FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

COURSE: CEM 410

MSc. (TRANSPORTATION) CIVIL ENGINEERING DISSERTATION

TITLE: Effect of Salinity on Alkali Earth Metals and Zeolites Stabiliser. NAME: WILLIAM A.T. MUTEPFA ID NO:200608088

SUPERVISOR: Dr. J. Egwurube

Dedicated to my family

Laboratory Evaluation of the Effect of Cement Concentration, Water Salinity and the Roadcem Additive on Kalahari Soil Strength ABSTRACT Botswana is experiencing a rapid growth in road infrastructure, increasing from 10km at independence to a total of close to 9000 km in 2008. This growth has increased demand for suitable road construction materials. Coupled to this challenge is the fact that close to seventy five (75) per cent of the country is covered in Kalahari Sands which are in most cases saline, and do not meet road construction specifications (Botswana Roads Department Guideline No.6, 2001). Due to Botswanas arid climate surface water is scarce in many parts of the country especially the western side. Water for road construction is sourced from local boreholes or imported from elsewhere being hauled over long distances. The borehole water within the vicinity of most construction sites has very often been found out to be highly saline with total dissolved solids (TDS) exceeding the maximum road specification limit of 2000 mg/l (Botswana Road Design Manual, 1982). The importation costs of suitable material for infrastructure development increases construction costs. To this end alternative design approach, methodology and alternative materials need to be investigated for future usage.

An investigation will be made on the effect of saline water (TDS 33296 as collected) on alkali earth metals and zeolites stabilizer. This complex chemical compound is manufactured by Powercem Southern Africa under the trade name Roadcem. Roadcem compound is reputed to have been successfully utilized in many parts of the world in cement stabilization of several types of problematic soils. One of the documented reports is that the additive can be used successfully with saline materials.

The aim of this laboratory investigation is to identify the effect of material salinity on the performance of Roadcem in improving the Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) of Kalahari Sands. Kalahari Sand of G7 classification and saline water samples were collected from Tsabong. Soil samples were prepared and stabilized with tap water and cement only for the control samples. Roadcem additive was added for further testing of 7 day UCS cured samples. The results achieved reflect an enhanced UCS strength for specimens with Roadcem additive but even more so in saline water mixtures. Unconfined compressive strength ranging from 13% up to

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57.9% was achieved on samples when comparing the neat sample and that to which Roadcem compound was added.

The results achieved show a strong agreement with the manufacturers claim as per the literature provided. These tests were conducted as a preliminary investigation to verify two claims, whether Roadcem improves the cement stabilized soil strength and that strength is still achieved with saline materials. The total dissolved solids content of the test water was 33 296 with a chloride and sulphate content of 13 995.7 mg/l and 8 704.4 mg/l respectively. This was in contrary to expected knowledge that chlorides and sulphates are detrimental to cement hydration and strength gain.

Based on the positive results of this testing it is proposed future work to be carried out to establish the long term effects of Roadcem on saline material stabilization. Further work will be able to capture if there are any long term effects of chlorides and sulphates on cement stabilized materials.

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ACKNOWLEGMENT I am grateful to Almighty God, Jesus Christ, for giving me the patience to complete this work. In addition I express my deepest and hearty thanks and great indebtedness and gratitude to my supervisor Dr. J. Egwurube, Civil Engineering Department, University of Botswana for his kind supervision, valuable courses during my developing study, guidance, valuable advice, reviewing the manuscript, and support during, my study program.

Special mention is also made of Dr. M. Dithinde, Civil Engineering Department, University of Botswana for his review, technical input and recommendations made to develop the final presentation.

I also extend my gratitude to Powercem Technology for their product, Roadcem, without which this research would not have been made possible. All the literature and technical advice during the experimentation have been very fruitful in achieving the objectives of this research.

I am deeply grateful to Mr. Kowa of Botswana Roads Department for their invaluable support, research material and advice given in respect of pursuing this investigation.

I extend my special and heartily thanks and gratitude to my work supervisor and employer Mr. V. Ponoesele of Lesedi Consulting Engineers (Pty) Ltd for granting me the time and opportunity to pursue my studies during demanding working periods.

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DISCLAIMER The opinions, findings and conclusions expressed in this report are those of the author and not necessarily those of the University of Botswana. This is a product of the authors efforts and investigation and where cited material is utilized acknowledgements are made.

Table of Contents Abstract.......................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................... iv Disclaimer .......................................................................................................................................v Table of Contents ......................................................................................................................... vi List of Figures............................................................................................................................... ix List of Tables ..................................................................................................................................x

Chapter 1 ........................................................................................................................................1 1.0 General Introduction ..............................................................................................................1 1.1 Problem Statement .................................................................................................................8 1.2 Objectives of The Study .........................................................................................................9 1.3 Scope of The Study ................................................................................................................9 1.4 Importance of the Study .......................................................................................................11 1.5 Study Environment ...............................................................................................................11 1.6 Plan of The Study .................................................................................................................12 Chapter 2 ......................................................................................................................................14 2.0 Background Review of Literature .....................................................................................14 2.1 Kalahari Sands......................................................................................................................14 2.2 Mechanism of Salt Damage .................................................................................................16 2.3 Incidences of Salt damage on Pavements in Botswana........................................................18 2.3.1 Sua Pan Airfield ............................................................................................................18 2.3.2 Nata Maun Road .........................................................................................................18 2.3.3 Sekoma - Kang Road .....................................................................................................19 2.3.4 Tsabong Middlepits Road...........................................................................................19 2.4 Current Practice to Limit Salt Damage to Bituminous Surfaced Pavements ......................20 2.5 Historical Review of Chemical Stabilisation in Road Construction ....................................21 2.6 Review of Some Chemical Stabilisers .................................................................................24 2.6.1 Calcium or Magnesium Chlorides .................................................................................24 2.6.2 Clay Additives ...............................................................................................................24
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2.6.3 Enzymes ........................................................................................................................25 2.6.4 Lignosulphates...............................................................................................................25 2.6.5 Synthetic Polymer Emulsions........................................................................................25 2.6.6 Tall Oil Emulsions From Paper Mills ...........................................................................25 2.6.7 Sulphonated Petroleum Products ...................................................................................25 2.6.8 Conaid Stabilisation.......................................................................................................26 2.6.9 Fly Ash Stabilisation .....................................................................................................26 2.6.10 Other Documented Tests on Kalahari Sands ...............................................................28 2.7 Traditional Stabilisers ..........................................................................................................28 2.7.1 Lime Stabilisation ..........................................................................................................28 2.7.2 Cement and Lime Stabilisation in Botswana.................................................................29 2.7.2.1 Jwaneng Kanye Road ....................................................................................29 2.7.2.2 Other Cement Stabilised Roads in Botswana ...................................................32 2.7.3 Properties of Cement .....................................................................................................32 2.7.4 Portland Cement and Roadcem Compound ..................................................................34 2.8 Roadcem Compound in Road Construction .........................................................................36 2.9 Laboratory Evaluation by Others .........................................................................................36 2.9.1 CSIR Transportek Initial Tests ......................................................................................37 2.9.2 Demonstration Projects .................................................................................................40 2.9.2.1 Rusternberg Koster Road ..................................................................................40 2.9.2.2 Danie Theron Road in Fochville .......................................................................41 3.0 Methodology ........................................................................................................................42 3.1 Field Sampling..................................................................................................................42 3.2 Test Procedures ................................................................................................................45 3.2.1 Material Classification Tests.....................................................................................45 3.2.2 Soil Index Properties .................................................................................................45 3.2.3 Compaction Characteristics ......................................................................................45 3.2.4 Strength Tests............................................................................................................46 3.2.5 Chemical Tests ..........................................................................................................49

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4.0 Results ..................................................................................................................................50 4.1 Material Characterisation .................................................................................................50 4.2 Water Quality ...................................................................................................................50 4.3 Compaction Characteristics ..............................................................................................51 4.4 Chemical Tests .................................................................................................................52 4.4.1 Ph Test Results..........................................................................................................52 4.4.2 Total Dissolved Solids Results .................................................................................53 4.5 Strength Characteristics....................................................................................................53 4.5.1 Alkali Earth Metals and Zeolites Stabiliser ..............................................................56 5.0 Discussion of Results ...........................................................................................................58 5.1 UCS Results......................................................................................................................58 5.2 Chemical Test Results ......................................................................................................59 5.3 Recommendations for Future Work .................................................................................61 5.0 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................62 Bibliography ...............................................................................................................................63 Appendices Appendix 1 Appendix 2 Appendix 3 Appendix 4 Appendix 5 Appendix 6 Appendix 7 Gravel Classification Compaction Characteristics Chemical Test Results for Water UCS Test Results Chemical Tests Results for Soil Samples Powercem Mixing Protocol Additional Photos

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LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Groundwater Total Dissolved Solids ...........................................................................4 Figure 2: Ecozones Map of Botswana ..........................................................................................5 Figure 3: Map of the Study Area ................................................................................................12 Figure 4: Decision Flow Chart as per Jones and Ventura .......................................................36 Figure 5: Sampling Positions ......................................................................................................42 Figure 6: Kalahari Sand Being Loaded for The Subgrade Layers by the Contractor ........43 Figure 7: Sampling Borehole Water for Road Construction ..................................................44 Figure 8: Sieve Analysis of the Sand Sample Using the Mechanical Shaker ........................46 Figure 9: Proctor Mould and Sample Being Weighed, Determination of OMC/MDD .........47 Figure 10: Soaked Specimens Prior to Compressive Strength Determination ......................48 Figure 11: Specimen Failure Due to Applied Loading ............................................................48 Figure 12: Graph of UCS against Cement Content .................................................................55 Figure 13: Maximum Dry Density Against Cement Content .................................................56

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LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Areas Covered by Saline Soils .......................................................................................2 Table 2: Common Water Soluble Salts ......................................................................................16 Table 3: Typical Composition of Ordinary Portland Cement .................................................33 Table 4: UCS Results from CSIR Transportek ........................................................................38 Table 5: Material Properties .......................................................................................................50 Table 6: Results of Chemical Analysis of Borehole Water Samples ......................................51 Table 7: Compaction Characteristics of the Specimens ..........................................................52 Table 8: Results for Cured 7 Day Unconfined Compressive Strength ..................................54

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Effect of Salinity on Alkali Earth Metals and Zeolites Stabiliser. Chapter 1 1.0 General Introduction The prevalence of saline soils worldwide has led to deformation of structures founded on them including numerous engineering failures. In the USSR, the estimated area occupied by saline soils is in the region of 3. 5 million square kilometers. (Petrukhin, 1993). The extent of the problem has been extensively reported in numerous investigations and studies and has been evidenced by several pavement failures in India, Africa, the Middle East, Australia, USA, Europe and USSR, particularly in regions where saline soils are prevalent. The symposium on Engineering Characteristics Arid Soils, 1994 has a collection of detailed studies and limitations on the current knowledge of arid soils. The effort has collated most of the known structural failures linked to saline substructures. In particular aspects such as classification, identification, chemical and engineering behaviour have been dealt with in great detail from soils as diverse as clay strata at Bassilica to saline loess soils of inland China. Petrukhin has also distinguished that saline soils is a broad term encompassing a wide variety of soils which differ in their granular composition. Saline soils vary from detrital soils to clays. Though the soils are grouped together as saline soils, they have very little in common with respect to their physical and engineering properties and drainage characteristics. Sepage in detrital soils is characterised by turbulent flow leading to piping, whilst in sands, sandy loams and loams Darcys law is applicable. Clays do not have seepage properties. The extent of the prevalence of saline soils is summarised in Table 1 below as extracted from the Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations Soil Map of the World. Although this map was produced from a pedological point of view it gives an estimate of the prevalence of saline soils. It is intresting to note the differences in areas as derived at by Petrukhin for Russia and the Soil Map areas for Asia. However both estimates still underscore the full extent of the global problem of soil salinity. In this report the main focus of the study will be based on inland saline soils and borehole water. The materials used in the enquiry were collected from Tsabong village in the south western part of Botswana and assesed on their responses to Roadcem stabiliser additive and cement stabilisation.

Region

Area (106 ha) 69.5 53.1 19.5 59.4 84.7 16.0 20.7 322.9

Africa Near and Middle East Asia and Far East Latin America Australia North America Europe Total Area

Table 1: Areas Covered In Saline Soils as Per Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations Soil Map Of The World; adopted from FAO, March 2009. The prevalence of saline soils has been linked to semi arid and desert regions by several scholars (Obika, Woodbridge, Freer-Hewish, Newill, 1994; Petrukhin, 1993; Naifeng, 1994; Warren, 1994; Ministry of Works and Transport Botswana Roads Department, 2000 and 2001), amongst others. To date a code of good practice has been developed to circumvert the risks assosciated with pavement construction with saline materials. In Botswana this has culminated in the development of Guideline No. 6 (Ministry of Works and Transport Botswana Roads Department, 2001). Most of the recommendations in this guideline are based on the early work by Obika et tal (1994). Additional work is still required to identify alternative construction methods that can incorporate the saline material in pavement structures without adversely affecting the performance of the pavement in service. Pavement failure due to high salinity of construction materials on many local road construction projects is reported. The scale of the problem in Botswana was been established through observation of pavement failures in the past. Most notable amongst these failures include Sua Pan Airfield (Bennet, 1991), Nata-Gweta road, Orapa-Mopipi-Rakops road, Selibe-Phikwe runway, the trans-Kgalagadi road and several other road sections (Ministry of Works and Transport Botswana Roads Department, 2001). A failure on these pavements is characterized by surface blistering of the bituminous surfacing. The ensuing moisture ingress
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on the exposed wearing course led to pothole formation and loss of pavement riding quality and further deterioration through loss of compacted bases. Ongoing construction projects that are adversely affected include Tsabong Bokspit Road (Botswana Roads Department Progress report No. 6, 2008). The construction is behind schedule due to high water salinity amongst some of the factors contributing to construction delays. On this construction project, it is reported that construction water is imported from South Africa. Local saline water is diluted with the imported water to buffer the salinity. This renders the water within the acceptable limits of total dissolved solids (TDS) for usage in road construction. Rapid expansion of the road network in Botswana has contributed to the growth of demand for suitable construction materials. The network has expanded from 10 km of surfaced flexible pavement in the central business district at independence in 1966, to a total of 8916 km of both paved and unpaved inter-district roads in 2008. ( Mokgethi, 2007).Other statistics have estimated the road network to be 10km in 1966 and 18 000km in 1992 (Madzikigwa, 2007). The difference in lengths probably arise from the exclusion of unpaved District Council Roads by Mokgethi and the inclusion of the same in Madzikigwas measurements. Nevertheless this rapid growth has generated an insatiable demand for suitable road construction materials especially for the base and subbase materials. Associated with this growth are environmental concerns, material depletion, material scarcity, increased haulage and subsequent construction costs. These factors are obstacles to infrastructure development (Motswagole and Monametsi, 1996). This means that alternative road construction materials, methods and design have to be identified and implemented accordingly to cope with the rising demand for specified road materials (Gourley & Greening, 1999). Botswana has significant deposits of Kalahari Sands. They are mainly located to the western part of the country and these pose serious engineering problems in road construction. Kalahari sands are fine-grained soils varying in colour from white to greenish grey. The soils are collapsible, have a poor structure and exhibit saline conditions. The saline nature of the soils makes them undesirable for base course materials due to the deleterious effect salts have in the bond formation between the road base and the bituminous compounds used in priming and surfacing. Compounding this problem is the fact that Botswana is a semi arid country (Botswana Meteorological Dept, 2003; Lancaster, 1978; Wright, 1978) with annual rainfall varying between 250 to 650 mm falling mainly in the summer months of October to the following April. Consequently there is very little surface runoff and the few water pools that collect in depressions eventually dry off in the summer heat. Some of the water infiltrates into
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the ground recharging the ground water tables whilst the rest is held by capillary action withinin the sand voids. Most road construction is carried out using borehole water that is saline and has a high total dissolved solids content that does not meet the Road Design Manual specifications (Ministry of Works and Communications Roads Department, 1982). Where there is need for cement stabilization of subbases and bases to improve material properties saline water cannot be used.
Kasane
8000000

