University of Texas Press

"En Conga, Bonga y Campana:" The Rise of Colombian Salsa Author(s): Lise Waxer Source: Latin American Music Review / Revista de Msica Latinoamericana, Vol. 21, No. 2 (Autumn - Winter, 2000), pp. 118-168 Published by: University of Texas Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/780450 . Accessed: 31/03/2011 22:25
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LiseWaxer

En Conga,Bongay Campana:'

The Rise of Colombian Salsa

Salsa is a popular dance music developed in the Latino barrios of New York City and urban centers of Puerto Rico during the 1960s and 1970s. Based largely on Cuban styles of the 1930s, 1940s and 1950s (e.g., son,guaracha,mambo,chachacha), salsa also incorporated Afro-Puerto Rican elements and influences from North American jazz and rock. Through the 1960s and 1970s, as salsa flourished in New York and Puerto Rico, it also spread to other parts of Latin America, especially Venezuela, Panama, and Colombia. The term "salsa"literally means "sauce," a culinary metaphor that evokes images of a spicy concoctionsomewhat mirroringthe music's own hybrid origins and infectious appeal.2 Just as it suggests, salsa's musical "hot sauce" has different seasonings, depending on who's cooking and where. Musicians and producers have their own recipes for what sounds good, and their aesthetic choices are strongly influenced by national and regional stylistic differences. In the 1980s, Cali, a bustling metropolis in southwest Colombia, emerged as an important new center for salsa performance and consumption. Indeed, the city was labeled in some circles as the "world salsa capital"-a debatable but potent claim that I examine at length elsewhere (see Waxer 1998). During my field work on salsa's rise in Cali, I had the opportunity to chat with one particularly respected expert about such differences-the Venezuelan trombonist, composer, arranger, and producer Cesar Monge, who has been living in Cali since 1988.3 I was curious to know how local orquestas compared to the New York and Puerto Rican bands with which I was more familiar. I also wanted help in understanding the differences between Colombian salsa and its counterparts elsewhere. Knowing that live salsa had played a minor role in Cali's scene until the 1980s, I could see clear links between the flourishingof local groups and the development LatinAmerican Music Volume21, Number2, Fall/Winter 2000 Review, ? 2000 by the Universityof TexasPress,P.O. Box 7819,Austin,TX 78713-7819

TheRise of Colombian Salsa : 119 of a distinct Caleno (Cali-based) sound over the past fifteen years, and asked Monge to comment on this process. According to Monge, four important contemporary schools or styles of salsa have emerged from the Cuban base, centered in New York, Puerto Rico, Venezuela, and Colombia, respectively. (Despite salsa's popularity in Panama, only one prominent artist has emerged from that countrysinger-songwriter Ruben Blades-and he is considered to be part of the New York scene.) New York and Puerto Rico were the prime centers for salsa's development in the 1960s and 1970s, but, as I discuss elsewhere, Venezuelan bands were also making important contributions to the transnational salsa scene during this time (Waxer 1993). Colombian salsa, in turn, is generally viewed as a newcomer to the world salsa stage, emerging as a significant force only in the 1980s. During this period, Colombian salsa became largely identified with Calenio orquestas, owing in part to the international success of Cali-based bands such as Grupo Niche and Guayacan. The only non-Calefio Colombian salsa performer of note is Barranquilla starJoe Arroyo, whose development as a band leader I do not examine here. In this article I explore the emergence of Colombian salsa, focusing on developments in Cali over the past thirty years.

The Early Years of Colombian Salsa

Contraryto the relatively recent emergence of most Colombian salsa bands, the roots of Colombian salsa can be traced back to the 1960s, contemporary to salsa's rise in New York,Puerto Rico, and Venezuela. Monge recalls that back in the late 1960s and early 1970s, it was easier to get imported salsa recordings in Barranquillathan in Caracas. When he toured Colombia, friends would request that he bring back copies of the latest releases from New York. Compared to Venezuela, however, few Colombian musicians took up salsa in the 1960s and 1970s-despite a large public, especially in Cali, Barranquilla, Buenaventura, and Cartagena. Why so few salsa musicians, yet so many fans? Monge reasoned that in Venezuela during this time, the pool of trained musicians was much larger than in Colombia, hence stimulating the formation of salsa bands in that country. Ruth Glasser similarly observes that the prevalence of musical education in schools and conservatories in Puerto Rico at the beginning of this century played a strong role in the development of a vibrant Puerto Rican musical culture (1995, 22). Indeed, there is considerable evidence that increased access to musical training in Cali during the 1980s had a positive influence on the rise of the live scene. Yet, while the lack of formal music education may partially account for the dearth of Colombian salsa bands before 1980, more precise explanations are needed.

120 : Lise Waxer When salsa arrived on Colombian shores in the 1960s, a strong national style-mzisica tropical-alreadyexisted. Mzisicatropical,a cosmopolitan ball room sound based on the traditionalcumbias, of Colombia's gaitas,and porros Atlantic Coast was an important vehicle for transitionsin images of culture and race at the national level during the mid-twentiethcentury (Wade 1998). antillana(music of the Spanish Antilles) Although salsa'spredecessor, musica had already established a strong Colombian audience for Cuban-based sounds, the majority of Colombian popular musicians in the 1960s performed mzisica tropical. The few Colombian bands that did start to play salsa were not strict in their assimilation of the new styles emanating from New York and Puerto Rico. Earlier Colombian groups who performed in the style of 1950s Cuban ensembles such as the Sonora Matancera, in contrast, tended to follow their models fairly closely. Colombian salsa recordings from the 1960s and 1970s are characterized by an eclectic, experimental quality, as musicians adapted salsa to other popular currents of the time. During the 1960s and early 1970s, musica tropicaland its derivative, raspa,were still dominant styles in the national media and recording industry. British and U.S. rock bands also exerted an influence on Colombian youth, as did the nuevaola (new wave) of Spanish pop crooners such as Rafael and Julio Iglesias. Meanwhile, early New York salsa styles such as pachangaand bugaluwere popular on both the Atlantic and Pacific littorals of Colombia, as was the salsa dura("hard/heavy")style developed by Eddie Palmieri, Willie Col6n, Richie Ray, and other salsa pioneers. These diverse musical influences are evident in early Colombian groups, who fused salsa with elements of rock, muisica and other styles. tropical, The earliest extant example of commercial Colombian salsa that I have been able to trace is the song "Pachanga del anio nuevo" ("New Year's con Pachangas,1969), written by guitarist-comPachanga," on Charangas and recorded poser Julian Angulo by his own band, Julian y su Combo This made (photo 1). group regular appearances on national television the The tune was the 1960s, playing salsa and mzisica tropical.4 throughout firstpachanga ever composed and recorded by a Colombian and certainly the first "home grown" salsa hit. Medardo Arias recalled that records of the tune sold widely in Buenaventura in the late-1960s, and could be frequently heard at family and neighborhood parties.5 Don Pablo Solano, likewise, confirmed that the recording was also played at nightclubs in Cali.6 Unlike the pachanga popularized by the charanga (flute and violin) ensembles ofJoey Quijano, Johnny Pacheco, and other New York artists earlier in the decade, however, this adaptation featured electric guitar instead of piano, and trumpet and saxophone in place of flute and violins. Besides the change in format, however, this recording is a good assimilation of the New York pachanga style. The tempo is upbeat, and the opening verses are brief, the emphasis being placed on sprightlycall-and-response

TheRise of Colombian Salsa : 121

Photo1.Julian y su Combo (1969),with the firstalbumof Colombiansalsaever Angulois secondfromright. recorded.Julian vocals in the montuno. The combination of trumpets and saxophone in the horn section, played with cheerful if unpolished enthusiasm (e.g., discrepancies of intonation and somewhat sloppy entries), is characteristicof early Colombian salsa. Other salsa bands began appearing throughout the country in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Alexis Lozano, who later founded Grupo Niche and then Guayacan, formed a group in his native Quibd6 in 1968, called Los Tremenditos, which was modeled after New York salsa groups and also early Venezuelan bands such as Nelson y sus Estrellas and Sexteto Juventud (Perecheala1992,32). Meanwhile, in Cartagena,trombonist Michi Sarmiento formed a group that included the promising young singerJoe Arroyo. Arroyo moved to Barranquilla in 1969, and joined forces with modeled on New Yorkgroups Johnny Arzusa to form La Protesta,an orquesta such as that of Richie Ray and Bobby Cruz, whose sound was characterized by brilliant trumpets, dynamic percussion, and punchy instrumental

122 : Lise Waxer breaks. Subsequently, in 1971, Arroyo joined Fruko y sus Tesos. Unlike their counterparts in New York, Puerto Rico, and Venezuela, however, most Colombian orquestas remained in a chrysalis stage. To my knowledge, none of these early bands recorded, and I do not have good data on how they sounded. Furthermore,none seem to have achieved much prominence outside their home towns.

Early CalenoBands Cali's first salsa bands date back to the late 1960s. As in other parts of the country, local musicians were mainly self-taught.During this time, the only institute for formal musical training was the city conservatory, which emphasized classical music and was mainly for the upper classes. Radio and recordings both played a key role in this process. Since not everyone in the working-class barrios could afford record playback equipment, however, radio became an especially important influence on aspiring young musicians. By 1965, salsa could be heard on local airwaves, broadcast on daily afternoon and evening programs that multiplied through the early 1970s. Wilson "Saoco" Manyoma (who joined Colombian salsa pioneer Fruko),and his brother Hermes (who had his own salsa band, La Ley) told me that they learned how to play by imitating sounds heard on radio, substituting kitchen utensils and other household items for musical instruments. When they were growing up in the 1960s, the family did not own a record player, and the recordings they heard were either via the radio or at friends' houses. HermesManyoma: We have to speakof a processthatbegan more or less thirtyyears ago, we've lived here since 1962,we lived in this house. That It was a terracewherewe had partwhereyou see the kitchenwas a terrace. a washtub, wherewe had some pots, and wherewe had thingsthatwe used to replacethe instruments thatwe didn'teven know about.Becauseat that time I didn'tknow what,more than havingseen them on a recordjacket, whattimbaledrumswere.I didn'tknowwhattimbaleswere,but I wantedWilsonManyoma: Nor a trumpet. Hermes:Nor a trumpet, becauseWilson:We used a hose! [theylaugh] Hermes:So, therewe beganto interpret andtryout,me as a timbalesplayer becauseI didn'tsing, and Wilsonplayedhis tube, and sangthe tunesfrom thattime,of Cortijo andhis Combo [singsrefrains of varioustunes].And we afternoon and those tunes until SefioraEsneda spent every night playing [theirmother]said, "Pleasestop!"But in any case, when she went to work [washing laundryin the evenings]we kept going at night.That'swherewe started to makemusic,assimilating whatwe mighthave heardon the radio, or on the 78 r.p.m.recordsthatfriendshad pickedup, thatwe neverhad.7

TheRise of Colombian Salsa : 123 Other musicians in Cali similarly learned through an empirical process of listening and doing. Given that most young Calefios were investing their creative talents in dance, however, and not music-making, the pool of budding musicians remained small. from earlier decades were During the 1970s, Cuban-style son conjuntos still active, such as the SonoraJuventud (literally,the Youth Sonora), which was a successor to Tito Cortes' Sonora Cali. Los Hermanos Ospino (The Ospino Brothers) also continued as a prominent fixture in the local scene. These groups performed the newer salsa sounds in addition to their stock of Cuban tunes. Both Hermes and Wilson Manyoma performed with the SonoraJuventud. While Wilson left to join Fruko in 1973 (see below), Hermes continued with the orquesta until they disbanded in 1979. Between 1979 and 1980 the SonoraJuventud disbanded and regrouped as the Octava Dimensi6n (Eighth Dimension), an orquesta that performed cover versions of classic salsa dura in the style popularized by the Fania All-Stars and by El Gran Combo de Puerto Rico. The Octava Dimensi6n soon became one of the most popular local orquestas to hire for dances and as a "warm-up"act for international salsa bands. Around this same time, Hermes Manyoma founded La Ley (The Law), an orquesta that performed in the heavier, rough-edged "barriostyle" of Willie Col6n and the Lebron Brothers. Other local bands included Formula Ocho (Formula 8) and La Gran Banda Calenia (The Cali Big Band), which were mzisica tropicalbands that later shifted towards salsa. All of these bands are still active, but have been obliged to adapt to recent currents and mainly perform salsa romdntica (romantic salsa).8 With less than ten local bands active on the scene, there was frequent work for everyone during the 1970s. According to Santiago Mejia and Hermes Manyoma, a band might work as often as three, four, or even five times a week, playing at grilles (nightclubs), salons, school dances, weddings, baptisms, quinceafieras [girls' debutante parties] and other private parties, in addition to occasional performances for patronalfiestasin nearby towns. People would also rent a salon and hire a local band for a party, a practice that later became too expensive for most to afford.9 Wilson Manyoma recalls that the money from these performances was not a great Most of Cali's early orquestas deal, but usually enough to cover basic needs.10 performed a repertoire of salsa, musica tropical, Spanish pasodoble,and other international ball room genres, no doubt finding that this mixed repertoire cut across class lines and hence maximized performance opportunities. The salsa tunes played were cover versions of tunes already popular in the record-centered scene: hits by famous New York and Puerto Rican artists such as Richie Ray and Bobby Cruz, Hector Lavoe, Ray Barretto, Cheo Feliciano, Adalberto Santiago, Roberto Roena, and Ismael Miranda. Since performances by international orquestas were rare, there was not

124 : Lise Waxer the same competition from these more prestigious bands as happened later in the 1980s.11The fact that these bands performed cover versions of hit recordings by international bands, however, rather than developing an original repertoire, suggests that recordings continued to exert an inordinate power over the local scene, determining musical tastes and shaping the very tunes people expected to hear. Pimienta"Diaz: Los Supremos and Beyond "Piper The first prominent salsa band in Cali was Los Supremos, led by singer EdulfamitMolina Diaz-more commonly known as "PiperPimienta."Born in 1939 in Puerto Tejada, Piper grew up in Cali's Barrio Obrero, the city's most traditional zone for mfisica antillana and salsa fans. Through the 1960s, he performed in various son conjuntos,before forming Los Supremos towards the end of the decade. Piper Pimienta's thick and style, and his unusual and chargrowly voice was well suited to the sonero ismatic inflection of words further endeared him to local audiences. Los Supremos performed regularly in Cali and the nearby port of Buenaventura. In 1970 Los Supremos was invited to Medellin to record an album for Discosfuentes, the country's largest recording label. The album recorded by Los Supremos was prophetically titled Atiza,Ataja(Push,Pull). Its rather unorthodox blend of New York salsa with elements of tropicaland rock seems to reflect the push-pull of different forces that were shaping Colombian popular tastes at the beginning of the 1970s. "Atiza, "(1970) ataja (PiperPimientowithLos Supremos) sabroso que Hayundicho sehapuesto demoda, Unos dicen"atiza" Cuando yo lesdiga"atiza" ustedes contestan "ataja!"
Yotroscontestan"ataja."

