The International Journal of Language Learning and Applied Linguistics World (IJLLALW)

Volume 1 (1), December 2012; 78-95 ISSN: 2289-2737 Copyright IJLLALW, Norway

Impacts of Learning Reading Strategy on Students Reading Comprehension Proficiency

Mohammad Reza Ahmadi Gilani (PhD candidate, corresponding author) School of Educational Studies,Universiti Sains Malaysia 11800, Penang, Malaysia Tel: + 60-17-527-1870 E-mail: E-mail: mr.ahmadi2720@gmail.com Associate Prof. Dr. Hairul Nizam Ismail, PhD School of Educational Studies,Universiti Sains Malaysia 11800, Penang, Malaysia Tel (Off): (04) 653-3760-Tel (hp): 012-4122539,E-mail: hairul@usm.my Abbas Pourhossein Gilakjani Islamic Azad University of Lahijan, Iran. Email: abbas.pouhossein@yahoo.com Abstract In recent years, learning reading strategy has become an important factor in literacy education. Research has suggested that learning reading strategies can be taught to students whose foreign/second language is English. Although the study shows an improvement in the students reading comprehension proficiency and a positive reaction to the benefits of learning reading strategy. Learning reading strategy is one of the most important skills, receives the special focus on reading comprehension proficiency in foreign language learning. This paper will discuss whether learning reading strategies enhance students reading comprehension or not. This lack of good reading strategy skills is exacerbated by the central role of reading comprehension in education success. One solution to the problem of poor reading comprehension is the learning of reading strategy skills. This paper defines the key words, reading strategy process and reading comprehension proficiency, the relationship between learning reading strategies and reading comprehension. The findings indicated that reading strategies had a positive effect on the English reading comprehension proficiency. Keywords: Learning reading strategy, Reading comprehension proficiency, Reading strategies

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Volume 1 (1), December 2012; 78-95 ISSN: 2289-2737 Copyright IJLLALW, Norway Introduction Reading comprehension is one of the main important elements in English language learning for all students because it provides the basis for a substantial amount of learning in education (Alvermann & Earle, 2003; Kirsch, de Jong, LaFontaine, McQueen, Mendelovits, and Monseur, 2002). Chang (2006) explained that English language teaching is one of the vital elements of international communication activities. So, students need to be trained to use language in different areas such as reading, writing, speaking, and listening to contribute their international communication. Moreover, in foreign language learning, one of the most important factors for the learners is the method which teachers use in their teaching to facilitate learning (Grabe & Stoller, 2002). Researchers indicated that learning reading strategies have a positive effect on students reading comprehension proficiency (National Reading Panel, 2000). But as Guthrie, Wigfield, Barbosa, et al., (2004) stated that the evidence rests primarily on instructional research in which single cognitive strategies are taught in controlled experiments. As a matter of fact, little is known about the issue of how learning reading strategies might facilitate in reading comprehension proficiency. In learning reading strategies program, reading strategy practice is often supported by classmates/instructor learning arrangements (Palincsar & Brown, 1984). Moreover, a few studies have been conducted related to the identification of the effective elements of reading strategies in reading comprehension. According to Carrell, Gajdusek, and Wise, (1989), reading strategy is defined as a direct instruction in reading comprehension and has consistently produced positive results in comprehension. Reading strategy is one of the keys to make instruction explicit enough to facilitate learners enhancement of meta-cognitive control of strategy use by providing clear and extensive explanations of the value of strategy use and information on when and how to use them (Palincsar & Brown, 1985). Reading strategies instruction has an important effect on reading comprehension and motivates students for reading (Druitt, 2002; National Reading Panel, 2000). Learners motivation level affects their willingness of using reading comprehension strategy (Choochom, 1995). Resarchers believe that teaching productive reading strategies motivate students to read and facilitate reading comprehension (Anderson, 2003; Eskey, 2002; Grabe, 2004), Development of reading strategy skills of English language learning in young generation is an important element in their preparation for effective roles in the society. Despite the recognition of the value of English language learning in the world, there are some obstacles to achieving acceptable standards of teaching and learning in this area. But, reading strategies should be focused on this area and help students to improve their English language learning through reading (Chareonwongsak, 2002). Reading strategy can lead students to interest and motivate them to reading comprehension (Chandavimol, 1998).
