THE GOTHIC CATHEDRAL AS A PRODUCT OF THE MEDIEVAL RELIGIOUS MIND

Ben Crenshaw Ms. Hoskins Medieval Europe 370 18 March 2009

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For centuries the hundreds of Gothic cathedrals that are sprinkled throughout European cities have stood as silent symbols of the medieval world. Feelings of awe and mystery surround these impressive architectural structures: awe because of their size and engineering achievements, and mystery because of their sacred significance. In his book, The Gothic Enterprise: A Guide to Understanding the Medieval Cathedral, Robert A. Scott explores the 400 year cathedral-building period from the twelfth to sixteenth centuries and the various factors that shaped cathedral construction and use. He begins by asking the general question of how the medieval world acquired the basic wherewithal (materials, labor, and money) to build these monumental structures. To build a cathedral today would be quite a challenging task, so how were the people of medieval Europe1 able to pull off such an astonishing feat? While Scott delves into historical, social, political, and theological causes, cathedrals were fundamentally a product of the religious mindset of the various social classes of that time period. The general population of Europe at the turn of the first millennium consisted of three major social classes: the nobility, which included monarchs, nobles, and local lords; the clergy, which included the pope, bishops, abbots, and parish priests; and the common working peasant.2 The peasants, monarchs, and clergy of the Middle Ages each made significant but different contributions to the cathedral-building process, yet were motivated by similar spiritual beliefs and practices. To best understand the role that the common person played in the cathedral-building process, it is necessary to grasp the general political situation in Europe by the twelfth century and the ways this contributed to basic living conditions. Under the Carolingian dynasty of the eighth and ninth centuries, the greater part of Gaul was conquered and united, especially during the reign of the Frankish king Charlemagne (768-814). However, by the middle of the ninth century, the Frankish kingdom had been partitioned into three states and the process of decentralization had begun. The rise of local lords seeking to expand their influence of power eroded the control of the Frankish king and contributed to political insecurity. In addition, external invasions by the Vikings, Magyars (Hungarians), and
1

The term Europe is used retrospectively to refer to modern day France, Italy, Germany, Spain, Britain, etc, even though this term was not used until after the Middle Ages. 2 Eventually with the advent to towns, merchant and skilled labor classes developed.

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Muslims in the ninth and tenth centuries added to the general instability and chaos that characterized these years. For the vast majority of Europes population, life was a terrifying and difficult endeavor. Most people were peasant farmers who worked the land on the manor owned by a local lord; as such, they had no hope of social mobility or a prosperous life. Death was a common occurrence as up to a third of all infants died by the age of five. The average life-span was only thirty years and by the time a person reached the age of forty-five or fifty, they were considered elderly (Scott, 212). Sickness and disease were very common, as was malnutrition. Almost everyone was dependent upon agriculture for survival and most only harvested enough to live on. The dependency on agriculture for survival meant that weather played a vital role in determining if one lived or died. Drought and cold weather often destroyed crops, causing widespread famine and food shortages which led to malnutrition. In addition, drinking water was often polluted which caused the spread of malicious diseases such as typhoid, dysentery, and cholera (Scott, 214). Unhealthy diets and a lack of essential vitamins and minerals resulted in weakened immune systems and the inability to fight disease which spread rapidly due to poor sanitation. Plagues, such as the Black Death, wiped out entire communities and claimed millions of lives. If that were not bad enough, people lived in squalid conditions. Most houses were made of mud and straw, provided very little protection against the elements, didnt heat well, and easily burned down (Scott, 214). Violence was very common, dangers from wild animals and outlaws made it unsafe to travel from community to community, and security depended on protection by manor lords (Scott, 215-216). Due to looting parties and the political feudal system, local lords grew rich at the expense of the peasants. All of these factors made life very difficult and dangerous for the common person, and since there were no state or social institutions providing health, poor relief, or education, people were mostly left to fend for themselves. In the pre-Enlightenment and pre-Scientific Revolution world, there was widespread ignorance as to the biological, meteorological, and scientific