7900000

7800000

Maun
50000

7700000

Orapa
7600000

Francistown
5000

Ghanzi Serowe Palapye Mahalapye

7500000

2000

7400000

7300000

7200000

Molepolole Gaborone Kanye Lobatse Tsabong

1000

0 7100000

7000000 400000 500000 600000 700000 800000 900000 1000000 1100000 1200000 1300000 1400000
Natural Neigbour

Fig. 1, Groundwater Total Dissolved Solids Map Fig. 1 of the Botswana hydro geological map above shows the distribution of the salinity levels of borehole water. The salinity ranges from 0 mg/l in tap water to peak in excess of 50 000 mg/l of total dissolved solids (TDS). Incidentally, the areas to the west of Botswana have
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a higher occurrence of high salinity compared to the eastern part of the country. The same areas are also overlain with Kalahari Sands. This is in alignment with the soil distribution of Botswana as shown in Figure 2 below.

Fig 2. Ecozones Map of Botswana Botswana The evident problems include the unavailability of suitable water that meets construction specifications and inadequate water for road construction in the upper pavement layers (subbase and base). There is a lack of good quality gravel materials to the western part of Botswana. Road construction challenges include increased energy consumption associated with exporting unsuitable material and importing suitable materials, gravel and water, for the road. The additional haulage distances traversed to achieve these objectives impact negatively on the environment. Low quality gravels demand for increased sampling frequency to reduce risks arising from material variability. The construction of haul roads also contributes significantly to deterioration of natural environments. There is increased air and noise pollution, disturbance of the natural habitats, indigenous flora and fauna, dust and noise
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pollution, scarring of the natural landscape from construction of access roads leading to increased runoff and soil erosion, and depletion of the finite gravel resource. These factors have negatively affected the infrastructure development in the western part of Botswana. In recent years, the Government of Botswana has invested in major road links like the Trans Kgalagadi highway in efforts to link the country with Namibia and South Africa. In the process, it is anticipated that greater accessibility will promote economic development in that area. To offset the rising construction costs of providing good roads in areas overlain with poor quality construction materials it is necessary to find solutions that are more amenable that promote the use of in situ materials at reasonable costs. The unsuitable high saline local groundwater within road construction localities leaves developers with no viable alternatives other than to resort to the use of portable water for construction of the upper road layers. This imparts additional construction constraints in the sourcing and haulage of portable water. These additional construction efforts are setbacks to the provision of affordable infrastructure through out the country. Alternative construction techniques should provide a solution sooner than later. Rapid advances in the chemical and petrochemical industry in the past fifty years have developed products, which may offer potential solutions subject to comprehensive laboratory testing and trials. To this end, the documented benefits of some of the commercially available products need to evaluation as a means of identifying value engineering designs and eco friendly construction techniques. The balance achieved in improving the material quality as per the specifications of traditional design and construction methods and establishing durability through observed field trials. Based on pavement failures in the past and recurrent problems, the natural progression is to identify synergistic methods of road construction that facilitate the usage of natural in situ materials in as much as possible to offset the economic, environmental and social costs. Chemical stabilization is one of the alternative means of modifying and enhancing ordinary road construction materials to suit desired specified purposes. Chemical stabilisation involves the use of chemical compounds to alter the physical-chemical properties of an engineering soil so that its properties may conform to the minimum expected design specifications and predetermined performance criteria. The most common stabilisers used in Botswana on a large scale are traditional stabilizers, mainly cement and lime (Lionjanga, Toole and Greening, 1987). In recent years, the usage of fly ash, a pozzolana, has been gaining appeal due to the availability of fly ash in large
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quantities from thermal coal fire stations. Sahu (2001) has also established that fly ash has potential for use in improving CBR of several problematic soils in Botswana. For Kalahari Sands minimal improvement to CBR is observed for fly ash content of up to 25% and beyond. At fly ash content of 28% and 32%, there was a trend towards an increasing CBR, which peaked at a CBR of 25% at fly ash content of 32%. Other scholars worldwide have achieved similar results, as fly ash has proved effective in soil strength improvement as evidenced by increased CBR and unconfined compressive strength when used on different problematic soils. (Kroeger, Bane and Chugh, 2005; V.K.Mathur, 2007; P. Eskioglou, 2008). Substantial studies have also been carried out through field trials which have culminated in the construction of fly ash stabilised roadworks in India, United States of America and Europe. Based on Sahus results fly ash is is not recommended as a potential stabiliser for Kalahari Sands. The large volumes of fly ash required to bring appreciable changes in CBR require hauling large volumes of fly ash over long distances. The main source of fly as in Botswana is the Morupule Power Station near Palapye. Fly ash stabilisation in Botswana may be useful within the vicinity of Moruple. A Netherland based company, Powercem Southern Africa founded in 1995, has an operational branch in South Africa. The company has produced innovative products for use in the construction industry. One of their products, Roadcem has been developed as an additive for use in cement stabilized road construction materials. Concrecem, Immocem and Nuclicem are some of their other products manufactured respectively for use in concrete construction, waste and chemical management and nuclear waste management. Based on the marketing literature provided by Powercem and investigative technical reports form Universities in South Africa evidence shows that there is great potential for the product in treating a number of problematic soils. Demonstration projects have also established the efficacy of the compound. The oldest road to be constructed using Roadcem is in Freiburg (Germany) and is over 13 years old. The pavement is still intact and has not yet experienced potholes, distress in use, rutting and is virtually maintenance free. The oldest Roadcem stabilized road in South Africa is well over three years and is still intact with no reported rutting, potholes or maintenance required to date. The manufacturers have indicated that Roadcem is a compound consisting of alkali earth metals and synthetic zeolites and has received acclaim abroad for its universal application in stabilizing most soil types. The main objective of this paper is to evaluate the potential of this compound in the cement stabilization of Kalahari Sands with saline water. Tests by
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Universities in South Africa have verified some of the product qualities (University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg School Of Civil and Environmental Engineering, 2007; Powercem Synopsis, 2007). This compound has been launched by the manufacturer as having several beneficial properties that has to date been established as one of the leading stabilizing and environmentally friendly compound of its kind on the market. Laboratory tests are conducted to assess the material response in regards to 7 day unconfined compressive strength (UCS) tests. It is anticipated that based on the outcomes of this initial laboratory enquiry sufficient data will be gathered which may support the development of site field trials of the product. Of particular interest are the findings identified by other scholars on the subject of chemical stabilization in Botswana and the challenges faced. One area that has been repeatedly identified is the lack of suitable construction water and the unavailability of water for curing stabilized layers (Sahu, 2001). High salinity from borehole water has detrimental effects on the hydration of cement and lime used in stabilized layers. Borehole water in Botswana has unreasonably high levels of chlorides, which are detrimental to cement. Roadcem additive has been documented to be effective when used with saline materials or water containing chlorides. However, the extent of salinity tolerance or resistance to which the product can be subjected has not been reported in sufficient detail to make a value judgement on the full potential effectiveness of the product. (Powercem Technologies, 2008). This claim, if verified through results, has very strong socio-economic and environmental importance to countries in semi arid climates, particularly Botswana, which experience problems with road construction using saline materials. This property will be investigated further in this report to identify if there is peak salinity level at which the effectiveness of Roadcem in stabilization is affected. 1.1 Problem Statement The problems experienced in road construction with saline materials included: Suitable road construction materials, both water and gravel, that meet the Botswana Road Design Manual specifications are scarce. Surface deterioration through blistering of surfacing seals leads to moisture ingress into the base and subgrades, rutting of surfaced areas. (Obika, Freer-Hewish and Newill, 1992) In some countries, cases of piping failure have been reported. This occurs during phase changes of solid salt crystals as they dissolve in water during periods of rain or

underground moisture movements. The resulting voids from the dissolved crystal lead to piping failure and subsequent structural soil collapse. (Petrukhin, 1989) Maintenance and rehabilitation of salt damaged pavements has proven to be costly in the past (Bennet and Netterberg, 2004). It has also been reported that the hydration products from some salts produce expansive forces, which lead to upliftment or heaving of pavement surfaces. The remedial measures and current construction practice developed to mitigate the problem of salt damage do not address the fundamental issue of in situ material usage. The guidelines developed still limit the usage of insitu materials through setting the minimum acceptable tolerances of salinity expected in any given constructed pavement layer to reduce failure risks. Alternative and effective strategies include the usage of vapour barriers between the subgrade and base course layers to prevent salt migration to the pavement surface where it is most harmful. Observations have identified that thin bituminous surfacing are more susceptible to salt damage. Thick asphalt and bituminous pavements are not easily affected ( Thagesen and Robinson, 2004).

1.2 Objectives of the Study The key objectives are to determine the following hypotheses : Determine the effect of salinity in Roadcem stabilised Kalahari Sand. Determine the mechanism, if it exists, of how Roadcem overcomes material salinity. Whether strength gain is sustained within high saline conditions or salinity is eliminated through chemical reaction leading to improvement in strength. Determine the optimum Roadcem/cement/Kalahari Sand for stabilization.

1.3 Scope of the Study Kalahari Sand and borehole water were collected from Tsabong village from some of the Tsabong Bokspits road construction material sources. The investigation here will focus on the laboratory study of 7 day cured unconfined compressive strength results of test samples of cement stabilised Kalahari Sands and cement stabilized Kalahari Sands with Roadcem compound. The cement concentration will be varied from 1.5% to a maximum of 9 %.
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Ordinary tap water (0 total dissolved solids) and saline water (33296 total dissolved solids) will be used in the mixtures to determine the effect if any of salinity on Roadcem compound. All the samples will have their Ph, electrical conductivity and total dissolved solids measured before and after crushing the unconfined compressive strength test samples. The basis of assessment that will govern the procedure and outcomes of the results are drawn from The Botswana Standard Specification for Roads and Bridges (1983), The Botswana Road Designers Manual (Ministry of Works and Communications Roads Department, 1982) , Road Note 31 and Roads Department Gudeline Number 6 (Ministry of Works and Transport Botswana Roads Department, 2001). These documents are used extensively in the design and construction monitoring of roads and highways within Botswana. The Botswana Road Design Manual requires a minimum unconfined compressive strength (UCS) of 0.75 Mpa for material to qualify for use in sub-base layers. Materials designated for construction of base layers are expected to have a minimum UCS of 1.5MPa. The Technical Recommendations For Highways (Department of Transport South Africa, 1996) recommends the use of 2 3 % cement stabilization as the ideal compositions for material modifications to reduce the risks of carbonation and shrinkage cracking when drying. Thagesen (1996) has recommended that soils with a Plasticity Index (PI) of less than 20% and a Coefficient of Uniformity (Cu) of at least 5 would be suitable for cement stabilization. The success of the stabilization experiment with Kalahari Sands will be weighed in against these criteria which are standard practice in Botswana.

Results previously achieved by others on Kalahari Sand stabilization will also be reviewed as a means of assessing the general trends observed to date on with the different stabilizers to date. A brief analysis of results also achieved with Roadcem compound will also be looked at to see the general expectations comparison of results with those achieved in this study.

Kalahari Sand was selected for this analysis because it occupies by area, a large geographical land mass of Botswana and an equally vast area within southern Africa. Kalahari Sands are problematic regarding their geotechnical properties and may be considered a representative soil in Botswana.
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1.4 Importance of the Study

Based on the documented claims of Roadcem capabilities, it is necessary to establish its efficacy with a problematic soil like Kalahari Sand which is prevalent across the country in large quantites. Additionally the asserted ability of Roadcem compound to work effectively with saline construction materials will be an additional bonus if established. Most of Botswana water sources used in road construction include borehole water which is highly saline. Establishement of these potential properties can reduce construction costs tremendously enabling insitu material to be used on construction sites.

1.5 Study Environment

Tsabong, 26o 1 12 S, 22o 24 20 E, is located 494 km to the south west of Gaborone, the capital city of Botswana. Kalahari Sand samples were collected from Tsabong on the construction site for the Tsabong Middlepits road located at coordinates X = 62138.0854, Y = 2888714.2734, close to chainage 9.84 km along the Tsabong Middlepits Road. This was selected as ideal because the road construction has suffered from lack of suitable water that has low total dissolved content to meet the Botswana Road Design Manual (1982) specification. At some stage, during construction, it has been reported that non saline water had to be imported from neighbouring South Africa to dilute the water on site and make it usable for road construction purposes. Two other road projects in the area, Tsabong Bokspits and Kang - Hukuntsi, which are also currently under construction are currently facing similar difficulties. The Kang Hukuntsi project is reportedly 8 months behind the program due to unavailability of non saline water in the construction area. Based on these facts, the study area forms an intresting case study in that it presents two challenges for road construction. The unavailability of non saline water/construction water in general and the prevalence of heavy Kalahari Sands which are a difficult road construction material. The southern map of Botswana for the study area is shown in Fig 3 in relation to the capital city, Gaborone.

