MATHEMATICS

INTRODUCTION
Mathematics is the basic language of science and technology. It is an exact language that has a vocabulary and meaning for every term. Since math follows definite rules and behaves in the same way every time, scientists and engineers use it as their basic tool. Long before any metal is cut for a new aircraft design, there are literally millions of mathematical computations made. Aviation maintenance technicians perform their duties with the aid of many different tools. Like the wrench or screwdriver, mathematics is an essential tool in the repair and fabrication of replacement parts. With this in mind, you can see why you must be able to use this important tool.

ARITHMETIC
Just as studying a new language begins with learning basic words, the study of mathematics begins with arithmetic, its most basic branch. Arithmetic uses real, non-negative numbers, which are also known as counting numbers, and consists of only four operations, addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. While you have been using arithmetic since childhood, a review of its terms and operations will make learning the more difficult mathematical concepts much easier. To build a binary number system that corresponds to the decimal system, begin with one switch. When this switch is in the OFF position, a zero is indicated. When it is in the ON position, a one is represented. Because these are the only possibilities for a single switch, additional switches must be added to represent larger quantities. For example, a second switch represents the quantity 2. When the first switch is OFF and the second switch is ON, the quantity 2 is indicated. When both the first and second switch are ON, the 1 and 2 are added to indicate the quantity 3. This procedure of adding switches continues with each switch value doubling as you progress. For example, the first 10 values in the binary system are 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, and 512. [Figure 1-1]

NUMBER SYSTEMS
Numbers are a large part of everyone's life, and you are constantly bombarded with figures. Yet little attention is paid to the basic structure of the numbering system. In daily life, most people typically use a "base ten" or decimal system. However, another numbering system that is used in computer calculations is the binary, or "base two" system. THE DECIMAL SYSTEM The decimal system is based on ten whole numbers, often called integers, from zero to nine. Above the number nine the digits are reused in various combinations to represent larger numbers. This is accomplished by arranging the numbers in columns based on a multiple of ten. With the addition of a negative (-) sign, numbers smaller than zero are indicated. To describe quantities that fall between whole numbers, fractions are used. Common fractions are used when the space between two integers is divided into equal segments such as fourths. When the space between integers is divided into ten segments, decimal fractions are typically used. THE BINARY SYSTEM Because the only real option in an electrical circuit is ON or OFF, a number system based on only two digits is used to create electronic calculations. The base two, or binary system, only utilizes the digits zero and one. For example, when a circuit is ON a one is represented, and when a circuit is OFF a zero is indicated. By converting these ON or OFF messages to represent numbers found in the decimal system, a computer can perform complex tasks.

WHOLE NUMBERS
While integers are useful in communicating a given quantity, you must be able to manipulate them to discover their full power. There are four fundamental mathematical operations with which you must be familiar. They are addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. ADDITION The process of finding the total of two or more numbers is called addition. This operation is indicated by the plus (+) symbol. When numbers are combined by addition, the resulting total is called the sum. When adding whole numbers whose total is more than nine, it is necessary to arrange the numbers in columns so that the last digit of each number is in the same column. The ones column contains the values zero through nine, the tens column contains multiples often, up to ninety, and the hundreds column consists of multiples of one hundred. Example:

Mathematics

1-3

Multiplication is a special form of repetitive addition. When a given number is added to itself a specified number of times, the process is called multiplication. The sum of 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 = 20 is expressed by multiplication as 4 x 5 = 20. The numbers 4 and 5 are called factors and the answer, 20, represents the product. The number multiplied (4) is called the multiplicand, and the multiplier represents the number of times the multiplicand is added to itself. Multiplication is typically indicated by an (X),(.), or in certain equations, by the lack of any other operation sign. One important fact to remember when multiplying is that the order in which numbers are multiplied does not change the product.
Figure 1-1. This binary conversion chart illustrates how a decimal number is converted to a binary number. For example, the binary equivalent to 48 is 110000.

Example:

To check addition problems, add the figures again in the same manner, or in reverse order from bottom to top. It makes no difference in what sequence the numbers are combined. SUBTRACTION The process of finding the difference between two numbers is known as subtraction and is indicated by the minus (-) sign. Subtraction is accomplished by taking the quantity of one number away from another number. The number which is subtracted is known as the subtrahend, and the number from which the quantity is taken is known as the minuend. To find the difference of two numbers, arrange them in the same manner used for addition. With the minuend on top and the subtrahend on the bottom, align the vertical columns so the last digits are in the same column. Beginning at the right, subtract the subtrahend from the minuend. Repeat this for each column.