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Volume 1 (1), December 2012; 78-95 ISSN: 2289-2737 Copyright IJLLALW, Norway According to Koda (2004), learning reading strategy not only compensates for the learners comprehension deficiency but also enhances their critical thinking. Similarly, Palincsar and Brown (1984), learning reading strategy helps students, especially low-achieving learners, ignore comprehension failure and develop their retention in the context. Pressley (2006) noted that English language students need to be taught strategic reading through reading strategies instruction. Reading strategy is a reading technique and study skill which makes reading more effective and facilitate learning (Oxford & Crookall, 1989). Oxford and Crookall (1989) elaborated that reading strategy is a process used by the learners to improve reading comprehension and overcome comprehension failures. It is a purposeful, cognitive action that students take when they are reading to help them construct and maintain meaning and is often categorized as those behaviours designed to help students before, during, and after they read (Oxford & Crookall, 1989). In this study, reading strategy refers to the technique that students would use in their activities and reading comprehension which is based on reciprocal teaching strategy. Janzen and Stoller (1998) argued that learning reading strategy instruction is rewarding for both English language students and their teachers. They contended that it activates students autonomy and self-awareness of the meaning constructing process and it also provides learners for academic reading comprehension proficiency. They also elaborated that learning reading strategy instruction prepares an efficient technique for instructors to motivate learners participation in their studying and teach them how to read effectively. Consequently, the purpose of this study is to investigate the impact of learning reading strategy on reading comprehension.

Reading Strategy Mokhtari and Reichard (2002) explained that reading strategies are activities or actions that readers utilize to construct meaning and facilitate their reading. Reading strategies are techniques or styles that students choose in their reading comprehension (Cohen, 1986). Brantmeier (2005) defined reading strategies as techniques which learners use in the process of reading comprehension in order to read and figure out the context. Reading strategies allow students to evaluate their reading comprehension achievement (Kletzien, 1991). There are various definitions of reading strategies. Jimenez, Garcia, and Pearson (1996) explained reading strategies as deliberate actions that learners select to establish and improve their reading comprehension. According to Cohen (1986), reading strategies are the mental processes involved in the reading techniques chosen by the students while reading. Usually, these techniques are selected consciously to facilitate reading comprehension. Reading strategies are important as they help readers to reach their reading goals and achieve good results in
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Volume 1 (1), December 2012; 78-95 ISSN: 2289-2737 Copyright IJLLALW, Norway reading (Block, 1986). As such, students or readers who do not use any strategies in reading usually face difficulties in reading comprehension. Mcnamara (2007) defined reading strategies as cognitive and behavioural activities which help learners in their reading. It is important for EFL instructors to be familiar with reading strategies and expose their students to the various kinds so that students know how and when to utilize them (Chamot, Barnhardt, El-Dinary, & Robbins, 1999). Component of Reading Strategies According to Oxford (1990), there are six components of reading strategies that are important and easy for learning. By learning these strategies, learners will be more motivated in their reading comprehension. The reading strategies are namely predicting, skimming, scanning, inferring, guessing the meaning of unfamiliar words, and self-monitoring. Prediction Prediction refers to the technique of using the readers prior knowledge to guess the meaning or the message of the text from the topics, pictures, key words, or constructions. It is one of the most effective factors that motivates students to read and understand the meaning of the context (Oxford, 1990). Skimming Skimming refers to the technique of reading passages quickly in order to get its gist. In skimming, readers do not look for specific information but only for general information (Grellet, 1986). Scanning Scanning is quite similar to skimming in that both of them require a quick glance of a text. The difference is that in skimming, readers try to get the general or main information of the text but in scanning, the readers would like to obtain specific information. In scanning technique, readers are looking to find particular information the answer to his/her questions. So, readers need to move their eyes quickly across the passages for particular words or phrases (Grellet, 1986). Inferring Inferring refers to activities of reading between the lines which means that readers need to know how to get the message from the words and sentences in a text. So, inferring is defined as the interaction between words in a sentence/phrases or between sentences or phrases (Kristin, Leah, & Soro, 2009). There are seven types of inferring activities: A. Knowing what a pronoun in a sentence refers back to. B. Making assumption about the next sentence and guessing the content of the next passage. C. Predicting the definition of new words in the text. D. Making hypothesis across the text about the behaviours of a character in different locations.