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Fig 3. Map of the Study Area

1.6 Plan of The Study

This report is has been prepared with the objective of identifying the effect of salinity on Roadcem material. For clarity the report is divided into five chapters. Chapter 1 introduces the problem and extent of saline soils and a brief historical background to its nature together with current developments. Chapter 2 discusses the detailed literature review and looks into the background of chemical stabilization in general world wide and within Botswana. A review of the problems of saline materials, their origins and impact on pavement structures is discussed in further detail as well as a review of current construction and damage mitigation practice in saline prone areas. This chapter also introduces Roadcem compound and the stabilization mechanisms that are expected to aid in reducing material salinity. Chapter 3 focuses on the methodology and processes adopted for the experimental review. The
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strengths and weaknesses of each method will be outlined and weighed against current road design practice. Chapter 4 deals with the presentation, analyses and discussion of results. Chapter 5 is the conclusion and recommendations for the way forward in view of the report findings.

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Chapte er 2 2.0 Bac ckground - Review of Literature e. 2.1 Kal lahari Sand ds Kalahar ri sands are e arid aeolia an, soils located to the west of the Botswana and occupy y at least 75% of f the countr ry and 2.5 million m square kilomet ters of Sout thern Africa a. (Simmer rs, 1987; Thomas s and Shaw w, 1991; Mi inistry of Works W and Transport Botswana, B R Roads Department, 2000). Simmers (1987) ( also o adds that they are fluvial and d lacustrine sedimenta ary sand s from the Late Cretacious to recent. r Th he sands may m be calc cified with calcrete deposits deposits s making th hem silcrete es. Aeolian soils s are wi ind transpor rted soils an nd vary in th hickness from 10 00 200 m as docume ented by Tyson and Cri imp (1998) quoted in Scholesa, Dowty, D Caylor, Parsons, Frost, F and Shugart S (20 002). Fluvia al and lacus strine sands s on the oth her hand are form med through river eros sion and as s lake deposits. Simme ers (1987) a and Scholesa et tal (2002) have also identified that Kalah hari Sands lie in a re egion wher re surface water w is generally scarce du ue to free drainage d of the sands and a low ann nual rainfal ll (Simmers s, 1987). They ex xhibit colou ur variation ns from pur re white to grayish, lig ght brown to dark bro own and reddish. According g to Guidel line No. 1 (Ministry ( of o Works an nd Transpor rt Botswana Roads Departm ment, 2000) ), the colour r of the san nd is also ref flective of the t engineer ring characterics of the soil ls. They are e generally non n plastic on the 0.42 25 sieve but t can have p plasticities of PI > 10 on th he 0.075mm m sieve. (Dierks, 1992) Based on Botswa ana Roads Department D t unpublish hed records, , at the righ ht mix proportions alcrete, Kalahari Sands s can be us sed as subg grade or su ubbase laye ers. On the eir own, with ca Kalahar ri Sands have been identified i t have hig to gh CBRs which mee et the base e course requirem ment accor rding to Botswana B Road Design Manua al (Ministr ry of Wor rks and Commu unications, 1982) and Dierks (19 992). The main m proble em with the e soils in th heir neat state, as s with all sa ands in the unbound st tate, is that they are su usceptible to o moisture changes and loose their bea aring capacity when we etted.

Sahu and a Piyo (2001) have established d that Kalah hari sands are a fine gra ained, cohes sionless, have lit ttle or no str ructure and exhibit col llapse chara acteristics. Subgrade S co ollapse of up p to 700 mm has s been reco orded by th he Namibian n Departme ent of Trans sport (Dierk ks, 1992). Belknap B and Lan nge as quoted in (Wang, DOdor ricoa, Ring groseb, Coet tzeec and M Macko; 200 07) have indicate ed that Kala ahari Sands have a crus st impregna ated with sa alts. The cru ust is formed by the wetting g and rapid d drying of o the soil l and the upward ca apillary mo ovement of saline
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underground water on evaporation. (Dierks, 1992; Woodbridge, Obika, Freer-Hewish & Newill, 1994; Sahu and Piyo, 2001; Thagesen, Robinson, 2004; Thomas & Dougill, 2006). Wanga et tal have also observed that the soils are acidic in nature. The salt impregnated soils are a source of salinity in road construction material. The other contributory source arises from low annual rainfall, high evaporation rates and the fine grained structure of the sand particles which impede infiltration rates leading to poor groundwater recharge (Simmers, 1987; Dierks, 1992). This leads to concentration of salts within the groundwater rendering it unsuitable for construction of upper pavement layers. Dierks (1992) has also indicated that densification of the Kalahari subgrades is necessary if the upper pavement layers are to maintain the design integrity under traffic loading. Dierks has observed that the experience of the Namibian Roads Department, has been that achieving densities of 100% without collapsing the subgrades was sufficient to improve bearing strength. This was achieved through impact or vibratory rollers and the trial sections along main road 61 and the Gobabis Hospital has withstood 15 years of construction without collapse of the subgrade Kalahari Sands. On the other hand, the Botswana Roads Design Manual (1982) recommends the following treatment to collapsible soils in order to achieve stable subgrades :

Depths of 0 to 500mm compacted to 90% MOD AASHTO Depths of 500mm to 1000mm compacted to 85% MOD AASHTO.

The compaction method is normally established on sites through trial runs. Road construction through areas overlain by Kalahari Sands is normally collapsed to give sufficient subgrade support for the pavement layers as reported by Thagesen and Robinson (2004). Thagesen et tal have also concluded that Kalahari Sands cannot be effectively stabilized with cement due to their single sized particle grading. Instead they recommend foamed bitumen as a potential stabilizing agent. Based on this experience of others it can be identified that the problems assosciated with Kalahari Sand include: Fine grained soils with low permeability Have a collapsible structure Have saline properties which may render them unusable as road bases in surfaced roads
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The fine grained structure renders the sands unsuitable for cement stabilization. The soils are susceptible to moisture changes even when compacted resulting in loss of bearing capacity when used for pavement subgrades.

2.2 Mechanism of Salt Damage on Pavements Substantial research work has been carried out in Botswana regarding the effects of salt damage to bituminous surfaced pavements. Four sources of salts in pavements have been identified, from the soil, construction water and salts derived form underground water movements (Obika, Freer-Hewish and Newill; 1992). Other sources of salts may be external as was the case with the pavement failure at Selibe-Phikwe runway. Maswikiti and Obika (2000) have identified that mine waste used to construct the runway was the source of salts which caused blistering to the pavement. The deterioration has since halted. Obika, Freer-Hewish and Newill (1992) have suggested the following mechanisms described briefly herewith as culprits in pavement surfacing damage. Pavement surfacing damage has been attributed mainly to water soluble salts. The most common soluble soil salts have been tabulated in Table 2 below as per the findings by (Obika, Woodbridge, Freer-Hewish and Newill, 1994) and the National Park Service U.S. Department of the Interior (1998). Soluble Salts Chlorides Nitrates Sulphates Table 2: Common Water Soluble Salts The salts are described as moving in solution through capillary action to the ground surface where they are deposited as the water evaporates during the day at high temperatures. The deposited salts exert large pressures on thin bituminous surfacing, of thicknesses < 50 mm. The type of failure exhibited by the bituminous surfacing will involve either or all in combination of blistering, doming, fluffing or powdering and disintergration of the surface. The exposed pavement is then susceptible to further failure through moisture ingress from rainwater or kneading by traffic action leading to potholes, pavement rutting and general loss of service through prolonged rut formation and pothole growth. This failure mechanism has been assosciated with climatic zones in arid and semi arid regions of the world where evaporation exceeds precipitation. (Obika, Freer-Hewish and Newill, 1992; Dierks, 1992; Woodbridge, Obika, Freer-Hewish and Newill, 1994; Woodbridge, Obika, Freer-Hewish and
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Insoluble Salts Carbonates Sulphides Phosphates Gypsum (Calcium Sulphates)

Newill, 1995; Ministry of Works and Transport Botswana Roads Department, 2001; Biggs and Mahony, 2004; Bennet and Netterberg, 2004; Thagesen and Robinson, 2004). These arid climatic zones are found all across the world in Australia, Africa, The Middle East, North and South America and Asia (Obika et tal, 1992; Petrukhin, 1993; Fookes and Parry, 1994).

Obika, Freer-Hewish and Newill (1992) have described in detail the mechanisms involved in crystal formation and the high expansive pressures exerted due to crystal growth. One key observation has been that at humidities of less than 76% evaporation of NaCl solutions takes place. NaCl crystals are said to be precipitated in places where the mean relative humidity is less than 76%. At night when the temperatures drop sodium chloride (NaCl) crystals aborb water and go into solution. During the day as the humidity drops recrystallisation occurs. The process creates high pressures which disturb road surfacing.The crystals formed are whisker shaped for sodium chloride (Obika et tal, 1992; Ministry of Works and Transport Botswana Roads Department, 2001). Obika et tal (1992) have observed that alum and CaSO3 crystals growing between two plates of glass exert sufficient pressures to lift a kilogram mass through several tenths of millimeters. When pressures of this magnitude are exerted on thin bituminous surfacing surface upliftment (blistering) and cracking results. Correns (1949), as quoted in Obika et tal (1992) has established that crystal growth is also dependant on phase boundary relationships. An additive or inherent property of the bitumen or soil is therefore said to likely to increase the phase boundary tensions of the materials and either increase or decrease the chances of crystal growth. Additives can therefore diminish the conditions conducive for crystal growth. The laboratory findings of Obika et tal (1992) have established that warm arid and semi arid regions are more prone to salt attack on thin bituminous surfacing of les than 50 mm thickness. It has also been established that primes consisting of penetration grade bitumen with more volatile solvents are more susceptible to salt damage as compared to primes made from emulsions. Bituminous primes probably act as a continous thick skin which is pushed up by crystalline pressures. Emulsions however lose their water content and volatiles through evaporation and form a coating around gravel particles. Crystal growth is likely to take place adjacent the coated gravel particles and may go unnoticed. Further salt damage has been established to be more likely to occur within the period immediately after road construction is complete. Obika et tal (1992) have recommend that tests have to be carried out to assess if there is potential salt damage in particular material sources. Despite the negative evidence of salts on surfaced roads, it has also been established that salts are beneficial to gravel roads. This arises from the fact that the salts precipitated at
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the surface are hygroscopic and absorb atmospheric moistures. This helps to entrap dust particles and helps reduce lifting of dust under traffic. This property has been utilized worldwide in the stabilization of unsurfaced gravel roads with salts like CaCl2 and brine water .

2.3 Incidences of Salt Damage on Pavements in Botswana

2.3.1 Sua Pan Airfield

The construction of the Sua Pan airfield, in 1988, was carried out without any controls applied to the salt content for the pavement construction materials (Woodbridge, Obika, Freer-Hewish and Newill; 1994). Due to scarcity of portable water, which was 40 kilometres away, brine with total dissolved solids of 15% was used in the compaction of the subgrades. The pavement was constructed with insitu Kalahari Sand, calcified sand for the subgrades and calcrete for the subbase and base. The surfacing was Cape Seal. Within a month of completion of construction the surface erupted with cracks and blisters originating on the outer untrafficked pavement and was characterized by occurring in strips and turning bays. Comprehensive testing followed in 1989 which linked the failure on the Cape Seal surface to salinity (Obika et tal, 1994; Ministry of Works and Transport Botswana Roads Department, 2001; Bennet and Netterberg; 2004). Expensive remedial measures were tried unsuccessfully until the failed sections had to be reconstructed and on some sections concrete pavement slabs were later used (Ministry of Works and Transport Botswana Roads Department, 2001).

2.3.2 Maun Nata Road

Total Dissoloved Salts (TDS) ranging from .1% to 7 % were observed on the Maun Nata road where it crosses the northern extension of the Makgadikgadi Pans. Design trials revealed damage to bituminous cutback (MC30) and emulsion (KR60) primes. Bituminous prime coats were identified to be more susceptible to salt damage. Blistering and powdering damage occurred within 48 hours to several days of construction. Single and double surfacing seals also experienced damage where the TDS exceeded .4%. Plastic sheeting, 0.25mm thick, laid across the full road width, to depth 450 mm below base level was used in areas of high salinity to prevent salt migration and this was identified to be very effective in limiting the salt damage. Contrary to expectations, placing a thick bituminous layer placed in a similar position was unsuccessful in the same regard. In other places correct timing between

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construction completion of road bases, prime application and surfacing seals was observed to limit the risks (Ministry of Works and Transport Botswana Roads Department, 2001).

2.3.3 Sekoma Kang Road

Salt water was used in the compaction of earthworks. The salt migrated towards the surface and caused blistering, powdering and fluffing of the single seal surfacing on the carriageway and road shoulders. Some of the damage occurred twelve months after construction. Remedial measures carried out included removal of damaged seals and resealing and reconstruction of damaged shoulder sections. Isolated spots were cut out and filled with emulsion based premixes. The salt content is still high and timely reseals have been scheduled to prevent future damage (Ministry of Works and Transport Botswana Roads Department, 2001).

2.3.4 Tsabong Middlepits Road The construction of the Tsabong Middlepits road has faced serious construction constraints to the extent that the project has lagged five months behind schedule, and possibly increasing, from construction completion. One of the contributory factors was the unavailability of water for construction. The water from Tsabong village is highly saline. At one stage of construction water had to be imported from South Africa for mixing with the saline water in efforts to reduce the salinity levels. (Ministry of Works and Transport Botswana Roads Department, 2008) Samples collected for the purposes of this research had Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) which ranged from 0 for ordinary tap water to TDS of 33 296. This is consistent with the groundwater TDS distribution map shown earlier in Figure 1. Tsabong is shown with an underground water TDS that varies between 5000 and 50000. This high water salinity is a major constraint for the future development of infrastructure in the village.

Other pavements which have also experienced surfaced pavement damage due to high salinity in the past include: Selibe-Phikwe runway which was attributed to pyrite salts originating from the mine waste which was used to construct the pavement. Sekoma - Kang road (Trans-Kalahari road) Sekoma - Makopong Kang - Hukuntsi
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Tsabong - Makopong road Orapa - Mopipi road Rakops-Motopi Maun Runway

Evidence from the preceding pavement failures shows that: high salinity materials (water and gravel) were used in the pavement construction suitable construction water is scarce there is a scarcity of suitable road construction gravels no prior risk assessment was carried out to determine potential damage from salinity

All the above mentioned cases eventually cost the client considerably in terms of maintenance and rehabilitation of the salt damaged pavement surfaces. This agrees with literature reviewed earlier.

