the past

decaze, the methods

reported

far controll~ng

or llmltlng detrlmenzal volume changes lr subgrades has c h a ~ g e d llttle. 146 by the Colorado State In 1964, a l i t e r a t u r e review oz sdelllng solls .L:~gb.way Department ~dentlf~ed the f o l l o w i n g c o u r s e s of actlan for zealexpansive soil and replacemert with nonexpan-

i ~ gwizh the prcblex:

a.

Remcval ~f sive soil.

b, C

Ap~lication cf

s~rcharge pressure.

c.
d.

Preven~ing access of water to the soil. Prewetting the scil. by chemlcal

e.

Stabilizazion Meekmica1

f, 107.
swelling

stabilizazion. been

Since that t h e few, if ar.y, adciitional rr,ethods have literature

added to the list, an5 every maj3r

review or cczference on remedies. However, an

29,43,147-150 has scils

innovative

reiterated

these

examination of the literature of the past decade reveals that enorr,o_s strides and nany tkese methods, ~echr~iq.des have hundreds of been developed for applying While the

with

literally

accuments

publisked.

it is impossible to tabulate and review all tkese puklications, following paragraphs summarize various crojects and general

cocclusions

concerni~.g these Methods

r.ethods. of
Controlling

Volume

Change

of Expansive

Solls

gemoval of expansive soil and replacement w no~expansive soil 108. Removal cf natural expans-ve subgrade materlal a n d replaceIS

ment wltb. a Yonexpanslve materlal lng shell problems.

a rosz ocv:ous

method

of elxnlnat-

In some cases this approach may be economical i f

zhe

expansive

straturn tkis is :s

is

t h i ~ an5 :.at

repiacemnt tk.? czse, a

xterials 5 the wk.ich depzk. the

are

ar:2i1ak1e a ~ d

Unfortunately, replacemen: ing to

generally extende5

excclTraz:cr,

soluzicn

cnly

:a

dectt

?;ill r e d ~ c e swell-

t o l e r a b l e minimum. the expaps:veness which of zhe

Hence cf

=he the

ressired soil the an5

sf

exzavatior weiqht the cf

depends backfill soil.

upor. and The

a~::z:oa:ed r~rces : f

szructgre selection

coxntersz: parzkclar zhat

.--: - ' z-

swel1ir.g is

ncr.expansi-~e h a c k f i l l ce zhe

raterial

critical. pervicus wazer cr

H o l t z1 5 1 suggests
soils the may create

rec1ice~er.z scrls csnd,:ci:e frcr: raze :he rc air the

:~~er.;ia-s as ccllecticn of

cocditions of mcisture repairs

conaensatian

tk.rz,jk x d

kydrcqei-,esis.

109.
Canals by

Holtz

28

describes

:c

Mckaxk
it

Wellton
2

removing

the

subgrade

so11 2nd

replaci?j

;i:tk

sar,5-gravel

compac:ed relieving 110 .

so part

that of

soxe the

compressicn
expansive

cf

the

gravel

wo.:ld

occgr,

thereby

fcrce. constr;;tloi

McDowell 125 r e c o r z s

: i

ltrge

Du:ldirq

en

50-ft d e p o s i t o f Del R:o

cf reporzed rcck was 111. ana

c l a y I n w h i c h t h e z l a y was e x c a v a t e d t o a d e p t h
.
T -

6 f t ar.d b a c k f i l l e d wizh a r.=r.excar,sive ateri rial.

ky McCcwell 152 a 2- t o cff
3rd

xczher

case

3-ft l z y e r cf e x p a n s i v e s c i l o v e r l y i n g
Cy coxpaczed crcsheci
rxk fill. excava:iar has afore~e:?t:or~eci s>Jccesses us:r.q 2epzrtrent cf 9-at-hays

strippea

replaced these

Contrary

to

replacerrent alsnal

nethods,
failures

the uslng

klsreco zh;s

recases,

ported swel1ir.g with :he

zech-lque. 5ecth

81,153-15kn
cf e

tnese

subgrades

were

s~bexcavazed z and :lSpes cf

i
r

ft a

ard . cf

5ackf;iled Lnfcrzunately, ?,oisz.Jre

IL was

varlo,;s

gradations

2rar.ular

p e r v i o . ~ s gran.:lar surface rlncf f

material and

p e r ~ i t t e 5 the anci

enErance swelling

through

ty6roger,es:s1

occcrre5.

. - r

112. c u t t i n g and pavernert

Scuth

Dakota's experience cf

7r

- " ''

~ndlcazed that

i:r,i:ed

urder-

reconpaction

t h e subgrade Howe7~er, c n

(6-18
I-':,,,
2

i?.)

d i 5 r.ct l:?e

s c l v e the:: w3s added

warping

problem.

percert

t o a c u s h i c n g r a v e l a n d b a s e c o u r s e g r a v e l tc r e d u c e t h e ?I f r o r to less than

10-20
The

10 and p l a c e 5 c i r e c z l y c::

the

cncreate5 subqraje.

results

showed

:hat

although

several

warped

paverenLs

have

- --

Beveloped, Llkewlse,

the overall serv1ceac;l;ty on

lndex cf the project 1s gcsd. " '

1-95

east of Cact.:s

Flat, i t w a s d e t e r m n e d t h a t 'a 4-in. layer of

lime-treazed gravel c ~ s h i o n gave as gsod as cr better protecticn to the

subgrade for retentic::

sf the co=str.:czion

2oisture and density at a

lower ccst char. did lime stabilizatxn cf the upper with 3 percent KC-1 being mixed in the ,;pper barrier.

6 in. of

subgrade

3 in. zo fcrm a 2oist:re

line treztmezt cf the gravof Colorado Departne-t

156

These experiences problems

suggest that by

els ray elxinate Highways. However,

encountered

the

it wocld appear that sufficienz fines for line reac-

tion r . u s ~be present in the base co7Jrse gravels ard a fairly impervio:~ material should res.:lz Experzences for this mezhod of the Wymirq to be effeczive. StaLe d ~ g h w a y Deparzment
3 . .

113.

ccncern-

icg the use of urtreatec gravel bases placed direc~ly have been

the subgrade

sirilar to thcse of the Colcrado Departmenz of Highways.

153,153

T h e experimental project o n 1-25 south o f Kaycee resulted i n moisture accl~mulations in the granular base In Wyoming were course fcllowed by heaving. Origi-

nally, roads built bases with soTe

constructed using gravel

(with fines) Eowever,

surfac~ng, anB i?eavir.g was r,ot a major problem,

with the advezt of keavier lcacis and faster speeds cf ~,oder: traffic, clean gravel bases and gentle side slopes with gravel base lems. became cornmor practice. to
#

several feet cf exposed swelling soil probsectior.; however,

The result was the gravel

Initial

reactiozs were

thicken

the thicker the secEion and b e c ~ e r the gravel, the higher the heaves. In some cases a gravel with fines was used with scme retardat:on swelling. A~plication of surcharge pressure soil with pressure greater tkaz the .?owof che

i14,
ever,

Loading the expansive

swelling press.Jre is a metho& pave~ent loads Ere

by which swellizg can be prevented. insufficle-t to prevent

generally

expansicn,

and this method is usually applied i~ =he case cf large buildings 3r structures nposing high loads.

Sallberg31m e ; t i o : s

that

pavement

de-

signs developed by the California Civislcn of Eighways are based partly

02

the requirement chat the pavement weigh e x u g h to prevent expansion

of izg

zhe

subgrade. with and

The Lse low

of

thlc

rezP.^~aobviously : s ' l : x t e ~ and a 2reiul

t3

swellof swell

soils

expansive welghzs tc

pressures,
1s

balaccing

pressures
Preventing

pavement 3f

req2,rec. scil is
it

access

water

the

115.
influencing the soil be

S i ~ c e the the

charge

i n ~ c i s t c r e c3r.ze:t
of swellicg sails,

zke nzrr. is

faczcr =ha: change ?e?brazes

v o l , x e change ke or isolazed

cbvizus volure

~f

cocld

fro-

an\, r c r s t u r n

ckz-ges,

could are water

reduced a?

n;nir,ized.

I?. :his
FrcT:sir.g changes. the zse cf

czntext, rethcci fcr

waterprocf li~lt::?

Ceccxing and

i?creas:ngly moist-re descrices

aczess

of

minimizing

115.

28 Holtz
on The the

cne-quarzer-ln,

serniblmn,

hot-sprayed asphalt rnenbrane used betkeen tne o o n c r e t e iining and subgrade soil F r i a ~ t - K e r r . Ci:.al 3epartme:t wth

:r.
cf

Califcrcia. Highways 80981,153-1559159-161

E

117.

Colorad3

has

o b s e r ~ i e d considerable

success

a s ~ k a l t i c zerrbranes

csr.rrolllng

gram on 1-70 concluded that the two sEctions

thick, tative to none here west or catalytically measures blown asphalz tesced. Test sections

using

three-eighths-in.preven-

ne~hranes c u ~ p e r f z r ~ e z zther or, S t a t e rr,:xtires even :-:ishway showed though

96
cane

?.ear Crdway

evaluaze of the

full-depth sections fcr only

s z a b i l i z e c i base were 3 clcse yrs

of

that

dfter 7 yrs,
sec~iocs

zo

fallire

ceslgced of Elk

service.

Test sect;ons o n US Hwy 40

conszrucce.', u:tP a 3-112-in. were

Sprlngs

shcwed

zhaz

sectlo-s and

thicker

asphalt-stabilizeci well. However, acd

hase

me~brzne-lined cizches

performing s c r f a c e wizh base enced

sections constructed w i t h a 4-in. wearing

seczicns cofiszr-czed clowc with
a 12-in.-thick

no base with

clay

enveloped Coth

catalytically heavicq be be

asphalt

ne*raes

had

experithat

s t r > ~ c z u r a land clay secticns may my nct

failures. if

Brakey 81 scqgeszeci
prcperly
,

enveloped s2fficiect full depth

effezti.e

c c ~ s z r c c z e d , C:t zmpared
with.

support asphalz. The mo:stl;re These

e c o n c ~ i c a l l y qalnea

when

118.
for using

Colorads

3eparzrert wizk a

cf

Hlghhays

has

txo

basic

approaches ic on ~ h e

barriers are either

sxelllng

s c i l s 80 a s laid

illssrrzte:! xreczly
. ,

Figure .12.

: . i l l - d e ~ z h aspha:=

COVER O F 6" LOOSE SOIL ASPHALT

ASPHALT

BASE COURSE

ASPHALT WEARING COURSE

MEMBRANE

FULL-DEPTH

ASPHALT

PAVEMENT

WITH

LINED

DITCHES

14''-

2.5"

ASPHALT

PAVEMENT\

M l N l M U M COVk R OF 6" LOOSE kOIL

77'' SUBBASE
4" BASE COURSE

ASPHALT

MEMBRANE

!.;ANCOX SHALE

CONTINUOUS

ASPHALT

MEMBRANE

APPLIED

TO

SUBGRADE

AND

DITCHES

Figure 12. Typical construction of moisture barriers used by 0 ) Colorado Department of Highways (from Reference 8

the

s w e l l i n g .subgrade

wizh

asphalt-lir,ed

aitches

and the

cackslcpes read

cr

asphalt
The

r.embrar.es Betweep. t h e depth asphalt sectlan

s w e l l i n ? subgrade and provides ac by

s,iBkase, raterial s.:rZace

full-

l r p e r ~ e z b l e s-pp-rt hy2rogenesis
:3

which

elir.i?.ates The asphalz

noisture merbrane

acc.:r,ulazicn permits

zr

rumoff. Lase a7.d

1 . 1 -

mcisture seep:?g
--

accumulate
.

irJ the :he

subbase, stead,

but zhe

prevenzs

it

frc:

5cwr.warc zk.e

Lnzc

subgrade;

w ~ t e r ?,erely d r a i n s

crr

zo

side ditches.

119. The use cf m i s t ~ r e ~ z r r i e r s ir. a?. e x ~ e r h e n t a l s e c t i c r . w ~ s

evaluatea over with In tke by
he

So_th Dakoza shale.

Pierre

-- C L
p,.

3epartxe:.:

cf

7 a-a-. .2 -p- ~ - t a r i c n 37.

L3 3 w Y 12

TP.2 ,:cper

6 i n . of t h e subgrade was t r e a t e d
tc for? :he wazerprcof -:erticzl-y
,

a mixture addition, a

cf

lime

and

R>l

asphal:

ccver.
..

polyezhylene

clastic

b l ~ c k e t ;<as placed

z3 a

d e p t h o f $ f t a t a d i s t a n c e of 2 3 f t e l t h e r s i d e of t h e c e r ' t e r l i n e , :nside the skoclder line. in The res.:l:s inbicazed c 3 : ; ~ e n t s cf .-he

hat

lust

there

were

r,c

significant barriers was not and

differences those deep

rnc:stxre

secti2r.s

v i ~ h x3:st.ire clastic c,tcff

w i t h s u ~ . Apparectly, enccgh
anti

pclyethy1er.e cat.:re Tkere barrier, 3f zhe

placed noisture ic

the

frazt.;red

s h a l e peryore :b.e The tz noistare ridlng mc:szure the barrler near

mitted

t o rove zhe

underneath.'the w a l l .
with the rnclsture areas w i z h c ~ z tk.e

were a:,&

fluctuations s u r f a ~ e was seexed izself, the zo be

areas in

bezcer higher

c o i s ~ _ r ei x r r l e r . in the be area clcse

an5 fluctuateci r c r e a therral ck.ar.qe

i ~ d i c a t i n g that cuzoff. The

my

ca>slnq

ccn5ezsst:on

clastic 120.

Mississippi

2:ate

E:ghCday

Cepart-enz

cse5

~,oisrl;re

barrier f secziothe cn

a n a s p h a l t m r b r a n e p l a c e d a t t h e r a t e of ? g a l / y d 2 ir. a t e s t
State Highway

475 c c n s z r x t e c cver Yazoo c l a y . 163-165 While

experiecced i the t n c severe 5:stsrrie: dzring very detrlthe Yazss surface the the me5irar.e a?d ~rcvi2ed a a : y xake the

companion

ccnzrol

sectioxs period,

34-month
effective mezta? membrane clay rznoff is

3bservatior. wans of

waterproof-rg had been but

radlway

preventing r:se xo.:ld

l

swell.

: I

fearec

t h ~ tcacillary ~,c:szure rz:ter, zhe clay.

it

ineffective, nct and due cracks The zo

appareltly rise; In

rni~raziz:

capillary fissures

c 3 r t r c l l e ~ by

and

121.

Arizcna

Deparzmer~z 3f

Trazsportaticc

like

the

Colorads

Iepartment roadways. tion,

of

Hlghways

h&s used
arid

merbranes

andlor

full-depth a

asphalt solu-

These -nolsture b a r r i e r s In regions.

particularly 122. The

have prcven 166

t o be

fairly gocd

Wyoming

State

Xighway

Departrent and

tried

plant-nixed prcble-s

as-

phaltic bases
LO

over the

g r a n l ~ l a r subbases Departmen:

experiercec

sixilar
I T I O ~ S ~ U ~ ~

those

of
i

Colorado

of which

Elghways.

Spec:f:cally,

accxrulated expans:ve rixed reans

tk.e

g r a ~ u l a r layer ca;s:y.g k.eaves.

subsequently use

i n f ~ l t r a t e d the of

subgrade
and preverting

Eoh~ever, t h e

f211-depzh
szrface

pla-t-

bases of

aschaltic

membra~es has ~igratlcn

t3

~ r o d u c e a an the

ecmorical,

effective

mcisture

subgrade by

moiszure. 1% 123. micg mixed State Cn the Kaycee-So7:tk. Department sxrface a variable the expacsive was placed Figure experimental
2

section

cf

1-25!
of

:he 2-ic.

Nyoplant-

Highway

placed cocrse,

secticn an 6-in.

consisting hot-mixed 3 f t ) cf

asphalt

ccncrete and

asphaltselect soft

stabilized
sandstom sealed a t the select a

base, base

sectior. Ccdy in 13. in

(minilrc: shale.

over

A p l a s t i c rrembrane (uns e c ~ i o n part way

e i t h e r edge) sandszoce

either In

dizch zhe

,;c

ir!

base,

ccmpanicn at

nonmerrkrane the select saedsec-

section,

considerable acd zhe

increase

ncisture

occurred
i;

s t o n e base tions under

c l a y subgrade i n t e r f a c e . driving lane (where co

Likewise,

-,he m e r b r a a placed)

membra~e was

significant

10" A S P H A L T

P.4 1 L ' . M E Y T -

DRIVING

LANES

6' BELOW SURFACE

a
*
' SEPT 65
CHANGE IN MOISTURE TO MAY 68 FRO, FINAL READINGS IN MAR 68

Flgure 13. Membrane s e c t l o n on Kaycee P r o j e c t s h o w l n g r n o l s t u r e b u l l d ~ p ucaer c e n t e r p o r t l o n of roaaway from k y d r o g e r e s l s . Memrane kept sh3,lder a r e a dry (froq Xeference 1 5 9 )

noisture

accurulations

occurred

l e a c i i : ?
increase

tc was

,;cheavals. less =ha-

H2>:ever,
1 percent,

ur.der the witk ir.

plastic membrane roisture the

zhe moisture of
2-E

accunu1a:ions base

percezt

ccc>~rri?.q above

: h e

rnerbrane

sacdstone

159 cxrse.
3ptcn-Ten Sleep tes: N y o ~ ~ i n gSzate section o r i Gepartment changes.

124.

On t h e Uptcn-Nex Castle test s e c t ~ c nc n US Hwy 1 6 o v e r l y i n g :i:ghway

shale sirilar ts the Pierre and cn : h e

US Hwy 16 overlying t h e C c d y shale, h e

useci catalytlcally klowrJ asphalz

~,errbrarie t3

rlizxr~;ze r,aist:re

Asphalt merbrane w a s placed corpletely across t i e s u b g r a d e t o t h e bottom f the siie ditches and up : h e R e s ~ l t s shcwej ttat :pheavals. 159 An evalaazicn of roist-re barrier sealants
~y

kackslr,pe to a horiz3r.tzl distance r ~ f s:g?.lr:canz

, ,
? ,

18 i n .
sive

no

changes

lr.

mciszcre

context

occurreci, soil 125.

a n d t h e pavement &as virtually free o f a n y s i g n i f ~ c a n texpan-

: h e

University

167 s h c ~ e 3 zhaz Peneprine and cf Wyoming for the State Highway 3epar:rect
a c a t a l y t ~ c a l l yb l o w n asphalt w l t h ? 2 aaddlt~vew e r e effeztlve sealants.

However,

a product, E G Q , a :

2 Corc,

a n d slllcone re-olaea

772, w e r e n o t effect-ve
ccmpactea clay speci7

Eeneprlme when heat'ea to 250F

pe7ecra:ed

mens a cepzh of 1 In. at assla~lazed appllca:lor

rates cf 0 35

gal/y~L.

T h e catalytlcally blown asphalt w h e n qeated t c 400'~ a n d z p p l l e d a t a r a t e of 1.44 @ l l y d L ' forred a l / h - i n .-th-ck -er;rane r e :rner tme. with Tne B
D

r-se-cling

Q~at 4 Coco w a s lntendea t c coat t h e sol1 f:h. :-:oweT,:er, w h e n z p p l i e d a s a contacted When

particles

a water surface

repella?.:

mncen:ra~ed water; the

t treatment, t l e Coco fcrmed a gel wnen : zhe gel, ca,sLrz

water

eventually penetrates

she1l:ng.

soil terlor soil

occurred. wall and

Silicone 772 is used as a waterprcsfing aqent fcr exroof1r.g products. crackirg s:cl;rred Ko.iev~r, ci;rinq
1 :

cces r.ot adhere ;$ell to laberatcry tesx

particles, and the s o : l

Prewerting

126.
r e . :his

he

ocject-ve

of

prewettlr,q 1s

tc

allow

ceslccazed swelling

soils tc reach equilibriurc c r i s r The mcst techcique commonly

tc glacen,en~ of the rsadway or strlicswelling b ; l

.

applied rrerh3ci for accelerating The +estlc?.s

is ponding. 2 9 ' 1 3 8

cr rcw lcng the

mater,ial s h c l d be ponded and zo what depLk the moistzre should penetrate tc be effective are still unk-own.

2
was on US

One of the earliest, xore notable highway ponding projects

Hwy 81 north of Waco, Texas, over Wilscn clay loam which is . -,. -:i develcpeC from the Taylor ~n 1948, two areas were ponded; one site had 4-in.-dim holes drilled to a depch of 8 f : cn 5-ft centers; az the second size, 4 - i n . - d i m holes were drilled tc a depth cf 7.5 ft oc 6-ft centers. The holes were backfilled with sand or gravel tc mini-

rr,ize sloughing cf the walls and filled with. wazer daily fcr Most of the water entered the .;?per

months.