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Volume 1 (1), December 2012; 78-95 ISSN: 2289-2737 Copyright IJLLALW, Norway E. To be familiar with the connections of words and how they will be used in a specific text. F. Knowing the relationships as written at various times in contexts. G. While reading a text fill gaps related to background knowledge (if any). Guessing the meaning of new words Guessing the meaning of new words helps readers to read and understand text quickly because difficult words usually create problems for students and are obstacles in reading comprehension (Smith, 1994). Furthermore, the best way to find the meaning of new words is to draw inferences from the context rather than using a dictionary (Smith, 1994). Self-monitoring This strategy is one of the most important factors that allows readers to regulate their reading. Awareness of using this strategy helps learners to solve their problems in reading. Kern (1989) found that proficient readers use self-monitoring combined with other strategies in their reading comprehension. Importance of Reading Strategy Ben-David (2002) stated that readers often encounter problems in reading the text and have difficulties in understanding the meaning of the context but reading strategies help them in learning foreign language and reading comprehension. In fact, students will be able to relate newly acquired information to their prior knowledge in context areas which is an essential part of reading comprehension skill. Trabasso and Bouchard (2002) explained that reading strategies can be taught explicitly while students are learning subject-specific content through authentic reading tasks. According to Dehnad (2005), reading strategy provides learning opportunities, facilitates learning and recalling of information as well as strengthening the reading comprehension ability of language learners. Learners need to be explicitly taught how to properly use reading strategies to monitor their reading comprehension. Through the employment of reading strategy such as meta-cognitive instruction in English class, EFL learners will be able to improve their reading comprehension and experience a higher level of competency which will further motivate them to read on a regular basis (Block, 1992). Chamot (2005) stated that students have their own preference of strategy, but in order to become motivated and selective strategy users, EFL learners should selfmonitor their reading strategy. In other words, EFL learners need to consciously know what and when to apply appropriate reading strategy when comprehension fails. Studies on reading strategies training demonstrated that readers who struggled in reading comprehension showed significant improvement after receiving explicit instruction in metacognition (Baker, 2002; Cohen, 2003; Duffy, 2005; Grabe, 2004). Therefore, students should be
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Volume 1 (1), December 2012; 78-95 ISSN: 2289-2737 Copyright IJLLALW, Norway exposed to multiple reading strategies as well as the appropriate use of those strategies for better results. In addition, readers should be taught to become more aware of their own reading behaviour and the processes involved in reading. Learning Reading Strategy Learning to read strategies refers to any sets of activities, stages, programs, or techniques that help students to keep, achieve, or evaluate information (Wenden & Rubin, 1987). Learning strategies are explained as a designed behaviour and belief that students utilize during studying to facilitate in recognizing, learning and understanding (Richards, Platt, & Platt, 1992). OMalley and Chamot (1990) defined learning strategy as an individual plan and beliefs that are used by the students in order to improve their reading comprehension, motivation, and the willingness to obtain more information. They added that learning strategies are particular styles of information processing that help students to keep the information after reading comprehension activity or learning. It was added that learning strategies in reading are the way of information processing that is consciously chosen by students to help them improve the learning of information in second or foreign language (Cohen, 1990). Similarly, Oxford (1990) defined learning strategies in reading as activities or any sets of actions that are chosen to facilitate learning by making learning enjoyable and easier so that the attainment of new information will be more effective. It was added that learning strategies in reading are specific actions which learners can take to ensure that information can be obtained more quickly and easily as well as be applied in new situations. Theories/ Models of Reading Strategies Oxford (1990) concluded that there are generally two kinds of reading strategies, i.e. cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies. Cognitive strategy refers to the mental activities involved during learning but meta-cognitive strategy refers to the students awareness of their cognitive process in learning. For example, planning, setting goals, self-monitoring, self-management, and selfevaluation. OMalley, Chamot, Stewner-Manzanares, Kupper, and Russo (1985) suggested three models of reading strategies in reading, i.e. (1) Metacognitive Strategies, (2) Cognitive Strategies, and (3) Socio-affective Strategies. Each of the strategies is elaborated as follows: Metacognitive Strategies Metacognitive strategies are administrative actions taken in reading which include planning for learning, thinking about the process of learning, self-management, self-monitoring, directed attention, observing, correcting of ones comprehension or production, direct attention and evaluating at the different learning phases, for example, before, during, and after learning OMalley et al., (1985). Metacognitive strategy refers to supervise, control or self-direct language learning. They are as planning, prioritizing, setting goals, and self-management, Rubin (1987).