There'sa cool saying that'sbrandnew, Some people say "push" When I tell you "push," you all answer"pull!"
and the others reply "pull."

The title cut of the album is fast-paced for salsa, played at = 108, and it or "jam-session"feel that has not continemphasizes an energetic descarga ued in later Colombian salsa. The band uses instrumentation similar to that used in New York salsa dura bands from that time: conga, timbal, bongo, piano, bass, saxophones, trumpets, and vocals. The rhythm section sounds almost like a New York band, with a hard-driving swing (see Washbume 1998). Later Colombian salsa bands would be more clearly with a rhythmic attack influenced by musica tropical and Cuban guaracha,

TheRise of Colombian Salsa : 125 placed squarely on top of or even slightly ahead of the beat, with a lighter, bouncier feel. Since the tempo is played so fast, the percussionists seem to have trouble staying on top of the beat. The band is not very tight as a result, and the timbal patterns are rather sloppy. In the final section of the piece, the rhythm briefly switches to an unusual quasi-rockfeel, with steady eighth notes played on the high-hat and the rest of the rhythm section emphasizing the downbeats, while Piper does a call-and-response on the words "Atiza!Ataja"with the corosingers. After this recording, Piper left Los Supremos owing to conflicts over band leadership.'2 Piper remained in Medellin, joining a new salsa band by the name of Fruko y sus Tesos (see below). Founded by leading Discosfuentes artistJulioErnesto "Fruko" Estrada,the band fused elements of raspa and rock with salsa. Although Piper left Fruko in 1972, he continued to perform in Fruko's eclectic style, as is evident in the song, "Las calefias son como las flores" (Calefia women are like flowers) which became a signature tune for Piper.13 The tune sings praises to Cali's women, idealizing them as beautiful flowers for contemplation. These perceptions correspond to the oft-heard adage that Calefia women are the prettiest in all Colombia. "Lascalefiasson como las flores"(1975) with Frukoy sus Tesos) (PiperPimienta,
Las caleias son comolasflores Quevestidovan de mil colores sus amores Ellas nuncaentregan Si no estdncorrespondidas. vanpor las aceras Caminando llevansu cintura Contoneando Ellas mueven las caderas comolas canaverales. (A la la la ...) (Bis)

Caleias are like flowers Thatgo clothedin a thousandcolors They nevergive love If it'snot suitable. They go walkingalongthe sidewalks Swayingat the waist They move theirhips like the reeds. (A la la la la...)
(Repeat)

Montuno(Call-and-Response Section)
Las calenasson Comolasflores Las sencillasson Comovioletas Las bonitasson Como gardenias Las hermosas son Comola rosa son Las negritas Una ricura

Calefiasare Likeflowers The simpleones are Likeviolets The prettyones are Likegardenias The beautiesare Likea rose The blackones are Smashing

126 : Lise Waxer Lasgorditas son Sabrosura son Lasflaquitas No haycintura Lascalenas son Como lasflores The plumpones are Delicious The skinnyones are No waist Calefiasare Likeflowers

The most striking feature of this arrangement is the rugged trombones, which are clearly derived from the style developed by New York artists Eddie Palmieri and Willie Col6n, and furtherpopularized during the early 1970sby Venezuela'sDimensi6n Latina.The verses are played over a rhythmic figure that emphasizes the piano chord on beat two and the arpeggiated triad on beats one, three, and four in the bass line (figure 1): Figure 1. Cumbia rhythmic figure from "Las Calefias."
Am E Am E

7cz J

-I

; -

This rhythmic accompaniment is typical of Colombian misica tropical and dance-band cumbia. At the montuno section, the rhythmic feel shifts to with the bass salsa, interlocking anticipated pattern, piano guajeo(vamp), and percussion tumbaos typical of Cuban-based dance styles.14High-hat accents on beats two and four, however, maintain the influence of misica tropical (these kinds of accents are prominent in porroarrangements).The song culminates in a bugalf-influenced vamp, characterizedby hand claps on beats two and four, with a rising chord sequence in the bass and piano and a coro of "Con las mujeres de Cali me voy a gozar" (I'm going to have a good time with the women of Cali). TheImpactof Frukoin Cali Fruko y sus Tesos was very popular in Cali, not least because two of his first vocalists hailed from that city: Piper Pimienta (1970-72) and Wilson "Saoco" Manyoma (1973-1980s). Costefio singerJoe Arroyo also performed with Fruko (1972-80), alternating lead vocals with Saoco. The combination of Saoco's deep sonero voice, similar to that of New York and Puerto Rican

TheRise of Colombian Salsa : 127 salsa singers of the time, and Arroyo's unusual tenor proved to be a winning combination for listeners throughout Colombia. In addition, songs were frequently peppered with interjections such as "Viva Cali!" or "Viva Cartagena!,"along with dedications to traditional salsero barrios in Cali, Cartagena, and Barranquilla. Fruko was well known for combining salsa with elements of Colombian mfsica tropical (i.e., dance-band cumbia) and rock in a unique style he called salsibiri. Central to Fruko's sound was the tendency to juxtapose different styles and rhythms in different sections of a piece. His 1973 hit, "Tania,"for example, starts out with a mfsica tropical (cumbia) rhythm in the first part of the verse, switches to rock 'n' roll at the end of the verse, alternatesbetween salsa and rock 'n' roll for the coro, with cumbia used for the mambo (horn chorus) parts between coro sections.15Other tunes from the early and mid-1970s are similarly eclectic in the use of different styles for different parts of the arrangement. Fruko's fusions are similar to the pop-oriented salsa-bugali-tropicaltunesthat two international artistspopularized in Colombia during the early 1970s,Nelson y sus Estrellas (Venezuela) and Alfredito Linares (Peru). In addition to his eclectic style, Fruko's overall style was characterized by a bouncy, "on top of the beat" rhythmic swing. This feel no doubt derives from the attack used in playing Colombian misica tropical-indeed, most of Fruko's band (including Fruko himself) had grown up playing mfisica tropical.16 The unconventional musical style of Fruko y sus Tesos was underscored by their public image, which was styled after North American youth culture: afro hairstyles, Indian paisley prints, love beads, and leather vests (see photo 2). The very name of the band, which translates as "Frukoand his Tough Guys," suggested a rebellious stance. Album covers depicted Fruko in aggressive poses, fists raised or gun in hand, sometimes flanked by Saoco and Arroyo in similar henchmen postures. The "tough guy" posturing was no doubt also modeled on rising young New York salsa superstar Willie Col6n, whose "bad boy" image and aggressive sound defined the New Yorkscene in the late 1960s and 1970s.According to Discosfuentes publicist FelipeJaramillo, Fruko's first appearance in Cali in 1973 almost did not materialize-the band was almost sent packing because concert promoters thought they were shiftless hippies!17 Medardo Arias recalls that Fruko's tough guy image was previously unknown in Colombian popular culture.'8Although Fruko did not gain much acceptance among purists of the New York-PuertoRican sound, he developed a strong following among younger listeners, many of whom saw his band as a vital expression of contemporary Colombian youth music. PianistJaime Henao, a founder of La Misma Gente, acknowledges Fruko-along with North American rock bands-as an important musical influence during his teens.19

128 : Lise Waxer

Photo 2. Frukoy sus Tesos,c. 1973.Fromleft to right,JoeArroyo,JulioErnesto "Fruko" and Wilson"Saoco" El Tiempo, in Estrada, Manyoma.(Source: reprinted Arteaga1992,96). TheLive SceneExpands During the late 1970s and into the 1980s, Cali's live scene grew considerably, under the aegis of an empresario named Larry Landa. A fashion boutique owner who became involved in the cocaine trade during the mid1970s, Landa is fondly remembered as a Robin Hood sort of figure who ploughed most of his illicit profits into promoting famous New York salsa orquestas in Cali and nearby Buenaventura. He was responsible for the debut of the Fania All-Stars in Colombia in 1980, and he also brought several top New Yorkartiststo Cali, including Eddie Palmieri,Hector Lavoe, Willie Col6n, Ruben Blades, and more. Before Landa appeared on the scene, few salsa artistshad performed in Cali: only Richie Ray and Bobby Cruz (1968), Ismael Miranda (1972), and El Gran Combo (1975). Besides these visits, however, the sole contact that Calefio aficionados had with the New York and Puerto Rico scene was via recordings. Landa's contributions to Cali's salsa scene were critical. He established a glamorous and exciting ambiance for salsa that had not existed

TheRise of Colombian Salsa : 129 previously, sponsoring international shows, mass public salsa concerts, and opening Cali's first luxury salsa nightclub-Juan Pachanga, named after a famous Ruben Blades' song. The appearance of internationally famous orquestas, known previously only through their recordings, provoked tremendous excitement in Cali, magnifying and reinforcing the cosmopolitan sensibilities forged in previous decades through the consumption of salsa recordings. This, in turn, had an enormous effect on local musicmaking. With the opportunity to see New York bands in person, local musicians were exposed to new sounds and techniques, especially the members of Octava Dimensi6n and La Ley, who were frequently contracted by Landa to open for or alternate sets with the New Yorkorquestas. Santiago Mejia, leader of the Octava Dimensi6n, recalls that such gigs were a tremendous experience from which they learned a lot and also had the opportunity to converse with the visiting musicians, exchanging musical ideas and getting pointers.20Visiting international orquestas also inspired new musicians to take up salsa, and helped spur the formation of more local bands. Although Landa's illustrious career was cut short in 1985, when he died (some say assassinated) in a New York prison while serving a drugtraffickingsentence, his legacy lived on in the boom of Cali'slocal live scene. Another extremely important influence in the rise of the local scene was the Festival de Orquestas, an annual marathon concert held during the December Feria (annual fair). Featuring local, national, and international salsa orquestas, the festival was launched in 1980 byJairo Sanchez, musical director of the Feriafrom 1980-1989. Created as a vehicle for exchange between international and local orquestas, the festival was sponsored in an effort to promote the viability and quality of local bands.21Although initially ridiculed by critics, who saw local bands as little more than "filler" for the international acts, the festival fulfilled its promise.Jairo Varela, for example, notes that Grupo Niche began to pay greater attention to aspects of band uniforms and choreography after performing opposite El Gran Combo and Oscar D'Le6n during the 1984 Festival de Orquestas.22 Sanchez explained to me that the Festival de Orquestas has had its strongest influence in providing local musicians with a highly visible performance space each December. This became a strong motivation to stay active throughout the year and keep improving. During the 1980s, the number of local bands appearing in the Festival steadily increased, earmarkingthe event as a showcase for local talent. Significantly,Caleniobands proved that they could put on as good a show as the internationalorquestas. At no other time in the year does the Calefio public turn out in such large numbers to listen, dance to, and cheer on its own orquestas. The opportunity for local bands to perform in the limelight, hence, further stimulated the growth of Cali's live scene.