2.4 Current Practice to Limit Salt Damage to Bituminous Surfaced Pavements

Based on the works of Obika, Freer-Hewish and Newill (1992), Woodbridge, Obika, FreerHewish and Newill (1993,1994 & 1995), Ministry of Works and Transport Botswana Roads Department (2001) and the Overseas Transport Research Laboratory the following techniques have been used in Botswana successfully to mitigate the effects of salt damage to bituminous surfaced pavements. Control of road construction materials through specification of the upper salt contents of gravels for subbase and base and water for construction. The Botswana Roads Design Manual (Ministry of Works and Transport Botswana Roads Department, 1982) has set limits of 0.05% for NaCl and 0.2% for SO3. Design control by specifying thicker bituminous surfacing or asphalt seals, although this would be at greater construction cost. Placing of vapour proof membrane between the upper subgrades and the subbase to prevent upward migration of concentrated soluble salts to the surface. Careful construction practice by ensuring that in salt prone areas, the road bases are primed immediately after compaction has been completed. Further a thicker prime will ensure an effective barrier preventing evaporation. Surfacing should immediately follow within a week to safeguard the pavement from any further salt attack from the subgrades.
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Remedial treatments of mild salt damage include rolling or brooming of surfaces to break down and counter crystal formation. Trafficking has also been identified to assist in counteracting the salt crystal pressures that form at the pavement surface.

Avoidance of areas with poor subgrade soils by realigning the road to prevent engaging in costly engineering countermeasures on new projects (Paige-Green, 2008). Reconstruction has been implemented as the last alternative where any or all of the above recommendations have not yielded a positive result.

The techniques established to date are based on numerous field trials and observations. The only disadvantage is they do not resolve the challenge of utilization of substandard materials. The promise of Roadcem use has appeal in that it will incorporate material that would otherwise be discarded through application of the specification and render them suitable for the road construction. Infrastructure developers would be interested in utilization of the economic design mixes that would yield beneficial construction and maintenance costs without adversely affecting the environment. Road construction involves massive energy consumption assosciated pollution more so in regions with problematic materials. A means to reduce costs assosciated with road construction will provide huge dividends to developers.

2.5 Historical Review of Chemical Stabilisation in Road Construction.

Chemical stabilization involves the addition of chemical additives or stabilizers to improve soil strength, or its characteristics to render the soil more suitable for engineering purposes. The process is inclusive of chemicals added to reduce dust on unsealead roads. Chemical stabilization is here defined as soil modification through chemical additives for the purpose of improvement of the soils engineering properties. Ismaeil (2006) reports that chemical stabilizers enhance interparticle bonds by formation of gels in the void spaces which improve cohesion and adhesion between particles. The concept of strength gain through gel formation has also been reported much earlier by The US Army Corps (1997), and Dithinde (1999). Most of the products on the market are either binders, compaction aids or dust palliatives (Department of International Development, 2000). Jones and Emery (2003) have documented that chemical stabilisation is one method that has been in use over the past 50 years and is yet to gain popular usage. Pinard (1998) had raised similar observations earlier, wherein he stated that usage of chemical stabilizers is not yet as widespread and little benefit was being derived due to lack of effectiveness of most products. However, other scholars document the usage of
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this technology to as far back as ancient Rome and China. Jones et tal (2003) may have referenced their findings regarding chemical stabilization in Africa. The most common stabilizers in use on the continent are cement and lime. Evidence also indicates that large tracts of roads in modern day China, Russia, United States of America, Europe, United Kingdom, Asia and Australia have been constructed using various types of chemical stabilizers in the past. There is plenty of visible evidence today of chemical stabilization as seen in the remnants of some of the roads and walkways which are now historical monuments in Italy, Greece, South America, and other parts of the ancient world. Cement, lime, pozzolanas and volcanic ash are some of the early chemical stabilizers that were used (Ismaiel, 2006). The need for stabilization centers on one engineering principle, all structures are founded on the soil or they are made of soil. If the soil does not have adequate strength or impermeability to water it has to be modified to suit the design capabilities. The siting of civil engineering structures relies heavily on soil. In situations where the soil does not have adequate bearing capacity to withstand the structural loads alternative expensive foundation designs will have to be considered. Soil with low engineering strength parameters has given rise to soil stabilization to improve soil bearing capacity. Where unstable conditions existed the engineer was faced with several options (CAT Stabilisation Guideline, 2006): relocate the structure to more stable ground or alternative route redesign the structure to enable good load distribution that can be sustained by the soil bearing capacity cut to spoil unsuitable material and import good material ground improvement to enable the soil to sustain imposed structural loads. another more costly method involved raising the structure very high above the deleterious material These solutions have withstood the verity of testing through time, albeit some of them at considerable cost to the developer. Each solution has been applied uniquely to a particular problematic site based on economy, durability and structural integrity. Rapid infrastructure development globally has also led to diminishing land resources on which to relocate new structures on. Exportation of unsuitable and importation of suitable materials may generate prohibitive costs at construction stage. In Botswana with a land mass of at least 75% covered by Kalahari Sands this solution will not work. Construction costs arise from the high energy
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consumption and depletion of suitable materials due to increasing demand. It is the solutions that offer competitive economic, environmental, mitigate social impacts and long lasting engineering solutions that will survive obsoletion. Ground improvement is gaining significance in that it offers opportunities to utilize otherwise weak in situ material.

The demand for alternative sustainable methods and materials to enhance road construction materials has been accelerated by the rapid depletion of good construction soils and the scarcity of suitable soils. This has resulted in many commercial products appearing on the market. Despite the proliferation of commercial chemical stabilizers, they are still limited in their performance according to soil characteristics. Furthermore certain stabilizers are designed to target only specific problematic soil properties. The quality and quantity of the chemical ingredients also affects the effectiveness of most compounds. (Netterberg and Paige-Greene, 1984; Wilmot, 1994; Ismaiel, 2006). According to Wilmots work on traditional stabilisers, there is an ideal mixture workability which can be reached before resitance to compaction begins. This has been related to laboratory density loss (LDL) period which relates a mix performance to the laboratory test for maximum dry density. Ultimately this determines the working time in the field between wet mixing and compaction. However Wilmort indicates that more work is required to establish LDL values and correlating them to site working times. A full understanding of some of these mechanisms can aid in improving the correct field usage of chemical stabilisers and their long term performance. Chemical stabilizers vary in their properties and mechanisms in which they effect soil strength gain. An understanding of this classification and the properties of these chemical groups can assist in selecting potential stabilizers for a particular soil type. According to TRL, The Sulphonated Petroleum Products Toolkits 1 chemical stabilisers have been classified into the following key categories:

Traditional stabilisers e.g. cement and lime, which are binders Calcium or magnesium chlorides used as dust palliatives Clay additives e.g. bentonite to increase plasticity Enzymes e.g. earthzyme which work by consuming clays Lignosulfates from paper mills used as dust palliatives Synthetic Polymer Emulsions e.g. soil cement which glue soil particles together Tall oil emulsions from paper mills
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Sulphonated petroleum products compaction aids.

(SPP) which are surface active agents and are

Through the course of this investigation it will be possible to classify the category into which Roadcem falls in. Roadcem is likely to fall in the category of traditional stabilizers or SPP products as determined by its chemical reactivity. It is also intresting to note that some of the laboratory and field trials of Roadcem has distinguished it to be a unique soil cement additive that has the following capabilities : Can be used with saline water and gravels Can be used with all types of problematic soils in immobilizing peats, expansive clays, sands with appreciable strength gains. Prevents carbonation of cement stabilized soils Can be used to neutralize chemically contaminated soils reducing their hazards Provides a durable and stronger material Enables a thinner pavement layer to be used for the same loading capacity of a conventionally designed pavement layer. 2.6.0 Review of Some Chemical Stabilisers

2.6.1 Calcium or Magnesium Chlorides Calcium and magnesium chlorides are used as dust palliatives in gravel road construction. It has been observed that in dry arid climates, the application of the chlorides assists in absorbing atmospheric moisture which coats dust particles. The heavier dust particles are not easily lifted by wind or under traffic action. Dust palliatives add little or no engineering strength improvement to the soil structure. Consequently they are not ideal for subgrade strength improvement. 2.6.2 Clay Additives

Clay additives like bentonite or sodium montmorillonite have been used to improve the binding soil characteristics in otherwise non cohesive granular material. The fine sized clay fraction acts as a cementetious material that binds the different soil particles together through interpaticle bond formation. Furthermore when optimum moisture is added the clay fraction acts as a lubricant that reduces the compactive effort required. This method of stabilization is more akin to mechanical blending than chemical stabilization. The exact proportions of clay
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and non cohesive granular material determine the final properties of the blended material and these mixes need careful design to produce the required blend properties. This method is unlikely to be suitable for Kalahari Sands which are fine grained soils. A combination of the two materials types is not likely to produce a good matrix with sufficient aggregate interlock. The end product is highly likely to produce a soil with very poor shear resistance characteristics. 2.6.3 Enzymes

Some of the available commercial enzymes include Earthzyme, EMC-squared and Permazyme. The enzymes are believed to react with the air to form compounds that digest clay particles and release inert material in the process. These enzymes are only suitable for soils with clay minerals. 2.6.4 Lignosulphates Lignosulphates are byproducts from the sulphite paper manufacturing process. The products are mainly dust palliatives and are not chemical stabilisers. 2.6.5 Synthetic Polymer Emulsions

This range of products is manufactured mainly for the paint industry and react with soil by direct bonding or gluing of the soil particles together. Examples include Soil Sement which usually have acryllic or acetate polymers/coplymers as their base materials. 2.6.6 Tall Oil Emulsions from paper mills

These are by products of sulphate paper making processes particularly when pulping the Douglas Fir or Southern Pine. They act as dust suppressants by coating light gravel particles so they are not lifeted by traffic action. 2.6.7 Sulphonated Petroleum Products Sulphonated petroleum products (SPPs) are surface active agents. Active surface agents reduce the surface tension of water. They have a sulphonic head and a hydrophobic tail. They are marketed as compaction aids or stabilisers. (Greening and Paige-Greene, 2003; CSIR & TRL, nd) In principle these compounds have been found to be useful in the stabilisation or compaction of clayey soils. Intial tests are required to determine the clay component within

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the soil since it is this which influences the SPP effectiveness. In Botswana, an evaluation of SPP was done using Conaid by Abadjieva (1997). 2.6.8 Conaid Stabilisation

An experimental study on the effect of Conaid stabiliser on black cotton clay soils and calcrete was carried out by Abdjieva(1997). Conaid is available in liquid form and the application rate recommended by the manufacturer is 0.01 to 0.03 litre/m2 per 15 cm thickness. It has been documented that Conaid can be used to stabilise soils with Plasticity Index greater than 11 and clay content of 15% or more. Conaid works by coating the weak interparticle bonds between the clay particles and prevent water absorbtion. This reduces volumetric changes in the clay and aids in the compaction process (Abadjieva, 1997). Moderate reductions in plasticity and moderate increase in CBR were observed for the black cotton clay and calcrete samples immediately after the mixing. However with extended curing periods CBR values were observed to double as compared to the untreated sample CBR values. Laboratory results achieved on black cotton soils saw an increase of CBR to the order of at least 67%. But practically this achieved by an improvement of CBR from 3 to 5 for black cotton soils. A trial road section was visually observed over a three month period. The treated section resulted in higher DCPs compared to the untreated section. The trial section was less dusty in dry weather and was less slippery or muddy during wet weather.

Based on these findings and the stabilisation mechanisms observed sulphonated petroleum products are unlikely to improve the engineering strength of Kalahari Sands. Kalahari Sands have no plasticity and therefore do not provide the base required for the chemical reactions required to initiate setting by SPP reactivity.

2.6.9 Fly Ash Stabilisation Fly Ash is a by product from the coal burning process for thermal power generation. In Botswana this is produced at Morupule Colliery. Usage of fly ash has been gaining ground in areas such as flowable fills, road bases, earth embankments and is also blended with cement and other stabilizers used in road construction. Flowable fills are fills comprised of fly ash only which is mixed thoroughly with water and placed as a structural layer. Final strength is gained through drying of the fly ash layer. Sahu and Piyo (2001) have carried out a laboratory investigation with six different soil types, namely Kalahari Sand; calcrete; silty

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sand, silts of intermediate and low plasticity and black cotton clay soil, all sourced from different parts of Botswana. Fly ash has pozzolanic properties which are enhanced by the presence of high free lime and low unburnt carbon content. Sahu and Piyos (2001) investigation involved variation of fly ash composition at 4, 8, 16 and 24% by weight of soil mixed accordingly. Classification, compaction and CBR characteristics were carried out on all the samples. Sahus et tal (2001) findings were that the maximum dry density (MDD) decreased with increasing fly ash content except for the black cotton clay which increased in by up to 16% of fly ash concetration and then decreased at 24% concetration. The optimum moisture content (OMC) was unaffected by the fly ash content. For all the soil types tested Kalahari Sand required a high fly ash content for appreciable results to be obtained. At fly ash contents of 28% and 32% the CBR increased beyond 24%. Thagessen (2004) has indicated that it is expected that fine grained soils would require higher dosages of cement for effective stabilization to take place. This reflects a lineal strength relationship with increasing stabilizer content. Similar relationships were observed by El-Rawi and Al-Samadi (1995 in working with lime and cement stabilization of a Jordanian soil. Sahu and Piyo (2001) also identified that fly ash stabilization efficacy varied with the soil type, and was observed to be less effective with Kalahari Sands and Black Cotton Clays. Fly ash are therefore not very ideal for Kalahari Sand stabilization. Per unit mass a large volume of fly ash would be required, at least 32 % according to Sahu et tal (2001), to bring about marginal increases of CBR. The large distance between Morupule colliery, where fly ash is produced as a by product, and the Kgalagadi District is prohibitive for any economic haulage of the product. Ideally infrastructure within the vicinity of the colliery should be developed with increased usage of fly ash where this is viable. Basak, Bhattacharya and Paira ( 2004 ) have also established that fly ash usage in emabankment construction is more economical within the vicinity of the thermal fire station. This is applicable to any structural layer for which fly ash usage is intended as this minimizes hauling distance from supply to demand side.

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2.6.10 Other Documented Tests on Kalahari Sands In other studies Kalahari Sands have been stabilised with Ecobond. The compound is recommended for stabilization of silty sand and gravelly soils. Ecobond is a polymer that is used in aqueous solution. With water only hardening is achieved rapidly through an exorthermic reation, developing from a gel to a hard rock. When mixed with soil the part of the heat is absorbed by soil particles and this slows down the reactions improving workability in the field. yielding low results as compared to the requirements of the Botswana Road Design Manuals minimum Enginerring parameters (Joas, Kgengwane, Mmeso; 2001). The tests focused on unconfined compressive strength (which yielded low results) and shear strength parameters and unsoaked CBR. It was identified that the stabilization of Kalahari Sand with Ecobond may render Kalahari Sands suitability for usage as a subbase material only (Joas et tal, 2001). The Kalahari Sands had been classified as G7 material suitable for use in subgrades. The strength improvement to render the Kalahari Sands suitable for subbase quality is a valuable achievement. Further investigation in regards to durability and environmental stability will be required to establish the efficacy and effectiveness of the Ecobond stabiliser. If theses criteria are satisfied as per the specifications, only then can field trials be recommended.