3.5 ft of soil, and the quan~ity

added was so m a l l conzared to the volume of soil being wetted thaz some parts 3f the soil were still below the shrinkage level 2 monzhs after r11lir.g of the hcles begas. were ponded
- ,

TO expedite

the swellicg process, In the

two areas

fcr approximazely 3 nor.ths. However, to

40 cays prior to ponding,

there was no evidence of surface heave resul~ing frcm the daily filling of the holes with water. rose 1 in.
kales were

after 3 days of po-ding the surface accelerate water movement from the

Several excerimects tried.

In one experiment, pressures of 25-90 psi were applied Two comparison experirental sections, one with b i n . -

in sealed hales.

d i m holes 8 ft deep on

5-ft

centers and one without any holes, were b o ~ h concluded that the holes %ere of little The ap-

ponded.
parenz

All these experiments

v z l ~ e in wetting the soil and that ponding was nore effeczive. reason for this ccnclusion was

thaz the blocky-structured nat.;ral 5ence it was recormended

clay afforded easy penetration

cf the water.

that ponding Be completed prior to any grading which may alter ;he natural fissures.
. q n -LC.

In 1958 a section of 1-35 r.orth of Waco, again crossing the

Results of

lower member 3f the Taylor marl, was ponded for 22-41 days.

the project showed that the water did not penetrate more than ~ a r d during a pcnding period of 24 days. days of po?ding, creased. Nevertheless after

ft down-

several

the moisture conzents at : h e

20-ft depth level in-

Results of this ponding show that after 7 yr cf service, only

2 of the 15 ponded sections have becore ro.;gh, while several unponded

sections in the same area have heaved and been overlaid or replaced. 15*

McDowell 152 feels

chat p c n d ; : g

: i

a p p : c x : : a z e l y

3:

3ij.s is reco~xendec. : o crovide a fizz

After ponding, lime s t a b i l i z a ~ i ~ c m y se req.:ire'd w o r k ~ n g platforr, and tke uncerlyirg

130.

t3 decrease 124 subgrace.

.

evaccratlxi

a7.9 dry xeacih.er crack1r.g of

Pending of fourdatlrs repor:eG

grades have been

fcr building sizes an9 highway sub. 1 2 5 ,:_+, 168 cy !:cDowell, , , O ~ L a7.d Szeicbsrp,
12

7 ' Blight, 169 Oawsor,, 17' 6-d Haynes. 1

McDowell 1 2 5 , 1 5 2 zhe iou?dazicn

the tio exiaplec ~:teJ by fcr

I,
- a

soils 5,:ere ponded

. cays, followes

by lixe stabiliza-ticn tc p r m l d e a wcrking piazform 2nd decrease a?y dry weather

cracking

acd

evapcra:lsL.
,,+,h,

170 success was rep~rted cy Da~5son

for a b:llalng on
expansive

Fes,lzs lndLced

here successf-1. e fc;r,dat:cr zrenches

clay.

After

4 r o n z n s c f p o n d ~ n g ,penetraNexb7erzheless,

tion cf wzter lnto the sell was fcur.a to be very l1xzec. the subseqcent heave cf
131.

the str;ct,re Masor.171 repsrt

crcved to be less the that sc-

serve- for s i x l a r strdctures 1r. the are-. Baynes and a prewetti~g :eckxiq,:e
1.

which

6-lr. .-wlde, 3-fz-aeep trenches cr, a

10- b y 30-ft grid w e r e fllled t o a

a SUrT
--L

depth of 1 f-, wl-,h lime an5 cackfillen wlth g r a v ~ l . Water w : t h

f a c t a n t Kyro EO was placed ir, che zrer.ches fcr abcuz 1 173r.tl-,.

tkis

~ i m e the soil had

reached the reqxired prewezzed

noisture contecz cor-

respcnding t c t h e fully swelled cond:t:cn wlth co subseq~enz heave prnble~s.

2 n d the f l o o r slab w a s p l a c e d

132. Texas,
: 1

P o n d ~ n g cf a 2 7 - f t - d e e p the Taylor

. c ~ t on . , S Ewy 90 wesz of Sac Ar,zcn:c,

for~at-on was iccmplishea In 1970,168,172 Ar. area

from 3 ft up the backslcpe acrDss zhe maii-, larjes, zedian, azc sk3,ilders w a s ponded for
3 ft &e

45 days.

It

was obser.,ied that little uazer

reactec below

to the lack cf a fissured slrstern in the cia;., arc! the sc:rze

cf swelling was prinarlly in : h e

:Fper
, .

4
xis

fz.

Ir, e : o

cf the ponds a ic tLe s-rfaze Tk:s, and

surfacxznt was usea, buz ?.a percecz:Dle depth that elevations the
cr

d:fferer,ce ckserved.

mcisture

reaainqs

clus zhe fact to izs

surfaczant-water The

ccmbinacicr were

.*.as tox:c

to gc~lzfish, lead a f ~ e r cralnaqe

dlscontlnuance. the molscure.

areas

1:re-stablllzea

t3 kcld

AC thls z m e , a r o a d c o n d ~ t l o nsurvey o f t n e ponded a n d

a d j a c e n t a r e a s o f US Hwy 99 i s i n c o n c l u s i v e a s t o t h e effectivenesss of the pondirg. less

. - *

However, maintenance The

it

appears t h a t

t h e ponded

s e c t i o n s have

re-

quired
,

work. State Highway cn was Departmect State corducted ex-

< <

Mississippi acd fill The

cerirnental Yazoc clay.

c,;t

ponding entire

sectior section

Highway

475 o v e r l y i n g
ft deep
(labora-

:53-:65

underc.;t

3 ft below f i n i s h e d
2C

subgrade e l e v a t i o n ,

a g r i d of

6-in .-diarr

sand dr2ir.s

t o r y t e s t s showed s w e l i i n g constructe3, section cenz ve-z azd the

t ? 20

f t c o u l d b e a n t i c i p a t e d ) on

5-ft c e n t e r s
the

s e c ~ i o l ponded zo grade'and the

for

140

days.

After

Crair.age

was brought The

;Ipper

6 i n . s z a b i l i z e d with 7 perfrom dltch to d;tch at tc Fredeterination various

lime. future

llme

stabilizazion Mcistcre proved of tc the

extended coctent be

desiccaticn. the secticn

C e ~ t h s under c l ~ d e d that ponding was in

inconclusive; fill swell

however, was

it

was

cox-

the perceabilicy not the effective cut area. in

rerolned

clay

so low Po?.d:ng

that was all

redlscing zhe 3owever, ar, the

potential. data

effective

performance asphaltic corrpaEioc Apparently, an

inSicate section,

that have

experixental req.;ired perienced consisting tior. r,o

s e c t i o r . ~ , including rraintenance, while

mexbrane coctrol tk

s e c t i c r , ~ have mcist,:re for

ex-

considezakle of an

distcrtion.

barrier conscruc-

a s ~ h a l z ~embrane i s

effective

method

,i n

this xaterial. by chemical ad~ixtures has been used to as a method for

altering

Stabilization

134,
the clay

Chemical structure

stabilization

or

clay-water clays.

comhinatior,

prex~ezt c r
of

rrinimize cr adCihas

swelling tives been

L

of

expansive Ceen tried.

Literally by

hunCreas lime,

chenicals ash, a-d

have

Cexenzation

lime-fly

ceme:t

,103
l

used. Ion exchange ( a d d l t ~ o n o f divalent a n d t r i v a l e n t s a l t s ) , c a f i x a t i o n i n expanding l a t t i c e c l a y s ( w ~ t h p c t a ~ s i u r ~ ) C , eactivation sulfates (with calcixm chloricie), waterprocfing (silicones, acid), aspk.alts), a?.d al-

of

cementazion zeration wetting ir

(silicates, permeability kave all

carbonates, and been clays.

lignins;

phosphcric

wetting

prcperties or due ncne

(surface red.;ce

active the

Egents, expansive eccncmfor

agents) of

attexpted However,

use& t o to of

prcperties

swelling and

rixing these

problem, are

i c s , effectiveness,

practicabilizy,

recormended

Fcel..re

, I.

P .

ty
:

r,nenti::
:

. % : r a t e sw?:. .r, i : r l ex-

:?P

r
7

ien..~cl, P I X , TCTI;R?F r i a - : T;? L. , . I - : : - v "

clay n l n e r a :

Chemicals: Hydrcxices Ct.i3ridez P!,aiphcric a c i d Carb3na:es SLfate;

.

In,: A 2 3 ; n g :

d~h'r.:~s

::ii;ccnates Ari.t.alts +u~ternzry

3nnor.i ;LT

chloride Proprietary: "Csmpctior, aids"

heduced ~ i s s t i c i t y in! r r u e 3 c ~ n p a c t l ? ! !<eJi:ej s w e l l '&?:ernroc: .ng F r e ~ e r v a :n t ~of ~ 3 : : str-ct J ~ D 1 : i c r ~ a s e os t r e n r t t . : , i c r e a s e d :'r decreased rermeraillty

large-scale routine treatment of swelling s o i l s . 173

Lime c o n t i n u e s t o

be t h e most w i d e l y used and most e f f e c t i v e a d d i t i v e f o r s t a b i l i z a t i o n o f e x p a n s i v e c l a y s . 167 y173 Table

7 , e x c e r p t e d from M i t c h e l l , 173 summarizes

t h e u s e o f v a r i o u s chemical a d d i t i v e s f o r c o n t r o l l i n g volume change. 135. The U n i v e r s i t y o f Wyoming e v a l u a t e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 7 d i f f e r -

e n t a d d i t i v e s f o r s t a b i l i z i n g an e x p a n s i v e c l a y on 1-80 west o f LaraE f f e c t i v e n e s s was e v a l u a t e d by volume e x p a n s i o n t e s t s u s i n g a C B R mold and s w e l l p r e s s u r e t e s t s u s i n g a 4 - i n . - d i m B r i e f l y , t h e f o l l o w i n g a d d i t i v e s were e v a l u a t e d : A l c o h o l s and formaldehyde. Isopropyl a l c o h o l caused t h e s o i l t o become f r i a b l e and reduced t h e s w e l l i n g a s much a s l i m e f o r a s h o r t p e r i o d o f t i m e . Negative r e s u l t s were o b t a i n e d w i t h a l i m e - i s o p r o p y l a l c o h o l s l u r r y i n an attempt t o migrate dissolved lime i n t o t h e clay. Ethyl a l c o h o l and formaldehyde a l s o reduced s w e l l i n g , b u t t h e t e s t s showed t h a t t h i s r e d u c t i o n was o n l y t e m p o r a r y . B D Quat 2 CoCo. T h i s a g e n t i s a q u a t e r n a r y ammonium c h l o r i d e and was added t o t h e s o i l i n an a t t e m p t t o form a w a t e r - r e p e l l e n t f i l m c o v e r i n g t h e c l a y . G e l a t i o n occ u r s when CoCo i s added t o w a t e r . A d d i t i o n o f concent r a t e d CoCo-water m i x t u r e t o t h e s o i l c a u s e d t h e s o i l t o become f r i a b l e . Reduction i n s w e l l compared f a v o r a b l y w i t h l i m e , b u t , a s w i t h l i m e , good mixing i s required. R e t e n . Reten 210 and Reten A-1 a r e s y n t h e t i c , waters o l u b i e p o l y m e r s ; t h e former i s c a t i o n i c w h i l e t h e l a t t e r i s a n i o n i c . They a r e u s e d a s f l o c c u l a n t s i n sewage t r e a t m e n t a n d , a s e x p e c t e d , when t h e y were added t o t h e s o i l , a spongy, f r i a b l e m i x t u r e was o b t a i n e d . However, when v e r y s l i g h t amounts were added t o w a t e r , unmanagea b l e g e l a t i o n o c c u r r e d , t h e r e b y p r e c l u d i n g any m i g r a t i o n and e a s e o f mixing. N a l c o l y t e . N a l c o l y t e 605 and 675 a r e a c a t i o n i c p o l y e l e c t r i c a l o r g a n i c c o a g u l a n t and a w a t e r - s o l u b l e polymer f l o c c u l a n t , r e s p e c t i v e l y . N a l c o l y t e 605 c a u s e d t h e s o i l t o become f r i a b l e , b u t f a i l e d t o r e d u c e s w e l l . N a l c o l y t e 675 behaved s i m i l a r t o Reten w i t h a c o n s i d e r a b l e l o s s i n d e n s i t y observed. S i l i c o n e . S i l i c o n e 770 and 772 a r e s i l i c o n e r e s i n conc e n t r a t e s used f o r w a t e r p r o o f i n g masonry, and a w a t e r s o l u b l e sodium methyl s i l i c o n a t e u s e d a s a d i s p e r s i n g a g e n t i n c l a y s and c e r a m i c s , r e s p e c t i v e l y . For t h e p e r c e n t a g e s t e s t e d , s i l i c o n e 770 f a i l e d t o p r o v i d e any a p p r e c i a b l e s w e l l r e d u c t i o n s . S i l i c o n e 772 a t 3 percent P r o c t o r mold.

produced r e s u l t s n e a r l y comparable t o l i m e , b u t a t 0.5 p e r c e n t l i t t l e s w e l l r e d u c t i o n was o b t a i n e d . f. Sodium and magnesium c h l o r i d e s . A t a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e s of 0 . 5 - 2 p e r c e n t by d r y w e i g h t , o n l y s l i g h t improvements were observed. Phosphoric a c i d . Phosphoric a c i d i n amounts and 3 p e r c e n t by dry weight was added t o t h e t h e a c i d was added t o t h e moist s o i l i n s t e a d added d i r e c t l y t o t h e mixing w a t e r , t h e s o i l f r i a b l e . However, no r e d u c t i o n i n s w e l l was of 1, 2 , s o i l . When of b e i n g became obtained.

h. -

"N" sodium s i l i c a t e . This agent i s a c o n c e n t r a t e d s i l i c a t e s o l u t i o n which would h o p e f u l l y cause i o n s u b s t i t u t i o n and t h e r e b y e l i m i n a t e s w e l l i n g . S e v e r a l mixing p o s s i b i l i t i e s were a t t e m p t e d , b u t because of t h e many v a r i a b l e s i n v o l v e d , i . e . , polymer s i z e and c o n c e n t r a t i o n , p H of w a t e r , t e m p e r a t u r e , calcium o r aluminum i o n s added, and t h e amount of water used i n mixing, the mixing combin a t i o n s a r e innumerable. Only s l i g h t r e d u c t i o n s i n s w e l l were o b t a i n e d f o r t h e mixing combinations t r i e d . E m u l s i f i e d a s p h a l t SS-K. Asphalt mixed with t h e mixing water i n amounts of 1, 2 , 3 , and 5 p e r c e n t by dry weight i n c r e a s e d f r i a b i l i t y , b u t d i d not s i g n i f i c a n t l y d e c r e a s e . t h e swell. Kerosene. Kerosene, when p l a c e d on t h e s u r f a c e of comp a c t e d specimens, was observed t o p e n e t r a t e t h e s o i l q u i c k l y . However, a f t e r t h e kerosene had completely p e n e t r a t e d t h e sample, r a p i d volume i n c r e a s e s approaching 1 0 p e r c e n t were observed when water was p l a c e d on t h e surface.

i. -

R e s u l t s of t h i s program showed t h a t none of t h e s e a g e n t s reduced t h e s w e l l a s e f f e c t i v e l y a s l i m e . 167 136. The South Dakota Department of T r a n s p o r t a t i o n c o n s t r u c t e d an

experimental road s e c t i o n t o e v a l u a t e t h e f i e l d performance of v a r i o u s s t a b i l i z i n g a g e n t s . 196

A t e s t road composed of a 2-in.

C l a s s F mat and

a 5-in. base c o u r s e , w i t h 3-6 i n . of s t a n d a r d subbase and s e l e c t s o i l v a r y i n g i n t h i c k n e s s from 6-18 i n . , was p l a c e d over s t a b i l i z e d s e c t i o n s of P i e r r e s h a l e . subgrade were: a. b. c. Lime, 6 p e r c e n t . Lime-asphalt, percent. The s t a b i l i z i n g a g e n t s and p e r c e n t a g e s added t o t h e

6 p e r c e n t p l u s 4 p e r c e n t RC-1. Phosphoric a c i d p l u s f e r r i c s u l f a t e , 5 p e r c e n t p l u s 2

d. -

PDC Formula ( 4 : 2 : 1 ; 1 i m e : P o r t l a n d cement:soy f l o u r ) , 5 percent.

R e s u l t s o f t h i s e x p e r i m e n t a l p r o j e c t show t h a t a l l o f t h e s t a b i l i z i n g a g e n t s a l t e r e d t h e p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t o some d e g r e e , w i t h l i m e h a v i n g a more permanent e f f e c t i n l o w e r i n g t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . r a t i n g s showed t h a t a f t e r

CBR

4 yr

t h e p h o s p h o r i c a c i d s e c t i o n had a v a l u e Conversely, l i m e , lime p l u s

only s l i g h t l y higher than untreated s o i l .

RC-1,

and t h e PDC f o r m u l a , i n t h a t o r d e r , c a u s e d s i g n i f i c a n t CBR i n S e r v i c e a b i l i t y r a t i n g s of t h e s t a b i l i z e d s e c t i o n s except f o r

creases.

t h e p h o s p h o r i c a c i d were b e t t e r t h a n t h o s e o f t h e s t a n d a r d d e s i g n s e e tion. L i m e - t r e a t e d s e c t i o n s had t h e b e s t r a t i n g s , w h i l e PDC and l i m e The u s e o f s t a b i l i z i n g a g e n t s i n 1964

p l u s RC-1 followed very c l o s e l y .

changed t h e a v e r a g e i n i t i a l c o s t p e r m i l e from $67,500 f o r u n t r e a t e d s o i l t o $85,200 p e r m i l e f o r l i m e , $93,300 p e r m i l e f o r l i m e p l u s R C - 1 , $95,700 f o r PDC f o r m u l a , and $120,600 p e r m i l e f o r p h o s p h o r i c a c i d p l u s ferric sulfate.
I t w a s c o n c l u d e d from t h e s t u d y t h a t p h o s p h o r i c a c i d

w a s n o t e f f e c t i v e a s a s t a b i l i z i n g a g e n t of t h e P i e r r e s h a l e , and t h a t

t h e e f f e c t o f t h e PDC f o r m u l a was due t o t h e lime-cement combination o f t h e formula r a t h e r t h a n t h e soy f l o u r a a d i t i v e . Methods o f l i m e t r e a t m e n t 137. Lime c o n t i n u e s t o be t h e most e f f e c t i v e and most w i d e l y I n i t i a l l y , lime treatment

used a d d i t i v e f o r t r e a t i n g e x p a n s i v e s o i l s .

was c o n f i n e d t o t h e upper few i n c h e s o f s u b g r a d e , p e r h a p s p r i m a r i l y t o a c h i e v e s t r e n g t h b e n e f i t s and n o t s o much t o t r e a t t h e e x p a n s i v e problem. R e c e n t l y , e f f o r t s have been d i r e c t e d toward s t a b i l i z i n g o r modiI n a d d i t i o n t o c o n v e n t i o n a l mix i n - p l a c e o r b a t c h
\

fying deeper l a y e r s .

mixing, o t h e r methods f o r i n c o r p o r a t i n g l i m e i n c l u d e e l e c t r i c a l , d r i l l h o l e , p r e s s u r e , and deep-plow. 138. Electrical. The u s e of an e l e c t r i c a l p o t e n t i a l t o i n c r e a s e

t h e r a t e o f l i m e m i g r a t i o n was e v a l u a t e d i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y by t h e Univ e r s i t y o f Wyoming. 19' Lime s l u r r y ( 7 p a r t s w a t e r : l p a r t l i m e ) was p l a c e d The r e s u l t s showed on t o p o f a compacted specimen and an e l e c t r i c a l c u r r e n t o f 1-4 amps p l a c e d a c r o s s t h e s l u r r y and sample f o r 1 5 min.

t h a t l i t t l e l i m e o r few c a l c i u m i o n s m i g r a t e d i n t o t h e s o i l , and t h i s

method was abandoned.