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Volume 1 (1), December 2012; 78-95 ISSN: 2289-2737 Copyright IJLLALW, Norway Cognitive Strategies Brown (2007) elaborated that cognitive strategies are related to particular learning assignments and are based on direct manipulation of the learning material. Some of the main important cognitive strategies listed by Brown (2007) are as a deduction, inference, repetition, note taking, resourcing, translation, recombination, grouping, imagery, auditory representation, key word, contextualization, elaboration, and transfer. Cognitive strategies are the activities which are taken in learning or problem-solving that involves direct analysis, transformation, or synthesis of learning materials (Rubin, 1987). Socio-affective Strategies Brown (2007) stated that there is a strong relationship between socio-affective strategies as well as social-mediation activities and interacting with others. Cooperation and asking questions for clarification is the main factor of socio-affective strategies in learning. Socio-affective strategies are activities that students are exposed to the opportunities that can be a great help to practice their knowledge. Moreover, these strategies offer exposure to the foreign/second language learning and assist in learning indirectly (Rubin, 1987). Rubin (1987) stated that socio-affective strategies are strategies such as communication strategies, communication strategies which are not directly related to language learning because their attention is in the process of communication through conversation. Communication strategies are used by students while facing with some problems regarding their communication and conversation. The general communication strategy is to use ones communicative knowledge to remain in the conversation. Reading Comprehension Proficiency Reading comprehension proficiency is the constructing meaning and thinking before, during and after reading by integrating readers background knowledge with the information presented by the author in the context (Meissner & Yun, 2008; Sweet & Snow, 2003). Reading comprehension is the constructing meaning which is acceptable and accurate by connecting what has been read to what the students already know and thinks about all of this information until it is recognized. The purpose and final goal of reading instruction is comprehension. However, one of the most important goals of skilled reading is decoded and understanding written text (Block & Pressley, 2002), it should be considered and emphasized on reading comprehension proficiency rather than an end in itself. A short list of examples of comprehension strategies includes comprehension monitoring, cooperative learning, using graphic and semantic organizers including story maps, answering questions about what has been read, creating students own questions about what they have read, using prior knowledge to connect what they read to what they already know, and summarizing what they have read (Learning Point Associates, 2004; http://www.learningpt.org). These proficient readers agree that using reading comprehension strategies would help them understand more of what they are reading and motivate them in their
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Volume 1 (1), December 2012; 78-95 ISSN: 2289-2737 Copyright IJLLALW, Norway activities in reading. Readers need to know when and how to use these reading comprehension strategies and it is essential to understand various kinds of texts such as informative text, stories or poetry. Proficient readers utilize comprehension strategies without being directed to do so. They have become self-regulated in their use of comprehension strategies while reading. Reading comprehension proficiency is a combination of the readers cognitive and metacognitive processes, which a reader has to make inferences on the passage of a text or at the end of a story by using information from different sources: the title, the pictures, or generally from the previous paragraphs. The reading comprehension processes occur when the reader understands the information in a text and meaningfully interprets it appropriately (Ahmadi & Hairul, 2012; Blair-Larsen & Vallance, 2004). Reading comprehension is the conclusion of recognition and understanding among readers and the context (Eskey, 2005). Accordingly, Rosenblatt (1978) stated that reading comprehension is related to the transaction among the text and reader. It is believed that readers establish and construct their own meanings in the context and can share those understandings and recognition with other students. One of the most important factors of the beginning stages of reading and reading comprehension development is decoding and the ability to recognize words in texts (Adams, 1990). However, comprehension relates to both vocabulary recognition skills and higher order thinking skills. Reading comprehension proficiency is a process to understand the message of written language and furthermore, that readers go through context; evaluate meaning and, finally arrive at a selfselected location (Duke, 2003). Van Den Broek and Kremer (2000) explained that readers in reading comprehension proficiency create an image and its definition toward the comprehension process in their mentality. On the other hand, Martin, Chang and Gould (2008) stated that reading comprehension is one of the most important factors in language learning. Their idea was supported by the fact that many researchers highlighted the point that reading will facilitate and enhance language learning. Reading also facilitates readers to develop themselves in various situations such as general knowledge, writing skills, and spelling (Ahmadi & Hairul, 2012; Harmer, 2007). According to Reid and Lienemann (2006), reading is a difficult process which involves the ability to read real words in isolation or in context with comprehension. Readers should be able to comprehend the context in many different content areas; they need the ability to construct meaning from written language by manipulating, constructing, and translating text. Accordingly, Erfani, Iranmehr, and Davari, (2010) and Farhady (2005) said that in Iranian university context, reading comprehension is the most important skill to be acquired by the students, and it is the most effective motivation factor for them to be successful in their study (cited in Ahmadi & Hairul, 2012).