2.7 Traditional Stabilisers 2.7.1 Lime Stabilisation Cement and lime stabilization are the oldest known stabilizers. They have been used extensively worldwide and throughout Africa in various road construction projects with great success. Both have been used individually or in combination in cement-lime stabilization. Lime has been used in clay soil stabilization as slaked lime or hydrated lime [either CaO or Ca(OH)2] on many road construction projects throughout the world. (Ismaiel, 2006). Three mechanisms involved in clay soil improvement have been identified : hydration, flocculation and cementation. The first two mechanisms are believed to be short term reactions whilst the cementation is understood to take place over a longer period of time. Ismaels study (2006) identified that the strength gain in cement stabilised soil was greater than that observed on soils stabilised with lime. However lime stabilised soils are not adversely affected by construction delays as compared to cement treated soils. The cementation reaction in lime stabilised soils results in long term strength gain and arises from a long term pozzolanic
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reaction (Little, 1999). On the other hand, the hydration reactions of cement take place within 2 to 3 hours. Failure to place and compact the material within this period will result in breaking down of the cementitious bonds resulting in weak strenghts being achieved. Porr construction methodology such as poor control of the compaction and hydration moisture will lead to weakened cementious reactions. Lime is the prefferred treatment for clayey soils because it improves soil structure through flocculation and reduces the plasticity through Ca++ ions bonding with clay minerals leading to a reduction in water affinity (Little, 1999). The National Lime Assosciation (2004) also gives recommendations for soils with plasticity >10 and with 25 % or more passing passing sieve number 200 (75mm) to be ideal for lime stabilisation. This being attributed in part to the physical and mineralogical composition of the materials. Cement is a very fine material and may not spread as evenly throughout the clay sized soil fraction to enable coating of the particles to take place and encourage hydration and uniform gel formation. Whereas lime will flocculate the clay particles improving the soil structure in the process. Despite the reported success of cement and lime stabilization post construction failures have also been observed worldwide. The failures are mainly due to carbonation of stabilized layers and cracking of bases and result in weakened strength and failure to from bonds within the cement soil matrix. Carbonation is attributed to the reaction between atmospheric carbon dioxide and the calcium hydroxide which is a by product of cement water hyadration or lime water hydration. Roadcem compound is attributed with abilities to reduce or prevent the effects of carbonation in cement stabilized soils. Based on the observations regarding the lime stabilization reactions it is evident that lime stabilizations does not perform well with non plastic soils. Kalahari sand is a non plastic fine grained material and does not provide an enabling medium to facilitate flocculation reactions that are a crucial reaction component for the soil strength improvement of lime stabilized soils.

2.7.2 Cement and Lime Stabilisation In Botswana 2.7.2.1 Jwaneng Kanye Road A joint research project was carried out between the Transport and Road Research Laboratory (TRRL UK) and the Ministry of Works and Communications Botswana commencing in 1979 (Lionjanga, 1987; Greening and Rolt 1997) The work involved
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construction of cement, lime and mechanical stabilization of calcrete and Kalahari Sands on trial sections along the Kanye Jwaneng Road. Nine experimental sections with two control sections of respective lengths 100m were constructed. Four different local calcrete types and Kalahari Sand were assessed for their potential use as road bases over a fifteen year period. A poorer quality calcrete was assessed for its potential in cement or hydrated lime stabilization and the other was mixed in equal volumes with Kalahari Sand. A double seal surfacing was applied to the road. Another section had a calcrete layer compacted at well below optimum moisture content and the last section was opened to traffic for six months before application of double a seal. The Kanye Jwaneng road was selected for trials because of the high traffic levels that were anticipated on it (Lionjaga 1987; Greening et tal, 1997). The parameters that were assessed in laboratory and field trials were standard tests as compliant with Botswana Roads Design Manual (1982) and the Standard Specification for Roads and Bridge Works Vol III (1983). These included assessment for pavement design, material selection and field performance measurements. Pleriminary laboratory tests on the stabilized calcrete indicated that high strengths could be achieved with low amounts of stabilizer. Field samples collected from the stabilized mixed materials after curing also established this. The sections were monitored over a seven year period from initial construction through direct and indirect testing of the pavement after it was opened to traffic (Lionjanga, 1987). The post construction results for the cement and lime stabilization showed very little strength gain within months of construction. Hardening of the base from the cementitious reaction was not observed and carbonation of the stabilizers was observed within two years of construction. The chemically and mechanically stabilized sections showed greater deformation damage than the unstabilised sections. Introduction of the stabilizers were observed to only lower the plasticity index and improve the structure through aggregation of particles. The authors suspect the failure of the stabilized sections to be due to the long processing and compaction times and poor material properties, low internal friction which led to the pavement yielding under traffic loading. They have recommended further investigation to establish the full cause of failure since they claim that carbonation may not have played a role. Carbonation was detected two years after construction. The findings were that calcified sands could achieve CBRof up to 80% at optimum moisture content and could have potential to be used in road sub bases and subgrades. However they are very susceptible to moisture changes and failure was mainly due to moisture ingress from

30

unsurfaced shoulders (Lionjanga, 1987; Greening and Rolt, 1997). This was evidenced by rutting failure of the vergeside wheelpaths. However more recent studies by others suggest that the testing regiment for unstabilised and stabilized pavement layers both before and after construction needs review so that it is modeled to simulate site conditions. If the material failed under traffic loading then it is clear that the preliminary laboratory tests were not simulated to test the actual material response in the field (Jones 2003). Botha (2005) has also observed that the laboratory temperatures are too ideal and divorced from the reality of the hot dry temperatures experienced on sites. The result is that cement or lime hydration may actually take place much quicker at the higher temperatures of up to 45o C as opposed to laboratory temperatures which range around 25o C or room temperatures. Botha has also observed that laboratory compaction involves compaction in very thin layers whereas site compaction involves layers of up to 150 mm thickness. These factors contribute towards the failure by the contractor to achieve the ideal efforts that yield results comparable to the laboratory test results. To this end Botha has come up with a test protocol based on his laboratory and field trials that attempts to correlate the two. Ideally laboratory test results should be reproducible with field test results, to confirm a good laboratory design mix and reflect a consistent construction methodology. Another weakness of the test parameters currently in use is the reliance of static test parameters like CBR, grading modulus, Atterberg limits etc. by most road construction laboratories in the SADCC region. Vital as they are in material classifications, static test parameters need to be complemented with dynamic loading reactions and parameters. This will give a better indication of material elastic properties and performance in field loading conditions. Current design philosophy, based on the catalogue method determines the test parameters to be determined for evaluation of material performance. A paradigm shift is required to move from the traditional design methodologies and incorporate the positive findings established through Mechanistic Design philosophy. Findings have established that one of the main static tests, the CBR, produces results that are not repeatable particularly with granular soils. Furthermore it does not accurately reflect the material elastic and dynamic responses to loading under traffic and the effect of fatigue failure. Alternative tests methods proposed include the Rapid Texas Triaxial Test which is more expensive and slow to carry out and has not found much success with road authorities in southern Africa (Gourley and Greening, 1999). Design philosophy has a strong bearing on the methodology for laboratory

31

and field assesment of the road construction material and the expected material specifications. With the exception of good results achieved with cement and lime stabilisation on most soils the literature survey has established that many claims from chemical manufacturers fall below the expected road specification expectations. Most claims can be established to inmprove soil strength, as observed on CBR and UCS by say 10% to 30% can be considered successful under laboratory investigation if they yield these results based on a stastical basis. However the reality is that an increase in CBR form 3 to 5 would be practically marginal and would be of little benefit to a road developer. Stastically the manufacturers argument of a 67% strength would still be valid, though at a cost because the results achieved would only dissappoint in regards to expectations. Therefore it is increasingly more pertinent that manufacturers of chemical additives study the vaious problematic soil conditions and target to address specific areas, whether it be strength improvement, then they would need to be familiar with the minimum road design expecations which in most cases are almost universal standards. 2.7.2.2 Other Cement Stabilised Roads Projects in Botswana Since these first trials most of the road construction has incorporated cement stabilization of G5/G6 classification subbase materials. Some of these roads include the subbase for the Dibete Mahalapye Road ( 100km) completed in 2008, the Mahalapye Palapye Road (75 km) completed in 2006; Palapye Serule Road (75km) completed in 2005 amongst many other infrastructure developments throughout the country. There has been good performance of theses roads and with little evidence of major distress being observed to date.

2.7.3

Properties of Cement

Cement forms the basis of this investigation. It is therefore necessary to briefly summarise here the mechanisms in which cement has been noted to gain strength through hydration with water. The process in which cement mixes with water to harden is called hydration. The five major components of cement are listed below in Table 3.

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Cement Compound Tricalcium Silicate Dicalcium silicate Tricalcium aluminate Tetracalcium aluminoferrite

Weight Percentage 50% 25 % 10 % 10 %

Chemical Formula Ca3SiO5 or 3CaO.SiO2 Ca2SiO4 or 2CaO.SiO2 Ca3Al2O6 or 3CaO .Al2O3 Ca4Al2Fe2O10 or 4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3 CaSO4.2H2O

Gypsum

5%

Table 3, Typical Composition of Ordinary Portland Cement. When mixed with water exorthermic reactions occur and each compound hydrates producing end products that bond together and with any other materials they are in contact with. In the case of cement soil stabilization a soil cement mixture will be formed. The calcium silicates are responsible for the strength gain. Tricalcium silicate is attributed with early strength gain (up to 7 days). Dicalcium silicate is known to react more slowly and contributes to long term strength gain. The reaction equation for tricalcium silicate is given below: Tricalcium silicate + Water - Calcium silicate hydrate+Calcium hydroxide + heat 2 Ca3SiO5 + 7 H2O - 3 CaO.2SiO2.4H2O + 3 Ca(OH)2 + 173.6kJ The initial hydrolysis increases the pH to about 12 due to release of alkaline hydroxide OHions. The reaction then continues at a slower rate producing calcium and hydroxide ions up to saturation. At this point calcium hydroxide crystal formation commences. Simultaneously calcium silicate hydrate crystals is also formed. Formation of these crystals provides bases upon which further crystal growth is achieved. Calcium silicate hydrate crystal growth creates a barrier hampering water molecules from evenly spreading throughout the paste. This may cause free water to be trapped in between solidified calcium silicate hydrates and the formation of a porous matrix. The hydration reactions continue more slowly until there are no more anhydrate compounds in the mix. Dicalcium silicate reacts more slowly with water and also contributes to strength gain. Less heat is produced but the end products are similar to those in the tricalcium silicate reaction.
33

Dicalcium silicate + Water - Calcium silicate hydrate + Calcium hydroxide +heat 2 Ca2SiO4 + 5 H2O-3 CaO.2SiO2.4H2O + Ca(OH)2 + 58.6 kJ

The other components in cement also react with water but do not significantly contribute to strength gain. These are tricalcium aluminate, tetracalcuium aluminoferrite and gypsum. All the hydration reactions for the constituent compounds take place at the same time and the reactions are exorthermic. The hydration reactions are characterized by an early heat release after the initial mixing then a dormancy period of about two hours in which heat is not released. After this 2 to 3 hour period further heat release is experienced during which the initial set begins. It has been established that the hydration reactions for cement are dependant on the water cement ratio and time of the reactions. The available water for the reactions is used up in the hydration reactions and complex chemical reactions that result in the various bond formations of the different compounds.

Based on its hardening properties it has been identified that cement can stabilize a wide variety of soils with the exception of organic soils, soils with sulphates and uniformly graded soils. The fineness of the cement particles limits intimate contact with the clayey soil fines. Adhesive bond formation is limited resulting in reduced strength. It has been observed that uniformly graded materials require large volumes of cement and are difficult to compact due to lack of interparticle aggregate interlock which would provide shear strength. The absence of larger granular particles also limits the maximum crushing or impact strength that can be achieved for fine grained material only. Silty material are reportedly susceptible to moisture variations (Lionjanga, 1987; Thagesen, 1996; Greening and Rolt, 1997). In another laboratory study, El-Rawi and Al-Samadi (1995) also established that the CBR and UCS of three selected Jordanian fine grained soils exhibit a lineal relationship with increase in cement content (El-Rawi and Al-Samadi, 1995). This aspect has also been discussed by Thagesen (1996).

2.7.4 Portland Cement and Roadcem Compound Roadcem compound has been developed for road construction and stabilization. It is a fine grained additive composed of alkali earth metals and synthetic zeolites together with a
34

xomplex activator. Roadceme is said to enhance and increase material strength and flexibility of stabiolised pavement layers. The cement chemistry is modified during hydration process and crystallization of an entrapping mesh which enhances strength and increases the overall strength. The chemical behaviour of Roadcem in reactions is a combination of solidification and immobilization process. When Roadcem is used with cement all the basic reactions discussed remain the same but the products from those reactions are different. The rate of the reactions and crystal formation is also different. Crystal density is increased eliminating free water and porous cell structures that occur when cement and water alone are mixed. This greatly improves the structural properties of the product resulting in greater strength and resistance to attack by water or water bound chemicals. Water is crucial in all the reactions. If less water used there is increase in the product strength but workability of the mix is reduced. An increased water content reduces strength whilst increasing workability. It has been stated that it is possible to use salt water with Roadcem and cement without any deleterious effect on the strength of the final product. Furthermore the Roadcem compound is attributed with providing a wrapping effect or encapsulation around the products of hydration as opposed to a glueing effect. It is this wrapping and encapsulating effect that is attributed with increased strengths of Roadcem and cement bound products which result in high compressive strength, flexural strength and higher strengths of rapture. Roadcem is a patented product and its composition could not be availed for scrutiny or to elucidate the exact nature and mechanisms of the ractions involved with cement, soil and water. It has been documented in the literature provided by Roadcem that cost savings of up to 40%, and project delivery can be accelerated by up to 70% whilst achieving 80% better end results. The product does not have known adverse impacts on the environment to date based on the laboratory testing and projects completed to date. These positive attributes make this compound the ultimate ideal stabilizer and should these reports stand firm under testing will revolutionise road construction. This will translate to increased volumes of virtually poor quality materials being incorporated into future road construction.
35

2.8 Roadcem Compound in Road Construction. Roadcem is a chemically formulated compound manufactured by Powercem Technologies, a company operating in the Netherlands. It is acclaimed to have solved numerous problematic soil problems worldwide and in Southern Africa. In the current investigation Roadcem will be assessed on its potential to improve the strength characteristics of cement stabilized Kalahari Sands and saline water. Roadcem has been documented to have been successfully used in immobilizing clays and peats and in areas where additional pavement strength, durability and resistance to the elements was required. Based on the intial literature review on the company website, Roadcem was selected for these trials in that it satisfied the basic Evaluation procedure proposed by Jones and Ventura (2004). The decision flow chart is reproduced in Fig. 4 below indicating the stages that were taken to arrive at the inception of these laboratory tests.