130 : Lise Waxer TheImpactof Musicians from thePacificCoast Colombian salsa began to blossom during the 1980s, with the appearance of two groups hailing from the Pacific Coast, Grupo Niche and Guayacan. These orquestas are Cali's top salsa bands, and are often referred to (erroneously) as the progenitors of Cali's scene. Some observers maintain that these orquestas are not "legitimately"Calefio because most of their members are not natives of the city, yet no one can deny that musicians from the Pacific Coast have been vital to the rise of Cali's salsa scene. Niche and Guayacan trace their roots back to Quibd6, the capital of Choc6 province. Although these two bands were actuallyfounded in Bogota and subsequently relocated to Cali, the original members of Niche and Guayacan hail primarilyfrom Quibd6. As in Cali, the Cuban-based sounds of mzsicaantillanahad a strong influence in Quibd6 during the 1940s and 1950s, arriving via recordings brought down the Atrato River, the principal trade link of Quibd6 to the outside world. According to Guayacan's leader Alexis Lozano, the local preference for Cuban son continued even after New York and Puerto Rican salsa began to enter the country, establishing a strong foothold in areas such as Cali and Buenaventura.23The lighter, less strident style of Cuban son is evident in the sound that Niche and Guayacan developed through the 1980s and 1990s, particularly noticeable in melodic lines, texture, rhythmic phrasing and harmonic voices. Another key element in the formation of Quibd6 salsa musicians was the academy established in Quibd6 by Padre Isaac Rodriguez, a Catholic priest who gave lessons in instrumental technique (keyboard and brass), musical rudiments, harmony, and solfege. Padre Rodriguez founded his academy in conjunction with the local cathedral, as a means of obtaining trained musicians to play for Sunday mass and other Church functions. AlthoughJairo Varela did not attend this school, Alexis Lozano and other members of Niche and Guayacan studied there. The priest never did approve of his students' involvement with popular music, but his teaching laid the groundwork for several musicians who became key figures in the development of Colombian salsa. The strong role of salsa musicians from the littoral-as vocalists, instrumentalists, bandleaders, songwriters,and arrangers-has been part of a general surge in migration from the Pacific to Cali in the past twenty years. This migration, which dates back to the links between the Cauca Valley region (where Cali lies) and the Pacific Coast established during colonial times, was stimulated during the 1970s and 1980s as people poured into Cali seeking jobs cutting sugar cane or work in the expanding construction and transportationindustry.According to eminent local sociologist Gustavo de Roux, newcomers to the city often followed relatives and neighbors,

TheRise of Colombian Salsa : 131 setting up strong "migratory chains" that reinforced economic and social links between Cali and the Pacific littoral.24The development of Niche and Guayacan during the 1980s is rooted in such migratory networks and is similarly based on social and familial ties. GrupoNiche Grupo Niche was founded in Bogota in 1978, with a debut record album between 1979 and 1980. Like many young Quibdecefios, founding members Jairo Varela and Alexis Lozano had moved to the nation's capital during the 1970s in order to complete their education and seek employment. Varela, a songwriter and lyricist, contacted multi-instrumentalistand arranger Lozano with the idea of forming a salsa band, which they christened with the colloquial term niche.In Colombia, as in other Hispanic Caribbean nations such as Puerto Rico and Venezuela, this term refers to someone who is of African descent. Although the word has somewhat negative connotations when used between whites and blacks (similar to the U.S. term "nigger"),the term is often used affectionately between AfroColombians, signifying "brother"or "pal." Since the group was formed almost entirely of Afro-Colombians, playing an Afro-Caribbean genre (salsa), Niche was no doubt seen as the appropriate name for the band. Niche's first recording, AlPasito, was released in 1980 to little acclaim, but their next album, Querer es Poder(1981), garnered much attention and broke Fruko's monopoly on Colombian salsa. The album, in general, represented the new face of Colombian salsa. Instead of Fruko's eclectic fusion of salsa with rock and raspa, Niche played salsa in the crisp, straight-ahead fashion of Puerto Rican groups such as El Gran Combo. The nasal timbre of the vocals was very much in the style of 1950s Cuban bands such as the Sonora Matancera. Sometimes cited as Niche's best ales Poderis generally lauded for its combination of salsa with bum, Querer musical and lyrical elements from the Pacific Coast. One example is "Mi mama me ha dicho" (My Mother Told Me), which sets a traditional Chocoano song in a catchy salsa arrangement. Another tune, "Digo Yo" (I Say), refers directly to the Afro-Colombian religious practice of lighting candles to invoke specific saints.25 The album's most successful tune, however, was "Buenaventura y Caney," which became a national hit. The song is dedicated to the AfroColombian population of Buenaventura-Caney is the name of a famous canteen in the port. With lyrics and melody byJairo Varela and arrangement by Alexis Lozano, the tune featured a structuralcoherence and polished execution not heard previously in Colombian bands.

132 : Lise Waxer "Buenaventuray Caney"(1981) (Grupo Niche) (Verso) (spoken: Para Chavaconcarino) Quesepanen PuertoRico Quees la tierradeljibarito A Nueva York hoymi canto Perdonen queno les dedico, A Panamaa Venezuela A todostodoshermanitos, El GrupoNichedisculpaspide Pues no es nuestra culpa, Queen la costadel Pacifico Hay unpuebloquela llevamos En al alma se nospegaron. Ycon otroslo comparamos, Alld hay carino,ternura, Ambiente de sabrosura, Los cueros van en la sangre Delpequenohastael mdsgrande, Son nichescomonosotros De alegriasiempre en el rostro, A ti mi Buenaventura Conamorte lo dedicamos. Montuno (Coro) Del Caney al Bulevard Amigo dos pasos Ahi llegamos al pifial Luego nos tapiamos. Ahi tienesu monte Ahi tienesu rey Comoel melaotieneel mamey Yuna negritatambien. (Coro) Dondeel negro solosolitose liber6 (Chorus) From Caney to the Boulevard Friend, it's two steps There we arrive at the pineapple grove Then we hole up. There they have outback, There they have their king As molasses has its mamey[fruit] And a black woman too. (Verse) (To Chava with love) So they know in Puerto Rico Which is land of the jibaro (peasant), To New York today, let them pardon that I don't dedicate my song to them, To Panama and Venezuela To all, all the little brothers, Grupo Niche begs pardon, But it's not our fault, That on the Pacific Coast, There's a town that we carry In our souls, they really struck deep. And with others that we compare it Down there there's sweetness and tenderness, A scene with spice, The drums are in their blood From the little to the oldest, They're black like us Smiles always on their faces To you, my Buenaventura, With love we dedicate this.

(Chorus) Where the black all alone freed himself Riendasueltaal sabor le did.He gave free rein to the drum and sabor. y al tambor (Chorus) The same as in your streets I saw a black woman pass by, ay! what a beauty.

(Coro) Lo mismoquepor tus calles Vi una morena pasar lay! quebellaes.

TheRise of Colombian Salsa : 133 (Coro) (Chorus) Nostapiamos, nosemborrachamos We holed up, we got drunk lo brindamos ForGod and for you, we offera toast PorDiosque porti, todito (Coro) deti meencuentro Cuando lejos siento Buenaventura ganasdellorar Porti. (Chorus) When I findmyselffarfromyou I feel like crying Buenaventura Foryou.

The tune became an instant hit in the port of Buenaventura, becoming the town's second anthem next to Petronio Alvarez's currulao "Mi Buenaventura."(Currulaois the marimba-basedAfro-Colombian and AfroEcuadorian tradition that predominates in the southwest Pacific littoral of Colombia and northwest coast of Ecuador.) Indeed, the song makes direct reference to local musical tradition by quoting the melody of the "Mi Buenaventura."This quotation appears at the end of the first mambo section (figure 2). Figure 2. Melodic quote from "Mi Buenaventura"

lW LTC,

(Piaa)

hO

et.

Figure 3. Incipit of "Mi Buenaventura," original melody

^Myrxr
^^jir^xr J

F r r ^r-:-trI r r ^Lr

1 i

The melody of "Mi Buenaventura" is adapted from the compound duple meter (6/8) of the original composition (see figure 3) to 4/4 time, in order to work over the salsa arrangement. The tune also features a catchy piano and bass vamp during the second half of the piece, played beneath the coro (figure 4). This vamp uses a descending stepwise chord sequence, common in Andalucian Spanish genres such as flamenco(although this influence may have come more directly via Cuban songs that incorporate this device). "Buenaventuray Caney" features many basic elements that have continued to define Niche's sound. Despite stylistic shifts through the years,

134 : Lise Waxer section Figure 4. Vamp from "Buenaventuray Caney," montuno
Dm C

Bb

A7

-.7

c
Dm C

Bb A7.

'

Dm

t-

Niche's style retains the influence of classic, tipico(typical, i.e. traditional) orquestas such as El Gran Combo de Puerto Rico, and also Venezuela's Oscar D'Le6n.26Varela confirmed this observation, noting that this was The tipico influence is quite especially strong during Niche's early years.27 evident not only on Querer esPoder but also Niche's other recordings through the mid-1980s. The arrangementsare uncomplicated, with the bright, short horn phrases reminiscent of El Gran Combo's style and also strongly influenced by the horn writing characteristicof musica tropical. Most songs are at mid-tempo (J = 98), a good speed for dancing. (By this time, Caleiio dancers had abandoned the frenzied "double-time" step of the 1960s and early 1970s and had returned to the standard salsa step common throughout Latin America.) Niche's overall sound in these early years is clean and uncluttered, reinforced by the crisppatterof the maracasand the steady pulse of the campana. The overall swing of the band is lighter and more buoyant than Puerto Rican and New York players (Washburne 1998). Percussion, bass, and piano provide a solid rhythmic foundation, but are not played as aggressively as New York and Puerto Rican salsa dura bands. Indeed, the bass is very relaxed in its placement behind the beat, sounding more laid back than Puerto Rican and Cuban bands. The conga and timbal, on the other hand, are played squarely on top of the beat, as in Fruko's earlier style. The maracas and campana, for their part, are placed after the downbeat, as in the Cuban and Puerto Rican style, and it is these two instruments, Even though some of ultimately, that propel the groove most strongly.28 the instruments in the rhythm section actually place their attack slightly behind the beat, the overall feel of Colombian salsa is on top of the beat, and this has become typical of all Colombian salsa. Producer and arranger Jesus "Chucho" Ramirez observed that the rhythmic feel of Grupo Niche, and later, Guayacan, relates to the influence of musica tropical on Colombian players. Colombiansalsatook on the style of Niche and Guayacan, whichis a style that, since they'reChocoanos,they had some classictunes. Even though Jairo Varelahas made many changes,the percussionhas alwaysidentified who we are.Whyis the percussion different fromthatof PuertoRico or New York?Becausewe've become-musiciansfrom here haven't played salsa

Salsa : 135 TheRise of Colombian

exclusively. They've played Colombian music, and that's why the attack is different from those from over there.29 Despite the strong impact of Cuban-based music, the influence of Colombian national styles has ultimately been a definitive factor in the Colombian sound, compared to other styles of salsa. Niche relocated to Cali in 1982, recording two albums before their landmark hit "Cali Pachanguero" was released on No Hay Quinto Malo in 1984. During this period, co-founder Alexis Lozano left Niche to form Guayacan. The lyrics of "Cali Pachanguero" pay tribute to Cali, evoking scenes from popular life with references to salsa and soccer, linking these to a romantic vision of Cali as "heaven's outpost." "Cali Pachanguero" (1984) (Grupo Niche) (Coro) Calipachanguero, Cali, luz de un nuevocielo (bis) (Verso) De romdntica luna, El luceroquees lelo De miraren tu valle La mujerqueyo quiero. Yelgilqueroquecanta Callesquese levantan, CarnavalenJuanchito, unpuebloinspira! Todo (Coro) Calipachanguero, Cali, luz de un nuevocielo (bis) (Verso) Es por esoqueespero Quelos dids quelejos No, no durenmi ausencia, Sabesbien queme muero, a tzi Todos los caminosconducen Si supierasla pena Queun dia senti, de mi Cuandoenfrente Tusmontanasno vi! Quetodo,quetodo, que todoque! Quetodoel mundote cante, (Chorus) Cali pachanguero, Cali, light of a new sky (repeat) (Verse) From the romantic moon, The star that is stunned, To see in your valley The woman I love. And the gilquero[bird] that sings Streets that rise up, Carnival injuanchito A whole town inspires! (Chorus) Cali pachanguero, Cali, light of a new sky (repeat) (Verse) It's for this that I hope That the days when [I'm] afar, My absence is not prolonged, You know well that I die, All roads lead to you, If you knew the pain That I felt one day, When in front of me I did not see your mountains! That every, every, every, what! That everyone sings to you,

136 : Lise Waxer

Quetodoel mundote mime Celosoestoy pa'que mires No me voymdsnipor miles. Montuno (Coro) Quetodoel mundote cante, Quetodoel mundote mime Celosoestoy pa'quemires No me voymdsnipor miles. (Verso) Permitaqueme arrepienta iOh! mi bellacenicienta De rodillasmipresencia Si mi ausenciafuetu afrenta (Coro) tan bonitas Quenoches, quenoches Siloe en tus callecitas Alfondo mi Valleen risa, iAy! toditose divisa! (Coro) Un cldsico en el Pascual Adornado de mujeres sin par, America,Cali, a ganar, Aqui no sepuedeempatar! (Coro) Barranquilla puertode oro, Paris la ciudadde luz Nueva York, capitaldel mundo, Del cielo, Cali la sucursal! (Coro) A millassientotu aroma, Cualquiera, justo razona, senores, Que Cali es Cali, senoras, Lo demdses loma! Mambo (Horn Chorus) (spoken interjections) iC6mo,ahpues! OyeCanandonga la mesa! Sepdrame Ah,pues! Manolo,escdndeme. iCali! That everyone indulges you, I'm jealous that you'd look I won't go one mile further. (Chorus) That everyone sings to you, That everyone indulges you I'm jealous that you'd look I won't go one mile further (Verse) Let me repent Oh, beautiful Cinderella I'll bow down on my knees If my absence was your outrage (Chorus) What nights, what pretty nights Siloe with its alleyways And beyond, my smiling Valle Ay! You can make out everything! (Chorus) A soccer game in the Pascual [stadium] Adorned by women without equal America, Cali, to victory,30 Here you can't have a tie! (Chorus) Barranquilla,city of gold Paris, city of light New York, capital of the world, And in heaven, Cali is the outpost! (Chorus) From miles around I smell your aroma, Whatever one, is just cause for reasoning That Cali is Cali, ladies and gentlemen, The rest is hillside! [i.e., "boonies"]

What, oh yeah! Hey, Caniandonga Put a table aside for me Oh yeah! Manolo, hide me. 3 Cali!

Salsa : 137 TheRise of Colombian

Photo3. Grupo Niche after the success of "Cali Pachanguero," with their 1985 album Triunfo (Triumph).