E l e c t r o o s m o t i c methods were r e p o r t e d by t h e

L o u i s i a n a Department o f ~ i g h w a y s l w~ i t~ h similar results

Lime s l u r r y

( 1 0 p e r c e n t by volume) was p l a c e d i n a t r e n c h between s t e e l e l e c t r o d e s , and an e l e c t r i c a l g r a d i e n t r a n g i n g from 0.75 t o 2 . 0 v o l t s / c m was a p p l i e d f o r d u r a t i o n s r a n g i n g from 75 t o 1584 k r . Water movement was s a t i s -

f a c t o r y , b u t no a p p r e c i a b l e amount o f l i m e m i g r a t e d and t h e method was abandoned. 1 9 9 139. Drill-hole. This technique c o n s i s t s b a s i c a l l y of d r i l l i n g

holes i n t o t h e , s u b g r a d e m d . b a c k f i l l i n g with a lime s l u r r y o r lime slurry-sand mixture. Once p l a c e d i n t h e h o l e s , t h e l i m e m i g r a t e s o r How-

d i f f u s e s i n t o t h e s o i l system, i n i t i a t i n g t h e s o i l - l i m e r e a c t i o n s .

e v e r , t h i s d i f f u s i o n p r o c e s s can be q u i t e s l o w , ' a n d t i m e may be r e q u i r e d b e f o r e a s u b s t a n t i a l q u a n t i t y o f t h e s o i l i s a f f e c t e d 2 0 0 u n l e s s a system o f c r a c k s and f i s s u r e s e x t e n d s t o t h e d e p t h of t h e h o l e . The d r i l l - h o l e

t e c h n i q u e h a s been u s e d f o r r e m e d i a l measures and new c o n s t r u c t i o n by a number o f highway a g e n c i e s . 140. The Oklahoma Department o f ~ i ~ h w a y s ' ~ h'a s r e p o r t e d numerous Typically,

successful i n s t a n c e s of d r i l l e d - h o l e lime a p p l i c a t i o n s . 9-in.-dim, lime s l u r r y . 30-in.-deep h o l e s on 5 - f t

c e n t e r s have been b a c k f i l l e d w i t h

141.
12-in.-diam

E x p e r i e n c e s o f t h e Colorado Department o f Highways u s i n g Generally,

d r i l l e d - h o l e l i m e t e c h n i q u e s have ( p r o v e n q u i t e s u c c e s s f u l . '02

h o l e s w i t h d e p t h s r a n g i n g from 6-20 f t , depending upon t h e

e x t e n t o f t r e a t m e n t d e s i r e d , on a 5 - by 6 - f t g r i d o r 5 - f t c e n t e r s , a r e used. E x p e r i e n c e showed t h a t s l u r r i e s o f more t h a n ' 1 l b o f l i m e p e r Holes a t l e a s t

g a l l o n o f w a t e r r e s u l t i n l e s s l i m e and w a t e r m i g r a t i o n .

1 2 i n . i n d i a m e t e r a r e recommended a s s m a l l e r h o l e s do n o t p r o v i d e s u f f i c i e n t w a t e r and s o a k i n g a r e a s and a r e more c o s t l y . The mechanism o f

s t a b i l i z a t i o n o b s e r v e d shows t h a t l i m e does n o t m i g r a t e o v e r 2-3 i n . from t h e p e r i p h e r y o f t h e h o l e and m o s t l y a t t h e bottom o f t h e s h a f t ( l i m e i s s l i g h t l y s o l u b l e i n w a t e r and r a p i d l y s e t t l e s o u t o f t h e s l u r r y ) . The

s w e l l i n g p o t e n t i a l i s r e d u c e d due t o t h e m o i s t u r e i n c r e a s e s i n t h e s o i l ( s i m i l a r t o ponding a c t i o n ) a n d s t r e s s r e l i e f . S t r e s s r e l i e f allows dry

m a t e r i a l away from t h e h o l e t o expand l a t e r a l l y i n t o t h e h o l e , t h e r e b y

r e d u c i n g t h e v e r t i c a l s w e l l component.

From t h e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , i t
;'

would a p p e a r t h a t l i m e i s of l i t t l e b e n e f i t t o t h e t e c h n i q u e

however,

e x p e r i m e n t s s u g g e s t t h a t w a t e r m i g r a t i o n i s more e f f e c t i v e when w a t e r i s added a s a l i m e s l u r r y t h a n a s w a t e r a l o n e . Bhckfilling t h e holes with

s a n d o r g r a v e l p e r m i t s e x c e s s m o i s t u r e accumulated i n t h e b a s e and subb a s e c o u r s e s by h y d r o g e n e s i s t o be d r a i n e d e v e n l y i n t o t h e subgrade i n s t e a d o f c o l l e c t i n g unevenly and c a u s i n g uneven h e a v i n g .

>42. E f f o r t s by t h e L o u i s i a n a Department o f Highways t o u s e

d r i l l - h o l e l i m e s t a b i l i z a t i o n t o improve t h e s t r e n g t h and s t a b i l i t y o f a f i l l were u n s u c c e s s f u l . 203 placed i n 9-in.-dim
I n t h i s c a s e , a h a l f bag o f l i m e ( 2 5 ib) w a s

h o l e s , 18 o r 24 i n . deep on ,3-ft c e n t e r s , w h i l e one h o l e s on 5 - f t

bag o f l i m e ( 5 0 l b ) w a s p l a c e d i n 36- o r 48-in.-deep centers.

R e s u l t s o b t a i n e d by t e s t p i t s showed l i t t l e o r no l i m e migra-

t i o n from t h e h o l e p e r i p h e r y a f t e r 1 y r . 143. I n a r e m e d i a l measure, t h e South Dakota Department o f Transh o l e s p l a c e d on 5 - f t c e n t e r s ( n o h o l e s i z e R e s u l t s showed With t i m e a

p o r t a t i o n 1 5 7 p l a c e d a l i m e s l u r r y composed of 1 bart l i m e , 1 p a r t w a t e r , and 1 p a r t s a n d i n t o 4-ft-deep g i v e n ) i n t o an e x p a n s i v e subgrade of P i e r r e s h a l e c l a y .

some r e d u c t i o n i n t h e f r e q u e n c y and s h a r p n e s s o f t h e bumps.

d e f i n i t e improvement i n s e r v i c e a b i l i t y i n d e x w a s n o t e d f o r t h e s e s e c t i o n s o v e r companion u n t r e a t e d a r e a s . These s t u d i e s - a n d f i e l d s e c t i o n s show

t h a t l i m e m i g r a t i o n from t h e d r i l l h o l e was q u i t e l i m i t e d and r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e p e r i p h e r y of t h e h o l e . S u c c e s s u s i n g t h i s t e c h n i q u e a r i s e s from

( a ) an i n c r e a s e i n m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t o f t h e s u r r o u n d i n g subgrade due t o m i g r a t i o n o f t h e w a t e r ( a i d e d by l i m e ) from t h e h o l e and ( b ) s t r e s s r e l i e f o f l a t e r a l e x p a n s i v e p p e s s u r e , t h e r e b y r e d u c i n g upward s w e l l pressures.

144.

Lime s l u r r y p r e s s u r e i n j e c t i o n .

I n an a t t e m p t t o o b t a i n

g r e a t e r d i s t r i b u t i o n o f lime i n swelling subgrades, t h e technique of l i m e s l u r r y p r e s s u r e i n j e c t i o n ( L S P I ) was developed. The t e c h n i q u e

c o n s i s t s o f pumping l i m e s l u r r y under p r e s s u r e s o f up t o 200 p s i , dep e n d i n g upon s o i l c o n d i t i o n s , t h r o u g h hollow i n j e c t i o n r o d s i n t o t h e subgrade. The i n j e c t i o n r o d s p e n e t r a t e t h e s o i l i n a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 2 - i n . l b of l i m e p e r g a l l o n of w a t e r , i s

i n t e r v a l s , a n d t h e s l u r r y , 2.5-3.0

injected into refusal.

R e f u s a l i s d e f i n e d a s (1) s o i l w i l l n o t t a k e

a d d i t i o n a l s l u r r y , ( 2 ) s l u r r y i s r u n n i n g f r e e l y e i t h e r around t h e p i p e o r o u t o f p r e v i o u s i n j e c t i o n h o l e s , o r ( 3 ) t h e s l u r r y has f r a c t u r e d t h e

A w e t t i n g a g e n t i s o f t e n added t o t h e s l u r r y t o a s s i s t i n m i g r a t i o n , a n d s p x i n g s o f 3-5 f t on c e n t e r s i s
c omrnon 204-206

s u r f a c e and i s f l o w i n g .

The l i n e s l i l r r y l e f t on t h e s u r f a c e i m m e d i a t e l y f o l l o w -

i n g i n j e c t i o n i s mixed i n t o t h e t o p 4-6 i n . o f s o i l a c d recompacted. 145. The L o u i s i a n a Department o f Highways h a s r e p o r t e d r e s u l t s 199'203 o f a LSPI e x p e r i m e n t used on a h y d r a u l i c f i l l on 1-55. Lime s l u r r y , e i t h e r 0 . 5 p e r c e n t l i m e by w e i g h t o r 1 . 5 p e r c e n t l i m e by w e i g h t , was i n j e c t e d on 5 - f t c e n t e r s t o d e p t h s o f e i t h e r 5 , 1 0 , o r 20 ft. I n j e c t i o n was made e v e r y 8 4 2 I n . o f d e p t h . During t h e p r o c e s s ,

v a r i o u s q u a n t i t i e s o f l i m e s l u r r y wouid b r e a k o u t o f t h e s o i l a t d i s t a n c e s r a n g i n g from 1-5 f t from t h e i n j e c t i o n p o i n t , and a n e s t i m a t e d 2-30 p e r c e n t o f t h e l i m e s l u r r y was l o s t a t t h e s e " b r e a k o u t " p o i n t s . D i s t u r b e d a n d u n d i s t u r b e d samples and t e s t p i t o b s e r v a t i o n s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 and 4 y r a f t e r i n j e c t i o n r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e l i m e d i s t r i b u t i o n

was s t r a t i f i e d i n n a t u r e .

The l i m e s l u r r y flowed t h r o u g h f i s s u r e s

c a u s e d by t h e p r e s s J r e , f r a c t u r i n g t h e s i l t y s o i l s o r p r e e x i s t i n g v o i d s . L i t t l e p e n e t r a t i o n i n t o t h e h e a v i e r c l a y s o c c u r r e d , and b u l g i n g o f t h e h i g h l y p l a s t i c m a t e r i a l a l l o w e d t h e s l u r r y t o go a r o u n d t h e i n j e c tor. The a r e a o f t r e a t m e n t , a f t e r

y r , e x t e n d e d 112-1-1/2

i n . above

and below t h e s l u r r y seam, and no a c t i v e l i m e was a v a i l a b l e f o r f u r t h e r reactions with t h e surrounding s o i l . T h e r e was l i t t l e i n c r e a s e i n t h e

u n c o n f i n e d c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e n g t h o f s a m p l e s , and no l e s s e n i n g o f subs i d e n c e due t o LSPI was o b s e r v e d .

146.

Wright 2 0 4 9 2 0 5 a l s o o b s e r v e d t h a t when l i m e s l u r r y i s i n -

j e c t e d i n t o heavy c l a y s , t h e s l u r r y m i g r a t e s t h r o u g h a v a i l a b l e f r a c t u r e s and f i s s u r e s i n t h e s o i l , c r e a t i n g a network o f l i m e seams.

The

added m o i s t u r e may c a u s e a n o t i c e a b l e s w e l l o f 2-8 i n . a t t h e t i m e o f i n j e c t i o n , d e p e n d i n g upon t h e o r i g i n a l m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t o f t h e s o i l . T h i s p r e s w e l l i s b e n e f i c i a l a s t h e l i m e seams and upper 4- t o 6 - i n . s t a b i l i z e d l a y e r c r e a t e m o i s t u r e b a r r i e r s which a s s i s t I n m a i n t a i n i n g a

c o n s t a n t moisture c o n t e n t , and t h u s e l i m i n a t e s u b s e q u e n t c r a c k i n g and

swelling.

Because o f t h e l i m e seam e f f e c t , t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e LSPI can-

n o t b e e v a l u a t e d by c o n v e n t i o n a l t e s t s , i . e . , A t t e r b e r g l i m i t s , pH, s w e l l , o r s t r e n g t h t e s t s , on r e c o v e r e d samples. 147. I n g l e s and l ? e i l l H O e v a l u a t e d l i m e and cement g r o u t i n g a t Two lime-water g r o u t s , 1 : l and 1 : 2 by w e i g h t , a u g e r h o l e s r a n g i n g from 3 t o 8 f t d e e p .

seven s i t e s i n A u s t r a l i a .

and a comparison cement g r o u t , 1:1, were i n j e c t e d under p r e s s u r e i n t o t h e s o i l v i a s e a l e d 4-in.

V i s u a l i n s p e c t i o n o f r e c o v e r e d c o r e s showed t h a t t h e g r o u t p e n e t r a t e d f i s s u r e s and n o t p o r e s . I n t h i s c o n t e x t , dry-season g r o u t i n g , when desPost-

i c c a t i o n c r a c k s a r e most p r e v a l e n t , enhances g r o u t p e n e t r a t i o n .

g r o u t i n g r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t s u r f a c e movements o c c u r r e d s h o r t l y a f t e r g r o u t i n g due t o t h e m o i s t u r e b e i n g added, b u t t h a t s u r f a c e l e v e l f l u c t u a t i o n s i n m o n t m o r i l l o n i t i c s o i l s and t o t a l s w e l l were r e d u c e d by 50 percent over untreated areas.

By c o m p a r i s o n , cement g r o u t i n g was l e s s

s a t i s f a c t o r y w i t h s u r f a c e movements i n t h e m o n t m o r i l l o n i t i c s o i l b e i n g reduced by 1 0 p e r c e n t .

148.

I n a r e c e n t p u b l i c a t i o n ( 1 9 7 5 ) , Thompson and Robnett

206

summarized t h a t a l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e c o n f l i c t i n g r e p o r t s c o n c e r n i n g t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f L S P I , it seems l o g i c a l t o c o n c l u d e t h a t LSPI may b e a n e f f e c t i v e s w e l l c o n t r o l p r o c e d u r e under c e r t a i n c i r c u m s t a n c e s . The

c o n d i t i o n most f a v o r a b l e t o t h e achievement o f s u c c e s s f u l LSPI t r e a t m e n t o f e x p a n s i v e s o i l s i s t h e p r e s e n c e of an e x t e n s i v e f i s s u r e and c r a c k network i n t o which t h e l i m e s l u r r y can b e s u c c e s s f u l l y i n j e c t e d . The

t r e a t m e n t mechanisms e x p l a i n i n g LSPI e f f e c t i v e n e s s , i . e . , p r e w e t t i n g , development o f s o i l - l i m e m o i s t u r e b a r r i e r s , e f f e c t i v e s w e l l r e s t r a i n t with t h e formation of l i m i t e d q u a n t i t i e s of soil-lime r e a c t i o n products, a l l have v a l i d i t y 149.

.
Conventional soil-lime

Deep-plow l i m e s t a b i l i z a t i o n .

c o n s t r u c t i o n t e c h n i q u e s a r e n o r m a l l y l i m i t e d t o maximum d e p t h s o f 8-12 in. With t h e s e l i f t t h i c k n e s s e s , t y p i c a l s o i l s t a b i l i z a t i o n equipment

i s c a p a b l e o f p u l v e r i z a t i o n , b l e n d i n g , and mixing r e q u i r e d f o r h i g h quality soil-lime mixtures. However, i f g r e a t e r d e p t h s o f s t a b i l i z a t i o n

a r e r e q u i r e d i n one l i f t , t h e s e c o n v e n t i o n a l t e c h n i q u e s a r e i n a d e q u a t e .

describes ~hampsonl ~~

successful use of deep-plow lime stabilization t o

s t a b i l i z e l i f t s 24 i n . t h i c k and s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e t e c h n i q u e may poss i b l y be e x t e n d e d t o 36-in. 150. lifts.

The t e c h n i q u e p i o n e e r e d by t h e Oklahoma Department of High-

ways207 i n 1966 c o n s i s t s o f ( a ) plowing t h e roadway t o a d e p t h of 1 f t p r i o r t o s p r e a d i n g t h e l i m e , (b) s p r e a d i n g t h e l i m e r e q u i r e d f o r s t a b i l i z a t i o n o f t h e l a y e r , ( c ) mixing t h e l i m e and s o i l w i t h t h r e e p a s s e s o f t h e plow t o a d e p t h o f 2 f t , ( d ) s p r a y i n g w a t e r o v e r t h e roadbed a f t e r i n i t i a l d r y m i x i n g , ( e ) f i n a l mixing u s i n g a deep r i p p e r , ( f ) compacting t h e 2 - f t d e p t h o f s t a b i l i z e d m a c e r i a l i n one l i f t u s i n g e i t h e r s h e e p s f o o t o r v i b r a t o r y s h e e p s f o o t r o l l e r s , and ( g ) a f i n a l compaction and t e s t r o l l i n g u s i n g a 50-ton r o l l e r makicg s i x p a s s e s .
A special three-toothed

r i p p e r a t t a c h m e n t w i t h a t r a p e z o i d a l shaped shoe-plow b o l t e d t o t h e t e e t h was u s e d f o r r i p p i n g o p e r a t i o n s . Densities taken at various d e p t h s , 0-8 i n . , 8-16 i n . , and 16-24 i n . , r e v e a l e d t h a t a d e q u a t e d e n s i ties,

>95

p e r c e n t AASHTO T-99, were o b t a i n e d a t a l l d e p t h s .

Examina-

t i o n of t h e p r o f i l e during density investigations revealed t h a t a f a i r l y e q u a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f l i m e was c b t a i n e d i n t h e upper 1 6 i n . w i t h a l e s s e r amount b e i n g o b s e r v e d i n t h e lower 8 i n . 151. ~ h o m ~ s o c in t e~ s ~ examples ~ o f deep-plowing o p e r a t i o n s a t t h e I n I l l i n o i s , t h e l i m e was

F o r t Worth R e g i o n a l A i r p o r t and i n I l l i n o i s .

d i s k e d i n t o t h e upper l a y e r and " t u r n e d o v e r " u s i n g a moldboard plow. He emphasizes t h a t q u a l i t y r e q u i r e m e n t s , i . e . , l i m e c o n t e n t , p u l v e r i z a t i o n , m i x i n g , and compaction, s h o u l d be c a r e f u l l y c o o r d i n a t e d f o r successful results. Mechanical s t a b i l i z a t i o n (compaction c o c t r o l ) 152. Considerable experimental evidence e x i s t s 51,95,;42,208-210

t h a t t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f compaction have a c o n s i d e r a b l e e f f e c t on t h e s w e l l i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f compacted e x p a n s i v e s o i l s . F i g u r e s 1 4 and These r e -

1 5 from H o l t z and Gibbs i l l u s t r a t e some o f t h e i n f l u e n c e s .

s u l t s show t h a t a n i n c r e a s e i n molding w a t e r c o n t e n t f o r a g i v e n dens i t y d e c r e a s e d t h e s w e l l and s w e l l p r e s s u r e . However, an i n c r e a s e

i n d e n s i t y a t any g i v e n w a t e r c o n t e n t may i n c r e a s e o r d e c r e a s e t h e s w e l l , d e p e n d i n g on t h e range of

densities involved ( g e n e r a l l y , an

O d u
k k o a ,

LAkk

i n c r e a s e i n d e n s i t y c a u s e s an i n c r e a s e i n s w e l l ) .

Hence low d e n s i t i e s Seed and

and h i g h w a t e r c o n t e n t s a r e conducive t o s m a l l e r e x p a n s i o n .

chan5'

o b s e r v e d t h a t s o i l s compacted d r y o f optimum e x h i b i t h i g h e r

s w e l l i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and s w e l l t o h i g h e r w a t e r c o n t e n t s t h a n do samples a t t h e same d e n s i t y compacted wet o f optimum. 153. The method o f compaction a l s o i n f l u e n c e s s w e l l i n g c h a r a c An e x p a n s i v e s o i l w i t h a d i s -

t e r i s t i c s o f compacted s w e l l i n g s o i l s .

p e r s e d , ( d e f l o c c u l a t e d ) s t r u c t u r e s w e l l s l e s s t h a n one w i t h a f l o c c u l a t e d s t r u c t u r e f o r t h e same w a t e r c o n t e n t a c d d e n s i t y . Seed e t a l . 142 have

shown i n F i g u r e 1 6 t h a t kneading compaction l e a d s t o d i s p e r s e d s t r u c t u r e s and l e s s s w e l l t h a n s t a t i c compaction and f l o c c u l a t e d s t r u c t u r e .

154.