ProblemIdentification BasedonFieldexperience

Stage 1

ScopingforResearchArea LiteratureReview

Stage 2

LaboratoryResearchDesign LaboratoryInvestigation

Stage 3

Fig 4, Decision Flow Chart as Per Jones and Ventura.

The mechanism of stabilization is through the formation of an encapsulating crystal mesh around harmful products rendering them neutral or inert to the environment. Fang and
36

Daniels (2006) have also discussed the mechanism exhibited by Roadcem. They have classified it as solidification by multimedia energy actions. Admixtures are used to produce hardened cement soil mixes leading to immobilization by fixation (encapsulation of pollutants) in addition to improvement of material physical properties. Further claims are that the additive can be used with salt water and still achieve good results. Initial laboratory tests and construction projects worldwide have already established Powercem compounds as unique and versatile in road construction and the construction industry in general. Trials that were conducted in the Netherlands, USA, Germany and many other developed countries including South Africa have shown positive results. Of notable interests are the field trials that were carried out in South Africa and Mozambique by the University of Witwatersrand and the University of Johannesburg. Mozambique and South Africa have almost similar climatic and operating environmental conditions as Botswana. Positive results achieved there can be directly intrepreted and expected to produce similar outcomes elsewhere within southern Africa. The initial test results indicate that Roadcem can be used successfully in stabilization of road gravels and improvement of strength as confirmed by the outcomes of the preliminary laboratory TMH1 tests. 2.9 Laboratory Evaluation by Others 2.9.1 CSIR Transportek Initial Tests Some of the initial laboratory tests that were carried out in South Africa through CSIR (Koloane D, Ventura T.; 2005) have indicated that Roadcem treated stabilised layers perform beyond expectation and are durable. Materials treated with Roadcem also showed increased resistance to carbonation. The tests conducted were based on two materials, a ferruginous fine-grained sandy material having a low plasticity and moderate strength (CBR) and a fine grained clayey material of high plasticity and low strength, consisting of a mixture of 30 per cent clay and 70 per cent of the ferruginous sand. (Koloane, p4).

The materials used had been classified as G8-G7, which are poor quality materials suitable for use in fill and subgrade layers respectively. The Roadcem used was a blend of fly ash from local South African power stations, ordinary Portland cement and Roadcem compound. Strength tests that were carried out included California Bearing Ratio (CBR), Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) and Static and Dynamic Triaxial Tests. Samples were treated with 8%, 12% and 18% of Powercem compound. The CBR increased beyond 100% for the

37

ferruginous sandy soil whilst it increased up to four times for the 30/70 soil mix. Increasing dosages of the compound produced increased material strength. The UCS tests also showed corresponding strength increases with varying Powercem concentration and increased curing periods. Curing periods ranged from 0 to 28 days. The UCS results far exceeded the Colto specification for a minimum of 750 kPa expected in 7 day cured materials compacted to 100% MOD AASHTO density. Results upwards of 1943 kPa were achieved at 7 days curing using the concentration of 8% of product. This suggested a lower concentration could achieve equally good results to achieve C4 stabilised materials. The UCS results achieved are reproduced in Table 4 for the purpose of comparison with expectations of this investigation.

Ferruginous Sand 30/70 Mix Stabiliser Stabiliser % % (Days) 8 12 18 8 12 18 0 1003 1324 1656 400 625 1050 1 1325 1550 1905 656 799 1350 2 1552 1700 2010 799 985 1500 7 1943 2500 3570 1505 2005 2905 14 2380 3524 5005 2522 3232 4250 21 2851 4222 6052 3003 3851 5252 28 3471 5006 6983 3411 4255 5858 Table 4, UCS for specimens treated with various percentages of stabilizer and cured for different lengths of time as achieved by Koloane and Ventura. The results achieved demonstrate strongly that Roadcem stabilized soils outperformed the unstabilised control samples. The results far exceeded expectations as set out in the COLTO guidelines for cement stabilized C4 materials. This has led the researchers proposing lower cement stabilizing dosages in future tests in order to optimize the mix designs.

Curing Period

UCS (kPa)

Durability tests that were carried out on the samples include the residual carbonated test (RUCS) and erosion resistance tests. The RUCS test was designed to check for the effect of carbonation on the stabilized material mixes especially cement or lime component. Cement and lime react with carbon dioxide in the atmosphere weakening the interparticle bonds leading to loss of material strength. The process (carbonation) has been responsible for numerous pavement failures in cement and lime stabilized layers in the past. The residual carbonated test results were still superior to the COLTO specification for 7 day cured
38

samples. A minimum of UCS of 2675 kPa was achieved at 8% product concentration for the 30/70 sand mix. The untreated samples failed to achieve carbonated UCS strength showing that they had lost all their strength due to carbonation. The erosion resistance results showed an increased resistance with increasing Powercem concentration. Without any stabilizer the materials tested were unsuitable for use as subbases had little structural capacity to sustain any traffic loading. Results achieved in this investigation are very positive and show strong promise for the future use of Roadcem compound in stabilisation and road construction. The University of Witwatersrand (2007) has established similar results after carrying out UCS tests on Mozambican merracuene soil and various soil samples found around Johannesburg. Their laboratory investigation was able to achieve 7 day UCS results ranging from 3.95 MPa to 7.85 MPa for Mozambican meracuene soils. The UCS results for assorted Johannesburg soils ranged from 4 MPa to 11 Mpa. These results are way in excess of specification requirements for stabilized results and show great potential for use of any material type. The compound dosages were also high for the mix designs tested. In their pleriminary investigation the University of Witwatersrand (2007) identified that lower concentrations of the compound should still achieve the minimum results required and neede to be investigated further. The soil type and characterization also influences the optimum mix design and thereby the final strength achievable for the soil type. The moisture content, in situ soil moisture and the optimum moisture content, were factors found to have an influence on the overall strength gain to be achieved through Roadcem. Their recommendations was to determine the optimum moisture content for each soil type to establish the optimum mix design. Literature provided by Powercem Technologies was supporting the results achieved through evidence of similar results achieved elsewhere in Europe, Afirca and the Americas. Based on these positive results it is expected that this investigation should witness similar if not identical results. The only unknown factor is how saline water will affect the overall performance of Roadcem in stabilization.

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2.9.2 Demonstration Projects

Demonstration projects which have been carried out on road sections in South Africa, have withstood the weather and traffic loading to prove that Roadcem is a competitive additive for cement-stabilized gravels. The findings of the demonstration projects also confirm that Roadcem is a cement additive as per the literature provided by the manufacturer. The demonstration projects were successful based on trials carried out on the following road sections which yielded superior laboratory and field results. South Africa : 2.9.2.1 Rustenberg Koster Road In 2007, a failed road section was recycled, cement stabilized with Roadcem and was opened to traffic within four hours of completion. Nuclear gauge density, plate jacking, CBR and depth cone penetration test showed that there was considerable strength gain on the stabilized road section. The UCS achieved ranged from 3.2 MPa at 90% MOD AASHTO compaction to 4.1 MPa at 100% MOD AASHTO compaction all in excess of the minimum specification requirements.

The road is reported to be intact with no signs of distress to date, evidence of the effectiveness of Roadcem additive.

2.9.2.1 Danie Theron Road In Fochville Investigations by the University of Witwatersrand on the stabilization of a test road section, along Danie Theron Road, (University of the Witwatersrand Johannesburg School of Civil and Environmental Engineering; 2007) to evaluate Roadcem were carried out. The TMH1 test results were beyond the minimum specification requirement suggesting that the use of Roadcem as a cement stabilizer was a viable environmental and economic alternative. It was also established that use of Roadcem in road construction facilitates faster construction, allows for the use of labour intensive methods without adversely affecting the final strength and is a cost effective method. Success of this trail section led to another test section being constructed on the R-52 near Koster. Another 3 km road section near Tanzeen was

40

rehabilitated using Roadcem additive and cement stabilization. The results achieved were also positive. In all the trial sections insitu material was rehabilitated to produce a more superior bas pavement layer than that which would have otherwise been sourced naturally. These are satisfactory indicators that Roadcem has great potential for use in stabilization of a variety of materials. Evidence to date has shown increasing usage of Roadcem compound in stabilization of a number of road sections in South Africa showing its growing acceptance as a material with great potential. Other projects have also been carried out world wide with similar success. These are documented in detail in the literature that has been provided with the Powercem brochures.

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3.0 Methodology

3.1 Field Sampling At the time of sampling three major road construction projects in the Tsabong area were being constructed, Tsabong - Bokspits road, Tsabong - Middlepits road and Kang Hukuntsi road. All three projects were facing challenges with the scarcity of non saline construction water. The sand samples were collected from exisiting borrow pits which had been used to extract the sand for the subgrade layers. Soil samples were collected in 10 separate plastic bags each sample weighing about 12 kgs. Four 100 kg bags were also collected giving a total weight of 520 kgs. The samples were randomly filled into the sample bags so as to have a random mix of the soil. Sampling was in accordance with recommended sampling methods TMH 5 and Sampling Method MA2: Sampling From a Sampling Pit in Natural Gravel, Soil and Sand. The locations where the soils were sampled from in relation to the Tsabong Middlepits road alignment is shown in Fig. 5 below.

Fig 5. Sampling Positions.

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Groundwater was also collected from the road construction sources and Department of Water Affairs boreholes. Field tests on the water samples included PH, TDS, electrical conductivity, salinity and daytime temperatures. A total of five boreholes samples were collected for the tests and the field meausured TDS was noted to vary between 955 mg/l and unmeasureable on portable TDS meter. Each sample of water collected had a volume of 25 litres. The highest TDS sampled was 33 296 and was used together with tap water for the laboratory investigation. The highest TDS water sample was selected in order to determine the impact of high salinity on cement hydration and Roadcem compound. Expectations based on experience and readership were that high salinity was likely to interfere adversely with cement hydration leading to little or no strength gain. Sampling procedures followed were in accordance with TMH 5 Sampling Method MA4: Sampling of Water for Chemical/Biological Bacteriological Tests. The chemical analysis of the water samples in regards to quality and composition were carried out at the Gaborone Water Affairs Laboratory. The results of the water quality are tabulated in Table 5 below. Data sheets for the chemical analysis of the water samples are attached in Appendix 3.

Fig 6, Kalahari Sand Being Loaded for The Subgrade Layers by the Contractor (Middlepits Middlepits Road Construction Project 2009, Tsabong Village).
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The field and laboratory tests give comparable results but with major disparities observed on the electrical conductivity measured for all the samples. Greater accuracy is achieved in the laboratory under more stringent and controlled conditions with more accurate equipment and may account for the big difference between field and laboratory measurements. Water from the CCC borehole was selected for this analysis because it had the highest TDS, at 33296. and was most hypothetically likely to represent the failure criteria in field usage for road construction. This was based on the high chloride and sulphate content. Chlorides and sulphates have been documented to inhibit cement hydration resulting in little or no strength gain (Ismaiel, 2006). Tap water at 0 TDS was used as the control.

Fig 7, Sampling Borehole Water for Road Construction. (Middlepits Middlepits Road Construction Project 2009, Tsabong Village). About 4.2kg Roadcem Compound was collected from the Powercem agent in Rustenberg, South Africa. The cement used in the testing was Ordinary Portland Cement CEM 32.5. The cement quality was in line with the recommendations of EN 197-1 (CEN, 2000a). EN 197-1 discourages the usage of cement strength higher than 32.5 and rapid hardening cements in
44

road construction as this leads to early strength gain at a fast rate with catastrophic shrinkage cracking due to the high heat of hydration generated in the process.

3.2 Test Procedures. All the testing procedures adopted in this series will be as per TMH1 Standard Methods Of Testing Road Construction Materials, Second Edition (1986). The tests that were carried out on the samples included:

3.2.1 Material classification tests

For the purpose of material characterization the tests carried out included grading analysis, Atterberg Limits (AL), compaction characteristics; maximum dry density (MDD) and optimum moisture content (OMC)

3.2.2 Soil Index Properties The results of the grading analysis are as per the gravel classification chart attached in Appendix 1. Index and compaction properties and classification of the Kalahari Sand that was analysed are summarized on the chart in Appendix 1. The Index properties include consistency limits (LL,PL, PI = LL-PI), percentage fines passing sieve No. 200 and specific gravity (Gs).

3.2.3 Compaction Characteristics. The optimum moisture content/maximum dry density curves were prepared in accordance with Method A11T per TMH1 (1986). This was done for each respective sand mixture at varying concentrations of cement and cement - Roadcem combination using both tap water and the saline water at TDS of 33 296. The compaction was done according to the standard proctor effort. Results achieved for the OMC/MDD determination are attached in Appendix 2.

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Fig 8, Sieve Analysis of the Sand Sample Using the Mechanical Shaker

3.2.4 Strength tests Unconfined compressive strength tests (UCS) after 7 days curing samples was done. The procedures for sample preparation are as per standard TMH1 (1986) Method A14. Recommendations for the mixing protocol for Roadcem/cement stabilizer as supplied by the manufacturer. The mixing was done at the optimum moisture content. Cement content was varied whilst the Roadcem content and TDS in water was maintained as constant. Specimens of the material were treated with 1.5, 3, 6 and 9 percent cement and cured for seven days. The

46

control sample involved mixing the specimens with tap water only subsequently with Roadcem.

Fig 9, Proctor Mould and Sample Being Weighed, Determination of OMC/MDD The test specimens were treated with the same variation of cement content. To these saline water of TDS 33 296 was used to mix with Roadcem whilst on the other sample Roadcem was not utilized. The results are summarized in Table 7 and attached in Appendix 4. The UCS was determined through compressive strength determination. The rate of load application was 140 kN/min on the 152 mm diameter specimens. The UCS was then determined from the formula as follows: U = kN r2 = aaakNaa 0.01824
47

Fig 10, Soaked Specimens Prior to Compressive Strength Determination. Where U = unconfined compressive strength (kPa) kN = load required to crush speciomen (kN) r = radius of specimen face (0,0762) (m)

Fig 11, Specimen Failure Due to Applied Loading

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Three specimens were prepared for each sample point at the desired cement concetration for crushing and the mean was calculated per set of samples.

3.2.5 Chemical Tests The chemical tests that were carried out were the Ph of all the water samples and the mixed specimens before and after UCS crushing. Electrical conductivity and Total dissolved Contents was also measured to determine the cation/anion presence in the specimens.