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Volume 1 (1), December 2012; 78-95 ISSN: 2289-2737 Copyright IJLLALW, Norway Types of Reading In general, there are two types of reading namely Extensive and Intensive Reading. The following sections will explain these types of reading. Extensive Reading Hedge (2003) explained extensive reading as scanning and skimming activities and quantity of material. Extensive reading is reading in quantity in order to gain a general information about what is read, obtaining the gist to facilitate reading comprehension. Accordingly, Hafiz and Tudor (1989), Grabe and Stoller (2002) defined extensive reading as a large amounts of reading in contexts within their linguistic competence with the purpose of learning to read. Furthermore, it is considered a pedagogically efficient method to teach reading by having students read many materials in their linguistic process (Ahmadi & Hairul, 2012). According to Richards and Rodgers (2003), extensive reading is the reading book after book where the readers should focus on the meaning of the text, while it gives them a general information of the text. Field (1985) illustrated that extensive reading is a rapid and effective method of reading a text for a general meaning and all interested and pleasure reading is defined as extensive reading. Intensive Reading Reading in details to recognize and understand the meaning of the words and the definition of passage is called Intensive reading (Day & Bamford, 1998). This reading focuses on syntactic and semantic forms in the text, details in structure, with the aims of understanding literal meaning and implications. Day and Bamford (1998) explained that intensive reading is a close study of contexts, sentences or paragraphs and it will activate the shift from a first language to foreign language; hence it develops the readers reading comprehension proficiency. According to Hedge (2003), in Intensive reading, students usually read a text to recognize the writers message(s), it is as reading carefully and slowly for detailed recognizing. Hafiz and Tudor (1989) argued that intensive reading is generally at a slower speed and provides a higher degree of recognizing to improve and refine word study skills, enlarge passive vocabulary, reinforce skills related to sentence structure, increase active vocabulary. Models of Reading There are three models of reading: the bottom-up model which emphasizes on the contexts, the top-down model which emphasizes on the readers, and the interactive model which emphasizes that the reading process is guided by an interaction between the text information and the readers previous knowledge (Ahmadi & Hairul, 2012; Tolstefl, 2007). The following sections discuss each of the models in more details. 3.2.1 The TopDown Model According to Eskey (2005), in top-down model, prior information, guessing, main idea, contextual prediction, scanning and skimming are provided; the prospects and previous information contribute readers to understand the meaning in their reading process. In this reading
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Volume 1 (1), December 2012; 78-95 ISSN: 2289-2737 Copyright IJLLALW, Norway model, students begin to read a context and use their background knowledge to obtain new experiences and knowledge (Aebersold & Field, 1997). In top-down model, students utilize their previously learned knowledge to predict meaning (Goodman, 1976). Accordingly, active students translate the message of written language in their own language in a meaningful form (Smith, 2004). So, proficient readers do not need to read all of the words in a passage, but they will understand the message from the context by getting some important words and sentences (Cohen, 1990). In other words, the model of top-down emphasizes on reading proficiency and focuses on predicting the message by using the readers background knowledge related to the passage. The Bottom-up Model In the bottom-up model readers focus on surface meaning, using a dictionary for translating new words for helping reading comprehension (Dubin & Bycina, 1991). This model of reading is usually used at the earlier level of learning (Hayashi, 1999). Reading process in the bottom-up model starts with the decoding of the smallest elements of linguistic especially phonemes and words, continued with creating meaning from the larger elements (Carrell, 1989). Gough (1972) stated that bottom-up model emphasizes on the print itself, whereas reading is the starting point to grasp recognizing in words description, letters information, linguistic elements and sentences before understanding the meaning of the whole text. Grabe and Stoller (2002) supported the idea by stating that the bottom-up model is a mechanical model, where readers translate the content mentally from smaller units; obviously, readers previous information may not be considered too much in the process. Accordingly, Ahmadi and Hairul (2012) stated that the whole process of defining content through decoding of new words is called bottom-up reading process. The Interactive Model The combination of the two aforementioned models (bottom-up and top-down) is called Interactive model (Ahmadi & Hairul, 2012). This model of reading is based on information from various parts such as semantic information, lexical, schemata, orthographic and syntactic (Stanovich, 1980). Interactive model covers what top-down or bottom-up model uncovered in the whole reading process (Rumelhart, 1977). This model emphasizes on the relationship between the text and the readers. Anderson (1991) said that interactive model is the most effective approach to teach the first and second language speakers to read. Accordingly, Grabe (1991) stated that interactive model is efficiently to bridge between students with higher-level and lower-level of reading comprehension proficiency. Stanovich (1980) and Eskey (2005) claimed that because poor readers have limited the ability of bottom-up approach, they use top-down model more than proficient readers. Findings of Learning Reading Strategies and Reading Comprehension Proficiency An effective number of empirical researches have established a positive relationship between learning reading strategies and reading comprehension proficiency in students EFL/ESL learning activities. For example, Brookbank, Grover, Kullberg, and Strawser (1999) have