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causes of these problems; this meant seemingly simple and practical solutions were not reached. Due to this lack of knowledge, everyone understood the world with a spiritual and supernatural perspective. The general dispensation toward the divine coupled with the fact that the Church was the only place people could turn for help, made religious observance through the Roman Catholic Church one of the most important aspect of peoples lives. After its founding during the Roman Empire, the Catholic Church grew and expanded due to missionary activity and support from the Frankish kings (many of whom were converted, from Clovis to Charlemagne). Increasingly, the Church played an important role in the lives of the peasants and farmers. For starters, the Church was one of the only sources of security that people knew. In that chaotic, dangerous, and violent society, the Church was a bulwark of protection and comfort where people could find acceptance and a haven from the outside world. Everyone believed in God and Satan and an actual heaven and hell, and since the Church dictated salvation through the sacraments, it was imperative that everybody regularly attend mass and partake in the Eucharist. Simply put, without the Church, ones soul was damned; this was believed to be a literal and frightening reality. The common view of God was that he was an omnipresent force throughout the world, yet he also existed more personally and intimately in what was known as sacred spaces. Specifically, the monasteries and churches that were scattered across the European landscape were believed to be such sacred spaces. It was important for people to access the divine, but it was thought that this could be done only with the help of the clergy; thus, people regularly attended church and relied upon it for their spiritual wellbeing. Beyond general church functions, people desired to access the divine for their personal benefit. Since everything that happened was attributed to supernatural forces, it was vitally important to be on favorable grounds with God. The death of a child, disease, fire, or crop failures were all interpreted as punishment from God for wrong doings. Also, it was important to be in good relationship with God in order to gain protection from natural forces and human enemies. Because peoples religious

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worldviews were intrinsically connected to their survival, without the Church and the ability to access, experience, and petition the divine, it was very difficult to live. In this role, the Church fulfilled some very specific functions. Traditionally, important church saints had been buried at certain basilicas and abbeys, which then became shrines for the veneration of that saint. At this point in the medieval world, it was generally believed that saints could intercede with God on behalf of those who prayed and venerated them. The more important the saint had been during his or her lifetime, the closer they stood to God on the spiritual hierarchy and the more powerful and effective their intercessory prayers would be. Most people made many pilgrimages3 to churches to visit the shrines of important saints in order to honor them and petition them to intercede on their behalf. Prayers included requests for profitable harvests, fertility, good health, and protection from weather, enemies, and the like. It was believed that an individuals and familys well-being and survival depended upon the success of gaining Gods favor through intercessory prayer. In connection to saints, people believed that miracles could be obtained through them (especially since the qualification of a saint was often connected to a performed miracle). Miracles were taken for granted in this culture and were defined very broadly to include such things as changes in weather, recovery from an illness, protection from enemies, and much more. Venerating a saint often included requests for miracles, which were thought essential for survival. In addition to visiting shrines, people made pilgrimages to basilicas and churches to gain access to special relics that were believed to have spiritual radiating power. Coming in close proximity to or actually touching relics that were related to individual saints could result in miracles and answers to prayer. The relics were kept in the sacred spaces of churches because they were thought to lose their power if uncovered and exposed. This meant that people had to travel to see the relics, instead of the relics traveling from one community to the next. Finally, many people made pilgrimages to major worship centers to be blessed

Pilgrims here refer to ordinary peasants, not a specific ethic, racial or religious people group.