Like addition and subtraction, when multiplying large numbers it is important they be aligned vertically. Regardless of the number of digits in the multiplicand or the multiplier, the multiplicand should be written on top, and the multiplier beneath it. When multiplying numbers greater than nine, multiply each digit in the multiplicand by each digit in the multiplier. Once all multiplicands are used as a multiplier, the products of each multiplication operation are added to arrive at a total product. Example:
532 X 24 2128 1064 12,768

Multiplicand

Multiplier First partial product Second partial product DIVISION Just as subtraction is the reverse of addition, division is the reverse of multiplication. Division is a means of finding out how many times a number is contained in another number. The number divided is called the dividend, the number you are dividing by is the divisor, and the result is the quotient. With some division problems, the quotient may include a remainder, A remainder represents that portion of the dividend that cannot be divided by the divisor.

To check a subtraction problem, you may add the difference to the subtrahend to find the minuend.

1-4

Mathematic s

Division is indicated by the use of the division sign O) with the dividend to the left and the divisor to the right of the sign, or a ) with the divi dend inside the sign and the divisor to the left. Division also is indicated in fractional form. For example, in the fraction 3/4, the 3 is the dividend and the 4 is the divisor. When division is carried out, the quotient is .75. The process of dividing large quantities is performed by breaking the problem down into a series of operations, each resulting in a single digit quotient. This is best illustrated by example.

Figure 1-2. When creating a number line, negative values are identified with a minus sign (-), and positive values are identified by the plus (+) sign or by the absence of a sign.

SUBTRACTING SIGNED NUMBERS When subtracting numbers with different signs, change the operation sign to plus and change the sign of the subtrahend. Once this is done, proceed as you do in addition. For example, +3 - -4 is the same as +3 + +4. It makes no difference if the subtrahend is larger than the minuend, since the operation is done as though the two quantities are added. Example: Subtract 48 from -216. Step 1: Set up the subtraction problem. -216 - 48 Step 2: Change the operation sign to a plus sign and change the sign of the subtrahend. Now add. -216 + -48 = -264 MULTIPLYING SIGNED NUMBERS Multiplication of signed numbers is accomplished in the same manner as multiplication of any other number. However, after multiplying, the product must be given a sign. There are three rules to follow when determining a product's sign. 1. The product of two positive numbers is always positive. 2. The product of two negative numbers is always positive. 3. The product of a positive and a negative number is always negative.

To check a division problem for accuracy, multiply the quotient by the divisor and add the remainder (if any). If the operation is carried out properly, the result equals the dividend.

SIGNED NUMBERS
If zero is used as a starting point, all numbers larger than zero have a positive value, and those smaller than zero have a negative value. This is illustrated by constructing a number line. [Figure 1-2]. ADDING SIGNED NUMBERS When adding two or more numbers with the same sign, ignore the sign and find the sum of the values and then place the common sign in front of the answer. In other words, adding two or more positive numbers always results in a positive sum, whereas adding two or more negative numbers results in a negative sum. When adding a positive and negative number, find the difference between the two numbers and apply the sign (+ or -) of the larger number. In other words, adding a negative number is the same as subtracting a positive number. The result of adding or subtracting signed numbers is called the algebraic sum of those numbers.

Mathematics

7-5

DIVIDING SIGNED NUMBERS Like multiplying signed numbers, division of signed numbers is accomplished in the same manner as dividing any other number. The sign of the quotient is determined using rules identical to those used in multiplication. 1. 2. 3. The quotient of two positive numbers is always positive. The quotient of two negative numbers is always positive. The quotient of a positive and a negative number is always negative.

A fraction's value also remains the same if both the numerator and denominator are divided by the same number. This type of operation allows you to simplify, or reduce, large fractions to their smallest terms. Example:

REDUCING FRACTIONS

COMMON FRACTIONS
A common fraction represents a portion or part of a quantity. For example, if a number is divided into three equal parts, each part is one-third (V 3) of the number. A fraction consists of two numbers, one above and one below a line, or fraction bar. The fraction bar indicates division of the top number, or numerator, by the bottom number, or denominator. For example, the fraction 3/4 indicates that three is divided by four to find the decimal equivalent of .75. When a fraction's numerator is smaller than the denominator, the fraction is called a proper fraction. A proper fraction is always less than 1. If the numerator is larger than the denominator, the fraction is called an improper fraction. In this situation the fraction is greater than 1. If the numerator and denominator are identical, the fraction is equal to 1. A mixed number is the combination of a whole number and a proper fraction. Mixed numbers are expressed as 1 5/8 and 29 9/16 and are typically used in place of improper fractions. The numerator and denominator of a fraction can be changed without changing the fraction's value. One way this is done is by multiplying the numerator and denominator by the same number. Example:

It is generally considered good practice to reduce fractions to their lowest terms. The simplest reductions occur when the denominator is divisible by the numerator. If the denominator is not evenly divided by the numerator, you must find a number by which the numerator and denominator are divided evenly. Here are a few tips to help in the selection of divisors: 1. If both numbers are even, divide by 2. 2. If both numbers end in 0 or 5, divide by 5. 3. If both numbers end in 0, divide by 10. Example: Reduce 15/45 to its lowest terms. Step 1: Divide both the numerator and denominator by 5.

When neither the numerator or denominator can be divided evenly, the fraction is reduced to its lowest terms.
LEAST COMMON DENOMINATOR

You cannot add or subtract common fractions without first converting all of the denominators into identical units, This process is known as finding the least common denominator (LCD). For example, the quickest way to find the least common denominator for V3 and V2 is to multiply the two denominators (3x2 = 6). To

7-6

Mathematic s

determine the numerators, multiply the numerator by the same number used to obtain the LCD. Example:

MIXED NUMBERS
Mixed numbers contain both whole numbers and proper fractions. Before adding or subtracting mixed numbers, you must convert them to improper fractions. To convert a mixed number to an improper fraction, multiply the whole number by the denominator and add the product to the numerator. The sum of these two numbers becomes the numerator.

ADDING COMMON FRACTIONS As mentioned earlier, you cannot add common fractions without first determining the least common denominator. However, once this is done, you only need to add the numerators to arrive at a sum. This answer is then reduced to its lowest terms. ADDING MIXED NUMBERS Step 1: Rewrite using the least common denominator.
14 + 12 4 12 12

When adding mixed numbers, either to other mixed numbers or to proper fractions, you must convert the mixed numbers to improper fractions. Once accomplished, determine the least common denominator and add in the same manner as with proper fractions. When adding improper fractions, the sum is usually another improper fraction. When faced with an improper fraction in an answer, you should convert it to a mixed number. To do this, divide the numerator by the denominator to determine the whole number. If there is a remainder, leave it in fractional form. Example: Add the following: 2^3
+ 3

Step 2: Add the numerators and reduce to lowest terms, if possible.

SUBTRACTING COMMON FRACTIONS Subtracting fractions also requires an LCD to be determined. Once this is accomplished, subtract the numerators, express the difference over the LCD, and reduce the answer to its lowest terms. Example: Subtract 2/8 from V3 Step 1: Rewrite using the least common denominator.

4+

5^

Step 1: Convert each to an improper fraction.

Mathematics

1-7

Step 3; Convert the improper fraction to a mixed number.

Step 2: Reduce to lowest terms.

SUBTRACTING MIXED NUMBERS To subtract a mixed number from another mixed number or proper fraction, begin by converting the mixed number to an improper fraction. Once converted, find the LCD and perform the subtraction. To complete the problem, convert the resulting improper fraction into a mixed number.

SIMPLIFY FRACTIONS FOR MULTIPLICATION

It was mentioned earlier that the value of a fraction does not change when you perform the same operation (multiplication or division) on both the numerator and denominator. You can use this principle to simplify the multiplication of fractions. For example, 8/32 x 5/8 X 4/ie is equivalent to
8x5x4

32 x 8 x 16 Notice that there is an 8 in the numerator and denominator. Since these are equivalent values, they can be removed from the equation. Furthermore, the 16 in the denominator is divisible by the 4 in the numerator. Therefore, when both are divided by 4, the 4 in the numerator reduces to 1 and the 16 reduces to 4. Example: Step 3: Convert to a mixed number. Simplify by cancellation, then multiply:

MULTIPLYING FRACTIONS
Multiplication of fractions is performed by multiplying the numerators of each fraction to form the product numerator, and multiplying the individual denominators to form the product denominator. The resulting fraction is then reduced to its lowest terms. Example: Multiply the following: 8/32 x 5/8 x 4/16 Step 1: Multiply the numerators and the denominators.

1-8

Mathematics

DIVIDING FRACTIONS
Division of common fractions is accomplished by inverting, or turning over, the divisor and then multiplying. However, it is important that you invert the divisor only and not the dividend. Once the divisor is inverted, multiply the numerators to obtain a new numerator, multiply the denominators to obtain a new denominator, and reduce the quotient to its lowest terms. Example: Divide 2/3 by V4. Step 1: Invert the divisor and multiply.