From t h e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , t h e s w e l l o r s w e l l p r e s s u r e can

be reduced by compacting t h e s o i l t o medium o r low d e n s i t i e s a t w a t e r c o n t e n t s above optimum. Compaction equipment p r o d u c i n g a kneading

a c t i o n and c o r r e s p o n d i n g d i s p e r s e d s t r u c t u r e , such a s a s h e e p s f o o t r o l l e r , would b e most a p p r o p r i a t e . O b v i o u s l y , i f h i g h s t r e n g t h s were

i m p o r t a n t , low d e n s i t i e s wet o f optimum a r e i m p r a c t i c a l a s t h i s c o n d i t i o n i s conducive t o low s t r e n g t h s and s u b s e q u e n t d e f o r m a t i o n s . 155. ~ o h n s o n *c~ i t e s examples by t h e 0maha211 and Kansas C i t y 212

D i s t r i c t s o f t h e U . S. Army Corps o f E n g i n e e r s u s i n g m o i s t u r e and d e n s i t y c o n t r o l methods f o r minimizing s o i l heave. w a t e r c o n t e n t s 2-5-1/2 In these Districts, p e r c e n t above optimum and compaction t o 88-93

p e r c e n t o f s t a n d a r d d e n s i t y were s u c c e s s f u l i n c o n t r o l l i n g heave. 156. ~ e ' e rd ~e s l c~ r i b e s North Dakota Highway Department e x p e r i e n c e s Prior

u s i n g compaction c o n t r o l t o minimize e x p a n s i v e s u b g r a d e problems.

t o 1967, s t a n d a r d compaction f o r e a r t h w o r k was t o compact t h e subgrade t o 90 p e r c e n t o f t h e AASHTO T-180 maximum d r y d e n s i t y and u s e a minimum w a t e r c o n t e n t o f 75 p e r c e n t o f optimum. swell. These c r i t e r i a r e s u l t e d i n com-

p a c t i n g t h e s o i l t o f a i r l y low w a t e r c o n t e n t s , which was conducive t o S i n c e 1 9 6 7 , compaction s p e c i f i c a t i o n s have been changed t o 85

p e r c e n t of AASHTO T-180 maximum d r y d e ~ s i t yand a minimum w a t e r c o n t e n t of optimum. These new compaction s t a n d a r d s and t h e u s e o f c o n t i n u o u s l y

r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e pavements have v i r t u a l l y e l i m i n a t e d pavement roughness i n expansive s o i l a r e a s .

DRY DENSITY, P C F

a.

PITTSBURGSANDY C L A Y

DRY D E N S I T Y , P C F

b. VICKSBURG S I L T Y C L A Y

Figure 16. Effects of method of compaction on swell pressure saturation (from Reference 142)

157.

The S o u t h Dakota Department of T r a n s p o r t a t i o n

1 56 used s p e c i The

f i c a t i o n s r e q u i r i n g t h a t t h e upper 3 f t o f t h e subgrade i n b o t h c u t s and f i l l s b e c o n s t r u c t e d of' weathered s o i l s e l e c t e d f o r t h a t p u r p o s e .

3- t o 6 - f t zone o f t h e e n t i r e subgrade i s t o be c o n s t r u c t e d o f normal

s o i l u s i n g h i g h e r w a t e r c o n t e n t s and lower d e n s i t y minimum r e q u i r e m e n t s t h a n t h e u n d e r l y i n g embankment. Subsequent f i e l d t e s t s r e v e a l e d t h a t

it w a s n o t always p r a c t i c a l t o h o l d t h e w a t e r c o n t e n t t o 3 p e r c e n t a g e
p o i n t s above optimum, and t h e heavy c o n s t r u c t i o n equipment u s u a l l y comp a c t e d t h e s o i l above t h e t a r g e t low d e n s i t y o f 92 p e r c e n t o f AASHTO T-99. The s p e c i f i c a t i o n s were r e v i s e d t o s e t a minimum d e n s i t y o f t h e

u p p e r 6 f t o f subgrade t o 92 p e r c e n t AASHTO o f 95 p e r c e n t .

T-99 w i t h a t a r g e t d e n s i t y

The c o r r e s p o n d i n g w a t e r c o n t e n t was s e t a t n o t lower

t h a n optimum w i t h a t a r g e t c o n t e n t o f 3 p e r c e n t a g e p o i n t s above optimum. P r e l i m i n a r y c o n c l u s i o n s b a s e d on r o u g h n e s s i n d e x checks i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e s p e c i a l moisture-density of t h e e x p a n s i v e s o i l . 158. The Wyoming S t a t e Highway ~ e p a r t m e n t l h~ a s~ e x p e r i m e n t e d c o n t r o l s have r e t a r d e d t h e a d v e r s e e f f e c t s

w i t h s u b e x c a v a t i o n and r e p l a c i n g t h e m a t ' e r i a l w i t h m o i s t u r e and d e n s i t y control. I n a r e a s where t h e i n t e r b e d d e d l a y e r s i n t e r s e c t t h e s u b g r a d e ,

a more uniform s u b g r a d e i s o b t a i n e d , and many o f t h e s h o r t , choppy h e a v e s o f t e n produced by t h i s f o r m a t i o n a r e e l i m i n a t e d . However, t h e y f e e l

t h a t use o f moisture d e n s i t y c o n t r o l i n hard s h a l e s p l a c e s moisture i n a r e a s where it o r d i n a r i l y would n o t r e a c h and t h a t a b e t t e r approach i s t o prevent moisture i n t r u s i o n . The problem i s t h a t t h e m a t e r i a l u s e d

i n l a b o r a t o r y d e t e r m i n a t i o n s o f compaction c u r v e s i s l i m i t e d t o minus No.

sieve material.

However, t h e m a t e r i a l i n t h e f i e l d n e v e r i s S p e c i f y i n g w a t e r c o n t e n t s above l a b o r a t o r y d e t e r -

broken up t h i s f i n e .

mined optimum w a t e r c o n t e n t s p l a c e s a g r a n u l a r a c t i n g f i l l a t w a t e r c o n t e n t s f a r above f i e l d c o n d i t i o n optimum. The r e s u l t i s s h a l e f r a g -

ments o r c l a y " c l o d s " d r y on t h e i n s i d e w i t h f r e e w a t e r i n t h e v o i d s . T h i s r e s u l t s i n an u n s t a b l e c o n d i t i o n which can c a u s e i n t e r n a l b r e a k downs o r e x p a n s i o n a f t e r s u r f a c i n g even i f t h e s u r f a c e m o i s t u r e i s k e p t out. 159. E x p e r i e n c e o f t h e Colorado Department o f Highways

214

c o n c e r n i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n i n a r i d r e g i o n s w i t h o r w i t h o u t m o i s t u r e o r dens i t y c o n t r o l h a s shown t h a t s a t i s f a c t o r y f i l l s can be c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h s w e l l i n g s o i l s i f t h e r e i s good m o i s t u r e - d e n s i t y c o n t r o l . Often t h e

expense o f m o i s t u r e - d e n s i t y c o n t r o l f o r t h e e n t i r e d e p t h of h i g h f i l l s i s n o t e c o n o m i c a l l y j u s t i f i e d where w a t e r i s a t a premium. However,

a comparison o f two s i m i l a r roadways, one c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h m o i s t u r e dens i t y c o n t r o l and t h e o t h e r w i t h o u t , shows t h a t 33 p e r c e n t o f t h e d i s t r e s s observed i n t h e l a t t e r o c c u r r e d i n f i l l s , w h i l e no d i s t r e s s was observed, i n f i l l s c f t h e former.
By i n c o r p o r a t i n g s u f f i c i e n t m o i s t u r e i n t h e

upper l a y e r s and a v o i d i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n of d r y f i l l s , s u c c e s s f u l r e s u l t s can be o b t a i n e d . The s u g g e s t e d d e p t h o f m o i s t u r e - d e n s i t y c o n t r o l below

g r a d e f o r c u t s and t o p s o f f i l l s f o r i n t e r s t a t e and p r i m a r y highways a r e as follows: Plasticity Index 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 '50
A s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t s e t of g u i d e l i n e s a r e u s e d f o r secondary and s t a t e

Depth o f Treatment, f t

highways : Plasticity Index 10-30 30-50 '50 Heat t r e a t m e n t 160. Heat t r e a t m e n t a s a t e c h n i q u e o f modifying e x p a n s i v e s o i l s Depth of Treatment, f t
2 3

f o r minimizing volume change h a s n o t been s t u d i e d o r a p p l i e d e x t e n s i v e l y i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . 173 N e v e r t h e l e s s , it i s w e l l known t h a t h e a t i n g

can c a u s e c o n s i d e r a b l e a l t e r a t i o n of t h e m i n e r a l o g i c a l and hence p h y s i c a l and e n g i n e e r i n g p r o p e r t i e s o f c l a y s . Aylmore e t a l . 215 o b s e r v e d t h a t

s w e l l i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s may b e reduced s i g n i f i c a n t l y by h e a t i n g t o +20O0C. -

161.

lJppa1216 r e p o r t s f i e l d h e a t t r e a t m e n t e x p e r i m e n t s on I n d i a n

Black Cotton S o i l s u s i n g t h e I r v i n e machine, a mobile f u r n a c e manufact u r e d i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h t h e A u s t r a l i a n government. The machine con-

s i s t s o f two u n i t s on p n e u m a t i c - t i r e d w h e e l s , a t r a c t o r , and a t r a i l e r h a v i n g a t o t a l weight o f a b o u t 20 t o n s . H e a t i n g o f t h e s o i l i s from The two cham-

two b o t t o m l e s s chambers l i n e d w i t h f i r e b r i c k a t t h e t o p . b e r s a r e s e p a r a t e d by a gap o f a b o u t

f t , which houses a mechanism f o r F i r i n g i s accomplished

t u r n i n g o v e r t h e s o i l b u r n t i n t h e f i r s t chamber.

by b u r n i n g f u e l o i l t h r o u g h j e t s u n d e r a p r e s s u r e o f 1 C p s i . 162. I n i t i a l e f f o r t s w i t h t h e machine r e s u l t e d i n a baked c r u s t ,

314 i n . t h i c k , as t h e f l a m e s d i d n o t p e n e t r a t e t h e s o i l and were m e r e l y

reflected. To i n c r e a s e t h e d e p t h o f p e n e t r a t i o n , t h e s o i l was broken up t o a d e p t h o f

i n . , which produced b u r n t c l o d s o f 2-in.

size.

The

t e c h n i q u e was found t o b e q u i t e uneconomical, c o s t i n g a b o u t t h e same a s h a u l i n g a g g r e g a t e 30 m i l e s o r 2 . 5 t i m e s t h e c o s t o f c o n v e n t i o n a l

5 percent lime s t a b i l i z a t i o n .

N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e t e c h n i q u e may have

some promise i n emergency o r h a s t y c o n s t r u c t i o n .

Summary

163.

Based upon t h e s e c a s e h i s t o r i e s , it i s o b v i o u s t h a t excava-

t i o n and r e p l a c e m e n t t e c h n i q u e s a r e n o t a panacea u n l e s s t h e e n t i r e o r s u f f i c i e n t d e p t h s o f e x p a n s i v e s t r a t u m can be removed s o t h a t s w e l l i n g

is negligible or tolerable.

U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h i s i s seldom t h e c a s e .

Replacement s h o u l d be w i t h r e l a t i v e l y impervious m a t e r i a l s t o a v o i d prov i d i n g moisture a c c e s s r o u t e s t o t h e s w e l l i n g subgrade. 164. The t e c h n i q u e o f a p p l y i n g heavy l o a d s t o c o u n t e r a c t s w e l l i n g

p r e s s u r e s h a s g e n e r a l l y n o t been a p p l i e d t o pavements a s pavement weights a r e u s u a l l y i n s u f f i c i e n t . 165. M o i s t u r e b a r r i e r s have w i d e s p r e a d usage a s an e f f e c t i v e I n c a s e s such a s a r i d r e g i o n s

means f o r c o n t r o l l i n g volume c h a n g e s .

where s u r f a c e m o i s t u r e , e i t h e r r u n o f f o r from h y d r o g e n e s i s , i s t h e s o u r c e of i n f i l t r a t i o n , a s p h a l t i c membranes o r f u l l - d e p t h a s p h a l t pavements a r e e f f e c t i v e . However, i n c a s e s where c a p i l l a r y ~ o i s t u r eo r h i g h

w a t e r t a b l e s p r e c l u d e e f f e c t i v e s e a l i n g of t h e e x p a n s i v e subgrade from m o i s t u r e a c c u m u l a t i o n s , membranes o b v i o u s l y w i l l be i n e f f e c t i v e . Asphal-

t i c p r o d u c t s a p p e a r t o be t h e most w i d e l y used m a t e r i a l f o r membranes. To b e e f f e c t i v e , complete s e a l i n g a c r o s s d i t c h e s and up t h e b a c k s l o p e s

i s required.

166.

Ponding h a s been s u c c e s s f u l l y u s e d i n Texas and M i s s i s s i p p i

t o i n c r e a s e subgrade m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t s and t h e r e b y minimize s u b s e q u e n t swelling. S u c c e s s f u l ponding r e q u i r e s p r e s e n c e o f an e x t e n s i v e network R e l a t i v e l y impermeable n a t u r a l c l a y s o r f i l l s The u s e o f h o l e s ,

o f f i s s u r e s and c r a c k s .

p r o b a b l y w i l l n o t respond w e l l t o t h i s t e c h n i q u e .

sand d r a i n s , o r t r e n c h e s w i t h o u t ponding g e n e r a l l y i s i n e f f e c t i v e ; however, where used i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h ponding, t h e y may be o f some benefit.

Lime s t a b i l i z a t i o n a f t e r ponding i s o f t e n u s e d t o p r o v i d e a
Some p r o v i s i o n s s h o u l d be made t o p r e v e n t m o i s t u r e

working p l a t f o r m and impermeable m o i s t u r e b a r r i e r t o p r e v e n t d e s i c c a t i o n of t h e ponded a r e a s .

l o s s s u b s e q u e n t t o p o n d i n g , i. e . condition. 167.

a r e t u r n o f s o i l t o a preponded

Lime c o n t i n u e s t o be t h e most e f f e c t i v e and w i d e l y used a d d i I n addi-

t i v e f o r r e d u c i n g s w e l l i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of e x p a n s i v e c l a y s .

t i o n t o c o n v e n t i o n a l s h a l l o w mix i n - p l a c e o r b a t c h mix s u r f a c e t r e a t m e n t , d r i l l - h o l e l i m e , LSPI, and deep-plow t e c h n i q u e s have been used s u c c e s s fully. F i e l d s t u d i e s show t h a t l i m e m i g r a t i o n from t h e d r i l l h o l e s i s The p r i m a r y b e n e f i t a r i s e s from

limited t o t h e periphery of t h e hole.

an i n c r e a s e i n m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t o f t h e s u r r o u n d i n g subgrade ( l i m e a i d s

t h e m i g r a t i o n of w a t e r ) and s t r e s s r e l i e f o f l a t e r a l e x p a n s i v e p r e s s u r e s . 168. Although c o n t r o v e r s i a l , LSPI i s an e f f e c t i v e s w e l l c o n t r o l C o n d i t i o n s most f a v o r i n g s u c c e s s -

p r o c e d u r e under c e r t a i n c i r c u m s t a n c e s .

f u l t r e a t m e n t a r e t h e p r e s e n c e of e x t e n s i v e f i s s u r e s and c r a c k s i n t o which t h e s l u r r y can be i n j e c t e d . I t s effectiveness i s attributed t o

p r e w e t t i n g , development of s o i l - l i m e m o i s t u r e b a r r i e r s , and t h e format i o n of l i m i t e d q u a n t i t i e s of soil-lime r e a c t i o n products. 169. Deep-plow t e c h n i q u e s have demonstrated t h a t l i f t s up t o

24 and 36 i n . can be s u c c e s s f u l l y mixed w i t h l i m e and compacted. 170. Compaction o f t h e s o i l t o low o r medium d e n s i t i e s a t w a t e r

contents above optimum can reduce the swell pressures or volume change of compacted clays. Compaction equipment producing a kneading action

and corresponding dispersed structure, such as a sheepsfoot roller, are appropriate. As an alternative to requiring good moisture-density compaction control for an entire high fill, experience indicates that good moisture-density control, particularly ainimum moisture contents of o p t i m m , in the upper several feet is successful in alleviating swelling problems.

POSTCONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES FOR MINIMIZING DETRIMENTAL VOLUME CHANGES OF EXPANSIVE SOIL SUBGRADES

Introduction

171.

P o ~ t c o n s t r u c t i o nt e c h n i q u e s u s e d f o r r e c t i f y i n g u n s e r v i c e Pavement main-

a b l e pavements due t o subgrade e x p a n s i o n a r e g e n e r a l l y i n t h e c a t e g o r i e s of pav,ement maintenance o r maintenance s t a b i l i z a t i o n . tenance includes: a. b. c. d. e. f. h. Mudjacking. Overlay. Excavate and r e p l a c e . Drainage improvements. Membrane placement.

w h i l e maintenance s t a b i l i z a t i o n i n c l u d e s : Drill-hole lime.

g. LSPI.
7

E l e c t r o k i n e t i c o r osmotic s t a b i l i z a t i o n . Ion m i g r a t i o n . Remedial Methods f o r T r e a t i n g Expansive S o i l Subgrades

i. -

Pavement maintenance

172. Mudjacking, o v e r l a y i n g , and e x c a v a t i o n and r e p l a c e m e n t a r e

t e c h n i q u e s u s e d t o improve t h e r i d e a b i l i t y o f t h e pavement. However, t h e s e methods merely a p p l y a "bandage" and do n o t t r e a t t h e c a u s e . G e n e r a l l y , d r a i n a g e improvements a n d / o r membrane placement a r e used i n c o n j u c t i o n w i t h mudjacking, o v e r l a y i n g , and e x c a v a t i o n and r e p l a c e m e n t t o p r e v e n t f u r t h e r s w e l l once c o r r e c t i v e a c t i o n h a s been t a k e n . Maintenance s t a b i l i z a t i o n 173. D r i l l - h o l e l i m e , LSPI, e l e c t r o k i n e t i c s t a b i l i z a t i o n , and

i o n m i g r a t i o n a r e r e m e d i a l t e c h n i q u e s f o r combating s w e l l i n g s u b g r a d e s . I n t h e c a s e s o f d r i l l - h o l e l i m e and LSPI, h o l e s a r e d r i l l e d t h r o u g h t h e pavement s u r f a c e and t h e t r e a t m e n t a p p l i e d . These two t e c h n i q u e s

have been d i s c u s s e d i n d e t a i l i n p a r a g r a p h s 1 3 9 and 1 4 4 a s p r e c o n s t r u c t i o n techniques. E l e c t r o k i n e t i c s t a b i l i z a t i o n and i o n m i g r a t i o n a r e

two maintenance t e c h n i q u e s which have r e c e i v e d o n l y l o c a l i z e d u s e . Electrokinetic stabilization 174. I n 1935, L. c a s a g r a n d e 2 1 7 o b s e r v e d and r e p o r t e d a n i r r e -

v e r s i b l e hardening o f c l a y s o i l s a s t h e r e s u l t o f passing an e l e c t r i c a l d i r e c t c u r r e n t u s i n g aluminum e l e c t r o d e s t h r o u g h t h e c l a y . i n g was a t t r i b u t e d t o r e p l a c e m e n t o f Na l a y e r by

The harden-

+++ A1

i o n s i n t h e d i f f u s e double

i o n s , t o a r e d u c t i o n i n w a t e r c o n t e n t by e l e c t r o o s m o s i s , The c o n c e p t o f t h i s t e c h -

and t o a l u m i n a t e s formed i n t h e s o i l p o r e s .

n i q u e i s t o u s e e l e c t r i c a l c u r r e n t t o move s t a b i l i z i n g c h e m i c a l s t h r o u g h t h e s o i l mass, i r r e v e r s i b l y a l t e r t h e c l a y a n d / o r c l a y w a t e r system, and thereby reduce t h e expansiveness of t h e c l a y . The method h a s c o n s i d e r -

a b l e a t t r a c t i v e n e s s a s a r e m e d i a l t e c h n i q u e s i n c e t h e pavement s t r u c t u r e and i n - p l a c e m a t e r i a l do n o t r e q u i r e removal and r e w o r k i n g . As a r e -

m e d i a l t e c h n i q u e , t h e e l e c t r o d e s and c h e m i c a l s a r e added o u t s i d e t h e s h o u l d e r s and m i g r a t e b e n e a t h t h e pavement. 175. Holtz" d e s c r i b e s an attempt t o s t a b i l i z e a s e c t i o n of t h e F i g u r e 1 7 shows t h e l a y -

F r i a n t - K e r n Canal by e l e c t r o c h e m i c a l methods. o u t and d e t a i l s o f t h e t r i a l s e c t i o n . were p l a c e d

P e r f o r a t e d aluminum p i p e anodes

6 f t d e e p a t 30-ft i c t e r v a l s a l o n g t h e t o e o f t h e s l o p e .
A c h e m i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n system p r o v i d e d a 1:1

I r o n w e l l p o i n t c a t h o d e s , 25 f t l o n g , were a l s o p l a c e d a t 3 3 - f t i n t e r v a l s a t t h e top of t h e slope. m i x t u r e o f 7 p e r c e n t p o t a s s i u m c h l o r i d e s o l u t i o n and 3 p e r c e n t aluminum c h l o r i d e s o l u t i o n a t t h e anodes. These c h e m i c a l s were s e l e c t e d from soil at the d e t a i l e d e l e c t r o c h e m i c a l t e s t s on t h e c a l c i u m - b e i d e l l i t e site.