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by the bishops and clergy since benedictions were given to bless just about everything imaginable (Scott, 228). In exchange for these religious services, the Church sought gifts from the pilgrims. Scott explains in his book that saints attracted money because pilgrims were expected to leave gifts to honor the saint and ownership of such goods could be claimed by the cathedral chapter (189).4 Pilgrims were eager to give such gifts because they desired to gain favor and services (such as miracles) from the saints and their relics. Money and gifts given to confession, saints, relics, and more were an important source of funds for the cathedrals and allowed the bishops to embark on building and renovation projects (Scott, 190-191). Another financial byproduct of attracting so many pilgrims was that large crowds began to draw merchants who would set up shop and sell their goods. Many of these merchants became a part of fairs licensed by the church and such fairs were another important source of income for cathedrals (Scott, 228). For the common people, cathedrals provided vital religious goods and services which they were more than willing to obtain for a fee. Scott summarizes this concept perfectly when he says that the medieval Church became nearly a bottomless reservoir of supernatural power, which, in exchange for gifts, it dispensed to the faithful to help them cope with every imaginable type of problem and situation (228). Another social class that played an important role in making cathedral-building possible was the nobility, especially monarchs. The papal-Frankish alliance during the reign of Pippin III in 754 marked the beginning of the papacys alignment with the west and relationship with the Carolingian kings.5 Under Charlemagne, the Frankish king stood above everyone else (including the pope) as the supreme ruler of the secular world, being ordained by God to administer peace and spread Christianity. However, in the proceeding centuries, as central authority broke down in France and the papacy grew stronger, the pope and king often stood on somewhat equal terms; an uneasy tension often permeated their relationship. Each sought the exclusive title of being first in Gods eyes, and often this led to
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A list of the different kinds of gifts given is found on pages 190-191 of Scotts book. Barbara Rosenwein, A Short History of the Middle Ages, (Canada: Broadview Press, 2005), 112.

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arguments and clashes.6 The Church also was constantly seeking to establish the clergy as a separate social class in society, distinct from everyone else and not under the jurisdictional control of local lords or the ruling monarch. The papacy was continually fighting secular infiltration by local lords who sought to use the church to strengthen their own power. Corruption, greed, simony, and nepotism were continual threats. Although the Catholic Church had succeeded in becoming a strong, centralized, and independent organization by the twelfth century, there were still theological and religious ties to different national monarchies. Since both viewed themselves as equal partners in the heavenly hierarchy (but fulfilling different sacred and secular roles),7 they each supported the other and looked to the other for help and legitimacy. Due to the difficulties of ruling a kingdom in the eleventh and twelfth centuries because of diverse populations, poor infrastructure, shifting boundaries, and outside threats from neighboring monarchs, the king often sought the Churchs support in legitimizing his role as the sovereign appointed by God. Because of this, the king would often bestow the Church with money and gifts. Scott explains that this often took the form of gifts to papal building projects, including grand monastic churches and ornate chapels, as well as cathedrals (229). It is difficult to judge the motivating factors that determined why kings supported the Church in these building enterprises. Were there personal and dynastic benefits involved, or were the monarchs functioning from theological convictions? On the one hand, the king could have been using the Church to bring divine authority to his rule; monarchs often still had the ulterior goal of gaining an imagine of sacred rulership, 8 which would enable them to control the prelates9 and gain jurisdictional power over the Church. Of course there was always the issue of cathedral-building competitions with other monarchs of rival states; the more grand and spectacular the cathedral, the more honor and glory was given to the king who financed it.

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One example of the papal-king clash was over who had the authority to anoint bishops (Scott, 228). A diagram in Scotts book on page 220 shows the medieval view of heaven and earth hierarchy. 8 Scott quotes art historian Suzanne Lewis (229). 9 A prelate is a higher rank ecclesiastical figure such as a bishop.