ADDING DECIMALS The addition of decimals is done in the same manner as the addition of whole numbers. However, care must be taken to correctly align the decimal points vertically. Example: Add the following: 25.78 + 5.4 + 0.237 Step 1: Rewrite with the decimal points aligned, and add. 25.78 5.4 + 0.237 31.417 Once everything is added, the decimal point in the answer is placed directly below the other decimal points. SUBTRACTING DECIMALS

DECIMALS
Working with fractions is typically time consuming and complex. One way you can eliminate fractions in complex equations is by replacing them with decimal fractions or decimals. A common fraction is converted to a decimal fraction by dividing the numerator by the denominator. For example, 3/4 is converted to a decimal by dividing the 3 by the 4. The decimal equivalent of 3/4 is .75. Improper fractions are converted to decimals in the same manner. However, whole numbers appear to the left of the decimal point. In a decimal, each digit represents a multiple of ten. The first digit represents tenths, the second hundredths, the third thousandths. Example: .5 .05 .005 is read as five tenths is read as five hundredths is read as five thousandths

Like adding, subtracting decimals is done in the same manner as with whole numbers. Again, it is important that you keep the decimal points aligned. Example: If you have 325.25 pounds of ballast on board and remove 30.75 pounds, how much ballast remains?
325.25 - 30.75 294.50

MULTIPLYING DECIMALS When multiplying decimals, ignore the decimal points and multiply the resulting whole numbers. Once the product is calculated, count the number of digits to the right of the decimal point in both the multiplier and multiplicand. This number represents the number of places from the left the decimal point is placed in the product. Example: 26.757 X .32 53514 80271 856224 8.56224 3 decimal places 2 decimal places

When writing decimals, the number of zeros to the right of the decimal does not affect the value as long as no other number except zero appears. In other words, numerically, 2.5, 2.50, and 2.5000 are the same.

Count 5 decimal places to

the left of the 4

Mathematic s

1-9

DIVIDING DECIMALS When dividing decimals, the operation is carried out in the same manner as division of whole numbers. However, to ensure accurate placement of the decimal point in the quotient, two rules apply: 1. When the divisor is a whole number, the dec imal point in the quotient aligns vertically with the decimal in the dividend when doing long division. 2. When the divisor is a decimal fraction, it should first be converted to a whole number by moving the decimal point to the right. However, when the decimal in the divisor is moved, the decimal in the dividend must also move in the same direction and the same num ber of spaces. Example: Divide 37.26 by 2.7 Step 1: Move the decimal in the divisor to the right to convert it to a whole number.

convert a decimal number into a fraction. For example, .125 is read as 125 thousandths, which is written as 125/1000. This fraction is then reduced to its lowest terms. Example: Convert 0.625 into a common fraction. Step 1: Rewrite as a fraction.

ROUNDING DECIMALS Because decimal numbers can often be carried out an unreasonable number of places, they are usually limited to a workable size. This process of retaining a certain number of digits and discarding the rest is known as rounding. In other words, the retained number is an approximation of the computed number. Rounding is accomplished by viewing the digit immediately to the right of the last retained digit. If this number is 5 or greater, increase the last retained digit to the next highest value. When the number to the right of the last retained digit is less than 5, leave the last retained digit unchanged. For example, when rounding 3.167 to 2 decimal places, the 7 determines what is done to the 6, which is the last retained digit. Since 7 is greater than 5, the rounded number is 3.17.

Step 2: Move the decimal in the dividend the same number of places to the right.

PERCENTAGE
Percentages are special fractions whose denominator is 100. The decimal fraction 0.33 is the same as 33 /100 and is equivalent to 33 percent or 33%. You can convert common fractions to percentages by first converting them to decimal fractions, and then multiplying by 100. For example, 5/8 expressed as a decimal is 0.625, and is converted to a percentage by moving the decimal right two places, becoming 62.5%. To find the percentage of a number, multiply the number by the decimal equivalent of the percentage. For example, to find 10% of 200, begin by converting 10% to its decimal equivalent which is .10. Now multiply 200 by .10 to arrive at a value of 20.