The p u r p o s e o f a d d i n g t h e c h e m i c a l compounds was t o p r o v i d e

p o t a s s i u m , which h a s a g r e a t e r f i x i n g power i n t h e expanding l a t t i c e , and aluminum f o r s t a b i l i z i n g p u r p o s e s . The a p p l i e d v o l t a g e was main-

t a i n e d a t a b o u t 40 v o l t s and t h e amperage v a r i e d from a b o u t 40 amps a t t h e s t a r t o f t h e t e s t t o a b o u t z e r o a t t h e end o f t h e t e s t 5-112 months later. Although p o s t e x p e r i m e n t t e s t r e s u l t s were somewhat i r r e g u l a r ,

t h e y i n d i c a t e d t h a t f a v o r a b l e s t a b i l i z a t i o n t o o k p l a c e o n l y w i t h i n about

f t from t h e a n o d e s .

T h i s was m a n i f e s t e d p r i n c i p a l l y i n a d e c r e a s e

i n e x c h a n g e a b l e sodium c a t i o n s and i n c r e a s e d p o t a s s i u m c a t i o n s and proba b l e s t a b i l i z i n g e f f e c t s o f aluminum. While some s t r e n g t h was undoubt-

e d l y added t o t h e s l o p e by t h i s t r e a t m e n t , it was c o n s i d e r e d i n a d e q u a t e t o prevent heaving o f t h e concrete l i n e d s e c t i o n s . 176. I n a r e v i e w o f e l e c t r o k i n e t i c phenomena, Z a s l a v s k y and

~ n v i n a ~ re 'p ~o r t t h a t aluminun a n o d e s have b e e n shown t o have a n irr e v e r s i b l e s t a b i l i z i n g e f f e c t on c l a y s o i l s , w h i l e anodes o f o t h e r m e t a l s are l e s s effective. The i n t r o d u c t i o n o f aluminum s a l t s o l u t i o n s i n t o Generally t h e i r review of v a r i -

t h e s o i l was shown t o b e l e s s e f f e c t i v e .

o u s l a b o r a t o r y r e s e a r c h by o t h e r s showed t h a t maximum s t r e n g t h e n i n g was u s u a l l y o b t a i n e d a f t e r 30 kwhr p e r c u b i c m e t e r o f s o i l . 177, 4 s r i g s219 l a b o r a t o r y e x p e r i m e n t s on e l e c t r o k i n e t i c s t a b i -

l i z a t i o n o f an i l l i t i c c l a y u s i n g calcium i o n s with carbon rod anodes and s t e e l o r b r a s s mesh f o r c a t h o d e s showed a g e n e r a l l y i n c r e a s i n g strength with increasing times of treatment. I t was c o n c l u d e d t h a t

t h e s e s t r e n g t h g a i n s were t h e r e s u l t o f v a r i a t i o n s i n s o i l - m o i s t u r e cont e n t and i o n exchange w i t h e s s e n t i a l l y no a p p a r e n t c h e m i c a l c e m e n t a t i o n occurring. 178. The most c o m p l e t e a p p l i c a t i o n o f e l e c t r o k i n e t i c s t a b i l i z a -

t i o n f o r r e d u c i n g s w e l l i n g under highways was c o n d u c t e d by OIBannon f o r t h e A r i z o n a Department o f T r a n s p o r t a t i o n22C7221 on t h e r n o n t m o r i l l o n i t i c Chinle c l a y . I n l a b o r a t o r y s t u d i e s e v a l u a t i n g alurninun v e r s u s s t e e l

e l e c t r o d e s , and c a l c i u m c h l o r i d e , c a l c i w n c h l o r i d e p l u s m a g n e s i u r c h l o r i d e , aluminum c h l o r i d e , c a l c i u m c h l o r i d e p l u s m a g n e s i m c h l o r i d e p l l ~ s aluminum c h l o r i d e , p o t a s s i u m c h l o r i d e , and sodium c h l o r i d e s o l u t i o n s , i t was found t h a t p o t a s s i u m c h l o r i d e and s t e e l e l e c t r o d e s were c o n s i s t e n t l y t h e most e f f e c t i v e e l e c t r o d e - c h e m i c a l c o m b i n a t i o n f o r t r e a t m e n t of t h e Chinle. F u r t h e r t e s t i n g e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t 4-5 p e r c e n t by w e i g h t In

o f commercial g r a d e p o t a s s i u m c h l o r i d e was t h e optimum p e r c e n t a g e .

an a t t e n p t t o i n c r e a s e t h e r a t e o f p e n e t r a t i o n of t h e potassium chlor i d e s o l u t i o n i n t o t h e c l a y , s e v e r a l w e t t i n g a g e n t s were e v a l u a t e d . These i n c l u d e d A e r o s o l OT ( s o J i m J i o c t y l s d f o s u c c i n e t e ) ; A e r o s o l AY ( s o d i m d i a m y l s u l f o s u c c i n a t e ) , C-61 ( e t h a n o l a t e 4 a l k y l q u c i n i d i n e a m i n e c o m p l e x ) , p r o p a n o l a l c o h o l , and U l t r a , J e t . 'he r e s h l t s of laboratory

and f i e l d t e s t s showed t h a t C-61 and Aerosol AY were p r o m i s i n g , w i t h b e i n g t h e most e f f e c t i v e and recommended f o r u s a g e .

C-61

From t h e s e c o n s i d -

e r a t i o n s , a f i e l d t e s t s e c t i o n u s i n g v a r i o u s e l e c t r o d e a r r a n g e m e n t s and methods o f a d d i n g p o t a s s i u m c h l o r i d e t o t h e c l a y were e v a l u a t e d . Site one used h o r i z o n t a l e l e c t r o d e s and s o l u t i o n w e l l s ( 6 i n . i n d i a m e t e r ,

18 i n . deep i n s u b g r a d e , on 5 - f t c e n t e r s ) ; s i t e two u s e d h o r i z o n t a l
e l e c t r o d e s , and t h e b a s e c o u r s e was f l o o d e d w i t h t h e c h e m i c a l s o l u t i o n ; and s i t e t h r e e u s e d h o r i z o n t a l e l e c t r o d e s and a c e n t r a l t r e n c h c u t

18 i n . deep i n t h e subgrade and f i l l e d w i t h p o t a s s i u m c h l o r i d e s o l u t i o n .

E v a l u a t i o n of t h e s e s i t e s showed t h a t t h e S o l u t i o n w e l l s p r o v i d e d t h e g r e a t e s t u n i f o r m i t y , d e p t h , and economy o f t r e a t m e n t .

It w a s recom-

mended t h a t No. 8 r e b a r o r e q u i v a l e n t s h o u l d be u s e d a s t h e anode, w h i l e t h e c a t h o d e s s h o u l d be No.

bars.

I f vertical electrodes are

u s e d , t h e y s h o u l d e x t e n d t h e e n t i r e d e p t h o f t h e s e c t i o n t o be t r e a t e d , while h o r i z o n t a l e l e c t r o d e s should be placed approximately a t a depth of one-half t h e t o t a l t h i c k n e s s of t h e s e c t i o n t o be t r e a t e d . a g e g r a d i e n t o f 0.6-1.0 v o l t p e r i n c h i s s u g g e s t e d .

A volt-

Application of

t h e s e c r i t e r i a have proven e f f e c t i v e i n r e d u c i n g h e a v i n g i n t h e C h i n l e . 179. O I B a n n o n l s 222 l a b o r a t o r y e x p e r i m e n t s u s i n g 10-40 p e r c e n t

m o n t m o r i l l o n i t e p l u s 90-60 p e r c e n t k a o l i n i t e s u b j e c t e d t o p o t a s s i u m c h l o r i d e e l e c t r o k i n e t i c s t a b i l i z a t i o n showed t h a t t h e mechanism o f e l e c t r o k i n e t i c s t a b i l i z a t i o n was t o permanently a l t e r t h e m i n e r a l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of montmorillonite. The p o t a s s i u m i o n p o s s e s s e s t h e

c o r r e c t s i z e and c o o r d i n a t i o n p r o p e r t i e s s o t h a t it can e a s i l y e n t e r t h e b a s a l s h e e t and become f i x e d . The r e s u l t o f t h i s a l t e r a t i o n i s a r e d u c t i o n i n e x p a n s i v e p r e s s u r e by a a f a c t o r r a n g i n g from 2 t o 8. Ion m i g r a t i o n 180.

A p a t e n t e d t e c h n i q u e h e l d by I o n Tech, I n c . , o f Daly C i t y ,

C a l i f o r n i a , h a s been s u c c e s s f u l l y used f o r t r e a t i n g l a n d s l i d e s and exp a n s i v e s o i l problems. 2 2 3 y 2 2 4 The t e c h n i q u e c o n s i s t s o f t r e a t i n g t h e c l a y m i n e r a l w i t h a c o n c e n t r a t e d chemical s o l u t i o n . The chemical s o l u -

t i o n added depends upon t h e c l a y m i n e r a l s p r e s e n t and t h e groundwater. A f t e r s e l e c t i o n o f t h e a p p r o p r i a t e chemical, t h e s o l u t i o n i s a p p l i e d t o t h e c l a y through cracks and/or d r i l l holes. S u c c e s s i s due t o

r e p l a c e m e n t o f t h e o r i g i n a l c a t i o n s on t h e c l a y by t h o s e o f t h e a d d i t i v e solution, thereby a l t e r i n g t h e clay properties. The c o n d i t i o n s n e c e s -

s a r y f o r s u c c e s s f u l i o n exchange t r e a t m e n t o f l a n d s l i d e s a r e ( a ) a c l e a r l y d e f i n e d p l a n e o r zone o f f a i l u r e , ( b ) c l a y m i n e r a l s a l o n g t h i s zone, ( c ) s a t u r a t i o n of t h e c l a y , and ( d ) c r a c k s a n d / o r b o r i n g s f o r t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f chemicals.

181.

L a b o r a t o r y t e s t s r e p o r t e d by Arora and ~ c o t t members * ~ ~ of

Ion Tech, show a s u b s t a n t i a l r e d u c t i o n i n e x p a n s i o n of a compacted c o n t r o l and a t r e a t e d sample ?ubmerged i n d e i ~ n i z e dw a t e r and i n 7 p e r c e n t chemical s o l u t i o n , r e s p e c t i v e l y . 55 p e r c e n t r e d u c t i o n i n e x p a n s i o n .

A r e p o r t e d c a s e h i s t o r y showed a

I n t h i s c a s e , expansive c l a y s

u n d e r l y i n g a h o u s i n g p r o j e c t were t r e a t e d by a p p l k i n g c h e m i c a l s i n 1-1/2-in.-diam h o l e s on 5 - f t c e n t e r s a r o u n d t h e h o u s e s ( n o d e p t h g i v e n )

and s e a s o n a l damages were e f f e c t i v e l y ended.

Summary

182.

C o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e s e c a s e h i s t o r i e s and l a b o r a t o r y r e I

search i n d i c a t e t h a t e l e c t r o k i n e t i c s t a b i l i z a t i o n i s a v i a b l e remedial technique f o r reducing t h e expansiveness of montmorillonitic-rich clays.

The a d d i t i o n o f p o t a s s i u m c h l o r i d e p l u s a w e t t i n g a g e n t under an e l e c t r i c a l g r a d i e n t provides potassium i o p s f o r c o l l a p s i n g t h e c l a y l a t t i c e

and a l t e r i n g t h e e x p a n s i v e p o t e n t i a l o f t h e s e c l a y s .

However, it i s Apparently Neverthe-

d o u b t f u l t h a t o t h e r c l a y s can b e t r e a t e d by t h i s t e c h n i q u e . aluminum anodes can p r o v i d e some h a r d e n i n g of v a r i o u s ' c l a y s .

l e s s t h i s hardening i s g e n e r a l l y confined t o l o c a l i z e d a r e a s near t h e anode. E l e c t r o d e s p a c i n g , c u r r e n t and v o l t a g e g r a d i e n t s , and concen-

t r a t i o n o f p o t a s s i u m i o n s o l u t i o n w i l l v a r y w i t h s i t e and would need t o be e s t a b l i s h e d p r i o r t o t r e a t m e n t . 183. I o n m i g r a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s a r e p a t e n t e d and have had few Further docmentation
It

t r i a l s i n reducing swelling of expansive c l a y s .

and e x p e r i e n c e a r e needed b e f o r e t h i s method can be recommended.

s h o u l d b e remembered t h a t numerous c h e m i c a l s have been t r i e d f o r stab i l i z i n g c l a y s w i t h l i m e b e i n g t h e most e f f e c t i v e .

PAVEIYlENT DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION METHODS FOE HIGHWAYS ON EXPANSIVE SOIL SUBGRADES

Introduction

184.

There a r e a wide v a r i e t y o f c u r r e n t d e s i g n and c o n s t r u c t i o n

p r a c t i c e s b e i n g u s e d by t h e s t a t e s f o r highway c o n s t r u c t i o n o v e r expans i v e c l a y subgrades. The v a r i e t y o f d e s i g n s r e f l e c t s t h e d i f f e r e n c e s

i n subgrade s o i l , e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s , a v a i l a b i l i t y o f roadb u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l s , and t r a f f i c . The c r i t e r i a f o r u s i n g s p e c i a l t r e a t -

ments i n d e s i g n a r e g e n e r a l l y tempered by p a s t e x p e r i e n c e w i t h a combin a t i o n o f measures aimed a t minimizing m o i s t u r e changes o r minimizing t h e e f f e c t s o f such changes.

S t a t e Highway Agency P r a c t i c e s

185.

C u r r e n t d e s i g n t e c h n i q u e s used by t h e s t a t e highway

a g e n c i e s w i t h i n t h e a r e a o f concern o f t h i s p r o j e c t a r e d e f i n e d and described i n t h e following paragraphs. These a r e p r a c t i c e s a c t u a l l y

used i n t h e d e s i g n and c o n s t r u c t i o n o f pavements, whereas t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n i n v o l v e d t h e t r e a t m e n t t e c h n i q u e s p r i m a r i l y from t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f r e s e a r c h and t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t , common p r a c t i c e . 150,225,226 Kansas 186. C u r r e n t e n g i n e e r i n g p r a c t i c e s i n c l u d e t r e a t m e n t w i t h lime

and t h e u t i l i z a t i o n o f p o s i t i v e d e s i g n f e a t u r e s and c o n s t r u c t i o n c o n t r o l . C u r r e n t l i m e t r e a t m e n t p r a c t i c e f o r c o n c r e t e pavements i n v o l v e s x o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e t o p 6 i n . o f t h e subgrade w i t h h y d r a t e d l i m e when s w e l l p o t e n t i a l s i n e x c e s s o f 2 p e r c e n t , a s measured i n an odemeter s w e l l t e s t with l - p s i surcharge, a r e encountered.

An i d e n t i c a l p r o c e d u r e i s

used f o r f l e x i b l e pavements i n a r e a s o f e a s t e r n Kansas where p a s t p e r formance h a s been a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t e d by nonuniform s u b g r a d e s w i t h d i f f e n t i a l swell c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Any added s o i l s u p p o r t which i s r e a l -

i z e d by t h i s l i m e m o d i f i c a t i o n p r o c e d u r e i s r e f l e c t e d i n t h i n n e r d e s i g n sections. Lime a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e s a r e g e n e r a l l y 5 p e r c e n t by w e i g h t .

U t i l i z a t i o n o f p o s i t i v e d e s i g n f e a t u r e s and c o n s t r u c t i o n c o n t r o l t o minimize t h e d e g r e e t o which s w e l l p o t e n t i a l i s r e a l i z e d i n c l u d e t h e following: a. S p e c i f i c a t i o n s normally r e q u i r e t h a t s o i l moisture under c o n c r e t e pavements a t t h e t i m e o f compaction be m a i n t a i n e d between optimum and 5 p e r c e n t above optimum (MR-0) f o r t h e s o i l i n t h e t o p 18 i n . o f t h e s u b g r a d e . M o i s t u r e c o n t r o l f o r f l e x i b l e pavements i s n o t a s s t r i c t ; t h e lower bound i s s p e c i f i e d a s 5 p e r c e n t below optimum (MR-5 )

b. -

I n b o t h r i g i d and f l e x i b l e pavements i n c u t s of w e a t h e r e d s h a l e s , t h e s o i l s a r e subgraded t o a d e p t h o f 1 2 i n . and a w i d t h o f 2 f t beyond t h e r o a d s u r f a c e . An a d d i t i o n a l 6 i n . i s s c a r i f i e d and recompacted t o 95 p e r c e n t o f s t a n d a r d AASHTO T-99 d e n s i t y w i t h moisture controls a s specified i n t h e standard The s u b g r a d e d s p e c i f i c a t i o n s , e i t h e r MR-0 o r NR-5. m a t e r i a l i s r e p l a c e d w i t h t h e same d e n s i t y and m o i s t u r e r e q u i r e m e n t s p r o v i d i n g a t o t a l of 18 i n . o f u n i f o r m m a t e r i a l t h r o u g h t h e c u t . The same d e n s i t y and m o i s t u r e c o n t r o l s a r e s p e c i f i e d f o r t h e t o p 1 8 i n . o f embankment s e c t i o n s . F o r c o n t r o l o f s u r f a c e and s u b s u r f a c e w a t e r , a t y p i c a l d e s i g n roadway s e c t i o n p i a c e s t h e bottom o f t h e d i t c h 3 f t below t h e s h o u l d e r p o i n t . A l s o , s u b s u r f a c e i n t e r c e p t o r d r a i n s a r e used t o c o n t r o l s u b s u r f a c e water i n c u t s e c t i o n s .

c. -

187.

Approximately 9 9 p e r c e n t o f t h e highways i n t h e e x p a n s i v e

c l a y a r e a s have been completed s o t h e main problem a t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e i s t o c o n t r o l t h e e x p a n s i o n and volume changes p r i o r t o p e r f o r m i n g maintenance. P r e s e n t d e s i g n r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r new c o n s t r u c t i o n , i f

n e e d e d , u t i l i z e s a f u l l - d e p t h a s p h a l t s e c t i o n o v e r a b i t u m i n o u s memb r a n e p l a c e d on t h e s u b g r a d e . The membrane e x t e n d s o v e r t h e w i d t h o f Design

t h e roadway, s h o u l d e r , c u t d i t c h e s , and up t h e back s l o p e .

s e c t i o n a l s o r e q u i r e s wide s h o u l d e r s l o p e s and good d r a i n a g e i n c u t ditches.

A s t r u c t u r a l number o f 2 i s a s s i g n e d e x p a n s i v e s o i l s i n t h e

AASHTO d e s i g n e q u a t i o n .
Louisiana 228 Design p o l i c y i n t h e S t a t e of L o u i s i a n a p r o v i d e s t h a t 188.

s p e c i a l p r o v i s i o n s a r e r e q u i r e d f o r subgrade m a t e r i a l s having a l i q u i d

l i m i t above t h e , v a l u e of 50.

For m a t e r i a l w i t h a l i q u i d l i m i t o f 50 and

below, a normal d e s i g n would b e s p e c i f i e d f o r embankment c o n s t r u c t i o n . The s o i l s d e s i g n e n g i n e e r w i l l s p e c i f y e i t h e r m o i s t u r e - d e n s i t y c o n t r o l o r l i m e t r e a t m e n t f o r s o i l s w i t h a l i q u i d l i m i t range of from 50 t o 70. M o i s t u r e c o n t r o l w i l l be a t optimum o r 2 p e r c e n t above optimum, and i f t h i s c r e a t e s a t o o wet subgrade c o n d i t i o n , t h e n l i m e t r e a t m e n t ( a b o u t 3 p e r c e n t ) w i l l be r e q u i r e d f o r t h e upper 2-3 f t o f t h e embankment, Mate-

r i a l s w i t h l i q u i d l i m i t s above 70 w i l l n o t n o r m a l l y be used i n t h e roadway b u t may be u s e d i n n o n l o a d i n g a r e a s o f t h e embankment such a s t h e shoulders. Lime t r e a t m e n t o f t h e upper 2-3 f t o f t h e embankment w i l l

be r e q u i r e d i f t h i s h i g h e r l i q u i d l i m i t m a t e r i a l must be u s e d . Colorado 150,225,229 189. G e n e r a l d e s i g n g u i d e l i n e s f o r highways on e x p a n s i v e c l a y

s u b g r a d e s i n Colorado i n v o l v e ( a ) a v o i d i n g c u t s e c t i o n s and u s i n g f i l l s e c t i o n s a t a l l t i m e s , i f p o s s i b l e ; ( b ) keeping m o i s t u r e from i n f i l t r a t i n g i n t o t h e subgrade by u s i n g a s p h a l t i c membranes o r f u l l - d e p t h pavement l a y e r s ; and ( c ) where c u t s e c t i o n s a r e u s e d , t h e d i t c h s h o u l d be p l a c e d a t l e a s t 25 f t from t h e s h o u l d e r and u n d e r c u t t h e subgrade and recompact t o ASSHTO T-99 s p e c i f i c a t i o n s w i t h s t r i c t m o i s t u r e - d e n s i t y control. The t a b u l a t i o n i n p a r a g r a p h 1 5 9 d e f i n e s t h e g u i d e l i n e s f o r

d e p t h o f u n d e r c u t f o r i n t e r s t a t e and p r i m a r y r o a d s and f o r secondary and s t a t e r o a d s . M i s s i s s i o ~150,230 i

190, The S t a t e o f M i s s i s s i p p i i s i n c o r p o r a t i n g v a r i o u s e x p e r i m e n t a l i t e m s such a s a s p h a l t membranes, m o i s t u r e - d e n s i t y control, r e p l a c e m e n t o f m a t e r i a l , and l i m e t r e a t m e n t f o r new c o n s t r u c t i o n now i n p r o g r e s s ; and some of t h e s e t e c h n i q u e s may b e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o d e s i g n procedures i n t h e f u t u r e . Highways a r e p r e s e n t l y d e s i g n e d u s i n g t h e

AASHTO e q u a t i o n i n which c o e f f i c i e n t s of r e l a t i v e s t r e n g t h p e r i n c h o f t h i c k n e s s a r e a s s i g n e d t h e m a t e r i a l s used i n t h e l a y e r s . Lime s t a -

b i l i z a t i o n , which i n c r e a s e s t h e c o e f f i c i e n t o f r e l a t i v e s t r e n g t h o f t h i s l a y e r and r e d u c e s t h e e x p a n s i v e p r o p e r t i e s , would be c o n s i d e r e d t h e o n l y a p p r o a c h a t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e t o t h e e x p a n s i v e s o i l problem. Lime c o n t e n t w i l l g e n e r a l l y range from about

t o 8 percent.