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However, beyond practical and egotistical benefits, the theological views held by many kings motivated them to support the Church. Monarchs at this time not only saw themselves quite literally as soldiers of God, but the king was regarded as a sacred figure anointed by God to rule mankind (Scott, 228-231). To this end, kings often were those that fought, waging Christian wars against barbarian peoples to subjugate them and bring them under the influence of Christianity. Within their own territories, the king was considered sovereign, and Scott makes the interesting insight that the word sovereign can literally be interpreted as he-who-gives (230). Building great and beautiful cathedrals was a direct and powerful way for the king to honor Gods Church and fulfill this duty of royal provider. In his semi-divine role, it was the kings responsibility to support the building of cathedrals in order to aid the Church in its spiritual responsibilities and please God by glorifying him. In return, hopefully God would elevate the king, answer his prayers, and bring him power and success. So we can see that the monarchs fulfilled both a secular and sacred dual role, and that much of their sacred involvement was motivated by their religious and theological beliefs. The bishops and priests often reinforced the kings theology of their sacred roles, because the Church needed the states support and financing to be able to carry out the expensive work of cathedral construction. Scott gives a perfect example of this in recounting Abbot Sugars theological vision of the king in relationship to the Church and specifically the function of the Abbey Church of St. Denis in France. Suger believed the King (Louis VI) to be the Vicar of Godbearing Gods image in his person and bringing it to life (Scott, 81). With this view being embraced by the clergy it is no wonder that monarchs accepted it and thus made significant contributions to the Church. By this point it should be clear that the social classes of commoners (majority of the population), and the royalty (very small percentage of the population), constituted the religious foundational support and financial resource that enable the Church to embark on its cathedral-building crusade. This support was not necessarily a means of social standing, special privilege, or economic

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ability, but was fundamentally an outcome of a spiritual worldview.10 Without this support, the bishops and archbishops of the Catholic Church would not have been able to build the Gothic cathedrals that they did. However, simply acquiring the means to build a new church did not automatically produce the Gothic style. The remaining evolution of the Gothic style rested entirely in the hands of the bishops, priest, and abbots who had a heavenly vision as to what the cathedral should look like. Gothic cathedrals didnt just spring up overnight or develop out of nothing. The previous architectural style of church building was called Romanesque with its trademark rounded arches, barrel vaulting, thick walls, and dark interior. Many of the Gothic cathedrals that were built were remodeled Romanesque churches. If an older abbey or basilica burned to the ground, often a Gothic-styled cathedral was erected in its place. The two styles often mixed as the slow transition was made from Romanesque to Gothic. At one point Scott says, the Gothic style evolved slowly out of the Romanesque, starting from the time when diagonal ribs first were added to groin vaults.11 Eventually, during the High Gothic period,12 the Gothic look became distinctive and became the antithesis of the Romanesque (Scott, 14). The difference between a Romanesque and High Gothic church is startling: the Gothic style soars higher, lets in abundantly more light, and has a lighter (as opposed to heavy) feel. What accounts for the transition from the Romanesque to the Gothic style and how were these new architectural innovations introduced? I believe that one of the major driving forces behind the Gothic style was the spiritual vision held by the prelates. Many of the spiritual concepts that the clergy held were the same as those of the laity and common people who frequented the Church, yet their beliefs were more complicated and expressed themselves in dramatic ways. The idea of sacred space was instrumental in the building of Gothic cathedrals, yet this concept had of course existed well before the Gothic era. For the clergy, a sacred space basically meant an appropriate dwelling for God, patterned somewhat after the Old Testament
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However, social class and prosperity did determine to what extent an individual could give. Scott quoting architectural expert, Paul Frankl (116). 12 The High Gothic period lasted from 1194-1300.