CONVERTING DECIMALS TO FRACTIONS

Although decimals are typically easier to work with, there are times when the use of a fraction is more practical. For example, when measuring something, most scales are in fractional increments. For this reason it is important that you know how to

1-10

Mathematic s

If you want to find the percentage one number is of another, you must divide the first number by the second and multiply the quotient by 100. For instance, let's say an engine develops 85 horsepower of a possible 125 horsepower. What percentage of the total power available is developed? To solve this, divide 85 by 125 and multiply the quotient by 100. Example: 85 -r 125 = .68 x 100 = 68% power is developed. Another way percentages are used is to determine a number when only a portion of the number is known. For example, if 4,180 rpm is 38% of the maximum speed, what is the maximum speed? To determine this, you must divide the known quantity, 4,180 rpm, by the decimal equivalent of the percentage. Example: 4,180 -r .38 = 11,000 rpm maximum A common mistake made on this type of problem is multiplying by the percentage instead of dividing. One way to avoid making this error is to look at the problem and determine what exactly is being asked. In the problem above, if 4,180 rpm is 38% of the maximum, then the maximum rpm must be greater than 4,180. The only way to get an answer that meets this criterion is to divide by .38.

of teeth is opposite the ratio of revolutions. In other words, since the drive gear has one third as many teeth as the driven gear, the drive gear must complete three revolutions to turn the driven gear one revolution. This results in a revolution ratio of 3:1, which is opposite the ratio of teeth. A proportion is a statement of equality between two or more ratios and represents a convenient way to solve problems involving ratios. For example, if an engine has a reduction gear ratio between the crankshaft and the propeller of 3:2, and the engine is turning 2,700 rpm, what is the speed of the propeller? In this problem, let "x" represent the unknown value, which in this case is the speed of the propeller. Next, set up a proportional statement using the fractional form, 3/2 = 2700/x. To solve this equation, cross multiply to arrive at the equation 3x = 2 x 2,700, or 5,400. To solve for (x), divide 5,400 by 3. The speed of the propeller is 1,800 rpm. _3_ _ Engine Speed 2 Propeller Speed

A_
2

270Q

3x = 5,400 x = 1,800 rpm This same proportion may also be expressed as 3:2 = 2,700 : x. The first and last terms of the proportion are called the extremes, and the second and third terms are called the means. In any proportion, the product of the extremes is equal to the product of the means. In this example, multiply the extremes to get 3x, and multiply the means to get 2 x 2,700, or 5,400. This results in the identical equation derived earlier; 3x = 5,400. 3:2 = engine speed : propeller speed 3:2 - 2,700 : x 3x = 2 : 2,700 3x = 5,400 x = 1,800 rpm

RATIO AND PROPORTION

A ratio provides a means of comparing one number to another. For example, if an engine turns at 4,000 rpm and the propeller turns at 2,400 rpm, the ratio of the two speeds is 4,000 to 2,400, or 5 to 3, when reduced to lowest terms. This relationship can also be expressed as 5/3 or 5:3. The use of ratios is common in aviation. One ratio you must be familiar with is compression ratio, which is the ratio of cylinder displacement when the piston is at bottom center to the cylinder displacement when the piston is at top center. For example, if the volume of a cylinder with the piston at bottom center is 96 cubic inches and the volume with the piston at top center is 12 cubic inches, the compression ratio is 96:12 or 8:1 when simplified. Another typical ratio is that of different gear sizes. For example, the gear ratio of a drive gear with 15 teeth to a driven gear with 45 teeth is 15:45 or 1:3 when reduced. This means that for every one tooth on the drive gear there are three teeth on the driven gear. However, when working with gears, the ratio

POWERS AND ROOTS

When a number is multiplied by itself, it is said to be raised to a given power. For example, 6x6 = 36; therefore, 62 = 36. The number of times a base number is multiplied by itself is expressed as an exponent and

Mathematics

1-11

is written to the right and slightly above the base number. A positive exponent indicates how many times a number is multiplied by itself. Example: 32 is read "3 squared" or "3 to the second power." Its value is found by multiplying 3 by itself. 3 X 3 =9 23 is read "2 cubed" or "2 to the third power." Its value is found by multiplying 2 by itself 3 times.
2 X 2 X 2 = 8

manipulation and decrease the possibility for error, scientific notation is used. Scientific notation is based on multiplying a number by a power of ten. Therefore, you must understand how to use exponents. [Figure 1-3]

A negative exponent implies division or fraction of a number. It indicates the inverse, or reciprocal of the number with its exponent made positive. Example: 23 is read "2 to the negative third power." The inverse, or reciprocal of 2~3 with its exponent made positive is

Figure 1-3. This table illustrates a portion of both the positive and negative powers of ten.