Just as "Buenaventura y Caney" became an anthem of the port, "Cali Pachanguero" became the popular hymn of Cali, underscoring the city's self-image as "world salsa capital." The musical arrangement of "Cali Pachanguero" is simple, concentrating on the lyrics and the tune's catchy refrain. The horn phrases are short and simple, underscoring the emphasis on vocals. The pinched, nasal coros of the tune recalled 1940s and 1950s Cuban groups such as the Sonora Matancera, indexing the sounds that were locally popular in earlier decades.32 Public response to "Cali Pachanguero"at the 1984 Festival de Orquestas helped to cement Grupo Niche as Colombia's premier salsa orquesta. Says Varela,
It was a great experience because we finally had something to show.... Already we'd put together "Cali Pachanguero" and it was the theme of the Feria, and of course, as the saying goes-how is it?, the voice of the people is the voice of God, and they said that we were the best although that wasn't the idea, it wasn't the idea to say we were the best or feel like we were the best, but rather it was a definitive plug for what we were starting to do.33

Varela's ebullience in the wake of "Cali Pachanguero" was clearly evident see photo 3). in the title of Niche's following album, Triunfo ("Triumph,"

138 : Lise Waxer Grupo Niche's rise to the fore of Cali's scene coincides with mounting fervor among local fans to demonstrate the legitimacy of Calefio orquestas alongside international ones. Although Niche still had a far way to go before achieving the polish of transnational bands (which Varela himself admits), the group could hold its own and was embraced by local fans. "Cali Pachanguero"became popular through the rest of Colombia and even in New York and Boston, where salsa bands performed cover versions of the song at local dances.34As a result of the song's impact, Calenio radio stations launched an annual competition for the best original salsa tune by a local orquesta, stipulating that the song be dedicated to Cali. Despite the broad appeal of Niche's first hits, however, critics have belittled Grupo Niche for the crossed clavein "Buenaventuray Caney" and "Cali Pachanguero."In salsa and its Cuban predecessors, all the rhythmic accents of the words, horn lines and melodic phrases must coordinate with the accents of the clave pattern, a two-bar ostinato that emphasizes a 3-2 or 2-3 feel, depending on where the line starts (figure 5). Figure 5. Clave pattern "Three-twoclave

L >t

x I

"Two-three" clave

'' |

:3

If the flow of the clave clashes with the rhythmic accents of the phrase, musicians say the clave is cruzado, crossed. This usually happens when a line that should be played over a 2-3 clave is played over a 3-2 clave, or when a phrase with an uneven number of bars is repeated, hence "flipping over" the sense of where one is in the flow of the clave. In "Buenaventura y Caney," for example, the descending piano/bass vamp is five bars long, which results in the clave turning over from a 2-3 to 3-2 feel every time the vamp is repeated. In "Cali Pachanguero,"uneven phrase lengths result in crossed clave to an even greater degree. During the instrumental fanfare that opens the piece, the trombone repeats a simple, syncopated rhythmic cell four times. The phrase bears an ambiguous relation to the clave. When the entire passage is repeated, however (doubled by the trumpets), the clave feel is turned around, but in this cruzada repetition, the accents of the with line clave For the listener who is sensitive to phrase up (figure 6). clave, the conjunction of cross-rhythmic accents with the erroneous crossing of the clave is almost too much to bear!

TheRise of Colombian Salsa : 139 Figure 6. Crossed clave from introduction to "Cali Pachanguero"

I
clave: IJ t I I I i l I I-

( doubled by trp.)
I 1

9l

v f 7 IF II ; r7 iIr r 7 p r I

r I V

Ii )I I7 . 1. rI
I

1 1 ;1

> 1

Dl (' m6

71 r

r " I r I

d I

tI

; P

II

Towardsthe end of "CaliPachanguero,"afteran extended call-and-response montuno, the piano and bass launch into a vamp in C minor, reminiscent of the descending piano/bass line that concludes "Buenaventuray Caney." The vamp is punctuated by hand claps on the second and fourth beats of the bar, recalling 1960s bugali and also Fruko's use of bugali hand claps in his "salsibirfistyle. This is followed by a twice repeated eight-barmambo in the horns and flute. The music then returns to the top of the vamp in order to run these two sections again, but instead of letting the last bar of the mambo fully complete itself, as most salsa arrangerswould have done, the previous vamp enters on bar 8 of the mambo figure. This turns the clave around and makes the entire recapitulation of these sections cruzado. Varela defends himself by pointing out that well-known salsa orquestas have also recorded arrangements that cross the clave.35In any case, when Cesar Monge joined Grupo Niche in 1987, one of his first tasks was to write new arrangements of these and other Niche songs, straightening out the clave and rewriting some of the horn parts and instrumental breaks.36 The new arrangements were recorded as a commemorative double album entitled HistoriaMusical. This is an unusual vinyl palimpsest in which Varela tried to "set the record straight,"as it were, by re-releasing the band's old hits in versions that sounded essentially the same as the old ones, but with the bugs ironed out and the instrumental choruses given a new shine. The revised version of "Buenaventuray Caney," for example, simply removes the offending fifth bar so that the vamp lines up correctly with the clave every time. In "Cali Pachanguero,"new parts replace the problematic sections of the original. Even though the original "cruzado"recordings are the ones usually played in local nightclubs and at parties, the rectified versions are what Grupo Niche has performed in their live shows since then. Varela's decision to release a recording of the new arrangements suggests that he

140 : Lise Waxer wished to broadcast a new "improved" image of Grupo Niche, as a polished orquesta on par with world-class bands from Puerto Rico and New York-and also indicates his belief in the power of recording as a medium in which to accomplish this. Since its inception, Niche has been under the tight artistic direction of Jairo Varela. Although not formally schooled in music, Varela has an innate ear and a definite concept of what he wants.37Despite his lack of training, Varela demonstrates an uncanny instinct for what will go over well with an audience. Jose Agiiirre, Niche's current musical director, explained that Varela often writes what most composers and arrangerswould never think of, but which work despite their unusual or illogical twists. Varela is meticulous about details, as I observed during the recording and mixing of Etnia in October 1995, and he works closely with his arrangers and musicians to obtain the final results that he is looking for. The band's lead singers during the 1980s were particularlygood salsa vocalists, gifted with thick, colorful vocal timbres and the sense of inflection and phrasing typical of Cuban and Puerto Rican soneros.38In addition, Grupo Niche has also had a succession of strong pianists such as Nicolas "Macabi" Cristancho and Alvaro "Pelusa"Cabarcas, skilled instrumentalists whose rhythmic feel and elegant, jazzy solos clearly show the influence of Puerto Rican maestro Papo Lucca (leader of the Sonora Poncefia). Niche was the first orquesta to be identified with a new, distinct style in the Cali scene. The band's popularity in the first half of the 1980s had a strong bearing on the rise of other local orquestas. Not only did Grupo Niche's success inspire other local players to take up salsa, the band's sound also had a considerable impact on the stylistic orientation of many subsequent groups. Their music, diffused in live performance and also via radio and recordings, played an important role in encouraging other musicians to strive for a polished, commercially viable sound. Despite internal rifts through the late 1980s, Niche has continued to maintain its status as one of Colombia's top salsa orquestas, both locally and internationally.

Guayacdn Multi-instrumentalistand arranger Alexis Lozano founded Guayacan in 1983, after leaving Grupo Niche to pursue his own artisticvision.39During this period, Lozano was less interested in performing straight-ahead salsa than in fusing this style with elements of traditional Colombian elements, particularly Afro-Colombian genres from his native Choc6. Dubbing his and even salsafolk, Lozano experimented with rhythstyle salsa chocoana mic elements and horn lines from the chirimia ensembles of his native Quibd6.40 The very choice of the band's name reflected the ethos of is a hardwood tree that Lozano's interest in traditional roots-the guayacdn

TheRise of Colombian Salsa : 141

Photo 4. Guayacan, with their 1985debutalbumLleg6 la Horadela Verdad (The Hourof Truth has Arrived). flourishes in Colombia's Pacific littoral, prized for its strength and durability. Although Guayacan succumbed to the commercial influence of salsa romantica in the early 1990s, Lozano is still credited for his prior innovations, and the stylistic traits characterizinghis earlier arrangements are still evident in his most recent tunes. In a manner similar to Colombian salsa pioneer Fruko, Lozano's salsa arrangements have featured dramatic rhythmic and textural contrastsfrom one section to the next. In several Guayacan songs, for example, the arrangement goes from salsa to a quasi-cumbia feel. This is quite evident in the band's first hit, "Vas a llorar" (You'll Cry), from Lleg6 la Hora de la Verdad (1985, see photo 4), where instrumental mambos are inserted between verses and vocal coros, switchingto a cumbia feel with accented eighthnote duplets on beats two and four, played by the cowbell. Lozano's style represents one of the few concerted efforts, along with

142 : Lise Waxer the salsa-Costeiio fusions of Barranquilla-basedJoe Arroyo, to develop a uniquely Colombian salsa. This is especially apparent in early recordings such as "Son cepillao con minuet" (1987), a salsa tune based on the son cepillao(a traditional Chocoano dance form) and also in "Cocorobe" (from La Mds Bella, 1989). These tunes use the short, bright horn phrases and coros that have become characteristicof Guayacan's sound. The lyrics cite typical sayings in the Choco region, and the arrangements are filled with melodic references to traditionalgenres of the Choc6 and the AtlanticCoast. A good example of this style is "Cocorob6," based on the simple lyric structures and melodic patterns of traditional Chocoano songs. Much of the tune's appeal lies in the rather ingenuous quality of the lyrics, which emphasize rhyming word play and rhythmic flow more than they do thematic content. "Cocorobe" (1989) (Guayacan)
(Coro) Cocorobe, cocorobe, Bailan los hijosdeJose, Cocorobe suenaotravez Mira no bailesal reves. (bis) (Verso) Es un ritmito Recordadito, Puedes gozarlo Buen alpasito Si a ti tegusta Apretaito Puedesbailarlo Deslizaito. Da su pasopara'lante Mediopasopara atras Contoneando la cadera Taconeando conlopie, Los muchachospor la calle Vansaltandobienlos ve' Cojiditode la mano Cantando cocorobe. Montuno (Coro) Cocorobe, quebuenoes bailepachanga Cocoronanga, (Chorus) (Chorus) Cocorobe, cocorobe,

Dance the childrenofJose Cocorobeplaysone moretime Look don'tyou dancebackwards. (repeat)

(Verse)

It'sa littlerhythm
Remembered

Youcan enjoyit Good for stepping If you like it Squeezedup Youcan danceit One step forward Half a stepback withyourfoot Tapping The boys in the street Go jumping,therewe can see 'em
All holding hands and Singing cocorobe. Swaying the hips Sliding around.

Cocorobe,how good it is
Cocorofianga, dance the pachanga

TheRise of Colombian Salsa : 143 tebeso Cocororico, elpico saltaen unpie! Cocorobe, Mambo (spoken) Dosviejitas se agarraron Porunachurumbela La unaeratu mama, la otra,tu abuela! I'll kissyourbeak Cocororico, Cocorob6, jump on one foot!

two womenwere grabbed by a whatchama-call-it One was yourmamma, The other,yourgrandmother!

The tune is set in a simple arrangement, with much internal repetition of verses and refrains. The mambo sections are based on the short phrase structureand arpeggiated melodic cells of Chocoano and Costeniogenres. Indeed, the incipit of the famous cumbia "La Pollera Collera" is used as the basic theme in the mambo section and then as a horn background during the final coro (figure 7). Figure 7. Opening measures of "La Pollera Colora"
F C7 C7

~~~I,b~~~

~ ~~~~ e

*i

~~~~~~~~~~~~~etc.

In "Cocorobe,"the piano plays a descending staccato arpeggio on all eighth notes of the bar, instead of the standard syncopated piano montuno. This arpeggiated phrase matches the triadic character of the horn parts, underscoring the flavor of traditionalColombian music. In addition, a well-known Chocoano children's rhyme is included in the middle of the tune, spoken as an a cappella interlude between the mambo sections. Finally, during the first mambo section, the lead vocalist names two gentlemen from the Magdalena region-probably friends or patrons of the band. The practice of naming people in songs is common in vallenato,a popular genre from the Colombian Atlantic coast-wealthy patrons (often drug barons) give the band money and gifts in exchange for the prestige of being mentioned by the band.41 In 1987 Guayacan moved to Cali, dissatisfied with the lack of opportunities in Bogota and no doubt attracted by Cali's growing scene. Through the early 1990s, their local popularity grew, along with their national and international fame. Their sound caught on widely with local fans, perhaps in part because it had a freshness and simplicity that Niche's increasingly sophisticated, transnational sound had abandoned. Guayacan's style from de Punta this period is well illustrated by "Oiga, Mira, Vea" (on Sentimental a Punta, 1992), a very popular hit that is still a mainstay of the band's repertoire. This tune appeared during the height of Guayacan's local popularity, released as contender for the best salsa song dedicated to Cali in the

144 : Lise Waxer 1992 Feria.The title comes from a common local expression (whichroughly translates as, "hear, look, see"), and just as "Cali Pachanguero" did eight years earlier, the tune constructs and celebrates an image of Cali as a hub of festivity and salsa music, especially during the Feria. Specific salsa hotspots are named, making the tune a self-congratulatoryode to the spirit of the rumba[party]that rules Cali at the end of every year. "Oiga,Mire,Vea"(1992) (Guayacan)
(Verso) Si huelea cana,tobaco y brea, Ustedestden Cali, ay, mire,vea. Si las mujeres son lindasy hermosas, Aquino hayfeas,para quevea! Mi Cali se estdadornando Parasufiesta mdspopular, Concanfa dulceel melao Hierveen la paila hastaamanacer, Habrdcorrida de toros Ypor la noche, fiestay rumba! En Cali mird,se sabegozi En Cali mird,se sabegozd De dia su sol ardiente hacequemi Cali se caliente, de noche sus callecitas se venbonitas, confarolitos Afinenbienlas orquestas Queestaanosi vamo'a reventd, La rumba en la Sexta empezd es a rematd. Vamo' aJuanchito Consalsadeaqui,conmucho mani Consalsadeaqui,conmucho mani Montuno (Coro) Oiga,mira,vea, a Calipara quevea, Vengase Oiga,mira,vea, Gocela Feriapara quevea! (Chorus) Look, watch, listen Come to Cali to see, Look, watch, listen Enjoy the Feria so you'll see! (Verse) If you smell sugarcane, tobacco and tar, You'rein Cali, hey, watch out. If the women are lovely and beautiful, Here there are no ugly ones, just look! My Cali is getting dressed up For its most popular fiesta With sweet cane and molasses Boiling in the pan until dawn, There'll be bullfighting And at night, fiesta and rumba! In Cali, look, they know how to enjoy In Cali, look, they know how to enjoy By day its burning sun Makes my Cali hot, At night its little streets Looks pretty with its little lights,42 Let the bands tune up Becausethisyear we'regoing to explode The party began on Sixth Avenue, Let's go toJuanchito to wrap it up. With salsafromhere, and lots of peanuts With salsafromhere, and lots of peanuts