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idea of the tabernacle. Just like the peasants, the clergy believed that God was omnipresent but that he could also personally reside in a man-made temple. The bishops and priests didnt take it for granted that God would inhabit any church building; instead, they thought that it was necessary to attract the divine being and then induce it to stay (Scott, 152). This led the clergy to build not only large structures in order to contain God, but also very exquisite and beautiful structures. Since this was to be Gods dwelling place, there was no holding back as to how grand, glorious, and wonderful it should be. If the cathedral failed in this regard, or if the bishop overseeing its construction failed to give his best, this was considered demeaning toward God, which would lead him to vacate the cathedral and not return. Therefore, the size, beauty, and grandeur of each cathedral were imperative to its function; if Gods presence was not there, people would not attend the church or give gifts. Since God was believed to be dwelling in the sacred space of the cathedral, the clergy strove to make the cathedral mirror their concept of heaven as much as possible. The cathedral was an image of heaven in the sense that it was supposed to be an imitation of heaven as much as was humanly possible. The cathedral was really a mediating place between God and man: it brought heaven to earth, but also, as Scott describes, the Gothic cathedral was intended as a space where people could get a taste of heaven (121). The bishops who oversaw the construction envisioned heaven as being both a bright and orderly world. Therefore, filling the cathedral with bountiful light and constructing it in a perfect geometrical design were major priorities. Light was also important since it was seen as the perfect medium by which man could experience the divine (Scott, 123). If proper lighting could not be achieved, the cathedral would not adequately mirror heaven, would fail to attract both the divine and the laity, and would therefore be useless to the bishop who used it as his center of administration. Building the Gothic cathedral to be filled with light was a major problem since the earlier Romanesque style required thick walls and smaller windows, which meant poor interior lighting. In response to the lighting need, new architectural designs were created to allow greater building heights of up to three stories, thinner walls as weight was redistributed, and a more airy, porous, and open

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feeling. The three major architectural advancements which so clearly distinguished the Gothic style were ribbed vaulting, pointed archways, and flying buttresses. The ribbed vaulting (as opposed to Romanesques barrel vaulting), shifted the weight from all along the solid outside walls to individually spaced pillars. These open areas between the pillars not only made the cathedral seem less oppressive and contained, but also allowed for more windows and thus more light. Pointed archways made it possible to have thinner and higher arches, and the flying buttresses helped shore up the outside walls since they were thinner and less able to handle the weight of the roof. It is fascinating to realize that all of these new architectural achievements werent a result of different building materials or solutions to structural failures, but were created in response to spiritual ideas. As Scott says, in essence, new structures and forms were invented to solve problems created by theological purposes (133). Geometry and order also played a very significant role in determining cathedral shape and construction. Because the designers were trying to reconstruct an imitation of heaven according to the clerical understanding of heaven, the cathedral was a model of symmetry, perfect geometric proportions, and repeated patterns and volumes. Scott explains in some depth that these ideas were drawn from St. Augustines13 theological works on geometry, beauty, music, and modulation (Scott, 123-124). Since most of the designers and bishops who oversaw the building projects had been educated in religious schools they would have been well versed in these concepts and eager to implement them in their work (Scott, 124). Therefore, every part of the cathedral was purposeful and exact, with each section relating to the whole to produce a coherent and unified structure. Another example of how clerical worldviews shaped cathedrals relates to their belief that the sacred must not be profaned by the secular. Since God was dwelling in the cathedral, it was vitally important that the structure remain holy and purified from outside contaminating forces. It was thought that if the sacred space could not be kept holy, God would not want to stay there since he would not be protected from pollution by the profane. This led to the cathedrals being built in such a

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St. Augustine of Hippo lived from 354-430 and is considered one of the fathers of Christian theology.

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way as to clearly mark the boundaries between the sacred and secular (Scott, 152). The towering outside walls shut the cathedral off to everyone and the only way to gain access was by permission through the front gates.14 Within the cathedral itself there were also zones of sacredness: the further in and the higher up one progressed, the more sacred and exclusive the cathedral space became. Scott explains that the transition from one zone to the next is always marked in some way, most commonly by one or more steps, which signal an increase in the degree of hallowedness (158). The nave was the least sacred place where the laity would stand during the liturgy. They could not access the high altar and choir which were up yet more flights of steps and cordoned off by a choir screen. This area the presbytery was only accessible to the bishop and choir when performing their liturgical duties. The religious views of the clergy not only established the design and construction of the cathedral, but also served to determine its function. This is where the spiritual perspectives of the clergy and common people overlapped as the peasants made the clergys functional vision a reality. As was mentioned before, important apostolic and later church saints were often buried in cathedrals in order to preserve their sacredness and give them appropriate access to pilgrims. This of course brought in money to the cathedral chapter from the myriad of gifts left by pilgrims seeking answer to prayers and miracles. Bishops also sought to acquire as many relics as possible for a number of reasons. First, since relics were believed to lose their spiritual power if not stored properly, it was necessary to keep them in sacred spaces such as cathedrals, and this drew many people who wanted to view and touch them. Second, relics were thought not only to sanctify the place they were kept, but also physically protect the surrounding area. Scott says that abbeys, monasteries, and cathedrals were anxious to obtain them [relics] as a way of discouraging attacks from predators and enemies, who would fear incurring divine wrath (195). The numerous benefits of acquiring relics led bishops to obtain them in any way possible. Soon, a market for stolen relics evolved as bishops squabbled over who had the right to what relics. Finally, and most obviously, the religious views of the clergy dictated