49

4.0 Results 4.1 Material Characterisation Results of the characterization tests on the Kalahari Sand revealed that it is classified as a G7 material as per TMH 14. The results are summarized in Table 6.

Properties of the Material

Material Type Kalahari Sand

Maximum Dry Density (MDD) Optimum Moisture Content % CBR (%) Liquid Limit Plastic Limit Plasticity Index (%) Linear Shrinkage Classification (Untreated) Classification (Treated) Table 5, Material Properties

1817 6.6 32 NP NP NP 0 G7 C4

4.2 Water Quality The results for the chemical analysis of the borehole water samples are tabled in Table 6. The highest TDS was observed on the water obtained from the CCC borehole, which was also the source of construction water in the fill layerworks. The TDS measured was 33 296 and the chloride and sulphate content was also very high. Based on readership and experience it is a common known fact that chlorides and sulphates attack concrete or cement based structures. In anticipation of this conventional knowledge, the CCC borehole sample of water was selected for the investigation with the expectation that deterioration of the cement stabilized specimen will be accelarated by the presence of the deleterious substances.

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Borehole Temp. Conductivity No. Field Lab

o

Salinity Ph Field Lab Field Lab 29.8 29.1 0.6 0.3 4.8 7.24 7.42 8.09 7 7.38

TDS Field Lab

HCO3 Cl Lab Lab 328.7 336.2 112.3 61.7 353.1 13995.7 294.54 211.3 1454.04

SO4 Lab 8730.4 141.86 97.88 1035.14

CCC Z12464/ Z12466 Boy Boy Z9004 BH9275

S/cm 24.9 46 2003 44.5 2003 1617 1086 8.51 952 672 668

mg/l 7.42 Ofl 33296 7.51 6.94 6.54 7.54 Ofl 32160 1423 955 Ofl 870.4 654 4948

32.8 29 25.3 36.1

Table 6, Results of Chemical Analysis of Borehole Water Samples.

4.3 Compaction Characteristics The objectives of compacting a soil are to improve the geotechnical properties of soil and this is reliant on the moisture and density at which the soil is compacted (Ismaiel, 2006). The proctor test was carried out to determine the optimum moisture content contents for both untreated and Roadcem treated soil specimens. The standard proctor test was carried out in accordance with TMH1 Method A11T. There is an increase in the maximum dry density with increasing cement concentration for both the control and test specimens. For Kalahari Sand and tap water only, the increase is from 1757 kg/m3 to stabilize at a peak of 1857 kg/m3 at 3% cement concentration. This translates to a 6.3% increase in the maximum dry density. When Roadcem additive is added to the tap water sample and the cement concentration varied as before, the maximum dry density has an initial peak of 1784 kg/m3. This implies a 2.1 % increment from the base sample and is attributed to Roadcem compound. By this it can be inferred that Roadcem compound is also a compaction aid as it increases the maximum dry density. The MDD however peaks to a maximum of 1890 kg/m3 at 3% cement concentration from there it drops and trails of at 1857 kg/m3 at 6 and 9 % cement concentration respectively. In all the samples there is a general trend of increase in MDD to a peak at 3% cement concentration before trailing of at 1853 kg/m3. This trend is also observed

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with the optimum moisture content (OMC). The OMC for the neat sample was 6.6%. The intial drop in OMC requirements for the specimens at 1.5% cement concentration is probably due to the moisture requirements for the cement hydration reactions. Bell shaped compaction curves were obtained (see Apendix 2).

CementContent% TapWater TapWater+ Roadcem SalineWater SalineWater+ Roadcem

MDD Kg/m3 1.5 1747 1784 1701 1762 3 1834 1890 1882 1915 6 9 6.2 6.5 6.4 8.3 1.5 3 1857 1857 1857 1854 1855 1855

OMC % 6 7.5 7.5 7.7 7.6 9 7.5 7.4 7.7 7.4

8.0

8.6 7.7

1857 1853

7.6

Table 7, Compaction Characteristics of the Specimens

4.4 Chemical Tests Results of the chemical tests conducted on the specimens are attached in Appendix 5.

4.4.1 Ph Test Results Ph testing was carried out on the specimens immediately after mixing and after UCS crushing. Water was used as the medium for mixing the soil water mix. Generally the Ph was observed to range between a minimum of 10.68 for saline water and 1.5% cement concentration to a peak Ph of 12.56 for 9% cement and Roadcem with saline water. The Ph was moderately higher after UCs crushing as compared to that tested at mixing stage. This suggests that the cement hydration reactions were achieved successfully. It has been established by others that the Ph of cement water mixture rises to about 12 on mixing due to the release of alkaline hydroxide (OH-) ions.

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4.4.2 Total Dissolved Solids Results The total dissolved solids test was carried out at the mixing stage and immediately after UCS crushing of the specimens. The TDS at the mixing stage is higher. After UCS crushing the TDS reduces significantly. The initial TDS for the samples treated with Roadcem compound is much less compared to that of the untreated samples at mixing stage and after UCS crushing. The measure for TDS suggests a decrease in the soluble salts content implying that they have been precipitated out of the solution. Evidence suggests that there is some reaction with cement only in the untreated specimen mixes whereby the salts react to form other compounds with cement. The reactivity is more pronounced with Roadcem additive which registers even lower intial TDS values before UCS crushing (i.e. at mixing stage). Corresponding results are also observed for the electrical conductivity tests that were carried out. There was a decrease in electrical conductivity between mixing and crushing the test specimens. The Roadcem treated test specimens achieved even lower electrical conductivity after mixing which dropped in value after crushing. The electrical conductivity is attributed to the presence of ions in the soil mixture. A drop in electrical conductivity implies that salts in solution react with Roadcem and cement to form other stable compounds. The UCS was crushed after 7 days of curing.

4.5 Strength Characteristics The strength gain in cement stabilized materials is mainly due to the formation of calcium silicate hydrates and alumino silicates. The strength gain is enhanced by the presence of Roadcem copmpound. The unconfined compressive strength (UCS) of the specimens reflect an increasing UCS with increasing cement content for the control sample as well as the treated sample with Roadcem. Most surprisingly is the increasing UCS strength achieved with saline water. The highest UCS of 3.9 MPa was achieved at 9% cement concentration with the mixture of saline water. Better strength appears to be achieved at higher cement concentration upwards of 3% cement content. The UCS for tap water and Roadcem compound at 6% cement concentration is much less than that for the specimen tested with tap water only. This may have arisen from defects in the sample preparation. One sample for this mix ratio cracked as it was being placed for testing. Results achieved in these tests are much higher than those achieved by Koloane and Ventura (2005) for the different soil types they tested (see table 4). They were able to achieve the
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minimum 7 day UCS strength required for base material of 1.5 MPa at a stabilizer concentrations of 8%. This strength requirement was achieved in these tests using 6% cement stabilizer. The control specimen achieved 1.8 MPa and can be used for base course layers. However based on the extensive testing done by Koloane and Ventura on other soils they have established that: Cement treated only specimens are susceptible to carbonation and are more likely to fail in the field after construction because of the reactivity of the stabilized layer with atmospheric carbon dioxide. Roadcem treated specimens achieved high UCS values of 2.988 MPa and beyond even after carbonation showing that there was no substantial reactivity with carbon dioxide. The erosion resistance of Roadcem treated specimens was superior to the untreated specimens. The abrasion resistance and resistance to water erosion results for Roadcem treated specimens was far superior to the untreated specimens. Based on these observations it is can be concluded that whilst the control specimen achieved the minimum UCS strength requirements for use in base layers it was unlikely to perform well on the durability testing. This can be verified through further testing. UCS (7 day strength) MPa Cement Content % Tap Water Tap Water + Roadcem Saline Water Saline Water + Roadcem 1.5 0.27 0.31 0.27 0.33 3 0.58 0.62 0.60 0.71 6 1.80 1.60 1.5 2.30 9 1.90 3.00 2.5 3.90

Table 8, Results for Cured 7 Day Unconfined Compressive Strength

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UCS (MPa) Against Cement Content

4.5

MPa UCS (7 day strength)

4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 1.5 3 6 9

Cement Content% Tap Water Saline Water Fig 12, Graph of UCS against Cement Content % The lineal relationshiop is also observed (see Fig 12). The increase in cement binder translates to an increase in the 7 day UCS for all the specimens. This is consistent with expectations established from the literature survey. This had been discussed by El-Rawi and Al-Samadi (1995), Thagessen (20040 and Ismael (2006) amongst others. By this it is possible to predict the expected specimen strength at a given cement content by reading it off the chart for a specific combination of soil cement water mix. The lineal relationship (see Fig 13) however does not apply to the compaction characteristics of the materials. There is an initial increase in maximum dry density achieved before it levels off at increasing cement concentration. This probably signifies that the optimum cement content to achieve the optimum compaction density has been achieved. For all the samples the MDD ties in at around 6% suggesting that cement concentrations of around 4 to 5 % should still be able to meet the minimum compaction specification and UCS requirements. The UCS for all the samples tested is above 0.75 MPa which far exceeds the minmum requirement for subbase materials. Tap Water + Roadcem Saline Water + Roadcem

55

MDD (kg/m3) Against Cement Content %

1950

Maximum Dry Density (kg/m3)

1900 1850 1800 1750 1700 1650 1600 1550 1.5 3 6 9

Cement Content % Tap Water Saline Water Tap Water + Roadcem Saline Water + Roadcem

Fig 13, Maximum Dry Density Against Cement Content Requirements for the Botswana Road Design Manual are that a material that exceeds 0.75 Mpa can be used in subbase material. For base course material the minimum UCS required is 1.5 MPa. Based on theses results it can be concluded that the test specimen of Kalahari Sand can be used in base layers at cement concentrations of 6 % and beyond. This would apply to Kalahari Sand stabilization with and without Roadcem. However it is important to determine the long term effects of cyclic loading on cement stabilized Kalahari Sands. Being a fine grained material there is likely hood of pavement failure through loss of colloids. Additionally it is necessary to study the long term effects of saline water on both cement stabilized layers and those with Roadcem additive. A better understanding of the benefits of Roadcem compound can be established.

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4.5.1 Alkali Earth Metals and Zeolite Stabiliser Portland cement is a mixture of calcium silicates, aluminates, aluminoferrates and sulphates. On its own it has been used to achieve solidification and stabilization processes (Evanko and Dzombak, 1997). Coupled with an enhancer or additives, like Roadcem, it offers better solutions to soil treatments. Roadcem compound is a unique blend of alkaline, alkaline earth metals and zeolite stabilizer completed with complex compounds. Alkali metals include sodium and potassium (Na and K) minerals (Evanko and Dzombak, 1997). Based on the reactivity it is proposed that reduction reactions occur in the presence of ionized solutions, in this case saline water. The oxidation state is changed by the addition of electrons. By oxidation or reduction the salts in saline water are detoxified and precipitated from solution. This would account for the increased Ph in treated specimens and the reduction in TDS content and electrical conductivity after treatment with Roadcem. The other properties which are attributed to Roadcem are that it is an ion exchanger, neutralizer, molecular sieve, catalyser and absorber (Powercem Synopsis, nd). Based on the findings in this report evidence of the ion exchange capabilities are seen in the reduced TDS concentration after Roadcem treatment and the decrease in electrical conductivity. The ion exchange occurs until a state of equilibrium is reached and complete neutralization has been achieved by the positive ions. The charge of the zeolite is normally governed by the AL/Si ratio. The strength gain of treated specimens is enhanced suggesting an overall strength improvement of cement strength gain reactions. Roadcem is also attributed with having molecular recognition capabilities enabling it to form a cage like structure, enmenshing and entrapping, around molecules. This enhances strength and immobilizes harmful substances from osmotic migration through the solution. The natural zeolites component is believed to be a purifier that occurs naturally. It is an adsorption agent used in the ion axchange industry and other purification processes. The unique blend of components within Roadcem compound contribute to make it powerful additive that enhances several qualities of cement solidification and stabilistation. This stands to evidence the manufacturers documented records that Roadcem compound can withstand deleterious environments, from acid attack to salty environments.

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5.0 Discussion of Results 5.1 UCS Results The unbound material does not have any measureable UCS and is loose and cohesionless making it impossible to mould into a test specimen. The UCS results achieved for the cement stabilization of Kalahari Sand have shown promise at cement concentrations of 6% for both the control and test specimens. The values achieved suggest the use of the material in base layers since they exceed the minimum specification requirement of 1.5 MPa. The presence of chlorides and sulphates in the water did not affect the initial strength gain in the untreated and Roadcem treated specimen. This may suggest that the deleterious effect of chlorides and sulphates is more of a long term reaction. This would need to be investigated further to establish if there is any effect on cement stabilization and on cement stabilization with Roadcem additive. The original material classification was G7 material in accordance with TMH1. Achieving the translation of material strength to base layer quality is a good reflection of the potential that cement stabilization of Kalahari Sand has in the near future. The benefit of using Roadcem is that the risk of carbonation is eliminated as per the findings of Koloane and Ventura (2005).

5.2 Chemical Test Results The results of the Ph testing show that full hydration of cement is possible with the water samples used as the medium for both tap water and saline water. The high TDS in the soil mix recorded at the mixing stage and the lower TDS measured after UCS crushing suggests that reactivity and absorption of compounds within the soil water mixture and reactivity occurred during the curing period. As a general rule, it has been reported that a potential stabilizer should always be assessed on its potential to improve the structural capacity of the soil (Paige-Green, 2008). Only when adequate strength improvement due to the stabilizer has been established does it become necessary to consider other variables such as cost and alternative solutions. The foregone investigation was foucused on verification of Roadcem as a cement additive in the stabilization of Kalahari Sand. Based on these initial results, evidence suggests that successful stabilization of Kalahari Sand requires a high cement concentration of up to at least 6 % to achieve the minimum strength requirement of 0.75 MPa as per Botswana Road
58

Design Manual requirements. This is also consistent with results achieved by others. A comparison of the cost effectiveness of using Roadcem compound against alternative construction methodologies with Kalahari sand are recommend for future work. Roadcem compound does is not affected by high salinity, the presence of chlorides and sulphates in the water used for the analysis. Unconfined compression test results improved by margins of 10 to 57.9%. The cement stabilized Kalahari Sand and saline water still achieved appreciable results. Chlorides and sulphates were present in the water and this may suggest that the deleterious effect of saline water on cement may not affect the short term strength or cement hydration but is a long term detrimental effect. It is also expected that the UCS strength is likely to increase with curing. The 7 day UCS was carried out in accordance with TMH 14 and TMH 1.