As in "Cocorob6," the arrangement is constructed from basic elementssimple phrase structures,bright, short horn phrases and catchy coros. Horn lines are no longer than one or two measures and rely heavily on internal repetition. Coros are sung in doubled thirds. The exclamation, "Qu6 queque-que-que quel"that punctuates that final mambo derives from an expression typical of the Pacific coast.43 This has been a signature exclamation

TheRise of Colombian Salsa : 145 used by Guayacan since at least their debut recording of 1985. Also characteristic in "Oiga, Mira, Vea" is the use of syncopated rhythmic breaks at the end of a section, heightening the shift to the next section. Finally, the band has a distinct and recognizable sound in the horns. Trumpets are placed near the top of their register, usually played in unison, and augmented with a bit of reverb and compression to give a particularly "live" and brilliant timbre. In contrast, trombones are placed in the mid- to bottom of their range. Such writing, absent in "Cocorobe," became a hallmark of Guayacan's sound in the early 1990s. Guayacan's overall sound is lighter than that of Niche. The rhythm section is characterized by a crisp, dry-almost "clipped"-attack in the timbales and congas, with patterns placed squarely on top of the beat. Tempos are also a bit slower than that of Niche, ranging from about J=82 to = 104. The more relaxed pace of 1950s Cuban son probably has some on this bearing preference. Indeed, Lozano acknowledges the strong influence of Cuban son on local Quibd6 culture and his own writing, more than Puerto Rican and New York salsa styles.44The slightly slower tempo might also be related to the tempo of traditional Chocoano music as well, although I do not have good data to support this conjecture. Reinforcing Guayacan's lighter sound, the group's vocalists have all been tenors, with smooth but undistinctive voices. More than Niche, Guayacan has maintained the hybrid eclecticism of earlier Colombian salsa. When I interviewed Lozano, he proudly emphasized this quality in his arrangements, pulling out several tunes to illustrate his point. One song, "Amor Traicionero" (TreacherousLove) from Conel Coraz6n Abierto,1993), combines elements of salsa, mariachi, bolero, and vallenato-Lozano told me that this was his most "daring" tune ever.45 Lozano's writing is quite distinct from that of his predecessor, Fruko, but his heterogeneous approach also reflects the great diversity of styles that have influenced Colombian popular tastes for over half a century.

Consolidating the Cali Sound: La Misma Gente

The most important Calefio orquesta to emerge in the mid-1980s was La Misma Gente (photo 5). Founded in 1978, the group hails from the town of Palmira, located twenty miles to the east of Cali. La Misma Gente (The Same People) is sometimes upheld as an exemplar of salsa born in Cali (or at least in Valle province), in contrast to Niche's and Guayacan's roots in the Choc6. The band grew out of a high school salsa/rock band as modeled on Fruko y sus Tesos. The group's first album, La Misma Genteen Su Salsa, was released to much popular acclaim in 1986. Two tunes in particular, "JuanitaAe" and "Titic6" caught on widely at both local and national levels. "JuanitaAe"

146 : Lise Waxer

Photo5. La Misma Gente, 1989, from the back cover of their album La Misma Genteen laJugada (The Same People in the Game). won best song of the year at the Festival de Orquestas and established La Misma Gente as an important new Calefio orquesta. Founder and pianist Jaime Henao said that he did not really know why the song became such a hit, but it is clear that the song's lyrics made a deep impression on the public.46 "Juanita Ae" recounts the pathos of a father who is so poor that he can't afford to give his teenage daughter her quinceanera (coming-out party, an important event in Latin American culture), so he gives her this song of paternal love instead. "JuanitaAe" (1986) (La Misma Gente) (Verso) Alla muycercadel Cauca En una humildelugar, Viveuna nina muylinda Consu mamdy supapa. Si quieres sabersu nombre, Yote lo voya contar, Juana Ae, Juana Ae, (Verse) There near the Cauca River In a humble place Lived a very pretty girl With her mom and dad. If you want to know her name I'll tell you it, Juana Ae, Juana Ae,

TheRise of Colombian Salsa : 147

Fue quela hicieron buatizar. Sin mentira sin enganos, y Habiapasado los aios, Los quinceiba a completar mamay papa, Oiganme Con unafiesticaquierocelebrar. Jose Maria, su padre, hasta bien tarde, Trabajaba Su madretambiencosia Todala noche y el dia, Yque,y quefue lo quepasd? Quela planta no alcanzaba Por mdsqueellostrabajaban. por Dios Oye,Juanita, Tufiesticase dano, Lo sientomijita, Esa es la situacion. Yano lloreshija mia, Le dijoJoseMaria, Queaunqueno tengafortuna Quedatoda la vida, No estis tristehija, PorDios te regalo estacancidn. Juand Ae,JuandAe, Duermequetienesmi corazon (bis) Montuno (Coro) Juanita, duerme quete di La arrulladita, iae! (bis) (Verso) Yano llores,hija mia, Telo pido porfavor, otrosdias mejores Vendrdn Teregaloestacanci6n, iae! (Coro) (Chorus) Juanita, go to sleep, I sang you the lullaby iHey! (repeat) (Verse) Don't cry, daughter of mine, I ask you please Better days will come I'll give you this song Hey! (Chorus) Is what they baptized her. Without lies or tricks, The years passed, She was going to turn fifteen, Hey, mom and dad, I'd like to have a party to celebrate. Jose Maria, her father, Worked until very late Her mother also sewed All day and night, And what, what happened? There wasn't enough money No matter how hard they worked. Hey,Juanita, for goodness sake Your party is cancelled I'm sorry, daughter, That's the situation. Don't cry, daughter of mine, SaidJose Maria to her, Even though I don't have a fortune We have the rest of our lives, Don't be sad, daughter Forgoodness sake I'llgive you this song. Juana Ae,Juana Ae, Sleep, for you have my heart (repeat)

Piano Break/Mambo/Piano solo/Mambo Juanita Juanita Nana,Juanita Nana Juanita ea! iAe! Juanita, Juanita Nana,Juanita Nana Juanita ea! Yeh!!

148 : Lise Waxer Juanita Si tienes sueno seas Bendita seas,bendita iAe! Juanita If you'resleepy Blessedareyou, blessedareyou Yeh!!

The final refrain of the song derives from a traditional Colombian Christmas carol that is very popular in Cali, "A la nanita nana." Since "Juanita Ae" was released during the December season, this parody further reinforced the song's enthusiasticreception. The melodramatic lyrics of "Juanita Ae" fit well into the popular taste for sad tunes, developed through years of listening to recordings of melancholy Cuban boleros and Argentine tangos. Working-classCalefios related strongly to the theme of economic misery and shame a parent can have for not being able to provide a child with things that those in the upper classes take for granted. According to Henao, the tune registered so strongly with the local populace that sentimental drunks could be heard singing its lyrics not only in salsa nightclubs, but also in local tango bars! "Titic6"spoke to another element of local popular culture. The song is onomatopoetically titled after the pattern that is played on the campana (large cowbell) during the montuno section of a salsa tune. Musicians often use this vocable when mimicking the sound of the cowbell (figure 8): Figure 8. Campana bell pattern

Ii i I]I
CO-

f
Ititi-

i.
1;
CO tl<

i
IJLJ-1
tl-th ipeis. Iof bL on side

t
tl-

;I
co-

hth is
ofbell

lower srok:? is hit

(2-3 clave)

The significance of this vocable lies in its reference to the favorite "playalong" instrument of Caleniosalsa fans. My friend Sabina Borja explained, "There'sno self-respecting gang member who doesn't have his campana." (Cali's street gangs have traditionally consisted of die-hard salseros.) Inexpensive to purchase and not requiring much skill to play, the campana arose as a key item for working-class salsa fans in the 1980s. Early in the decade, New York percussionistJose MangualJr. recorded a song called "Campanero" (cowbell player), in which he plays a virtuosic solo on the cowbell-virtually unheard of before that time. The tune was played widely, on radio and also in the salsotecas (specialtybars for listening to salsa records). The variety of tone-colors, hits, and fills that Mangual played in this recording deeply impressed Calefio listeners, and inspired a rash of amateur campaneros. Mangual was brought down to Cali by Larry Landa several times (usually with Hector Lavoe), and at concerts his followers always

TheRise of Colombian Salsa : 149 stood right at the foot of the stage where he was playing.47Medardo Arias, who had several opportunitiesto converse with Mangual, says that Mangual always seemed a bit bewildered by his unexpected fame-in New York and Puerto Rico players of this instrument are usually unrecognized. The highquality but inexpensive campanas manufactured locally by the workshop of percussion-makerHector "ElPiemas" Rocha contributedto the campana mania, supplying a readily available and affordable source for the instruments.48Rocha's campanas have a low and resonant timbre preferred for salsa dura, similar to the Bronx-madeJCR bells that were used by most New York salsa bands in the 1970s and 1980s. These bells use more iron than do the tinnier, brighter-sounding bells favored in salsa romantica, and received immediate acceptance among salsa dura fans. Aficionados (almost always men) would play their instruments along to salsa recordings at family and neighborhood parties, and also bring their campanas to accompany the music at salsotecas and live performances. Amateur campaneros can still be seen banging along at concerts, but in deference to annoyed customers this has been banned in most salsa bars. "Titic6,"hence, is dedicated specifically to this special subculture in Cali's local scene.
"Titic6" (1986)

(LaMismaGente)
(Verso) Campanero, Oye. Mi cantova dedicado A la gentecomotui, Quetocael hierroafinado. Si hay una rumbaen el barrio Festivalen el Estadio Concierto en el Coliseo Tu siempre estds preparado Para hacersonarel hierro las orquestas Yacompanar Quellegandel mundoentero. Ella suena,titico, Ysu cadencia emociona Su ritmonosapriciona, titico. Inconfundible Por la Calle Quintaandaban Fernando y Carlitos Yen la Taberna Latina el ritmo Oyeron De una campanasonando El viejoGarytocando Mas arribaen Imbanaco Pillaraonal NegroPaco (Verse) Campana player Listen. My song is dedicated To people like you, That play tuned iron. If there's a party in the 'hood' Festival in the Stadium Concert in the Coliseum49 You're always ready To sound the bell And accompany the bands That arrive from around the world. It sounds, titic6, And its cadence uplifts Its rhythm imprisons us Unmistakable titic6. Along Calle Quinta walked Fernando and Carlos And in the Taberna Latina They heard the rhythm Of a cowbell sounding

Old Garyplaying, Further up in Imbanaco

They saw Paco, the black man

150 : Lise Waxer Quealistabasu campana Pa'gozarhasta manana. Mambo Montuno (Coro) En Caliya todostienen Todos tienensu campana Titico,tico,titico,coco Pa'gozarhasta maiana! (Verso) Primero fue "Elcampanero" Y "LaMayoral" llegd Campaneros campaneros Llegoel ritmotitico. (Coro) En Cali ya todostienen Todos tienensu campana Titico,tico, titicd,coc6 hasta manana! Pa'gozar Mambo II (Coro) Titic6,tic6, titic6,coc6 Pa 'gozar hasta manana! (Verso) En conga,bongo y campana Al amigoPiernasnadiele gana (Coro) Titico,tico, titico,coc6 Pa'gozarhasta manana! (Verso) todostodosa gozar Vamonos Conestacampanahasta elfinal (Coro) Titic6,tic6, titic6,coco Pa'gozarhasta manana! MAMBO III & outro Campanerooo! Campana player! (Chorus) Titic6, tic6, titic6, coc6 To get down until dawn! (Verse) On conga, bong6 and cowbell Our friend Piernas is second to none (Chorus) Titic6, tic6, titic6, coc6 To get down until dawn! (Verse) Let's all go party With this cowbell, until the end (Chorus) Titic6, tic6, titico, coc6 To get down until dawn! (Chorus) In Cali everyone already has Everyone has their cowbell, Titic6, tic6, titic6, coc6 To get down until dawn! (Verse) First there was "El campanero" And "La Mayoral" arrived Bell players, bell players The rhythm titic6 arrived. (Chorus) In Cali everyone already has Everyone has their cowbell, Titic6, tic6, titic6, coc6 To get down until dawn! Who readied his bell To get down until dawn.