South Dakota150,225,231

191. For primary and high type roads, design procedures incorporate undercutting, moisture and density control, and lime stabilization. These procedures are used under asphalt or concrete roadways; however, where areas have indicated extremely unstable characteristics from past performances, an asphalt-surfaced roadway will be specified. This is primarily for easier maintenance. subgrade. The asphalt pavements are full-depth asphalt (12-13 in. thick) placed directly on the treated South Dakota has stopped constructing jointed concrete paveThe embankment ments and is building continuous reinforced pavements. expansive soils are encountered. of weathered soil.

under both rigid and flexible pavements is treated the same where The specification requires that the upper 3 ft of the subgrade in both cuts and fills is to be constructed This is accomplished by undercutting the subgrade The top 3 ft of subgrade soil in 3-ft increments to a depth of 6 ft.

material that was removed and stockpiled is placed in the bottom of the excavation and compacted to about 92 to 95 percent of AASHTO T-99 density at moisture contents just above optimum. quirements. &in. The remaining 3 ft of material is compacted in place with the same density and moisture reApproximately 5-6 percent of lime is added to the top The undercut and backfill in the lower For secondary layer of this material.

3 ft is from shoulder line to shouider line whereas the upper 3 ft of backfill material is from toe to toe of the embankment. toe to toe of the embankment. Wyoming 150,225,232,233 2 . Where expansive soils are encountered in Wyoming, general practice in design involves undercutting the subgrade to a maximum depth of 5 ft and recompacting the material at moisture contents between minus roads, only 3 ft of material is undercut and replaced, extending from

4 percent and plus 2 percent of AASHTO 'I1-99 optimum. Swell presThe use of full-depth

sure tests are determined on subgrade soils to determine the required thickness necessary to prevent volume change. asphalt sections placed directly on grade are being used to help prevent infiltration into the subgrade. Asphalt membranes are also being

used w i t h t h e f u l l - d e p t h a s p h a l t t o p r o t e c t t h e subgrade s h o u l d e r s and d i t c h e s from i n t r u s i o n o f w a t e r . Removal and r e p l a c e m e n t o f t h e ex-

p a n s i v e m a t e r i a l w i t h a nonexpansive s o i l may be s p e c i f i e d i n d e s i g n i f t h i s is feasible. Stage surfacing i s a l s o used, i f p o s s i b l e . Cost o f

e a c h a l t e r n a t e d e s i g n i s c o n s i d e r e d , and t h e most economical one i s used. Oklahoma 225,234,235 Pavement d e s i g n i n Oklahoma i s b a s e d on t h e Oklahoma S o i l

193.

Index (OSI) which i s d e r i v e d from t h e A t t e r b e r g l i m i t s and g r a i n - s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f i,he subgrade m a t e r i a l . Lime m o d i f i c a t i o n i s r o u t i n e l y Lime p e r c e n t a g e s

used i n a r e a s where e x p a n s i v e s o i l s a r e predominant. used a r e g e n e r a l l y between

and 6 p e r c e n t , and t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e
The l i m e

lime-modified l a y e r i s a c c o u n t e d f o r i n t h e d e s i g n method.

t r e a t m e n t i n c r e a s e s t h e OSI, which r e d u c e s t h e t h i c k n e s s r e q u i r e d . T y p i c a l pavement s e c t i o n s used i n e x p a n s i v e s o i l a r e a s a r e 24 i n . o f s e l e c t borrow o r 24 i n . o f lime-modified subgrade under b a s e and 9 i n . o f r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e pavement.

i n . of black

F l e x i b l e pavements

a r e u s u a l l y 4-1/2 i n . of a s p h a l t i c c o n c r e t e o v e r 9 i n . o f b l a c k b a s e on lime-modified subgrade l a y e r . 150,225,236 Montana a 6-in.

194.

S p e c i a l p r o v i s i o n s a r e i n c l u d e d i n t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n s which

r e q u i r e t h a t s u b e x c a v a t e d c l a y s h a l e and s h a l e m a t e r i a l s be p l a c e d i n t h e lower p o r t i o n s o f t h e s u b e x c a v a t e d a r e a s and i n t h e embankment n o t w i t h in the top 3 f t . The c l a y s h a l e m a t e r i a l s a r e compacted between 9 2 t o 98 p e r c e n t o f AASHTO T-99 d e n s i t y a t about 2 p e r c e n t above optimum moisture. The t o p 3 f t o f b a c k f i l l m a t e r i a l i s low s w e l l m a t e r i a l , and

m o i s t u r e and d e n s i t y c o n t r o l s a r e a l s o r e q u i r e d on t h i s m a t e r i a l . C a l i f o r n i a 150,225,237 195. Design p r o c e d u r e s f o r p o r t l a n d cement c o n c r e t e pavements

i n C a l i f o r n i a i n c o r p o r a t e t h e e x p m s i v e p r e s s u r e and l i n e a r e x p a n s i o n t e s t s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e m o i s t u r e a d j u s t m e n t n e c e s s a r y i n t h e subgrade and r e q u i r e d overburden t o overcome t h e e x p a n s i v e p r e s s u r e . ment t h i c k n e s s i s d e s i g n e d a c c o r d i n g l y . The pave-

Some d i s t r i c t s i n t h e s t a t e

use lime t r e a t n e n t i n t h e upper 6-12 i n . o f t h e subgrade m a t e r i a l , and

t h i s i s r e f l e c t e d i n a t h i n n e r design s e c t i o n .

For flex.ib'le pavements,

a more u n i f o r m s w e l l i n g o f t h e s o i l o c c u r s , and i i t t l e concern i s g i v e n i n d e s i g n t o t h e s e pavements. Utah 150,225,238 196. S p e c i a l p r o v i s i o n s f o r p r o c e s s i n g t h e s h a l e subgrades a r e p r o v i d e d i n t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n s t o s u b e x c a v a t e 4-5 f t o f t h e s h a l e m a t e r i a l and r e p l a c e w i t h a good borrow m a t e r i a l . E x i s t i n g s h a l e sub-

g r a d e m a t e r i a l i s s c a r i f i e d and compacted a t about 2 p e r c e n t above optimum m o i s t u r e and 96 p e r c e p t o f AASHTO T-99 d e n s i t y . Texas 1 5 0 , 2 3 9 197. Design o f highways i n Texas o v e r e x p a n s i v e c l a y a r e a s Moisture

u t i l i z e s lime t r e a t m e n t i n t h e t o p 6-12 i n . o f tlfe s u b g r a d e .

and d e n s i t y c o n t r o l i s a l s o s p e c i f i e d f o r t h e u n t r e a t e d subgrade s o i l s .

198.

Expansive c l a y s do n o t c a u s e much concern i n North Dakota, Be-

b u t some problems have developed under j o i n t e d c o n c r e t e pavements.

c a u s e o f t h i s , c o n t i n u o u s r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e pavements a r e s p e c i f i e d , and t h e subgrade s o i l s a r e p l a c e d w i t h s t r i c t m o i s t u r e (above optimum) and d e n s i t y c o n t r o l .

Maintenance P r o c e d u r e s

199.

D i f f e r e n t i a l o r l o c a l i z e d s w e l l i n e i t h e r h i g h volume

change s o i l s o r h i g h s w e l l s o i l s r e s u l t s i n pavement s u r f a c e d i s t o r t i o n . The s u r f a c e becomes r o u g h , bumpy, and c r a c k e d i n most c a s e s . Criteria

f o r maintenance i s u s u a l l y when t h e c o n d i t i o n of t h e s u r f a c e becomes ~ u i s u i t a b l ef o r p u b l i c u s e . Most s t a t e highway a g e n c i e s u s e s i m i l a r Pavements t h a t a r e

maintenance p r o c e d u r e s t o c o r r e c t t h e problem.

b a d l y darnaged a r e removed a n d r e p l a c e d w i t h a more s u i t a b l e m a t e r i a l . L e v e l i n g and o v e r l a y i n g i s t h e g e n e r a l p r o c e d u r e u s e d by most highway departments. Some o f t h e more t r o u b l e s o m e a r e a s have been o v e r l a y e d a

number o f t i m e s s o t h a t t h e t h i c k n e s s of a s p h a l t pavement i s measured i n f e e t r a t h e r than inches. Some s e a l i n g of c r a c k s and j o i n t s i s Where t h e c o n c r e t e s l a b s have heaved,

performed on c o n c r e t e pavements.

t h e s l a b s may be l e v e l e d by " s l a b jacking" o r i n some c a s e s l e v e l e d by applying water i n h o l e s t h a t have been d r i l l e d i n t h e s l a b s . The

Arizona Department of T r a n s p o r t a t i o n h a s been using a r u b b e r i z e d a s p h a l t membrane sprayed over t h e e x i s t i n g roadway and s h o u l d e r s p r i o r t o overl a y i n g t o p r e v e n t i n f i l t r a t i o n of s u r f a c e w a t e r .

S U M M A R Y

200.

T h i s r e p o r t , which i s b a s e d on a r e v i e w o f l i t e r a t u r e

combined w i t h . e x p e r i e n c e s of t h e s t a t e highway a g e n c i e s c o n t a c t e d , p r o v i d e s an u p d a t e d summary o f t h e p r o p e r t i e s which i n f l u e n c e volume change o f e x p a n s i v e s o i l s , t e c h n i q u e s u s e d f o r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and t e s t i n g o f e x p a n s i v e s o i l s , and p r e - and p o s t c o n s t r u c t i o n t r e a t m e n t t e c h niques f o r expansive s o i l subgrades. Some o f t h e more i m p o r t a n t p o i n t s

c o n c e r n i n g e x p a n s i v e s o i l s and t h e t o p i c s d i s c u s s e d w i t h i n t h e r e p o r t a r e summarized i n t h e f o l l o w i n g p a r a g r a p h s . 201. Expansive s o i l s a r e a r e a l l y e x t e n s i v e i n many r e g i o n s of The o r i g i n and d i s t r i b u t i o n o f e x p a n s i v e s o i l s a r e Expansive s o i l s a r e formed

t h e United S t a t e s .

functions of t h e i r past geologic condition.

a s a r e s u l t of weathering ( e i t h e r physical o r chemical), d l a g e n e t i c a l t e r a t i o n , and/or hydrothermal a l t e r a t i o n o f e x i s t i n g m a t e r i a l s . The

d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p o t e n t i a l l y e x p a n s i v e s o i l s h a s been d e f i n e d and maps p r e p a r e d showing r e l a t i v e d e g r e e s o f e x p a n s i v i t y b a s e d on g e o l o g i c c o n d i t i o n s p e r t i n e n t t o t h e f o r m a t i o n , a c c u m u l a t i o n , and p r e s e r v a t i o n of t h e materials. These f a c t o r s have been combined w i t h e x p e r i e n c e s o f

s t a t e highway a g e n c i e s t o p r o v i d e a summary o f p o t e n t i a l problem a r e a s . 202. The c l a y m i n e r a l s which e x h i b i t a p p r e c i a b l e volume change

w i t h v a r i a t i o n s i n m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t i n c l u d e m o n t m o r i l l o n i t e , vermicul i t e , c h l o r i t e , and mixed-layer c o m b i n a t i o n s o f t h e s e m i n e r a l s w i t h one another o r with other clay minerals. These c l a y m i n e r a l s e x h i b i t volume

change b e c a u s e of e l e c t r i c a l c h a r g e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , d e g r e e o f c r y s t a l l i n i t y , and p a r t i c l e s i z e . The m i n e r a l o g i c c o m p o s i t i o n of e x p a n s i v e

s o i l s d e t e r m i n e s w h e t h e r t h e s o i l h a s a p o t e n t i a l f o r volume c h a n g e , and t h e p h y s i c a l and e n v i r o n m e n t a l f a c t o r s c o n t r o l t h e amount of volume change t h a t t h e s o i l w i l l undergo. 203. The amount o f volume change e x h i b i t e d by an e x p a n s i v e s o i l

i s i n f l u e n c e d by t h e i n t r i n s i c p r o p e r t i e s ( b o t h p h y s i c a l and p h y s i c o -

c h e m i c a l ) o f t h e m a t e r i a l and t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s p r e v a i l i n g
at a specific s i t e .

The l a b o r a t o r y and i n s i t u b e h a v i o r s o f e x p a n s i v e

s o i l s a r e f u n c t i o n s o f numerous i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s among t h e i n t r i n s i c

p r o p e r t i e s and e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s .

204.

The sampling o f e x p a n s i v e s o i l s i s c o m p l i c a t e d by t h e wide

variations of t h e i n s i t u conditions associated with t h e materials. G e n e r a l l y , t h e sampling programs performed by t h e s t a t e highway a g e n c i e s i n c l u d e s h a l l o w a u g e r b o r i n g s and a l i m i t e d number o f u n d i s t u r b e d samples.

I n a d d i t i o n , t h e c a p a b i l i t i e s f o r u n d i s t u r b e d sampling have

n o t been developed t o t h e e x t e n t r e q u i r e d t o p r o v i d e a s u f f i c i e n t number of good samples f o r t e s t i n g . T h i s l a c k o f a d e q u a t e u n d i s t u r b e d sampling

combined w i t h p o o r q u a l i t y samples r e d u c e s t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f any d i r e c t t e s t i n g method used t o e s t i m a t e p o t e n t i a l volume change.

The

i n f l u e n c e of s t o r a g e o f e x p a n s i v e s o i l samples f o r e x t e n d e d p e r i o d s
i s n o t f u l l y u n d e r s t o o d ; however, it i s g e n e r a l l y c o n s i d e r e d t o be

d e t r i m e n t a l t o t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e sample.

Therefore, t e s t i n g should be

completed a s soon a s p o s s i b l e a f t e r sampling.

205.

I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f p o t e n t i a l l y e x p a n s i v e s o i l s can be Many o f

accomplished by numerous methods a s d e s c r i b e d i n Table 5 . clay mineral present.

t h e s e methods p r o v i d e q u a l i t a t i v e a s s e s s m e n t s of t h e t y p e and amount o f Most of t h e s t a t e highway a g e n c i e s r e l y on i n d e x

A large

p r o p e r t y t e s t s and e x p e r i e n c e t o i d e n t i f y e x p a n s i v e s o i l s .

v a r i e t y of combination t e c h n i q u e s e x i s t which c o r r e l a t e i n d e x p r o p e r t i e s and p r o b a b l e volume change. No g e n e r a l l y a p p l i c a b l e t e c h n i q u e i s c u r -

r e n t l y a v a i l a b l e ; however, l o c a l e x p e r i e n c e s w i t h many o f t h e s e c o r r e l a t i o n s have been s u c c e s s f u l .

206.

The q u a n t i t a t i v e measurement o f p o t e n t i a l volume change i s

Odometer t e s t s

e s s e n t i a l f o r e s t i m a t i n g t h e amount o f i n s i t u s w e l l .

f o r m e a s u r i n g s w e l l and s w e l l i n g p r e s s u r e a r e t h e most w i d e l y u s e d . However, a v a i l a b l e t e s t i n g p r o c e d u r e s a r e q u i t e v a r i e d w i t h r e s p e c t t o placement c o n d i t i o n s , l o a d i n g c o n d i t i o n s , s u r c h a r g e p r e s s u r e s , t i m e a l l o w e d f o r s w e l l , and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f r e s u l t s .

Many s t a t e highway

a g e n c i e s do n o t u s e a t e s t of t h i s n a t u r e f o r e s t i m a t i n g i n s i t u volume change. Even i n t h o s e s t a t e s which u s e some t y p e o f d i r e c t t e s t i n g

t e c h n i q u e , t h e r e s u l t s a r e o f t e n n o t c o n s i d e r e d i n t h e pavement d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e s o r i n t h e s e l e c t i o n of a t r e a t m e n t a l t e r n a t i v e .

207. Based on case histories d e s c r i b i n g p r e c o n s t r u c t i o n

t r e a t m e n t a l t e r n a t i v e s , t h e more s u c c e s s f u l t e c h n i q u e s i n c l u d e memb r a n e s , p o n d i n g , l i m e t r e a t m e n t , s u b g r a d e compaction c o n t r o l , and p o s i t i v e surface drainage. No g e n e r a l l y a p p l i c a b l e g u i d e l i n e s e x i s t which

d e f i n e t h e m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s and e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s f o r which a s p e c i f i c t r e a t m e n t a l t e r n a t i v e performs b e s t . Guidelines of t h i s

t y p e would enhance t h e s e l e c t i o n o f a s u i t a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e by c o n s i d e r i n g t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e a l t e r n a t i v e under v a r y i n g c o n d i t i o n s a s w e l l a s t h e cost of t h e alternative.

208. P o s t c o n s t r u c t i o n t r e a t m e n t t e c h n i q u e s a r e g e n e r a l l y
l i m i t e d t o pavement m a i n t e n a n c e p r o c e d ~ r e s ( i . e . , m u d j a c k i n g , l e v e l i n g and o v e r l a y i n g , and l o c a l e x c a v a t i o n and r e p l a c e m e n t ) . Application of

l i m e i n d r i l l h o l e s h a s been s u c c e s s i ' u i l y u s e d a s a r e m e d i a l t r e a t m e n t on a l i m i t e d b a s i s . Some p o s s i b l e t e c h n i q u e s f o r r e m e d i a l t r e a t m e n t Experience

i n c l u d e e l e c t r o k i n e t i c s t a b i l i z a t i o n and i o n m i g r a t i o n .

w i t h t h e s e t e c h n i q u e s i s somewhat l i r x i t e d and w i l l r e q u i r e f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n w i t h r e g a r d t o p r o b a b l e s u c c e s s and r e l a t i v e c o s t .

It is

generally accepted t h a t t h e cost of electrokinetic s t a b i l i z a t i o n i s p r o h i b i t i v e ; however, w i t h t h e r a p i d l y i n c r e a s i n g c o s t o f c o n s t r u c t i o n m a t e r i a l s i t may b e f e a s i b l e i f a s u f f i c i e n t r e d u c t i o n i n volume change can b e o b t a i n e d .

REFERENCES Jones, D. E., Jr., and Holtz, W. G., "Expansive Soils - The Hidden Disaster," Civil Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol 43, ria. 8, Aug 1973, pp 49-51. Lamb, D. R. and Hanna, S. J., "Summary of Proceedings of Workshop on Expansive Clays and Shales in Highway Design and Construction," FHWA-RD-73-72, May 1973, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D. C. Keller, W. D., The Principles of Chemical Weathering, Lucas Bros., Columbia, Mo., 1962, p 65. Pettijohn, F. J., Sedimentary Rocks, 2d ed.,,Harper, New York, 1957, p 331. Weaver, C. E. and Beck, K. C., "Clay Water Diagenesis During Burial: How Nud Becomes Gneiss," Geologic Society of America Special Paper 13A, 1971. Carrol, D., Rock Weathering, Plenum Press, New York, 1970. Millot, G., Geology of Clays (translated from French by W. R. Farrand and H. ~ a ~ u e t )Springer-Verlag, , 1970, p 86. Shamburger, J. H. et al., "Design and Construction of Shale Embankments: Survey of Problem Areas and Current Practices," FHWA-RD75-61, Vol I ( in preparation), Jun 1975, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D. C. Witczak, M. W., "Relationships Between Physiographic Units and Highway Design Factors," Report 132, 1972, National Cooperative Highway Research Program, Highway Research Board, Washington, D. C. Belcher, D. J. et al., "Map - Origin and Distribution of United States Soils ,I1 1946, The Technical Development Service, Civil Aeronautics Administration, and the Engineering Experiment Station, Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Survey Bulletins, Washington, D. C. U. S. Geological Survey, Geologic Map of North America, 1965, Washington, D. C. American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Geologic Highway Map: Mid-Atlantic Region, 1970, Tulsa, Okla.