5.3 Recommendations for Future Work Some of the limitations observed in this study was that the test protocol was based on a static engineering parameter of soil strength, UCS. This is often not representative of site loading and soil system interaction. Dynamic loading and testing of the samples would be required to establish the interaction between repeated loading and the colloidal response of the stabilized system. Fang and Daniels (2006) have indicated that colloids play a critical role in the soil structure and loading relationships for fine grained soils. It has been observed that pavement failure on concrete pavement is a result of pumping action on the subrade layers leading to erosion of colloids, Huang (2004). An assessment of Roadcems ability to retain the intergrity of the colloidal system under dynamic loading would prove the significant contribution it has on binding the cement soil mass and maintaining the system integrity under simulated field conditions. Another key aspect of the testing protocol as raised by Jones (2003) and Paige Greene (2008) is that the laboratory conditions are too ideal for an effective field simulation of mix design and test procedure. The extremely high daily temperatures to be encountered on construction sites within Botswana are likely to lead in rapid moisture loss. This will affect the stabilized soil mix during the mixing and curing period as setting times are hastened with rise in temperatures. Full strength may never be achieved on site as a result. Another deleterious consequence of rapid evaporation is shrinkage and development of shrinkage
59

cracks within the soil matrix. The other problem is the breaking of cementious bonds during compaction. These factors may lead to poor results being achieved during construction as opposed to the success of the laboratory evaluation. Lionjanga (1987) encountered familiar problems during the field trials along the Kanye Jewaneng road. Meticulous and good construction methodology should be able to eliminate human error and bad site practice. Of their own Kalahari Sands have been established to achieve California Bearing Ratio of up to 80% or more. This is adequately meets the minimum specification of base coarse requirements as required by the Botswana Road Design Manual (1982). However the susceptibility of Kalahari Sands to moisture ingress will lead to premature failure as established by Lionjanga (1987). It is therefore important to establish the effect of Roadcem Compound on the hydraulic conductivity of cement stabilized samples in future work. The way forward is to proceed with concurrent field and laboratory trials on a reasonable long road section to test further and understand the material potential. Lower cement concentrations of between 4 to 6% could be tested to optimize the ideal design mix.

60

6.0 Conclusion The objectives of this study had been to verify some of the documented properties of Roadcem compound as stated by the manufacturer. It has been successfully demonstrated in agreement to some of those claims that Roadcem additive with cement can be used to improve material strength from an inferior road building to a superior road building material. In this case a G7 classified Kalahari Sand was translated into a C3/C4 material. The original material quality was suitable for subgrade construction only whilst the stabilized material is suitable for use in road bases. It has also been established that salinity has little or no effect on cement hydration in the presence of Roadcem compound. More so the reactivity of Roadcem is enhanced in saline conditions as evidenced by the UCS results and the chemical tests performed on the soil mixtures. Based on the compounds incorporated in Roadcem it is has been proposed of a possible reactivity pattern through ion exchange that enables Raodcem to reduce salinity. Other compounds within Roadcem are molecule identifiers and appear to oxidate, solubise and eventual immobilize all deleterious ions in solution. These reactions continue until equilibrium is reached. The zeolite stabilser on the other hand acts as a purifier removing potentially harmful compounds so that they are freed up to participate in the cement hydration, stabilization and solidification reactions. Roadcem compound has been marketed in line with the test protocol and certification procedures recommended by Jones and Ventura (2004). Extensive literature was provided in regards to the material specification, usage, possible design mixes and comprehensive laboratory testing conducted by others including environmental requirements and the outcomes of field usage/road trials was presented on projects to date. Copies of certification achieved worldwide where provided with the literature. The certification included ISO 9001 : 2000, Agrement South Africa and other certification from laboratories in Europe. Positive results achieved in this investigation suggest that Roadcem compound holds promise in improvement of soil strength characteristics of cement stabilized Kalahari Sands. There is also a positive indication that with saline water of Total Dissolved Solids of up to 33 296 the efficacy of the compound is not affected. Long term effects of salinity on cement stabilization may need to be investigated further. The pleriminary results derived in this investigation
61

suggest that cement hydration is not detrimentally affected by salinity and the presence of chlorides of and sulphates. Furthermore the Roadcem compound appears to have spiked the salinity and electrical conductivity of the materials whilst at the same time improving the strength gain as evidenced by the increased UCS values. Based on the very high UCS results achieved it may be possible to design for a thinner pavement layer, as compared to the conventional 150 mm layer thickness, thus saving substantially on material costs. It is recommended that, in accordance with the testing protocol suggested by Jones and Emery (2003), to proceed with more detailed investigation of the Roadcem compound with cement stabilized Kalahari Sands. Based on the positive outcomes of the test results achieved it is suggested that a comprehensive field trial be implemented. Only then would it be advisable to asses the cost effectiveness of the compound at the end of the field trials, as advised by others Jones et tal (2003) and Paige-Greene (2008).

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Geomechanics (IACMAG) (pp. 3787 - 3793). Goa, India: IACMAG. Retrieved on 23rd April 2009 from from: http://www.12iacmag.com/# 50. Petrukhin, V. (1993). Construction of Structures on Saline Soils. (M. Majithia, Editor., & N. Mehta, Translator.) Brookfield, USA: A.A. Balkema. 51. Pinard, Mike. Alternative Materials and Pavement Design Technologies for Lowvolume Sealed Roads + Case Studies. International Workshop. Nairobi. Retrived 18th November 2008 from: http://www4.worldbank.org/afr/ssatp/Resources/HTML/LVSR/English/Ghana/03LVSR-Wshop-Ghana-Sep%2706-MatrPvmentDesign-MPinard.pdf 52. Piyo P M and Sahu B K. (2001). Improvement in Strength Characteristics of White Kalahari Sands by Fly Ash. Report. Gaborone: http://buildnet.csir.co.za/cdcproc/docs/2nd/sahu_bk.pdf, 1998, 18 November 2008. 53. Powercem Technologies. The Road To The Future. Guideline. Netherlands: Arcadis, 2008. 54. Rosen L; & Behrens L. (1997). The Alyn & Bacon Handbook (Third ed.). Boston, United States of America: Alyn & Bacon. 55. Roughton International in association with the University of Birmingham and the University of Nottingham. Review of Soil Stabilisation Methods. Report. London: Department for International Development, 2000. Retrived 03 March 2009, from: http://www.research4development.info/pdf/outputs/R68528.pdf 56. Scholesa, R. J., Dowty, P. R., Caylor, K., Parsons, D. A., & Shugart, P. G. (2002, June). Journal of Vegetation Science. Retrieved 04 9, 2009, from Bioone: http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.1658/11009233%282002%29013%5B0419%3ATISSAC%5D2.0.CO%3B2 57. Simmers, I. (1987). "Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Research Workshop on Estimation of Natural Recharge of Groundwater (Vol. 222). (I. Simmers, Ed.) Antalya, Turkey: Springer. Retrieved on 13 04 2009 from Google: http://books.google.com/books?id=W0uvL96OaMoC&pg=PA339&lpg=PA339&dq= ground+water+recharge+in+kalahari+desert&source=bl&ots=H8Q7NpFkY&sig=TdaPz11g5u_k7HFVfDyJYt02Qos&hl=en&ei=tzDjSZTNLYfUQbmiNmDCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4

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58. Thagesen, B. (2004). Tropical Soils and Rocks. In R. R., & T. B., Road Engineering for Development (2 ed., p. 514). Taylor & Francis. Retrieved 04 9, 2009, from Google: HYPERLINK http://books.google.co.bw/books?id=vvxPcqHfIZsC&pg=PA170&lpg=PA170&dq=cr ust+formations+in+kalahari+sands&source=bl&ots=tt68HjP6Ba&sig=8zzcbzQmmFx 6WTyEeBqh7sBF21Y&hl=en&ei=P3rfSe6TMJiVga8nOn6CA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=9" \l "PPA171,M1" 59. Thagesen, B. (1996). Highway and Traffic Engineering for Developing Countries (1st ed., p. 258-260). E & F Spon. Retrieved 04 9, 2009, from Google: HYPERLINK 60. http://books.google.com/books?id=mKm0lumSrqgC&pg=PA258&lpg=PA258&dq=T RL++Soil+stabilisation+with+cement+or+lime&source=bl&ots=XPeoVYO5Em&sig=2f G7_1VcqxsVunr4ToQmAhERu6U&hl=en&ei=VBShSs_xLJrfmQfxuyBDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6#v=onepage&q=&f=false 61. Thomas D.S.G. and P.A. Shaw. The Kalahari Environment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. 62. Thomas, A., & Dougill, A. (2006, 03 03). Geormophology. Retrieved 04 9, 2009, from Science Direct: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V93-4KXDW891&_user=778200&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C00004 3160&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=778200&md5=d3f7fe5a3eb0165b5dd8e 0d22135a28b 63. TRL & CSIR. (n.d.). The Sulphonated Petroleum Products Toolkit 1. Retrieved May 12, 2009, from Global Transport Knowledge Partnership: http://www.gtkp.com/news.asp 64. TRL & CSIR. (n.d.). The Sulphonated Petroleum Products Toolkit 2. Retrieved May 12, 2009, from Global Transport Knowledge Partnership: http://www.gtkp.com/news.asp 65. University of the Witwatersrand Johannesburg School of Civil and Environmental Engineering. Final Report to Merafong City Council on Danie Theron Road in Fochville. Final Report. Johannesburg, 2007. 66. University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg School Of Civil and Environmental Engineering (2007). Preliminary Testing of PowerCem Technologies (RoadCem) as an additive to cement for use in Soil Stabilization, Road Construction and Assorted Building Industry Applications. 1st Progress Report to PowerCem Trading and Manufacturing. Johannesburg, 2007.

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67. Vorobieff G., (1997) Research and Emerging Trends in Road Stabilisation. Australian Stabilisation Industry Association. Retrieved on 15th March 2009 from: http://www.auststab.com.au/pdf/tp13.pdf 68. Wanga, L., DOdoricoa, P., Ringroseb, S., Coetzeec, S., & Macko, S. (2007, May 9). Journal of Arid Environments. Retrieved 04 9, 2009, from Elsevier: http://www.uvacres.org/uploads/docs/Wang_2007_Journal-of-Arid-Environments.pdf 69. Warren A., Goudie A.S., (1994) Engineering Characteristics of Arid Soils. Ed. R.H.G. Parry P.G. Fookes. Rotterdam: A.A. Balkema, 1994. 15-28. 70. Woodbridge M E; Obika B; Freer-Hewish R and Newill D. Salt Damage to Bituminous Surfacings Results from road trials in Botswana. Proceedings of the Sixth Conference on Asphalt Pavements for Southern Africa, Cape Town, South Africa,October 1994. Cape Town: Overseas Centre Transport Research Laboratory Crowthorne Berkshire United Kingdom, 1994. 16. Retrieved 10 5, 2008, from http://www.transportlinks.org/transport_links/publications/publications_v.asp?id=509&title=Salt+damage +to+bituminous+surfacings%3A+results+from+road+trials+in+Botswana.+Sixth+Co nference+on+Asphalt+Pavements+for+Southern+Africa%2C+Cape+Town%2C+Sout h+Africa%2C+October+1994. 71. Woodbridge M E; Obika B; Freer-Hewish R and Newill D. (1995, June 25 - 29). Overseas Centre Transport Research Laboratory. Prevention of salt damage to thin bituminous surfacings: design guidelines. In: Sixth International Conference on Low Volume Roads, Minneapolis, Minnesota 25-29 June, 1995. Transportation Research Record, Volume 2. Washington DC: Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, 3-1 2.Retrieved 10 5, 2008, from DFID Transport Links: http://www.transportlinks.org/transport_links/filearea/publications/1_508_PA1359_1995.pdf

72. Wilmot T., (1994). Selection of Additives for Stabilisation and Recycling of Road Pavements. Proc. 17th ARRB Conf. Gold Coast, 1994.Retrieved on 26th February, 2009 from: http://polyroad.com/technical/tNote03B_1.pdf

73. Wright, E.P. Geological Studies in Noerthern Kalahari. The Geographical Journal 144.2 (1978): 235-249. Retrieved on 14 March 2009 from: http://www.jstor.org/stable/634140?&Search=yes&term=sands&term=kalahari&list= hide&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Dkalahari%2Bsands%2 6jc%3Dj100008%26wc%3Don&item=6&ttl=82&returnArticleService=showArticle

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APPENDIX 1 GRAVEL CLASSIFICATION

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APPENDIX 2 COMPACTION CHARACTERISTICS

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APPENDIX 3 CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF EXPERIMENTAL WATER

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APPENDIX 4 UNCONFINED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST RESULTS

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APPENDIX 5 CHEMICAL TESTS RESULTS FOR SOIL SAMPLES

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APPENDIX 6 POWERCEM MIXING PROTOCOL

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Laboratory protocol for testing Roader with Soil Samples Roadcem is an additive to Cement and consists of about 20 different components some of which are present in very small quantities. In order to avoid the wrong test results when working with Roadcem it is therefore necessary to determine the minimum soil sample size for the required dose of Roadcem so that at least 100 grams of Roadcem are used in the preparation of the test samples. The procedure to follow is as follows.

1. Determine the density of Soil (dry density) ( Density, Ds, kg/m3) 2. Determine the optimum moisture content of the soil (Prepare a proctor Curve, Determine Optimum MC) 3. Use the formula below to determine the minimum required soil sample size (Ss, m3): 1 DDrc doses will range from app. 1 to 2.2 kg/m3 and are a function of the soil type. 4. Calculate the dry weight of soil sample, Ws, needed for the preparation of the sample using the formula below: , kg 5. Calculate the wet weight of soil sample, SWw, needed for the preparation of the sample using the formula below:

6. Calculate the amount of water needed to prepare the sample, Ww, kg, using the formula below:

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Once all the above values have been determined, the procedure to prepare the samples is as follows: Step 1. Measure SWw, kg of soil and place in a mixer and hemogenise making sure that there are no lumps of any significant size forming Step 2. Add 100 gr of Roadcem and Mix well to ensure uniform distribution Step 3. Add the required amount of Cement as per Cement design dose (If CEM I 42.5 N is used the dose range is from 120 to 220 kg/m3) To calculate the amount of Cement needed multiply the design dose by a fraction represented by sample size, i.e.

and mix to ensure uniform distribution. Step 4. Add the required amount of water+2% and mix thoroughly Step 5. Prepare cylinders and/or cubes and beams for testing by placing the material in appropriate moulds and compacting to MPD, maximum Proctor Density. Cover with moist cloth. Step 6. De-mold after 24 hours and cure in air under wet cloth until testing date.

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APPENDIX 7 ADDITIONAL PHOTOS

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Cured Samples Ready for Testing with Crushed Sample in the Background

Sample Being Loaded onto the Compressive Strength Machine

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Sample Being Subjected to Compressive Loading

Shear Failure of Sample

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Computerised Recording Results

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