Like "Cali Pachanguero" had done two years earlier, "Titic6" celebrated Cali's salsa scene. Central places and people in Cali's rumba are named:

TheRise of Colombian Salsa : 151 Calle Quinta, Imbanaco (a corner where many nightclubs are clustered), the Taberna Latina and its owner Gary Dominguez, and so forth. "El Piernas" (Legs), the famous local percussion-maker, is also named. Importantly,the lyrics uphold a positive image of the amateurcampanero who is ready to accompany the famous international orquestas visiting town. Rather than portraying this person as ridiculous or annoying to other people, the local campanero is idealized as a figure who represents the participatory ethos that permeates Cali's scene. At one level, this can be understood as simply being gregarious and wanting to get in on the fun. At a deeper level, however, this practice simultaneously expresses and also structuresa cosmopolitan sensibility.By playing along with visiting orquestas the campanero quite literally articulates his concern with being "in sync" with world-class salsa musicians. In Cali, playing along with the band is not considered disrespectful (as it is in Puerto Rico),50but rather serves as a way of placing oneself symbolically in the realm of internationally prominent orquestas-and hence, symbolically placing oneself as a participant in world culture. Needless to say, the popularity of "Titic6" among Calefios was instantaneous. The members of the famous Puerto Rican orquesta La Sonora Ponceiia, which performed at Cali's Feria in 1986, were so impressed by the local reception of the tune that they quoted the song's refrain in their musical tribute to the city, "A Cali."51 Both "Juanita Ae" and "Titic6"feature elements that became trademarks of La Misma Gente's style. Most notable is the pachanga-like rhythmic feel, played on top of the beat as with earlier Colombian bands such as Fruko, but with a distinct "spring"to it. This feel is achieved by having the giiiro play a quarternote and two eighths pattern, while both the campana and the smaller cencerro (timbales cowbell) play open accents on the first and third beats. Overall, this creates a rather vertical, bouncy effect, in contrast to the relaxed groove of Grupo Niche, which was closer to Cuban and Puerto Rican styles. The pinched, nasal coros are another prominent feature that marked the band's sound. Musician/arranger Jaime Henao said these were originallyinspired by Conjunto Clasico andJohnny Pacheco (important New York bands), who in turn derived this sound from classic Cuban groups of the 1940s and 1950s. The arrangements also feature Henao's elegant, jazzy soloing on the piano. Curiously, "Titic6"highlights its two saxophones during the mambo section, a sound that was discontinued not only in later recordings by La Misma Gente, but indeed in the local scene in general. (Niche's early recordings also feature the saxophone, which was dropped in later years.) By the end of the 1980s, most Calefio salsa bands began to emphasize trumpets and trombones, emulating New York and Puerto Rican bands. La Misma Gente's early arrangements reveal the strong influence of Puerto Rican orquestas during the first years, which was gradually sublimated as they developed their own style. The strongest influence for the

152 : Lise Waxer band during this period was the Sonora Ponceina.Henao told me that early in his career he heard a recording of the Poncefia's tune "Canto al amor" on the radio, and the experience was decisive in shaping his stylistic orientation.The horn partsare clearly modeled afterthose of the Sonora Poncena, with dynamic trumpet lines written in closed voicings and placed high in the instrument'sregister,giving a brilliant,compressed sound. (The Poncefia is typified by a horn section of four trumpets, and even though La Misma Gente also had two saxophones and a trombone, these instruments are clearly subordinate to the trumpets in nearly all the band's arrangements.) Henao also explained that his piano playing was very much influenced by Sonora Poncefia band leader and pianist Papo Lucca. This is clear from the band's recordings, not only in the way Henao voiced and phrased his piano montunos, but also in his use of virtuosic fills and complex, jazzoriented solos. The synthesizer effects in 'Juanita Ae" are another borrowing from the Sonora Poncenia, experimenting with the new keyboard technology of the day. When La Misma Gente released this tune, synthesizer sounds were considered to be quite innovative, especially the use of stereo separation and the bending of pitches that are deployed throughout the tune. In addition, some of the band's early tunes use instrumental interludes that are played in Brazilian samba rhythm, following the innovative use of samba in well-known songs by New York and Puerto Rican artists such as Willie Col6n, the Sonora Poncefia, and Roberto Roena.52 Jaime Henao explained to me that his imitation of influential role models was almost subliminal. To illustrate, he pulled out "Tfi no sabes amar" (You Don't Know How to Love), another tune from the band's debut album. Although La Misma Gente did not normally use baritone sax, this instrumentwas used in the arrangementof the tune, following Puerto Rican artists such as Bobby Valentin and Willie Rosario. Henao drew my attention to the solo bari sax line that introduces the mambo section. It came out of me rightthere![pauseto listen]You Listen-BobbyValentin. don'trealizewherethoseinfluences camefrom,butit wasthe firstrecording and so, partof being immature is to try and exploitall those stylesthatyou knewfromwherever. It'sveryfunny,I like listeningto thosefirstrecordings 53 a lot becausenow you see themfroma different perspective. Henao's remarkspoint to the impact that Puerto Rican and New Yorksalsa artistshad on the artisticformation of local musicians. Since musical influences were picked up and learned primarily through recordings, it is clear that records were as central to the development of local live music as they were to creative expression in the earlier record-centered dance scene. In comparison to arrangements produced by Niche and Guayacan, La Misma Gente featuredmore elaborate arrangements,with longer horn lines, and more complex, jazz-influenced voicings. In this respect, the band is much closer to Puerto Rican and New York bands than Niche and

TheRise of Colombian Salsa : 153 Guayacan, which follow the less complicated style of classic Cuban son. The harmonic progressions and horn parts in La Misma Gente's tunes include half-diminished minor seventh chords, ninths, and even the dramatic V7# 11 chord-voicings not used by Colombian arrangersbefore this time (according to Henao), but prominent in New York and Puerto Rican A good example is the tune "Rosalia,"from the salsa by the early 1980s.54 band's eponymous 1987 album, La Misma Gente.Between the verse and montuno of the song, there is an eight-bar passage that is played first by the trumpets, without any accompaniment, and then repeated with the rhythm section (figure 9). Figure 9. "Rosalia,"instrumental break with jazz harmony
Dm G13 C F O7 Bmr E7([b5) Am

^i rLrt ;lp^I? -rJlhr

Dm G9 CM7 , DCM7 F F . _(bgo.)
(timbal)

np)V p r p
1 2. 12Bm 7
* rhyth section ? I T

13

tL7

chord that caps the first four bars of the Says Henao, the piercing V13#11 was an in innovation Colombian salsa. Although such writing has phrase become more characteristic of Calenio orquestas since then, especially among younger arrangers influenced by the contemporary Puerto Rican sound, at the time it was unusual for local bands to come out with such sounds. As arrangers and co-directors of La Misma Gente, Jaime Henao and Jorge Herrera have also paid close attention to the clave. Henao explained to me that the band's music has always had "a lot of clave." Not only do they avoid crossing the clave, but as with the best New York and Puerto Rican salsa bands, the vocals and horn lines really emphasize the clave pattern, so that the music swings harder.He said that this was accomplished through a combination of good musical arrangementsand diligent rehearsal, but noted that this also relates to years of careful listening to records by Puerto Rican and New York salsa bands. Other influences that La Misma Gente incorporated into their style during its early years included the use of funky bass slaps on electric bass in tunes such as "Titic6," which echo lines introduced by Willie Col6n and the Fania All-Stars in New York's scene during the 1970s. In late 1989 La Misma Gente began to use a short break after the mambo sections, where the whole band pauses before kicking into the following section with extra vigor. According to Henao, this was inspired by Venezuelan artist Oscar D'Le6n-"Eso nos impact6 tanto que alli qued6" (it made such an impact

154 : Lise Waxer on us that it stayed).55This break first appears in their song "Chica de Chicago" (from La MismaGenteen laJugada,1989), and was used in several tunes thereafter. Other local orquestas have also picked up on the use of this break, possibly via the aegis of band leader Jorge Herrera, who did arrangementsfor a number of other Caleniobands in addition to La Misma Gente. The orquesta was also attentive to contemporary developments in other popular music styles, being the first Colombian band to incorporate rap into a salsa tune with their 1990 hit, "Perfumede Paris."They recorded another salsa-rap tune, "El Loco," the following year, but seem to have tired of the gimmick thereafter.56Although still one of Cali's steadfast orquestas, La Misma Gente has not sustained the popular impact of its peak years between 1986-90.

Style and Repertoire into the 1990s

When I asked local musicians, composers and arrangers, "What makes Colombian salsa sound 'Colombian'?"the unequivocal response from most was "su sencillez" (its simplicity). While New York,Puerto Rican, and even Venezuelan orquestas are characterized by a driving percussive force and dynamic, punchy arrangements, Colombian salsa owes much of its appeal to catchy melodies, piquant lyrics (filled with Colombian slang), and short, uncomplicated horn lines-elements that derive from cumbia, currulao,and other Colombian genres. Following the parameters established by Niche, La Misma Gente, and Guayacan, as well as Atlantic Coast orquestas such asJoe Arroyo y la Verdad and Raices, Colombian bands are characterized by a light texture, a crisp percussive attack, and an on-the-beat rhythmic feel. Interestingly, this manner of rhythmic phrasing is similar to the way Colombians dance the basic short-short-longsalsa step, in contrastto Puerto Rican and Cuban dancers, who tend to step just slightly behind the beat. The feeling of gravity or "heaviness"in the latter style, as opposed to the sprightliness of Colombian salsa, is a central distinction between these different schools. According to Felix Shakaito, leader of Los Bronko, Colombian percussionists tend to have a slower technique, which adds to this feel. For example, when a Colombian percussionist plays an abanico (short, sharp drum roll) on the timbales, individual hits can be heard. Puerto Rican percussionists tend to be smoother and faster, so that this roll sounds like one line, instead of "dub-i-dub-i-dub."57 During the late 1980s and 1990s, attentive to shifts in the international salsa scene, Calenioorquestas began playing salsa romintica, also referred to locally as salsa balada.Maintaining its position at the vanguard of the local scene, Niche became the first Colombian salsa group to take up the new romantica style with their 1988 release Tapando el Hueco.From that album, the song "Nuestro suenio" (Our Dream) became a popular hit,

TheRise of Colombian Salsa : 155 fusing pop-balada lyrics, melody, and harmony with a salsa rhythmic base. While avoiding the explicit sexuality of then-popular Puerto Rican singers such as Eddie Santiago and Lalo Rodriguez, the lyrics of "Nuestro Sueio" are marked by an erotic romanticism, in keeping with contemporary commercial trends. The shift to romantic themes marks a strong break from earlier Calefio salsa songs, which were based more on scenes and images from daily life. "Nuestro Suefio"(1988) (GrupoNiche)
(Verso) Estoyviviendoun sueno Me sientoiunico duenodel amor! Unamirada bast6, asisucedi6, Ausentedepalabra, mi cuerpo vibro. Cuandosu manotome,el ciclomire El brillode sus ojos,sus labiosbese. (Verse)

I'm livinga dream I feel like I'm the only masterof love! A look wasenough, that's howithappened Withoutwords,my body trembled, WhenI took (her)hand,I sawthe cycle The brilliance of (her)eyes, I kissed (her)lips. Asi como That's howitwas,that's howitwillcome sefie, asi vendrd En alas de dicha,el vientotraerd. On wingsof prophecy,the wind will bringit. te Hoy espero, TodayI awaityou, Porqueel suenoquemi vida imagin6, Becausethe dreamenvisionedby my life Es el mismosuenoquetu amorme Is the same dreamthatyourlove inspire, inspiredin me, Thatmy love taughtyou. Quemi amorte enseno. Cuandovendras, Whenyou come, I knowyou'llcome, se quevendrds A vivir nuestro sueno,a hacerloverdad! To live our dreamand makeit real!
(bis)

Montuno 1) (Coro
Quieroquetzime quieres, me lleves, Quieroquetuz Yque tu nuncame dejes siempre. por siempre, (etc.)

(Chorus1) I wantyou to wantme, I wantyou to lead me, And neverleave me, Forever and ever.

The I-VI-IV-V harmonic progression and block chord accompaniment echoes North American doo-wop tunes of the 1950s and 1960s, adding to the song's pop ballad flavor. Although the band maintains the crisp sound and forward propulsion of Niche's earlier sound, the rhythm section is played down in order to emphasize the intimate sentiment of the lyrics. Both in lyric content and stylistic rendition, this is a typical salsa romdntica tune. In contrast to the strong percussive drive and assertive tone of classic

156 : Lise Waxer salsa dura, late 1980s salsa romantica was aimed at conveying romantic intimacy, not dynamic energy. Following Niche's lead, La Misma Gente and other bands began to incorporate salsa romantica tunes and the newer, muted style of performance. Niche's next album Sutily Contundente (1989) continued to break ground for local orquestas. In this recordingJairo Varela experimented with lush synthesizer overlays, and through the early 1990s other Caleniobands had incorporated syrupy synthesizer tracks into their arrangements. In contrastto La Misma Gente's use of synthesizer for dynamic fills and breaks in earlier tunes such as 'Juanita Ae," the instrument was employed to give a thick wash of sound, in imitation of an orchestral string section. Local audiences seemed disaffected by this sound, however, and most bands abandoned the effect between 1992 and 1993. Notably, salsa romantica tunes by Calenio orquestas have had to maintain a somewhat danceable edge in order to gain acceptance among local audiences.58 Caleniobands have been more successful with cleaner arrangements that do not obscure the rhythm section. In addition, although heavy synthesizertrackslend themselves to slower tempos where pieces are geared more towards listening than dancing (as in some Puerto Rican salsa romantica between 1989 and 1991), they do not work for more upbeat tends to be mid-tempo, neither too slow tempos. Caleiio salsa romantica nor too fast, in order to appease the local zeal for dancing. Through the early 1980s and 1990s, other key traitsdistinguished Calefio orquestas from their counterparts abroad. One characteristichas been the emphasis on vocals, rather than instrumental arrangements or solo improvising. Part of this relates to the predilection of Colombian audiences for catchy lyrics and refrains. Composers and arrangers know this and keep the listener's focus on the words. Importantly, in Cali's orquestas, most of the lead vocalists have similar vocal timbres and ranges, which has led to a homogeneous vocal style in the local scene. Cheo Angulo, director of Proyecto Omega, criticizesthe lack of distinctive vocalists in local orquestas, claiming that this was one of his first concerns when he founded the band in 1992. Here, the problemwith Colombianbands, maybe, is that all the singers have almostthe samevocaltimbre.They don'tdiffervery much.So I said,I need singersthatpeople,whenthey hearus, will say "That's the singerfrom Omega."59 Calefio singers tend to be "crooners"with smooth tenor voices well suited to the intimate and lyrical melodic style of salsa romantica. Another trait of Calefio salsa bands is the relatively simple horn parts. In most Colombian salsa arrangements, horn lines are less contrapuntal and harmonically complex than they are in Puerto Rican salsa romantica tunes. Some musicians and melomanos (fans) explained to me that