, Geologic Highway Map: 1972, Tulsa, Okla. ,

Tulsa, Okla. Geologic Highway Map: Geologic Highway Map:

Northern Rocky Mountain Region, Mid-Continent Region, 1966, Pacific Southwest Region, 1968,

Tulsa, Okla.

17. American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Geologic Highway Map: Texas, 1973, Tulsa, Okla. 18.

, Geologic Highway Map: Tulsa, Okla. , Geologic Highway Map: 1967, Tulsa, Okla.

Pacific Northwest Region 1973, Southern Rocky Mountain Region,

19.
20.

U. S. Geological Survey and State Geological Survey Geological Maps for Alabama, Arizona, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Utah. Grim, R. E., Clay Mineralogy, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1968.

21. 22. 23. 24.

25.

, 'Applik'dClay 'Mineralogy, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1962.

Gillot, J. G., Clay in Engineering Geology,Elsevier 1968. Press, London,

Weaver, C. E. and Pollard, L. D., The Chemistry of Clay Minerals, Elsevier Press, London, 1973. Deer, W. A,, Howie, R. A., and Zussman, J., Rock Forming Minerals, Volume 3: Sheet Silicates, Longmans, Green, and Co., Ltd., London,

1967.
26. 27. 28. Grimshaw, R. W., The Chemistry and Physics of Clays and Allied Ceramic Materials, 4th ed. , Wiley-Interscience, New York, 1971. Van Olphen, H., An Introduction to Clay Colloid Chemistry, WileyInterscience, New York, 1963, pp 93-95. Holtz, W. G., "~xpansiveClays - Properties and Problems,"~ Quarterly, Colorado School of Mines, Vol 54, NO. 4, Oct 1959, PP 89-125.

29.. Jo,hnson, L. D. , "Review of Literature on Expansive Clay Soils," Miscellaneous Paper S-69-24, ~ & e 1969, U. S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, CE, Vicksburg, Miss. 30. Jennings, J. E., "The Theory and Practice of Construction on Partly Saturated Soils as Applied to South African Conditions," Proceedings, First International Research and Engineering Conference on Expansive Clay Soils, Texas A&M University, College Station, Tex., 1965, pp 345-363. Sallberg, J. R. and Smith, P. C., "Pavement Design over Expansive , Clays: Current Practices and Research in the United states," Proceedings, First International Research and Engineering Conference on Expansive Clay Soils, Texas A&M University, College Station, Tex., 1965, pp 208-238. Parcher, J. V. and Liu, P., "Some Swelling Characteristics of Compacted Clays," Journal, Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division, American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol 91, No. SM3, May 1965. Ladd, C. C., "Mechanisms of Swelling by Compacted Clay," Water Tensions; Swelling Mechanisms; Strength of Compacted Soil, Bulletin

31.

32.

33.

No. 245, pp 10-26, Jan 1959, Highway Research Board, National Academy of Sciences - National Research Council, Washington, D. C. Gupta, S. N., Gupta, B. N., and Shukla, K. P., "Physico-chemical Properties of Expansive Clays in Relation to Their Engineering Behavior," Proceedings, Third Regional Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Haifi, Israel, Vol 1, Sep 1967, pp 84-89. Coughlan, K. J., Fox, W. E., and Hughes, J. D., " ~ ~ ~ r e ~ a t in' ion Swelling Clay Soils," Australian Journal of Soil Research,Vol 11, No.. 2, Sep 1973, pp 133-141. Greene-Kelly, R., "The Specific Surface Areas of Montmorillonites," Clay Mineral Bulletin, Vol 5, 1964, pp 392-400. Cooling, L. F., "Some Foundation Problems in Great Britain," Building Research Congress, London, 1951, pp 157-164. Escario, V., Saez, J., and Fisicas, L. C., "Measurement of the Properties of Swelling and Collapsing Soils Under Controlled Suction," Proceedings, Third International Research and Engineering Conference on Expansive Clay Soils, Haifi, Israel, Aug 1973, pp 195-200. Jennings, J. E., "A Comparison Between Laboratory Prediction and Field Observation of Heave of Buildings on Desiccated Subsoils," Proceedings, Fifth International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Paris, Vol 1, 1961, pp 689-692. Properties of Soils: Clay Minerals," Grim, R. E., "~h~sico-chemical Journal, Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division, American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol 85, SM2, Apr 1959, pp 1-17, Alpan, I., "The Geotechnical Properties of Soils," Earth Science Review, Vol 6, No. 1 , Feb 1970, pp 5-49. Diamond, S. and Kinter, E. B., "Surface Areas of Clay Minerals as Derived from Measurements of Glycerol ~etention ,I1 clays and Clay Minerals; Proceedings, Fifth National Conference on Clay and Clay Minerals, National Academy of Sciences - National Research Council Publication 566, 1958, pp 334-347. Woodward-Clyde and Associates, "A Review Paper on Expansive Clay Soils," Vol 1, 1968, Los Angeles, Calif. Krazynski, L. M., "The Need for Uniformity in Testing of Expansive clays," Proceedings, Workshop on Expansive Clays and-shales in Highway Design and Construction, D. R. Lamb and S. J. Hanna, ed., prepared for Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D. C., Vol 1 , May 1973, pp 98-128. Chen, F. H., "The Basic Physical Property of Expansive Soils," Proceedings, Third International Research and Engineering Conference on Expansive Clay Soils, Haifi, Israel, Aug 1973, pp 17-25. Alpan, I., "An Apparatus for Measuring the Swelling Pressure in

Expansive Sbils," Proceedings, Fourth International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Vol 1, 1957, pp 3-5. Komornik, A. and Livneh, A., "Influence of Granular Constituents on the Swelling Characteristics of Expansive Clays," Proceedings, Second International Research and Engineering Conference on Expansive Clay Soils, Texas A&M University, College Station, Tex., Aug 1969, pp 279-290. Blomquist, G. C. and Portigo, H. M., "Moisture, Density, and Volume Change Relationships of Clay Soils Expressed as Constants of Proportionality," Highway Research Board Bulletin No. 313, 1961, pp 78-91. Russell, H. W., Worsham, W. B., and Andrews, R. K., "Influence of Initial Moisture and Density on the Volume Change and Strength Characteristics of Two Typical Illinois Soils," Highway Research Board Proceedings, Vol 26, 1946, pp 544-550. Pacey, J. G., Jr., The Structure of Compacted Soils, M.S. Thesis, 1956, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Mass. Seed, H. B. and Chan, C. K., "Structure and Strength Characteristics of Clay," Journal, Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division, American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol 85, SM5, Oct 1959, pp 87-128.. Baver, L. D. and Winterkorn, H. F., "~orptionof Liquids by Soil Colloids 11," Soil. Science, Vol 40, 1935, pp 403-419. Mitchell, J. K., "Influence of Mineralogy and Pore Solution Chemistry on the Swelling and Stability of Clays," Proceedings, Third International Research and Engineering Conference on Expansive Clay Soils, Haifi, Israel, Vol 11, Aug 1973, pp 11-26. Donaldson, G. W., "The Occyrence of Problems of Heave and the Factors Affecting Its Nature," Proceedings, Second International Research and Engineering Conference on Expansive Clay Soils, Texas A&M University, College Station, Tex., Aug 1969, pp 25-36. Jennings, J. E. and Kerrich, J. E., "The Heaving of Buildings and the Associated Economic Consequences, with Particular Reference to the Orange Free State oldf fields," Civil Engineer in South Africa, Vol 4, No. 11, Nov 1962, pp 221-248. Sorochank, E. A , , "Certain Regularities of the Swelling of Soils," Journal, Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Indian National Society,Vol 9, No. 3, Jul 1970, pp 293-304. Jennings, J. E., h he Prediction of Amount and Rate of Heave Likely to be Experienced in Engineering Construction on Expansive Soils," Proceedings, Second International Research and Engineering Conference on Expansive Clay Soils,Texas A&M University, College Station, Tex. , Aug 1969, pp 99-109. Abelev, Yu. M., Sazhin, V. S., and Burov, E. S., "Deformational Properties of Expansive Soil," Expansive Clays - Properties and

Engineering Problems; Proceedings, Third Asian Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Haifi , Israel, Vol 1 , 1967, PP 57-59. 59. Matyas, E. L, and Radhakrishna, H. S., "Volume Change Characteristics of Partially Saturated Soils," Geotechnique, Vol 18, No. 4, Dec 1968, pp 432-446. 60. Donaldson, b . W. , "A Study of Level Observations on Buildings as Indications of Moisture Movements in the Underlying Soil," Moisture Equilibria and Moisture Changes in Soils Beneath Covered Areas, Butterworth, Australia, 1965, pp 156-163.

61.

, "The Prediction of Differential Movement on Expansive Soils," Proceedings, Third International Research and Engineering Conference on Expansive Clay Soils, Haifi, Israel, Aug 1973, pp

62. DeBruiJn, C. M. A., "Moisture Redistribution in Southern African Soils," Proceedings, Eighth International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Moscow, Vol 4, 1973, pp 37-44. 63. Cedergren, H. R. , Seepage, Drainage, and Flow Nets, Wiley , New York, 1968, pp 28-43. Airfields in Southern Rhodesia," Rhodesian Engineer, July 1960.

64. Russam, K., "An Investigation of Soil-Moisture Conditions at Three

65. Black, W. P. M., Croney, D., and Jacobs, J. C., "Field Studies of
the Movements of Soil Moisture," Road Research Technical Paper No. 41, 1958, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Road Research Laboratory, London.

66. Wong, H. Y. and Yong, R. M., "A Study of Swelling and Swelling
Force During Unsaturated Flow in Expansive Soils," Proceedings, Third International Research and Engineering Conference on Expansive Clay Soils, Haifi, Israel, Aug 1973, pp 143-151.

67, Jennings, J. E. B. and Williams, A. A. B., "Problems of Pavements

and Earthworks on Heavy Clays in Tropical Climates," Proceedings, Conference on Civil Engineering Problems Overseas, The Institution of Civil Engineers, London, 1960, pp 237-242. 68. Krinitzsky, E. L., Radiography in the Earth Sciences and Soil Mechanics, Plenum Press, New York, 1970.

69. Windom, J. E. et al., "Material Property Investig,ation for Project

Middle Gust, Events I, 11, and 111; Subsurface Exploration and Laboratory Test Results," Technical Report 5-73-10, Report 1, Oct 1973, U. S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, CE, Vicksburg, Miss. 70. Knott, R. A., Vispi, M. A., and Farrell, W. J., ateri rial Property Investigation for Project Middle Gust, Events IV and V; Subsurface Exploration and Laboratory Test ~esults,"Techni'cal Report S-73-11, Report 1 , Oct 1973, U. S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Sta-

tion, Vicksburg, Miss.

71. DeBruijn, C. M. A., Jr., welling Characteristics of a Transported

Soil Profile at Leeuhof Vereeninging (~ransvaal),"Proceedings, Fifth International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Paris, Vol, 1961, pp 43-49. 72. Mielenz, R. C. and King, M. E., "Physical-chemical Properties and Engineering Performance of Clays," Proceedings, National Conference on Clays and Clay Technology, California Division of Mines Bulletin 169, 1955, PP 196-254.

73. Obermeier, S. F., "Evaluation of Laboratory Techniques for Measurement of Swell Potential of Clays," Proceedings, Workshop on Expansive Clays and Shales in Highway Design and Construction, D. R. Lamb and S. J. Hanna, ed., prepared for Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D. C., Vol 1, May 1973, pp 214-254.

74. Yong, R. N. and Warkentin, B. P., Introduction to Soil Behavior,

Macmillan, New York, 1966. 75. Aitchison, G. D., "Problems of Soil Mechanistics and Construction on Soft Clays and Structurally Unstable Soils," Proceedings, Eighth International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Moscow, Vol 3, Aug 1973, pp 169-170. Characteristics of Unsaturated Clay," Journal, Soil ~echanics and Foundations Division, American Society of Civil Engineers, pp 33-50. Vol 95, SM1, ~an.1969,

76. Barden, L., Madedor, A. O., and Sides, G. R., "Volume Change

77. Kassiff, G., Baker, R., and Ovadia, Y., "swell-pressure Relationships at Constant Suction Changes," Proceedings, Third International Research and Engineering Conference on Expansive Clay Soils, Haifi, Israel, Aug 1973, pp 201-208.

78. Shaw, L. K., and Haliburton, T. A.,

valuation of Collected Data 1966-1969: Subgrade Moisture Variations," Interim Report VIII, Feb 1970, School of Civil Engineering, Oklahoma State University, St illwater, Okla.
Types," Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol 11, No. 2, May 1965, pp 141-166.

79. Hardy, R. M., "Identification and Performance of Swelling Soil

80. Brakey, B. A., "Road Swells: Causes and Cures," Civil Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol 40, No. 12, Dec 1970.

81.

, "Moisture Stabilization by Membranes, Encapsulation, and Full Depth Paving," Proceedings, Workshop on Expansive Clays and Shales in Highway Design and Construction, D. R. Lamb and S. J. Hanna, ed., prepared for Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D. C. , Vol 2, May 1973, PP 155-189.
Office, Chief of Engineers, Department of the Army, "Soil Sampling," Engineer Manual E M 1110-2-1907, 31 Mar 1972, Washington, D. C.

82.

83. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials,

"Manual on Foundation Investigation," 1967, Washington, D. C. Lambe, T. W. and Martin, R. T., "Composition and Engineering Properties of Soil," Highway Research Board Proceedings, Vol 32, 1953, PP 576-588. Novais-Ferreira, H. and Horta da Silva, J. A., "Luanda Expansive Clays and Laboratory Appreciation Criteria," Proceedings, Third International Research and Engineering Conference on Expansive Clay Soils, Haifi, Israel, Aug 1973, pp 53-59. Carroll, D., "clay Minerals and a Guide to Their X-ray Identification," Special Paper 126, 1970, Geological Society of America. Brown, G., ed., The X-ray Identification and Crystal Structures of Clay Minerals, Mineralogical Society (clay Minerals ~ r o u p , ) London, 1961. Buck, A. D., "~uantitativeMineralogical Analysis by X-ray Diffraction," Miscellaneous Paper C-72-2, Feb 1972, U. S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, CE, Vicksburg, Miss. Rich, C. I. and Kunze, G. W., ed., Soil Clay Mineralogy, University of North Carolina Press, Raleigh, 1964. Mackenzie, R. C., ed., The Differential Thermal Investigation of Clays, Mineralogical Society (Clay Minerals ~roup),London, 1957. Kacker, K., P. and Sen Gupta, D. P., "Prediction of Swelling Potential and Compression Index of Soils by Dye Adsorption," Journal, Indian Society of Soil Science, Vol 14, NO. 3, 1966, pp 151-159. Basu, R. and Arulanandan, K., "A New Approach to the Identification of Swell Potential of soils," Proceedings, Workshop on Expansive Clays and Shales in Highway Design and Construction, D. R. Lamb and S. J. Hanna, ed., prepared for Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D. C., May 1973, pp 315-340.

, "A New Approach to the Identification of Swell Potential of Soils," Proceedings, Third International Research and Engineerinq Conference on Expansive Clay Soils, Haifi, Israel, Aug 1973, p 1-11.
Sridharan, A. and Venkatappa Rao, G., "~ffectiveStress Theory of Shrinkage Phenomena, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol 8, N ; 4, NOV 1971, pp 503-513.

Properties of Expansive 95. Holtz, W. G. and Gibbs, H. J., l1~ngineering

96. Ravina, I., welling of Clays, Mineralogical Composition, and

Microstructure," Proceedings, Third International Research and Engineering Conference on Expansive Clay Soils, Haifi, Israel, Aug 1973, pp 61-63. 97. Sankoran, K. 5. and Venkateshwar, Rao, "A Microscopic Model of Expansive Clay," Proceedings, Third International Research and

Engineering Conference on Expansive Clay Soils, Haifi, Israel, Aug 1973, PP 65-71. Haase, M. C., "x-radiography of Unopened Soil Cores," Miscellaneous Paper 3-918, Aug 1967, U. S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, CE, Vicksburg, Mississippi Kantey, B. A. and Brink, A. B. A., "~aboratoryCriteria for the Recognition of Expansive Soils," South ~ f r i c a kNational Buildina Institute Bulletin No. 9, Dec 1952, pp 25-28. Lytton, R. L., "~xpansiveClay ~oughnessin the Highway Design System," Proceedings, Workshop on Expansive Clays and Shales in Highway Design and Constpction, D. R. Lamb and S. J. Hanna, ed., prepared for Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D. C., Vol 2, May 1973, pp 129-149. Gil, A. C., "Contribution to the Study of Expansive Clays of Peru," Proceedings, Second International Redearch and Engineerinq Conference on Expansive Clay Soils, Texas A&M University, College Station, Tex., Aug 1969, pp 183-193. Ladd, C. C. and Lambe, T. W., "The Identification and Behavior of Compacted Expansive Clays," Proceedings, Fifth International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Parish, Vol 1, 1961, pp 201-205.
I

Raman, V., "Identification of Expansive Soils from the Plasticity Index and the Shrinkage Index Data," The Indian Engineer, Calcutta, Vol 11, No. 1 , Jan 1967, pp 17-22. Gibbs, H. J., "Criteria for Identifying Expansive Soils arid Relation of Expansion to In-Place Density and Moisture Content." Proceedings, Workshop on Swelling Soils in Highway Design and Construction, Denver, Colo., Sep 1967.
, a

Chen, F. H., he Use of Piers to Prevent the Uplifting of Lightly Loaded Structures Founded on Expansive Soils," Proceedings, First International Research and Engineering Conference on Expansive Clay Soils, Texas A&M University, College Statiqn, 1965, pp 152-171. 106. Seed, H. B., Woodward, R. J., Jr., and Lundgren, R., "Prediction of Swelling Potential for Compacted Clays," Journal, Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division, American Society of Civil Enpineers

e
107. Dakshanamurthy, V. and Raman, V., "A Simple Method of Identifying an Expansive Soil," Soils and Foundations, Japanese Society of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engi'neering, Vol 13, No. 1, Mar 1973, PP 97-104. 108. Vijayvergiya, V. N. and Ghazzaly, 0. I., "Prediction of Swelling Potential for Natural Clays," Proceedings, Third International

109. Nayak, N. V. and Christensen, R. W., "Swelling Characteristics of compacted Expansive Soils," Clays and Clay ~inerals,Vol 19, NO. 4, 1974, pp 251-261. 110. Anderson, K. 0. and Thomson, S., "Modification of Expansive Soils of Western Canada with Lime," Proceedings,'Second International Research and Engineering Conference on Expansive Clay Soils, Texas A&M University, College Station, Tex., Aug 1969, pp 175-182. 111. Livneh, M., Kassiff, G., and Wiseman, G., "The Use of Index Properties in the Design of Pavements on Expansive Clays," Proceedings, Second International Research and Engineering Conference on Expansive Clay Soils, Texas A&M University, College Station, Tex., Aug 1969, pp 218-234. - --h 112. Altmeyer , W. T. , iscu cuss ion of E I I g ~ n e F h g ?mperthe@-s-s CEx, pansive Clays," Proceedings, American Society of Civil ~naineers Vol 81, Separate No. 658, Mar 1955, pp 17-19!. 113. Ranganatham, B. V. and Satyanarayana,?B., "A Rational Method of Predicting Swelling Potential for Compacted Expansive Clays," Proceedings, Sixth International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Fnaineering, Vol 1, 1965, pp 92-96,

114. Ring, G. W. 111, "shrink-Swell Potential of Soils," Public Roads, Vol 33, No. 6, Feb 1965, pp 97-10?. 115. Snethen, D. R., "Visit to Texas Highway Department and with Representatives of Center for Highway Research," Memorandum for Record, 26 Sep 1974, Soil Mechanics Division, Soils and Pavements Laboratory, U. S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, CE, Vicksburg, Miss. 116. Texas Highway Department, Manual of Testing Procedures ( 100 Series ) 117. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, he Classification of Soils and Soil-Aggregate Mixtures for Highway Construction Purposes," ~145-73, Specifications, Part 1, 11th ed., 1974, 118. Soil Conservation Service, Soil Classification: A Comprehensive -\ System (7th Approximation), U. S. Government Printing Office, \ , Washington, D. C., 1960; and 1967, 1968, and 1970 Supplements. 1 . . 119. , Soil Series of the United States, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Eslands: Their Taxonomic Classification, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., 1972. 120. , Soil Taxonomy: A Basic System of Soil Classification for Making and Interpreting Soil Surveys, U. S. Department of Agriculture Handbook No. 436 (in press), U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.
121. Philipson, W. R., Arnold, R. W., and Snagrey, G. A . , "~ngineering Values from Soil Taxonomy," Highway Research Board Record No. 426 1973, PP 39-49.