When using scientific notation, multiply the number you want to change by a power of ten equal to the number of places you want to move the decimal point. The net result does not change the value of the number, only the way it is written. Example: 2,540,000 = 2.54 x 106 As you can see, the decimal point was moved six places; therefore, the resulting number must be multiplied by a power of ten equal to 1,000,000, which is 106. If the number you are working with is smaller than 1, and you want to move the decimal point to get a number between 1 and 10, count the number of places you want to move the decimal point and multiply the number by a power of ten. For example, 0.000004 is equal to 4.0 x 106. Since the decimal point was moved 6 places to the right, you must multiply the number by 0.000001, which is 10'6. 0.000004 = 4.0 x 10"6 MULTIPLYING BY SCIENTIFIC NOTATION Multiplication of very large or very small numbers is often made easier when using scientific notation. To begin, convert each of the numbers being multiplied to scientific notation. Once this is done, the product is found by multiplying the numbers and finding the algebraic sum of the exponents.

23 ~ 2 X 2 X 2

" 8

Any number, except zero, that is raised to the zero power equals 1. When a number is written without an exponent, the value of the exponent is assumed to be 1. Furthermore, if the exponent does not have a sign (+ or -) preceding it, the exponent is assumed to be positive. The root of a number is that value which, when multiplied by itself a certain number of times, produces that number. For example, 4 is a root of 16 because when multiplied by itself, the product is 16. However, 4 is also a root of 64 because 4 x 4 x 4 = 64. The symbol used to indicate a root is the radical sign (V) placed over the number. If only the radical sign appears over a number, it indicates you are to extract the square root of the number under the sign. The square root of a number is the root of that number, when multiplied by itself, equals that number. When asked to extract a root other than a square root, an index number is placed outside the radical sign. For example, the cube root of 64 is expressed as

SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
Many engineering and scientific calculations involve very large or very small numbers. To ease

1-12

Mathematic s

Example: Multiply 0.275 x 30,000.0 using scientific notation. Step 1: Convert to scientific notation. 0.275 = 2.75 X 101 30,000 = 3.0 x 10
4

mally would, and find the power of ten by subtracting the exponents. Example: Divide 5,280 by 0.25 using scientific notation. Step 1: Convert to scientific notation. 5,280 = 5.28 X 103 0.25 = 2.5 X 101

Step 2: Multiply the numbers and add the exponents. (2.75 x 101) X (3.0 x 104) = 8.25 x 103 DIVISION BY SCIENTIFIC NOTATION Division using scientific notation is performed in a manner similar to multiplication. Begin by converting the numbers to their scientific notation equivalents. Perform the division operation as you nor-

Step 2: Divide the numbers and subtract the exponents. (5.28 X 103) -r ( 2.5 X 10"1) = 2.112 X 104 Remember, when multiplying or dividing using scientific notation, you must calculate the algebraic sum of the exponents. Pay attention to the signs of the exponents, and observe the rules for adding and subtracting signed numbers.

ALGEBRA
Algebra is a form of arithmetic that uses letters or symbols to represent numbers in equations and formulas. For example, if an airplane cruises at 200 knots, how long will it take to fly 600 nautical miles? To solve this problem, an equation is set up with the unknown variable of time represented by the letter "T." The equation is 200 kts. x T = 600 n.m. Through algebra, you calculate the time (T) required of 3 hours. While some forms of algebra are extremely complex, others are fairly simple and straightforward. This section introduces you to the basic algebra you need to know to perform your duties as an aviation maintenance technician. Example:

This same principle also is used to simplify fractions and cancel out units such as gallons, miles, or foot-pounds. For example, in the given equation

EQUATIONS
One way to express a math problem is to write it out in words. For example, "What is 24 divided by 3?" This is written in an algebraic sentence in the form 24 -r 3 = x. In this example, "x" represents the unknown quantity, or variable, you are solving for. The expression 24 ~ 3 = x is called an equation. The purpose of the equation is to identify two equal quantities. Typically, once you get a math problem set up in an equation, the problem is fairly easy to solve. For example, if asked to determine what quantity, when added to 23, results in 48, your first step should be to set up an equation. The equation used to solve this problem is 23 + x = 48. To find the value of "x," subtract 23 from both sides of the equation. The equation now reads x = 48 - 23. Once simplified, the equation reads x = 25.

Since "Hour" is in each element, it cancels. Furthermore, since the 60 in the numerator is divisible by the 2 in the denominator, both fig ures reduce. Once complete, you are left with the formula

which is equivalent to x = 30 miles.