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Volume 1 (1), December 2012; 78-95 ISSN: 2289-2737 Copyright IJLLALW, Norway detected that the use of learning different reading strategies enhanced the learners reading comprehension proficiency. Research in EFL/ESL contexts that have been done to explore the relationship between learning reading strategies and success in reading comprehension proficiency by nonnative speaker students have produced interesting results, and reading strategies facilitated their comprehension proficiency. According to Golinkoff (1975), poor readers peruse various of texts in the same manner (traditional manner) and do not follow to learn reading strategies in their reading process. According to Ahmadi and Pourhossein (2012), findings indicated that reading strategy has a significant positive impact on the English reading comprehension proficiency. Reading strategy improves the reading ability of both the proficient and less proficient readers. Readers use reading strategies and know what, when, how, and why to use these strategies in reading comprehension process. Furthermore, students learn reading strategies to identify the main idea of a paragraph, to clarify unclear words, phrases, or sentences, and summarize their reading. The reading strategies help readers overcome difficulties when reading texts as they plan and monitor their comprehension, and evaluate their planning and its outcome. For these reasons, it can be concluded that reading strategy is a kind of reading instruction that facilitates the teaching of English reading comprehension proficiency Ahmadi and Pourhossein (2012). Accordingly, Cziko (1980) found that ESL/EFL learners with lower proficiency depend on orthographic features of the text words while advanced proficiency learners are more sensitive to syntactic, semantic, and discourse cues. However, with reference to Chinese EFL learners, only a few studies on their learning reading strategies have been reported, but serious attempts at investigating the effectiveness of explicit and overt strategy training of Chinese EFL readers on English reading comprehension proficiency have been lacking. Gu (1994) explained that his good and poor students were different in strategy use in reading comprehension. The correspondence between skill/strategy use and reading comprehension proficiency does not necessarily apply to students (Chu, 2000). Readers, regardless of their reading proficiency, want to use more local reading strategies than global strategies (Chia, 2000). Accordingly, Parry (1996) elaborated that her students stronger tendency to use bottom-up strategies than top-down strategies since it was closely related to their traditional approach. As a result, in order to counterbalance the powerful effects from L1 reading experience, improving a deeper level of processing to assist readers understand the importance and function of global strategy use is emphasized. Su (2001) examined the influence of learning reading strategies about the English reading proficiency of students, and the conclusion show that readers feel that the reading strategies they learned are helpful to improve their reading ability. According to Song (1998), in a reading strategy training investigation which was modified from the procedure improve by Brown and Palincsar (1984) in an ongoing EFL university reading
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Volume 1 (1), December 2012; 78-95 ISSN: 2289-2737 Copyright IJLLALW, Norway comprehension classroom. It was concluded that learning reading strategy is one of the effective factor in improving EFL reading comprehension proficiency. The finding suggested that foreign language reading pedagogy, especially for adult students in academic settings, should include explicit and direct strategy training. Conclusion This study generally detected a positive relationship between readers language proficiency and reading skills/strategies. The ability to recognize a text is based not only on the students linguistic knowledge, but also on general knowledge of the world and the extent to which that knowledge is activated during processing. The conclusion of all ESL/EFL investigations and the view of reading comprehension as an interactive process between the reader and the text lead to several implications for the teachers. If the unfamiliar content of a text has an effect on reading comprehension, then it must be considered as a criterion in the selection of reading materials and in the evaluation of reading comprehension. So, knowledge of reading strategies is of particular importance to teachers who have a responsibility towards presenting materials for reading instruction. According to learning reading strategies, our background knowledge about strategies and its pertinence to the text determines the ease or complexity of understanding that text. In other words, no matter how well a reader may know a language, he or she cannot read in that language with good comprehension if the subject matter or the content of the text is one he or she knows absolutely nothing about.The following suggestions are recommended towards reading comprehension proficiency in the classrooms: 1. The reading comprehension teaching method should be really new and interesting and texts should be taught from these reading comprehension new strategies. And also teachers need to design various types of reading strategies activities to improve their students understanding of these materials and motivate them in their activities. 