TheRise of Colombian Salsa : 157 Colombian salsa has less complicated horn lines owing to the dearth of players who can execute technically challenging parts, but it is probable that aesthetic preferences for a lighter texture and basic harmonic progressions have also influenced this style. Grupo Niche, for example, has highly accomplished horn players, but the band's arrangements have remained simple. Jesus "Chucho" Ramirez, a prominent record producer and arranger in the local scene, pointed out to me that the town band tradition (bandasdel pueblo)has been an important influence in Colombian music. This has shaped not only the development of musicatropical in the 1940s and 1950s, but also the style of horn parts in Colombian salsa during the
1980s and 1990s.60

Calenio arrangers and orquestas have also incorporated elements from the currentinternationalsalsa sound, which is centered in Miami and Puerto Rico, in order to produce songs that are up-to-date and commercially viable on the global salsa market. Chucho Ramirez explained that through the late 1980s, Caleiio salsa became more closely aligned with transnational standards.An extremely important influence in this regard has been Cesar Monge. Monge, who has performed with and/or written for nearly every major salsa orquestain Cali, introducedbasic principalsidentifiedby Calefio musicians as "the Puerto Rican sound," through arrangements that were or "tight"-thatis, free of extra hits or fills-and pared down to more cerrada, the basic rhythmic flow for a cleaner, more polished sound.6' During the early 1990s, with the advent of arrangers well-attuned to international currents, the tunes recorded and performed by local bands became more sophisticated, employing a richer harmonic vocabulary influenced by jazz and pop ballads. This harmonic language features major, minor and dominant 9th, 11th, and 13th chords, modulation of keys by rising semi-tone, and stock harmonic progressions built upon secondary dominants and chord substitutions.Other aspects of the streamlinedCalefio sound through the early 1990s include smooth and lyrical lead vocals, a polished delivery by the orquesta, compression and reverb in the horns, and tight execution. This sound owes much to technological improvements in the national recording industry, and the use of professional studio musicians on recording sessions. Local musicians have become increasingly constrained by the mechanisms of the international music industry and the star system it promotes. Calenio bands find that they must compete with recordings and appearances by current stars from Puerto Rico, New York, and Miami. Although Colombian salsa can be characterized as "simple," local salsa musicians and audiences do operate within larger globalized aesthetics that define what a "good" salsa tune is. Hence, a successful band cannot be too experimental or idiosyncratic, or else it will fail to meet the expectations of salsa audiences and other musicians. Well aware of this condition, the national and international music industries manipulate public taste and often place

158 : Lise Waxer considerable pressure on local musicians to conform to those tastes. Local musical style, hence, has become closely entwined with larger national and transnational currents that determine the choices of Calefio salsa musicians and composers at the same time as they offer resources and ideas for musical creation. Apart fromJairo Varela and Alexis Lozano, who arrange and produce for their own bands (Niche and Guayacan), only five other people are active as arrangers and/or producers for almost all of the other salsa recordings made in Cali: Chucho Ramirez,Jose Aguirre, Andres Biafara (a disciple of Cesar Monge), Dorance Lorza, andJorge Herrera. Often, these men will work together on the same album, completing the arrangements for differenttunes. Lorza explained that, for example, salsa romantica tunes will often be farmed out to Ramirez or Biafara,while more dance-oriented or traditional Cuban-based arrangements will be sent to him.62These men boast diverse talents and ideas, and have emerged to the fore of the scene on the basis of their talent and musical expertise. Yet, the effect of having such a small nucleus of people in the critical creative processes of the local scene limits the potential for greatermusical diversity.Although Cali boasted over sixty orquestas by 1995, the richness and variegation of local styles did not exist. Even the unprecedented emergence of eleven all-women salsa bands (orquestasfemeninas) in the early 1990s did not make a significant impact on local salsa style-rather, the orquestas femeninas followed the sound established by other Calefio bands (Waxer, n.d.). Some Caleiio bands began to move away from the path of Niche and Guayacan to develop a sound that is closer to contemporary Puerto Rican bands that have maintained the salsa duravein. One such local orquesta was Proyecto Omega. This group was strongly influenced by Puerto Rican artistssuch as Willie Rosario and Bobby Valentin, who have adapted contemporary salsa romantica to the driving 1970s salsa durastyle. The song "Que le piquen cana" (1994) represents a significant step for Calenio salsa bands. The tune is very much in the dynamic style of 1970s New York salsa. Beto Caicedo, whose rich, expressive voice is ideal for this sound, sings lead vocals. The title and lyrics of "Que le piquen cafia" derive from a common Calefio phrase, "let them cut cane for him/her," which people use when they want to put down someone who is already well off but wants more. In Cali, cut sugar cane is used to feed horses. The allusion is, when someone has everything going for them but still is dissatisfied, he or she is no longer "human"but more like a voracious animal, hence let them eat cut cane. The song's lyrics can be interpreted as a subtle criticism of Cali's "new rich,"the cocaine mafiosos, and their egoistic display of wealth. (1994) "Quele piquencania" Omega) (Proyecto

Salsa : 159 TheRise of Colombian

Montuno63 (Coro) El quequieremdsquelepiquen, quelepiquen,quele piquencana. (bis) (Verso) Ese chicono trabajapero vivecomo un rey Suspaseosson a Europa23 dias
por mes.

(Chorus) He who wants more, let them cut let them cut, let them cut cane for him. (repeat) (Verse) This guy doesn't work but lives like a king, He takes trips to Europe 23 days of the month, He collects love affairs as he collects suits, He thinks he's the champ, the best of men. (Chorus) He who wants more, let them cut let them cut, let them cut cane for him. (repeat) (Verse) He enjoys good health and like the praying fisherman He made his deal in life and has paid his dues. Not even a molar hurts him and he cackles And although he's got everything in abundance, he doesn't need anything.

Comocolecciona trajes,asi colecciona amores, Se guilla de campeon, el mejorentre los hombres. (Coro) El quequieremdsquelepiquen, quelepiquen, quelepiquen cana. (bis) (Verso) Gozade buenasaludy como pescador quereza, Hizo su empateen la viday ya ha pagadosu deuda. No le dueleni una muelay se rie a carcajadas Yaunquele sobrade todo,no le hace falta nada. (etc.)

Omega's instrumentation followed that of Rosario and Valentin in its use of a baritone saxophone, trombones, and trumpets. In this tune, the sonorous qualities of the low-pitched bari sax are used in effective contrast with the trumpets, which are placed high in their register.The overall groove of the band was much harder and heavier than that of typical Calefio bands. The tune is compelling, with catchy corosand forceful mambo sections. Even though the horn parts approximate the dynamism of Puerto Rican arrangements, however, the actual lines played by the horns retain the short, bright phrases characteristicof most Colombian salsa tunes. "Que le piquen caina"gained strong acceptance amongst salsa durapurists in Cali. Unfortunately, since Angulo refused to bow to pressure to provide payola64 (paid favors) radio air play, the recording received very little support from local stations. As a result, the band's impact was limited, and the group folded in 1998.

160 : Lise Waxer

Current Trends
Local By the mid-1990s, Calenio audiences had tired of salsa romdntica. orquestas and radio alike had glutted the city with slick romantic tunes, and listeners clamored for a change. The viejoteca revival was one response to the monopoly of salsa romantica, bringing back the classic salsa and Cuban-based sounds that Calefios had enjoyed in the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s (Waxer 1999). During this same time, local orquestas and audiences also became receptive to sounds that were strong in other parts of Colombia, such as vallenato and merengue. Vallenato, the accordion-based cumbia derivative of the Atlantic Coast region, became an important genre nationally during the late 1970s, financially supported by the marijuanacartels of Santa Marta. The Dominican merengue became hugely popular throughout Latin America during the 1980s, establishing a large following in New York's Latino community and also in Puerto Rico, Venezuela, Central America, and Colombia's Atlantic Coast. Calefios, however, held firmly to their salsero self-image during this period, and vallenato and merengue were rarely heard on local airwaves (Ulloa 1992, 480). By 1996, however, popular tastes had shifted, and up to a third of radio programming on "tropicalmusic" stations was vallenato and merengue. Reflecting this transition, local salsa orquestas worked merengue tunes into their repertoire and also experimented with pseudo-vallenato tunes, using synthesized accordion sounds to index this style. Notably, as of this writing, Colombians still have not picked up on the vogue for Dominican bachata that has swept Puerto Rico and U.S. Latino communities. Most significantly, however, Calefio musicians began to pick up on the nationalpop tropicalboom,incorporating Colombian genres such as cumbia and even currulao into their repertoire.65The impact of the pop tropical boom even spread to the international scene, with Miami-based Gloria Estefan incorporating "salsafied"vallenato and cumbia arrangements into Puertas her Grammy award-winning 1995 album Abriendo (Opening Doors). Not since the 1970s had Colombian rhythms played such a strong role in national salsa. Although some groups, such as La Misma Gente, performed a handful of tunes that featured a contrasting section in cumbia rhythm, reference to national styles was rare in Colombian salsa of the 1980s and early 1990s. In 1995, Cali's top three orquestas-Niche, Guayacan, and Son de Azucar-released albums that juxtaposed cumbia, merengue, and currulao with salsa. Parallelingthe diversificationof styles at the local level, the transnational salsa scene itself has opened up to new currents. Puerto Rican and New York arrangers,while retaining the lyric and melodic-harmonic aspects of salsa romantica, have returned to the percussive roots of the salsa tradition, and are recuperating what Calefio musicians refer to as golpe, or "punch,"into contemporarysalsa. According to Chucho Ramirez, this trend

TheRise of Colombian Salsa : 161 was initiated between 1993 and 1994, spearheaded by New Yorkproducer and arrangerSergio George, and Puerto Rican producer Gunda Merced.66 Sergio George has had an especially strong impact on the international scene, being the producer behind current starsLa India and Marc Antony. Notably, he has adopted elements from contemporary Cuban timba,which uses elements of funk, jazz, and rock over the traditional sonbase, and this development has influenced Caleiio musicians.67George's direct contact with Colombian bands (he has toured frequentlyto Colombia) has no doubt been an important influence on national tastes.68Parallel to this, Cuban timba has become quite popular in Cali among aficionados of 1970s salsa dura.This trend has been reinforced by the growing local presence of immigrant Cuban musicians who have recently left the island. Characteristic bass drum kicks on beats three and four of the bar (Z J J someare times varied with Y J. the most J J) easily recognizable feature of timba style, and this trait has begun to make its way into tunes performed by Calefio bands after 1995. Ramirez explained that he was very much taken with this sound and has begun incorporating the bass drum kicks into arrangements he writes for local bands. Jairo Varela has also made use of this same figure, beginning with Niche's 1995 release Etnia. At local, national and international levels, thus, salsa began to open up from the commercial romdntica mainstream to more diverse influences. Calefio composer-arrangerDoranc6 Lorza pointed out to me that by 1996 was already over a decade old and it was time to find a new salsa romdntica sound.69(The first salsa romdntica production ever was NochesCalientes, produced by New Yorkmusician and composer Louie Ramirez in 1982.) Both Lorza and other musicians expressed to me their interest in developing a new Colombian style that would blend salsa with elements from traditional Colombian music. When I asked Chucho Ramirez his opinion about the currentstate of Colombian salsa, he simply replied, "fusiones"(fusions).70 The shift towards a more heterogeneous repertoireafterthe period 199495 marks a return to the same spirit of eclecticism that characterized Colombian popular bands in earlier decades. Such diversification is not a rejection of salsa, but rather a widening of the salsa scene in order to recognize the diversity of other styles popular in Colombia. Geographically positioned at the gateway of South America, Colombia has been exposed to international influences since the early 1500s. The impact of numerous influences on national culture and identity was heightened during the twentieth century, enabling salsa and its Cuban predecessors to gain a strong foothold in Colombia in the first place. Some may be tempted to view the recent trend towards eclecticism as a sign that postmoderism has finally swept the nation. The international salsa scene, particularly in New York and Puerto Rico, has also been transformed by increasing diverse musical influences, including other Caribbean tropical genres (e.g., merengue, bachata), hip-hop, techno, and pop music. Yet, the development of

162 : Lise Waxer Colombian salsa reveals deeper historical patterns, borne out of and continually shaped by the thirst of modern Colombians for diverse musical sounds, both national and international.