In another example, determine the number of revolutions a gear completes in 30 seconds when the gear turns at 100 revolutions per minute (rpm). Example: Step 1: Convert the word problem to an equation.

ALGEBRAIC RULES
There are some basic rules you must use to simplify and solve algebraic equations. First, consider fractions. As discussed earlier, when working with fractions, the numerator and denominator can be changed without changing the fraction's value as long as you do the same operation to both. This is often useful in reducing or combining fractions. For example, to reduce 18/45 to its lowest terms, divide both the numerator and denominator by 9.

Therefore, x =

7-74

Mathematic s

It is important to keep all labels in an equation. If this is not done, it may be difficult to determine the appropriate label for the answer. Another important rule you must follow when solving algebraic equations is to never perform an operation to one side of an equation without performing the identical operation to the other side. In other words, you can add, subtract, multiply, or divide on one side of an equation as long as you do the same thing to the other side. For example, when solving the equation x + 16 = 30, 16 is subtracted from both sides of the equation. Example: x + 16 = 30 Subtract 16 from both sides to solve for x. x+ 16 - 16 - = 30 - 16 x = 14

equation and the label gallons cancels out on the left. Do the multiplication to solve for x. 30 miles X 17.9 = x miles 537 = x miles The car's range is 537 miles.

USE OF PARENTHESES
In algebra, parentheses indicate an operation that must be carried out before any other operation. For example, in the expression 10 x (8 + 7), the 8 and 7 must be added first. When using parentheses, the absence of an operation sign between a number and a parenthetical statement indicates multiplication. For example, 8(3-2) is the same as 8 x (3 - 2). Furthermore, if a negative sign (-) precedes the parentheses, it is the same as multiplying -1 by each of the quantities within the parentheses. Example:
-(6 + 4 - 8) = -2 or -6 - 4 + 8 = -2

SOLVING FOR A VARIABLE

Most of the algebra you do in everyday life requires you to solve for a variable. For example, suppose you want to determine your car's gas mileage. You filled the gas tank and drove 270 miles, then added 9 gallons to the tank. How many miles per gallon did the car get? To begin, build an equation and let "x" = miles per gallon. When solving complex equations, the only way you can arrive at the correct answer is if you follow the correct order of operations. For example, when solving the equation 4 x 3 + 2 x 5 , it is possible to arrive at several different answers by doing the math operations in different orders. You could, for example, multiply before you add, add before you multiply, or work the equation from left to right. However, only one of these results in the correct answer. The proper order for performing mathematical operations is as follows. 1. 2. 3. 4. Parentheses: Operations contained in paren theses are always done first. Exponents: Once all operations within parenthe ses are complete, exponent operations are done. Multiplication and Division: The operations of multiplication and division are performed from left to right after exponents. Addition and Subtraction: Once the opera tions of multiplication and division are done, you may add and subtract from left to right.

Now, suppose you are planning a trip and want to know how far you can drive without stopping for gas. Your owner's manual says the car has a fuel capacity of 17.9 gallons. Using the same formula used to calculate miles per gallon, the problem reads

A memory aid used to remember the proper order of operations is the mnemonic "Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally." The 17.9 gallons cancels out on the right side of the

Mathematics

7-75 If you perform mathematical operations in the proper order, calculations typically go smoother and you obtain the right answer. The importance of proper order becomes clear when you begin performing more complex equations.

Apply the correct order of operations to solving this equation.

2 x = (12 + 6) (2) + 9 (14)

Vl6

Do the operations in parentheses contained in the numerator.

x = (18) (4) + 9 (14) V16 Now

COMPLEX EQUATIONS
The algebraic rules presented in this section are not only useful for answering test questions, they also allow you to use the complex formulas frequently found in the study of electricity and weight and balance computations. Work the following equation. x = V2.2462 + (.75 - 1.22)2 Perform the calculations in parentheses first. x = V2.2462 + (- .47)2 Exponent work is done next. x = V5.0445 + .2209 Add the

multiply from left to right. 72 + 126 Vl6 Add the terms in the numerator. 198 Vl6 Calculate the square root in the denominator. 198 Reduce the fraction to a decimal number. 198
4 = 49.5

elements within the square root sign. x = V5.2654 Extract the root.

Notice that you now have a fraction, and that you did not do the division for the fraction after multiplication. When an equation is presented in the form of a fraction, complete all operations in the numerator and denominator before you reduce the fraction. The same is true for operations within a square root sign. Do the operations within the square root sign in the proper order before extracting the root.