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Often the front gates were used only on ceremonial occasions so the side porches would be used for weekly access.

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the form and content of the liturgy and specific rituals that were carried out. The liturgy was always performed in Latin, which the laymen could not understand; this made the cathedral experience all the more awesome and mysterious to them, impressing them with a reverence for the divine. There were weekly rituals for cleansing the laity in preparation for services and communion, but also more ceremonial rituals reserved for specific times such as the Palm Sunday celebration.15 In conclusion, it seems evident that the Gothic cathedral was very much a product of the religious mindset of the common people, royalty, and the clergy. The peasants and monarchs each supported the church in many ways, but most importantly through financial contributions. They did this in order to gain Gods favor and gain strength, comfort, protection, and hope.16 Upon this foundation of support the prelates were able to design and build their theological visions of sacred spaces dedicated to worshipping God and mediating between God and his people. Each social group contributed significantly and I believe that the cathedrals could not have been built if one of these classes had failed to help. Scott sums it up nicely in a quote from art historian Erwin Panofsky: In its imagery, the High Gothic cathedral sought to embody the whole of Christian knowledge, theological, moral, natural, and historical, with everything in its place and that which no longer found its place suppressed (129). However, it is also important to keep in mind that the religious and theological explanation for the building of cathedrals is only one part of the overall picture. The development of the Gothic cathedral was not a straight-forward and simple evolution since there were many other factors involved. Economic revival and rebirth in the tenth and eleventh centuries saw the rise of a merchant and skilled labor class, the flow of monetary capital, and the development of cities. Since the cathedral was an urban structure, this economic upturn certainly played a part in making the cathedral building enterprise a reality. Also during the tenth century, religious reforms in the monasteries began to transform the church and eventually the papacy. This reform and the further theological development probably also factored into the cathedral-building centuries. Beyond this, Im sure there
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Scott describes this ritual procession in detail (166-168). The common man also supported cathedral construction in the practical ways of providing labor (on and off site) and materials.

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were other political and socio-economic reasons that contributed to the cathedral phenomenon; I have only sought to explore the religious perspective and the impact it made. Regarding the Gothic cathedral as an enduring symbol of the Western medieval European world, I think that in many ways Robert Scott has done a superb job of tracing all the different factors and elements that contributed to building the cathedrals. On the surface it may seem that the cathedral was just another church, similar to ours today just slightly bigger with different decorations and architecture. Even though the cathedral is definitely a religious structure I think it is a great symbol for all of medieval European society. It was a haven and safe shelter for the peasants who suffered unimaginable difficulties and trials. It also served as the place of their religious expressions and piety as they sought help for daily living. It symbolizes the clerical beliefs of sacred space, heaven on earth, veneration of saints and relics, and the routine of weekly services. Practically, it provided the means of income and administration by which the bishops could effectively rule their dioceses and pastor the souls under their care. Politically it symbolizes the contributions made by monarch both for pragmatic reasons, but also for theological ones. It also symbolizes the power struggle between the clergy and nobility and the mutually support each gave to the other. Through the Gothic cathedral, we can get an accurate snapshot from a variety of angles that helps us understand what life was really like for different people in medieval society.