Arnold, R: W., "Soil Engineers and the New Pedological Taxonomy," Highway Research Board Record No. 426, 1973, pp 50-54. Department of the Navy, Bureau of Yards and Docks, "Soil Mechanics, Foundations and Earth Structures," Design Manual DM-7, 1971, Washington, D. C. Noble, C. A., "swelling Measurements and Prediction of Heave for a Lacustrine Clay," Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol 111, No. 1, Feb 1966, pp 32-41. McDowell, C., "The Relation of Laboratory Testing to Design for Pavements and Structures on Expansive Soils," Quarterly, Colorado school of Mines, Vol 54, No. 4, Oct 1959, pp 127-153. Smith, A. W., "~ethodfor Determining the Potential Vertical Rise, PVR," Proceedings, Workshop on Expansive Clays and Shales in Highway Design and Construction, D. R. Lamb and S. J. Hanna, ed., prepared for Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D. C., May 1973, pp 189-206. Jennings, J. E. B. and Knight, K., "The Prediction of Total Heave from the Double Oedometer Test," Symposium on Expansive Clays, The South African Institute of Civil Engineers, 1957-1958, pp 13-19, Burland, J. B., he Estimation of Field Effective Stresses and the Prediction of Total Heave Using a Revised Method of Analyzing I ' The ~ i d Engineer l in South Africa, the Double Oedometer Test , Vol 4, No. 7, Jul 1962, pp 133-137. Knight, K. and Greenburg, J. A., h he Analysis of Subsoil Moisture Movement During Heave and Possible Methods of Predicting Field Rates of Heave," The Civil Engineer in South Africa,Vol 12, No. 2 Feb 1970, pp 27-32. Jennings, J. E. et al., "An Improved Method for Predicting Heave Using the Oedometer Test," Proceedings, Third International ReSearch and Engineering Conference on Expansive Clay Soils, HaYfi, Israel, Vol 2, Aug 1973, pp 149-154. Sampson, E., Jr., Schuster, R. L., and Budge, W. D., "A Method of Determining Swell Potential of an Expansive Clay," Proceedings, First International Research and Engineering conference o n Expansive Clay Soils, Texas A&M University, College Station, Tex., 1965, PP 225-275. Lambe, T. W. and Whitman, R. V., he Role of Effective Stress in the Behavior of Expansive Soils," Quarterly, Colorado School of Mines,Vol 54, No. 4, 1959, pp 33-61. DeBruijn, C. M. A., Jr., he Mechanism of Heaving," Transactions, South African Institution of Civil Engineers, Vol 5, Sep 1955, pp 273-278. 134. Simons, N. E., Discussion of

h he Heaving of Buildings and

Associated Economic Consequences with Particular Reference to the Orange Free State Goldfields," by J. E. Jennings and J. E. Kerrick, The Civil Engineer in South Africa, Vol 5, No. 5, May 1963, pp 129-130. 135. Sullivan, R. A. and McClelland, B., "Predicting Heave of Buildings on unsaturated Clay," Proceedings, Second ~nternational~esearchand Engineering Conference on Expansive Clay Soils, Texas A&M University, College Station, Tex., Aug 1969, pp 404-420. Komornik, A., Wiseman, G., and Ben-Yaacob, Y., "Studies of In Situ Moisture and Swelling Potential Profiles," Proceedings, Second International Research and Engineering Conference on Expansive Clay Soils,Texas A&M University, College Station, Tex., Aug 1969. California Department of Highways, "Method of Test for Evaluating the Expansive Potential of Soils Underlying Portland Cement Concrete Pavements," Test Method No. California 354-B.

136.

137.

138. Lytton, R. L. and Watt, W. G., "Prediction of Swelling in Expansive Clays," Research Report 118-4, Sep 1970, Center for Highway Research, The University of Texas at Austin. 139. De Wet, J. A., "The Time-Heave Relationship for Expansive Clays," Symposium in Expansive Clays," Transactions, South African Institute of Civil Engineers, Dec 1957, pp 20-26.

140. Blight, G. E., "The Time Rate of Heave of Structures on Expansive Clays," Moisture Equilibria and Moisture Changes in Soils, Symposium in print, Butterworth, Australia, 1965, pp 78-88. 141. Richards, B. G., "Theoretical Transient Behaviour of Saturated and Unsaturated Soils Under Load and Changing Moisture Conditions," Technical Paper No. 16, 1973, Division of Applied Geomechanics, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization, Australia. 142. Seed, H. B., Mitchell, J. K., and Chan, C. K., "study of Swell and Swell Pressure Characteristics of Compacted Clays," Highway Research Board Bulletin NO. 313, 1962, pp 12-39. Soils,'' Soil PVC Meter, Publication 701, Dec 1960, Federal Housing Administration, Washington, D. C.

143. Lambe, T. W., h he Character and Identification of Expansive

144. Vijayvergiya, V. N. and Sullivan, R. A., "Sim~leTechnioue for ldentify& Heave Potential ," proceedings, workshop on Expansive
A

Clays and Shales in Highway Design and Construction, D. R. Lamb and S. J. Hanna, ed., prepared for Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D. C., Vol 1, May 1973, pp 275-294.

145. Komornik, A. and David, D., "prediction of Swelling Pressure of

clay," Journal, Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division, American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol 95, SM1, Jan 1969, pp 209-225. 146. Colorado State Department of Highways, A Review of Literature on

Swelling Soils, 1964.

Proceedings, First International Research and Engineering Conference on Expansive Clay Soils,Texas A&M University, College Station, Tex., 1965. Proceedings, Second International Research and Engineering Conference on Expansive Clay Soils, Texas A&M University, College Station, Tex. , Aug 1969. Proceedings, Third International Research and Engineering Conference on Expansive Clay Soils, Haifi, Israel, Aug 1973. Lamb, D. R. and Hanna, S. J., ed., Proceedings, Workshop on Expansive Clays and Shales in Highway Design and Construction, prepared for Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D. C., May 1973. Holtz, W. G., "Volume Change in Expansive Clay Soils and Control by Lime Treatment," Proceedings, Second International Research and Engineering Conference on Expansive Clay Soils, Texas A&M University, College Station, Tex., Aug 1969, pp 157-174. ivIcDowel1, C. , "Remedial Procedures Used in the Reduction of Detrimental Effects of Swelling Soils," Proceedings, First International Research and Engineering Conference on Expansive Clay Soils, Texas A&M University, College Station, Tex., Aug 1965, pp 239-254. Gerhardt, B. B., "Soil Modification Bighway Projects in Colorado," Proceedings, workshop on Expansive Clays and Shales in Highway Design and Construction, D. R. Lamb and S. J. Hanna, ed., prepared for Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D. C., Vol 2, May 1973, pp 33-48. Merten, F. K. and Brakey, B. A., Asphalt Membranes and Expansive Soils, Asphalt Institute Information Series No. 145 (IS 145), May

1968.
Gerhardt, B. B. and Safford, M. C., "Clifton - Kighline Canal Experimental Project, 170-1 (14) 33," Final Report, 1973, Colorado Highway Department. McDonald, E. B., "Review of Highway Design and Construction Through Expansive Soils (I95 - Missouri River West for 135 ~iles)," Proceedings, Workshop on Expansive Clays and Shales in Highway Design and Construction, D. R. Lamb and S. J. Hanna, ed., prepared for Federal Highway Adninistration, Washington, D. C., Vol 2, Yay 1973, p 230.

, "Lime Research Study - South Dakota Interstate Routes (16 ~rojects)," Final Report, Dec 1969, South Dakota Highway Department.
Diller, D. G., "Expansive Soils in Wyoming Highways," Troceedings, Workshop on Expansive Clays and Shales in Highway Design and Construction, D. R. Lamb and S. J. Hanna, ed., prepared for Federal Highway Administration, Washingtcn, D. C., Vol 2, !/lay 1973, p 250.

Brakey, B , A. and Carroll, J. A,, "~xperimentalWork Design, and Construction of Asphalt Bases and Membranes in Colorado and Wyoming," Paper presented at 1971 Annual Meeting, Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists, Oklahoma City; Okla., 1971. Brakey, B. A., "Use of Asphalt Membranes to Reduce Expansion in Certain Types of Expansive Soils," Paper presented at 53d Annual Meeting of American Association of State Highway Officials, Salt Lake City, Utah, Oct 1967. Brakey, B. A., "Use of Asphalt Membranes to Reduce Expansion in Certain Types of Expansive Soils," Paper presented at Highway Engineer Conference, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colo., 1968. McDonald, E. B., "~xperimentalMoisture Barrier and Waterproof Surface," Final Report, Oct 1973, South Dakota Department of Transportation. Teng, T. C., Mattox, R. M., and Clisby, M, B., "A Study of Active Clays as Related to Highway Design," Final Report, 1972, Mississippi State Highway Department.

, "Mississippi's Experimental Work on Active Clays," Proceedings, Workshop on Expansive Clays and Shales in Highway Design and Construction, D. R. Lamb and S. J. Hanna, ed., prepared for Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D, C., Vol 2, May 1973, PP 1-27. Teng, T. C. and Clisby, M. B., "Experimental Highway Construction Techniques for the Active Clays in Mississippi," Paper presented at National ASCE Transportation Engineering Specialty Conference, Montreal, 1974.
Morris, G. P., "Arizona's Experience with Swelling Clays and Shales," Proceedings, Workshop on Expansive Clays and Shales in Highway Design and Construction, D. R. Lamb and S. J. Hanna, ed., prepared for Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D. C., Vol 2, May 1973, p 283. Lamb, D. R. et al., "Roadway Failure Study No. 11: Behavior and Stabilization of Expansive Clay Soils," Final Report to Wyoming Highway Department, Aug 1967, University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyo. Watt, W. G. and Steinburg, M. L., "~easurementsof a Swelling Clay in a Ponded cut," Research Report 118-6, Oct 1974, Center for Highway Research, The University of Texas at Austin. Moisture Equilibria and Moisture Changes in Soils, Symposium in print, Butterworth, Australia, 1965. Dawson, R. F., "Modern Practices Used in the Design of Foundations for Structures on Expansive Soils," Quarterly, Colorado School of Mines, Vol 54, No. 4, Oct 1959. Haynes, J. H. and Mason, I?. C., "Subgrade Soil Treatment at ADparel Mart, Dallas, Texas," Proceedings, First International Research and Engineering Conference on Expansive Clay Soils,

Texas A&M University, College Station, Tex: , 1965, pp 172-182. Steinberg, M. L., "continuing Measurements of a Swelling Clay in a Ponded Cut,'' Research Report 118-8, Aug 1973, Center for Highway Research, The University of Texas at Austin. Mitchell, J. K. and Raad, L., "Control of Volume Changes in Expansive Earth Materials," Proceedings, Workshop on Expansive Clays and Shales in Highway Design and Construction, D. R. Lamb and S. J. Hanna, ed., prepared for Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D. C , May 1973, p 206.

California Division of Highways, "Lime-soil Stabilization Study--

A Selected Literature Review," Material's and Research Report

632 812-1, 1967. Diamond, S. and Kinter, E. B., "Mechanisms of Lime Stabilization," Public Roads, 1966, pp 260-273. Herrin, M. and Mitchell, H., "~ime-SoilMixtures," Highway Research Board Bulletin 304,1961. Jones, C. W., "stabilization of Expansive Clay Using Hydrated Lime and Portland Cement," Highway Research Board Bulletin No. 193, 1958, PP 40-47. Mitchell, J. K. and Hooper, D. R., "Influence of Time Between Mixing and Compaction on Properties of a Lime-Stabilized Expansive Clay," Highway Research Board Bulletin 304, 1961. Thompson, M. R., "Deep-Plow Lime Stabilization for Pavement Construction," Transportation Engineering Journal, American 'Society of Civil Engineers, Vol 98, No. TE2, May 1972, pp 311-323. Ingles, 0. G. and Neil, R. C., "Lime Grout Penetration and Associgted Moisture Movements in oil," Research Paper No. 138, 1970, Division of Applied Geomechanics, C.S.I.R.O., Australia. Lundy, H. L., Jr., and Greenfield, B. J., valuation of Deep In Situ Soil Stabilization by High Pressure Lime Slurry Injection," Highway Research Board Record No. 235, 1968, pp' 27-35. 182. Sherard, J. L., "~ixing-In-PlaceSoil and Portland Cement," Journal, Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division, American Society of Civil Engineers,No. S M ~ , Nov 1969, pp 1357-1363. Highway Research Board, "Soil Stabilization with Portland Cement," Highway Research Board Bulletin 292, 1961.

183.

184. Moh, Z., "Soil Stabilization with Cement and Sodium Additives ," Journal, Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division, American Society Dec 1962, pp 81-105. of Civil Engineers, Vol 88, No. S M ~ , 185. Katti, R. K. and Barve, A . G., "Effect of Inorganic Chemicals on the Consistency of an Expansive Soil Sample," Highway Research Board Bulletin No. 349, 1962, pp 1-8.
0.

186. Blaser, H. D. and Scherer,

J., "Expansion of Soils Containing

Sodium Sulfate Caused by Drop in Ambient Temperatures," Highway Research Board Special Report No. 103, 1969.

187. Hoover, J. M. et al., "Soil Organic Cationic Chemical Lignin,"

Highway Research Board Bulletin No. 241, 91960, pp 1-13.

188. Freitag, D. R. and Kozan, G. R., "An Investigation of Soil Waterproofing and Dust Proofing Materials," Highway Research Board Bulletin No. 282, 1961, pp 13-27. n with Paczyme," Final Report, Nov 1970, 189. Anday, M. C., " ~ Experiment Virginia Highway Research Council. 190. Landrum, H. W., Jo,rdan,G. W., and Patrick, R. L., "Evaluation of Paczyme as a Stabilizing Agent for Secondary Roads," Final Report, 1971, Research Project 170-4, North Carolina State Highway Commission.

191. Larutan Corporation, "Paczyme Means Better Roads at Less Cost," Anaheim, California. 192. 193.

c om position for Compacting soil," U. S. Patent 1968.

NO.

3,404,068,

Zel Chemical Company, "Reynolds Road Packer 2-3-5," Portland, Oreg

194. Central Chemical Company, "The Central System of Soil Stabilization," Fresno, Calif. 195. Ion Tech, Inc . , Stabilization 197.

h he Ion Tech Method," 1970, Daly City, Calif.

Expansive Clay shale," Four Year Report, Apr 1969.

196. South Dakota Department of Transportation, "~xperimental

Lamb, D. R. et al., "Roadway Failure Study No. I: Final Report," Aug 1966, prepared for Wyoming Highway Department by University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyo. at Depth," Interim Progress Report No. 1, Research Project 63-75, Aug 1964.'

198. Louisiana Department of Highways, "In Situ Stabilization of Soils

199. Higgins, C. M., "High Pressure Lime Injection,'' Research Report 17,
Research Project 63-75, Aug 1965, Louisiana Department of Highways. 200. Robnett, Q. L., Jamison, G. F., and Thompson, M. R., "~echnical Data Base for Stabilization of Deep Soil," Technical Report TR-70-84, Apr 1971, Air Force Weapons Laboratory, Kirtland Air Force Base, N. Mex. "Subgrade Improved with Drill Lime Stabilization," Rural and Urban Roads, Oct 1963. Colorado Department of Highways, "~ime-Shaftand Lime-Tilled Stabilization of Subgrades in Colorado Highways," Interim Report,

201. 202.

1967.
203. Higgins , C. M. , "Lime Treatment at ~epth,"Research Report 41, Final Report, June 1969, Louisiana Department of Highways.

Wright, -P. J., "Lime Slurry Pressure Injection Tames Expansive Clays," Civil Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers, Oct 1973. Wright, P. J., Personal Communication. Thompson, M. R. and Robnett, Q. L., "Pressure Injection Lime Treatment of Swelling soils," Paper presented at 54th Annual Meeting, Transportation Research Board, Washington, D. C., Jan 1975 Hartronft, B. C., Buie, L. D., and Hicks, F. P., "A Study of Lime Treatment of Subgrades to Depths of 2 Feet," 1969, Research and Development Division, Oklahoma Department of Highways. Seed, H. B., Lundgren, R., and Chan, C. K., "Effect of Compaction Method on Stability and Swell Pressure of Soils," Highway Research Bulletin No. 93, 1954, p 33. Gizienski, S. F. and Lee, L. J., "Comparison of Laboratory Swell Tests to Small Scale Field Tests," Proceedings, First International Research and Engineering Conference on Expansive Clay Soils, Texas A&M University, College Station, Tex., 1965, pp 108-119. Kassiff, G. et al., "Studies and Design Criteria for Structures on Expansive Clays," Proceedinos, First International Research and Engineering Conference on Expansive Clay Soils, Texas A&M University, College Station, Tex. , 1965, pp 276-301.

U. S. Army Engineer District, Omaha, CE, Letter to U. S. Army

Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, CE, Vicksburg, Miss., "Subject: Review and Analysis of Structures on Expansive Clays," Dec 1967, Omaha, Nebr. U. S. Army Engineer District, Kansas City, CE, Letter to U. S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, CE, Vicksburg, Miss., "Subject: Review and Analysis of Structures on Expansive Clays," Dec 1967, Kansas City, Mo. Leer, D. K., "Problems of High Volume Change Soils in North Dakota," Proceedings, Workshop on Expansive Clays and Shales in Highway Design and Construction, D. R. Lamb and S. J. Hanna, ed., prepared for Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D. C., Vol 2, May 1973, p 256. Colorado Department of Highways, "Embankment Construction Without Moisture-Density Control,I' Interim Report, 1967. Aylmore, L. A. G., Quirk, J. P., and Sills, I. D., "Effects of Heating on the Swelling of Clay Minerals," Highway Research Board, Special Report No. 103, 1969. Uppal, H. L., "Modification of Expansive Soils for Use in Road Work," Proceedings, Second International Research and Engineering Conference on Expansive Clay Soils, Texas A&M University, College Station, Tex., pp 421-430.

217.

Casagrande, L., "Review of Past and Current Work on ElectroOsmotic Stabilization of Soils," Harvard Soil Mechanics Series 45, Dec 1953. Zaslavsky, D. and Ravina, I., "Review and Some Studies in Electro- Equilibria and Moisture Changes in kinetic Phenomena ," ~oisture Soils, Symposium in print, Butterworth, Australia, 1965, p 55. Esrig, M., "Electrokinetic Stabilization of an Illitic Clay," Journal, Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division, American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol 93, No. SM3, May 1967, pp 109-128. O'Bannon, C. E., "stabilization of Chinle Clay by Electro-Osmotic ~reatment,"Phase Two Report to Arizona Department of Transportation, Feb 1973.

218.

219.

220.

221.

, "Stabilization of Chinle Clay by Electro-Osmosis and Base Exchange of Ions," Final Report to Arizona Department of Transportation, Feb 1973.

222.

, Stabilization of Montmorillonite Clay by ElectroOsmosis and Base Exchange of Ions, Ph. D. Dissertation, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Okla., Jul 1971.
Arora, K. S. and Scott, J. B., "Chemical Stabilization of Landslides by Ion Exchange," California Geology, May 1974.

223.

224. Mearns, R., Camey, R., and Forsyth, R., "Evaluation of the Ion Exchange Landslide Correction Technique," Highway Research Report, Jan 1973, California Highway Department. 225. Proceedings, Workshop on Swelling Soils in Highway Design and Construction, Federal Highway Administration, Denver, Colo., Sep

1967.
226. Kansas Highway Department, "Standard Specifications," 1973.
227. Arizona Highway Department, "Standard Specifications," 1969, and Supplement Specifications, 1974.
228. Louisiana Training Brochure, "Volume Changes in Ehbankments."

229. 230. 3 .

Colorado Highway Department, "standard Specifications," 1971, and planned revision'to Section 203. Little, W . S., "~oadwayDesign," Paper Presented to Asphalt Pavement Seminar, Mississippi State University, University, Miss. 1974. South Dakota Highway Department, "Standard Specifications,I t 1969, and "special Provisions for Subgrade Construction," 1969. Nolan, P. R., "~hicknessDesign for Flexible Pavement," 1970, Wyoming State Highway Department.

232.

233. Wyoming Highway Department, "Standard Specifications," 1971. 234. Oklahoma Highway Department, "Standard Specifications," 1967.
235. Haliburton, T. A., "subgrade Moisture Variations," Final Report, Aug 1970, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Okla.

236. Montana Highway Department, "Standard Specifications,'' 1970.

237.
California Highway Department, "Highway Design Manual," Oct 1974. Marchino, J. L., "State of the Art Study, Mancos Shale and Swelling Soils," Mar 1971, Utah Department of Highways. Texas Highway Department, "Standard Specifications," 1972.

238.
239.