2. Teachers should motivate their students in learning reading strategies and they should be sensitive to their students hidden comprehension problems which can be facilitated through reading strategies. 3. Teachers should help their students change their attitudes towards traditional reading approach and help them to learn new reading strategies in reading comprehension proficiency and need to assist their students to become independent and proficient readers through learning reading strategies about when, where, and how to use the reading strategies while reading the text . And also students should have enough time to exercise their understandings of the reading strategies. 4. Learning to read strategies are recommended for foreign language reading instruction, especially for learners in university settings might benefit from the collaborative comprehension strategy instruction with the help from both their peers and teachers. Thus, it is important for EFL English language teachers to know the longitudinal nature of comprehension strategy instruction, encouraging students to become strategic is a long term process with learning reading strategies. Readers effective use of reading strategies, particularly
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Volume 1 (1), December 2012; 78-95 ISSN: 2289-2737 Copyright IJLLALW, Norway some of the top-down strategies such as predicting and making inferences requires teachers thoughtful planning to help them conceptualize the nature of the reading process and raise their awareness of the necessity for a shift in reading behaviours. Improving readers strategic reading is not simply a matter of introducing them to a number of reading strategies. Developing mastery of the comprehension strategies involves teachers constant modelling and instant feedback for mastery of the comprehension strategies not only at the beginning but through the whole implementation of comprehension strategy instruction. Acknowledgement The researchers would like to thank Mr Abbas Pourhossein Gilakjani, Mrs sareh shaker haghighi for their extensive and insightful discussions and comments on the paper. References Adams, M. J. (1990). Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print. Cambridge, M A: MIT Press. Ahmadi, M. R., & Hairul, N. I. (2012). Reciprocal teaching as an important factor of improving reading comprehension. Journal of studies in education, 2(4),153-173. Ahmadi, M. R., & pourhossein, A. G. (2012). Reciprocal Teaching Strategies and Their Impacts on English Reading Comprehension. theory and Practice in language studies, 2(10), (pp. 2053-2060). Aebersold, J. A., & Field, M. L. (1997). From reader to reading teacher. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Alvermann, D., & Earle, J. (2003). Comprehension instruction. In A. P. Sweet, & C. Snow (Eds.), Rethinking reading comprehension (pp. 12-30). New York: Guilford. Anderson, N. J. (1991). Individual differences in strategy use in second language reading and testing. Modern Language Journal, 75, 460-472. Anderson, N. J. (2003). Meta-cognitive reading strategies increase L2 performance. Modern Language Journal, 27(7). Baker, L. (2002). Meta-cognition in comprehension instruction. In C. C. Block & M, Pressley. (Eds.), Comprehension Instruction: Research based best practices, 77-95, New York: Guilford. Ben-David, R. (2002). Enhancing comprehension through graphic organizers. Unpublished masters thesis, Kean University (ERIC Document Reproduction service No. ED461907). Blair-Larsen, S. M., & Vallance, K. M. (2004). Comprehension instruction in a balanced reading classroom. In S.M. Blair-Larsen & K. A. Williams (Eds.), The balanced reading program: Helping all students achieve success (pp.37-52). Newark, NJ: International Reading Association. Block, E. L. (1986). The comprehension strategies of second language readers. TESOL Quarterly, 20 (3), 63-490. Block, E. L. (1992). See how they read: Comprehension monitoring of L1 and L2 readers. TESOL Quarterly, 26, 319-343.
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Volume 1 (1), December 2012; 78-95 ISSN: 2289-2737 Copyright IJLLALW, Norway Dehnad, A. (2005). Graphic organizers as an effective study technique in an ESP class. In Kiani & Khayamdar (Eds.) Proceedings of the First National ESP/EAP Conference, vol. II, Tehran, SAMT Publication. Druitt, E. E. (2002). Investigating students achievement before and after a reading intervention program. Masters Abstracts International, 40 (06), 1341. (UMI No. 1409408). Dubin, F., & Bycina, D. (1991). Academic reading and the EFL/ESL teacher. In M. CelceMurcia(Eds.). Teaching English as a second or foreign language. Massachusetts: Heinle., & Heinle Publishers. Duffy, G. (2005). Meta-cognition and the development of reading teachers. In C. Block, S. K. Kinnucan-Welsch, & K. Bauserman (Eds.) (pp. 299-314). Metacognition and literacy learning. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Duke, N. (2003). Comprehension instruction for informational text. Presentation at the annual meeting of the Michigan Reading Association, Grand Rapids, MI. Erfani, S. M., Iranmehr, A., & Davari, H. (2010). Using task-based instruction as an alternative approach in ESP materials development in Iranian academic context. Proceedings of the first conference on new perspectives in ELT, linguistics and literature, Sanandaj: Iran. Eskey, D. E. (2002). Reading and the teaching of L2 reading. TESOL Journal, 11, 1, pp.5- 9. Eskey, D. E. (2005). Reading in a second language. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), and book on Second Language Learning and Teaching (pp. 563-579). Mahwah,NJ: Erlbaum. Farhady, H. (2005). Reflections on and directions for ESP materials development in SAMT, in Kiani & Khayamdar (Eds.) Proceedings of the First National ESP/EAP Conference,vol.3 , Tehran, SAMT Publication. Field, M. L. (1985). A psycholinguistic model of the Chinese ESL reader. In P. Larson, E. L. Judd, & D. S. Messerschmitt (Eds.), On TESOL84: A brave new world for TESOL (pp. 173-183). Washington, DC: TESOL. Golinkoff, R. M. (1975). A comparison of reading comprehension processes in good and poor comprehenders. Reading research quarterly, 11, 623659 Goodman, K. (1967). Reading: A psycholinguistic guessing game. Journal of the Reading Specialist, 6 (1), 126-135. Gough, P. B. (1972). One second of reading. In J. F. Kavanaugh & I.C. Maltingly (Eds.), Language by ear and eye (pp. 331-358). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Grabe, W. (1991). Current developments in second language reading research. TESOL Quarterly, 25 (3), 375406. Grabe, W. (2004). Research on teaching reading. Annual Review of applied Linguistics, 24, 4469. Grabe, W., & Stoller, F. L. (2002). Teaching and researching reading. New York: Pearson Education. Grellet. F. (1986). Developing reading skills. NY: Cambridge University Press. Gu, P. Y. (1994). Vocabulary learning strategies of good and poor Chinese EFL learners. Paper presented at the 28th TESOL Convention, Baltimore MD. [ERIC ED 370 411]
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Volume 1 (1), December 2012; 78-95 ISSN: 2289-2737 Copyright IJLLALW, Norway Guthrie, J. T., Wigfield, A., Barbosa, P., Perencevich, K. C., Taboada, A., Davis, M. H., et al. (2004). Increasing reading comprehension and engagement through concept-oriented reading instruction. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96, 403-423. Hafiz, F.M., & Tudor, Ian. (1989). Extensive reading and the development of language skills. ELT Journal, 43 (1), 4-13. Harmer, J. (2007). How to teach English. Essex, England: Pearson Education Limited. Hedge, T. (2003). Teaching & learning in the language classroom. UK: OUP. Janzen, J., & Stoller, F. L. (1998). Integrating strategic reading in L2 instruction. Reading in a foreign language,12 (1), 251-268. Jimenez, R. T., Garcia, G. E., & Pearson, D. P. (1996). The reading strategies of bilingual Latino students who are successful English readers: Opportunities and obstacles. Reading Research Quarterly, 31 (1), 90112. Kern, R. (1989). Second language reading strategy instruction: its effects on comprehension and word inference ability, Modern Language Journal, 73, 135-149. Kirsch, I., de Jong, J., LaFontaine, D., McQueen, J., Mendelovits, J., & Monseur, C. (2002). Reading for change: Performance and engagement across countries. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Kletzien, S. B. (1991). Strategy use by good and poor comprehenders reading expository text of differing levels. Reading Research Quarterly, 26 (1), 67-86. Koda, K. (2004). Insights into second language reading: A cross-linguistic approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kristin, L. Leah, D., & Soro, M. (2009). Teaching reading to English language learners. The Guilford Press. Learning Point Associates, (2004). A closer look at the five essential components of effective reading instruction: A review of scientifically based reading research for teachers. Retriewed on December 13, 2007 from http://www.learningpt.org Martin Chang, S. Y., & Gould, O. N. (2008). Revisiting print exposure: Exploring differential links to vocabulary, comprehension and reading rate. Journal of Research in Reading, 31, 273284. Mcnamara, D. S. (2007). Reading comprehension strategies : Theories Interactions, and Technologies. Lawrence Erlblaum Associates, 6. Meissner , J., & Yun, T. C. (2008). Verbal solution guide. Manhattan: Manhattan Review. Mokhtari, K., & Reichard, C. (2002). Assessing students metacognitive awareness of reading strategies. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94 (2), 249259. National, R. P. (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. Washington, D.C., U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. O'Malley, J. M., Chamot, A. U., Stewner-Manzanares, G., Kupper, L. J., & Russo, R. P. (1985). Learning strategies used by beginning and intermediate ESL students. Language Learning, 35(1): 21-46.
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Volume 1 (1), December 2012; 78-95 ISSN: 2289-2737 Copyright IJLLALW, Norway Tolstefl, J. (2007). Miscue analysis in reading a second language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Trabasso, T., & Bouchard, E. (2002). Teaching readers how to comprehend text strategically. In C. C. Block & M. Pressley (Eds.), Comprehension instruction: Research-based best practices (176 -202). New York: Guilford. VanDen B. P., & Kremer, K. E. (2000). The mind in action: What it means to comprehend during reading. In B. M. Taylor, M. F. Graves, & P. VanDen Broek (Eds.), Reading for meaning: Fostering comprehension in the middle grades (pp. 1-31). New York: Teachers College Press. Wenden, A., & Rubin, J. (Eds.). (1987). Learner strategies in language learning. London, UK: Prentice Hall.

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