Notes
1. "On conga, bong6, and campana," some of the principal percussion instruments of salsa. This is a line from the song "Titic6,"an extremely popular tune recorded by local band La Misma Gente in 1986, which is analyzed later in this article. My fieldwork on Colombian salsa was conducted between November 1994 and June 1996, with follow-up visits inJanuary 1997 and 2000. Financial support for this project was provided by generous grants from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada, the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research, the American Association of University Women, the Nellie M. Signor Fund, and the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, all of which I gratefully acknowledge. I am grateful to Thomas Turino, Alejandro Lugo, Charles Capwell, Bruno Nettl, and Christopher Washbure for their helpful comments on earlier versions of this paper. Thanks also to Pablo Delano for his assistance in preparing the photographic images used in this article. Dates and discographical information are as accurate as has been possible for me to ascertain. Interview excerpts and song texts have been translated from Spanish by myself. 2. Cuban musicians in the first half of this century frequently used to say "tocaconsalsa!"(roughly, "hit it!" or "swing it") when the excitement and energy of the music began to rise. In 1927, Ignacio Pifieiro comSalsita,"popularized by his group, the posed the famous son "Echale Septeto Nacional. Observers generally agree that a Venezuelan radio disc jockey was among the first to use the term "salsa"to denote Latin popular music, in the early 1960s, although New York publisher Izzy Sanabria claims to have coined the name himself, at the end of the decade (Roberts 1979, 187). Certainly, by the early 1970s, salsa had become the standard term of reference throughout Latin America, owing in large part to its use by Fania Records as a commercial label with which to market this music. 3. Monge has been an active performer since the 1960s. Founding the influential group Dimension Latina along with the well-known vocalist Oscar D'Le6n, he helped define the Venezuelan salsa sound during the early 1970s. Before this, he played with one of Venezuela's first salsa bands-Federico y su Orquesta-with which he toured to Colombia in the late 1960s. In the 1980s, he moved to Cali to join top orquesta Grupo Niche, as trombonist and arranger.More recently, he has been

TheRise of Colombian Salsa : 163 a member of Guayacan, another famous Calenio band. Since moving to Cali, Monge has also been one of Colombia's top salsa arrangers, writing free-lance for several different orquestas, in addition to his extensive work as a record producer for Codiscos, an important national salsa label. The comments in the following pages are taken from our interview on 14 August 1995 (Col. 95-22). Angulo is a native of Guapi, a town on the Pacific littoral that is well known for its currulao marimba players.Julian y su Combo continued performing through the mid-1980s, as the house band of the luxury Hotel Intercontinental in Medellin (1969-1971) and Cali (1971-1986), and recording seventeen LPs during this time. Personal communication, 31 December 1996. Personal communication, 23 January 1997. Personal communication, 24January 1997 (Col. 97-70). Salsa romdntica was developed in Puerto Rico and promoted by the Miami-based Latin music industry during the late 1980s as a commercial style fusing romantic pop ballads and salsa rhythms, replacing the "hard"or "heavy" sound and the socially conscious messages of the earlier 1960s and 1970s roots salsa. Personal communication, 20 March 1996 (Col. 96-53). Personal communication, 24January 1997 (Col. 97-70). Hermes Manyoma, personal communication, 24 January 1997 (Col. 97-70). "Piper Pimienta" Diaz, personal communication, 8 May 1997, (interview Col. 96-62). a Piper "Pimienta"Dia(DiscosFuentes 10701). Re-released on Homenaje Montuno refers to the second portion of a salsa tune, characterized by call-and-response vocals, solo instrumental improvisation, driving rhythmic ostinati, and punchy horn choruses. The term is also used to refer to the piano guajeoor vamp (e.g., Maule6n), especially by Colombian players. Recorded on La FrutaBomba,(Discosfuentes 200739). Frukoperformed in Los Corralejosde Majagual,one of the most popular tropicalbands in Colombia of the 1960s, before embarking on a career as a salsa musician. Personal communication, 6 March 1995. This observation was confirmed by Wilson Saoco himself (personal communication, 24 January 1997, Col. 97-70). Personal communication, 3 August 1997. Personal communication, 21 December 1994 (Col. 94-1). Personal communication, 20 March 1996 (Col. 96-53). Personal communication, 5 February 1996 (interview Col. 96-46). The event was modeled on the famous Festivalde Orquestasof Barranquilla, held during that city's carnaval celebrations. Sanchez was able to

4.

5. 6. 7. 8.

9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

15. 16.

17.

18. 19. 20. 21.

164 : Lise Waxer procure the international orquestasby appealing to the empresarioswho had contracted them for performances at the city's casetas (dance halls)he asked for a free appearance at the Festival de Orquestas in return for not charging tax from the casetas. Personal communication, 9 April 1995 (Col. 96-57). Alexis Lozano, personal communication, 6 February 1996 (interview Col. 95-4). Personal communication, 23 January 1997 (interview Col. 97-67a). Whitten notes a similar pattern of familial and social networks as a cultural strategy in the Pacific region generally (1974). Lighting candles for specific saints is also done in other parts of Latin Afro-Braziliancandomble, and America, such as in Afro-Cuban santerfa, makumba. Surprisingly, the practice of lighting candles for saints (i.e., outside of a church) is not very strong in the rest of Colombia. Jose Agiiirre, personal communication, 4 February 1996 (Col. 96-45). Personal communication, 9 April 1996 (Col. 96-57). Charles Keil's suggestive commentaries about "on-the-beat"and "behind-the-beat"grooves is particularly helpful in conceiving the differences between Colombian salsa and other styles (1966). These rhythmic subtleties, of course, comprise minute distinctions that are extremely difficult to convey through written description, but which are immediately perceived upon hearing. Personal communication, 22 February 1996 (Col. 96-51). A reference to Cali's two main soccer teams, America and Deportivo Cali. Both teams have an enormous popular base in Cali's working class, and this scene is closely tied to salsa. During the last section of the tune, allusion is made to two very popular nightclubsin the 1980s scene: Cafiandongaand El Escondite (owned by a fellow named "Manolo"). Varela acknowledges the influence of the Sonora Matancera and 24 Dec. 1984, other Cuban groups in a 1984 interview (El Occidente, page 14). Personal communication, 9 April 1996 (Col. 96-57). Christopher Washburne, personal communication, 30 October 1996; Salim Washington, personal communication, 16 February 1999. "Cali Pachanguero"is also enshrined in celluloid, performed by Grupo Niche in the forgettable Hollywood movie Salsa (1988). Interview with Umberto Valverde, 'Jairo Varela:La moda pasa la salsa queda," La PalabraNo. 34 (November 1994): 8-9. Personal communcation, 14 August 1995 (Col. 95-22). Personal communication, 4 February 1996 (Col. 96-45). The singers during this period were Alvaro del Castillo (1980-84) and Moncho Santana (1984-1987). When Santanaleft to form his own salsa band, Varela contacted Puerto Rican vocalist Tito G6mez, (former

22. 23. 24.

25.

26. 27. 28.

29. 30.

31.

32.

33. 34.

35. 36. 37. 38.

TheRise of Colombian Salsa : 165 vocalist with the Sonora Poncefia), and G6mez fronted Niche from 1987-1990. Personal communication, 6 February 1995 (interview Col. 95-4). music dates back to his childhood, Lozano's involvement with chirimia where he danced in traditional folklore groups. Since the late 1980s he has produced record albums and also a television documentary feamaestros from Quibd6. turing old chirimfa This practice is also common in West African popular styles such as Yorubanjuju (Waterman 1990). Every December 7 (Dia de la Virgen), colored lights are strung up throughout the streets of Cali, and remain there until after the Three A Kings Day (January 6). In rhythmic transcription the figure reads: c l J J J J J
Que que que que que qque!

39. 40.

41. 42.

43. 44. 45. 46. 47.

48.

49.

50. 51.

52.

53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58.

Personal communication, 6 February 1995 (Col. 95-4). Personal communication, 6 February 1995 (Col. 95-4). Personal communication, 12 May 1995 (Col. 94-lb). On one visit to Cali, Mangual led a percussion workshop at the local conservatory,which attracteda large number of local campaneros seeking to learn more from him. (Personal communication, 3June 1996). Indeed, Rocha's workshop has acquired a strong reputation among New York and Puerto Rican salsa orquestas, which favor his maracas above other models (personalcommunication, ChristopherWashbure, 25 August 1999). The Coliseo del Pueblo (Coliseum of the People) was another popular concert venue through the 1980s. This is where the Fania All-Stars performed in 1980. Ricky Rodriguez, Puerto Rican salsa arrangerand pianist of Orquesta Mulenze, personal communication 18June 1995. Sonora Poncefia, OntheRightTrack (1988, Inca 1 1084). The quote comes the when the names various Calefio salsa Poncena montuno, during and "La Misma con su Gente, 'Co, titico, titico, co, co'." bands, sings These include "Plastico" (Willie Col6n and Ruben Blades), "Bomba Carambomba" (Sonora Poncefia), and "Mi Desengafio" (Roberto Roena). These tunes are from the late 1970s and early 1980s, and were very popular among Calefio salsa fans. Personal communication, 12 May 1995 (Col. 94-lb). Personal communication, 12 May 1995 (Col. 94-lb). Personal communication, 12 May 1995 (Col. 94-1b). de Paris (1990) and La Misma Gente: Ah! Tu From, respectively, Perfume Sabes(1991). Personal communication, 23 November 1995 (field notes 11/95:13). Jesus "Chucho"Ramirez, personal communication, 20 February 1995 (field notes 2/95:12).

166 : Lise Waxer 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. Personal communication, 10 November 1995 (Col. 95-32). Personal communication, 22 February 1996 (Col. 96-51). Personal communication, 22 February 1996 (Col. 96-51). Dorance Lorza, personal communication 18 February 1996 (field notes 2/96:10). antillanatradiIn this tune, following one style that is part of the mzisica tion, the piece starts with a montuno, instead of using the two-part verse/montuno structure. "Payola"is music industry slang for money and favors that are paid illicitly to radio stations or directly to disc jockeys in return for airplay and promotion of a certain song. Payolais often viewed as a form of extortion and blackmail, tied to criminal control of the entertainment industry (see Dannen 1991). The pop tropicalboom was launched after the success of Carlos Vives' Cldsicos de la Provincia(Sonolux 0103101937), which revamped classic vallenatosongs with contemporary pop/rock arrangements. After the release of this album in 1993, a number of Colombian bands began recording pop arrangements of old Colombian chestnuts, particularly and vallenato. from mzisica tropical Personal communication, 22 February 1996 (Col. 96-51). Timbais the style of dance music popularized in Cuba during the late 1980s and 1990s. It is derived from songo,a rhythm that fuses Cuban sonwith elements from funk, rock, and rumba, and was developed in the 1970sby Los Van Van. Another strong influence on timba's development has been the Afro-Cuban jazz style of Irakere. The hallmarks of timba include a dynamic polyrhythmic base, virtuoso horn lines, jazz-influenced solos, and emphatic bass and drum kicks. The most representative exponent of timba is NG La Banda. Personal communication, Christopher Washbure, 25 August 1999. Personal communication, 23 February 1996 (Col. 96-52). Personal communication, 22 February 1996 (Col. 96-51).

64.

65.

66. 67.

68. 69. 70.

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TheRise of Colombian Salsa : 167 1991 Hit Men:PowerBrokersand Fast MoneyInside the MusicBusiness.New York:Vintage Press.

Glasser, Ruth 1995 MyMusicis My Flag:Puerto RicanMusicians and Their New York 1917-1940. of California Press. Communities, Berkeley: University Rafael Perecheala, 1992 "AlexisLozano:El itinerario de una obsesi6n,"Gaceta 13:32-34. Storm Roberts,John 1979 TheLatin Tinge: TheImpact Musicon theUnited ofLatinAmerican States.New York:Tivoli. Ulloa, Alejandro 1992 La salsa en Cali. Cali: Ediciones Universidad del Valle. Valverde, Umberto 1994 "JairoVarela: La moda pasa la salsa queda," La PalabraNo. 34 (November):8-9 Wade, Peter 1998 "Music, Blackness, and National Identity: Three Moments in Colombian History." PopularMusic 17(1):1-20. Washbume, Christopher 1998 "Playit ConFilin!:The Swing and Expression of Salsa,"Latin American MusicReview19(2):160-185. Waterman, Christopher A. 1990 Juju:A SocialHistory PopularMusic. andEthnography ofanAfrican Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Waxer, Lise 1993 la salsa: Thirty Years of Popular Music in Caracas." "Llego Presented to the 38th Annual Meeting of the Society for Ethnomusicology, Oxford, Mississippi. "Cali Pachanguero: 1998 A Social History of Salsa in a Colombian Ph.D. dissertation, University of Illinois at UrbanaCity." Champaign. 1999 "Record Grooves and Salsa Dance Moves: The Viejoteca Phenomenon in Cali, Colombia." Paper delivered at in (Graduate Colloquium Wesleyan University 14. Ethnomusicology), April n.d. "Las Calenasson ComoLas Flores:The Rise of All-Women Salsa Bands in Cali, Colombia." Ethnomusicology, in press. Publication date spring/summer 2001. Whitten, Norman E. culture and Colom1974 BlackFrontiersmen: Afro-Hispanic ofEcuador bia. Prospect Heights, Illinois: Waveland Press. Repr. 1986.

168 : Lise Waxer

Discography
Diaz, "Piper Pimienta" 200625. 1970 Atiza, Ataja. Discosfuentes "Diaz. Re-release. Discos Fuentes a Piper "Pimienta 1998 Homenaje 10701. Estefan, Gloria Puertas.Sony/Columbia EK67284. 1995 Abriendo Fruko y sus Tesos 1973 La FrutaBomba.Discosfuentes 200739. Grupo Niche es Poder.Codiscos 22200347. Querer 1981 1984 No Hay QuintoMalo. Codiscos 22200462. 1987 HistoriaMusical.Codiscos 69821167. el Hueco.Codiscos 29821260. 1988 Tapando Codiscos 22200654. 1989 Contundente. Sutily Guayacan Sonolux 01031301418. 1985 Llegdla Hora de la Verdad. 1989 La MdsBella. FM Discos LP (11) 2435. de Punta a Punta. FM Discos 0110002517. Sentimental 1992 FM Discos. 0110002547. Abierto. 1993 Conel Coraz6n Su Combo Julian y Sello Vergara206. conPachangas. 1969 Charangas La Misma Gente 1986 La Misma Genteen su Salsa. Salson 07(0131)00004. 1987 La Misma Gente.Sonolux 07(0131)00009. 1989 La Mismagenteen laJugada.Sonolux 07(0131)00030. 1990 Perfume de Paris.Combo 2074. LMG:Ah! TuSabes.Sonolux 01(0131)01762. 1991 Proyecto Omega 1994 SomosHijos de la Mezcla.Sonolux 01013101983. Sonora Poncefia Inca I 1084. 1988 On theRight Track. Vives, Carlos de la Provincia. Sonolux 0103101937. 1993. Cldsicos