While it may seem complex, a problem of this type is fairly simple to solve when you observe the basic rules of signed numbers and follow the proper order of operations.

GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY

Geometry is the measurement of dimensions, areas, and volumes of geometric shapes, and is quite useful in aviation maintenance. In fact, it is geometry that allows you to calculate the displacement of a cylinder, determine the volume of a fuel tank, and calculate the surface area of a wing. On the other hand, trigonometry allows you to determine unknown lengths and angles of a triangle. In addition to aiding you when fabricating sheet metal, trigonometry plays a large part in the theory of alternating current.

THE SQUARE A square is a symmetrical plane in which all four sides are of equal length. The same formula used for a rectangle is used to find the area of a square. However, since all sides of a square are of equal length, the formula is sometimes expressed as the square of the sides or: A = S2 THE TRIANGLE The triangle is a three-sided figure consisting of three angles whose combined measurement equals 180 degrees. Three basic types of triangles you should be familiar with are: the scalene triangle, which consists of three unequal angles and sides, the equilateral triangle, which has equal sides and equal angles, and the isosceles triangle, which has two equal angles. Triangles are further classified by the measurement of one angle. For example, a right triangle is one that has one angle measuring 90 degrees. In an obtuse triangle, one angle is greater than 90 degrees, while in an acute triangle all angles are less than 90 degrees. There are several terms associated with triangles. For instance, the base of a triangle is the side the triangle rests or stands on. Depending on a triangle's orientation, any side may be the base. The vertex is a common endpoint, or the point where the sides of the triangle meet. The altitude of a triangle is the height of the vertex above the base.

COMPUTING AREA
The area of a surface is two dimensional and is expressed in square units. An area that is square and measures one inch on each side is called a square inch. This same relationship holds true for other units of measure such as square feet, square yards, square miles, and square meters. The area of a figure is equal to the number of square units the figure contains.

THE RECTANGLE As you know, a rectangle is a four-sided plane. It is distinguished by having opposite sides of equal length, and four angles each equal to 90 degrees. The area (A) of a rectangle is found by multiplying its length (L) by its width (W), or A = L x W. However, before the mathematical operation can be carried out, both measurements must reflect the same unit of measure. For example, given a sheet of aluminum that is 48 inches wide by 12 feet long, you must convert either the width to feet or the length to inches. By converting the width of 48 inches to feet, the area of the sheet of aluminum is calculated to be 48 square feet (12 ft. x 4 ft. = 48 sq. ft.). If you later find that you need the area in square inches rather than square feet, multiply 48 square feet by 144 which is the number of square inches in a square foot. The result is 6,912 square inches.

Mathematics

1-17

Figure 1-4. The shaded portion of each rectangle is equal in area to the triangle that is not shaded. The area of a triangle is calculated with the formula A = V2 bh.

If a triangle is set in a rectangle and the triangle's base and height are equal to two of the rectangle's sides, the area of the triangle is exactly one-half that of the rectangle. Therefore, the formula for calculating the area of a triangle is one-half the base times the height, or V2 bh. [Figure 1-4] Find the area of a triangle whose base is 6 inches and height is 15 inches. Step 1: Insert given values into the formula. A = -6X15 Step 2: Perform multiplication. A = 45 square inches

THE PARALLELOGRAM The parallelogram, like the rectangle, has opposite sides that are parallel and equal in length. However, the corner angles of a parallelogram are some measurement other than 90 degrees. The area of a parallelogram is calculated by multiplying the length by the height (A = 1 x h). The height is measured perpendicular to the length, similar to the way the altitude of a triangle is determined.

1-18

Mathematics

THE TRAPEZOID A trapezoid is a four-sided figure that has one set of parallel sides. If you lay two trapezoids side by side so the top and bottom sides form straight lines, a parallelogram is formed with a base that is equal to the combined length of the trapezoid's parallel sides. As discussed earlier, the area of a parallelogram is found by multiplying the length, which in this case equals the sum of the parallel sides, by the height. However, because the area of a single trapezoid is one-half that of the parallelogram, the trapezoid's area is equal to one-half the product of the base times the height. This is expressed with the formula:

from the center to the line forming the circle is called the radius, and the distance around the circle
is known as the circumference. The diameter of a

circle is represented by a line that touches two points on the outside of the circle and passes through the circle's center. The circumference has a definite relationship with the diameter. This relationship is represented by the Greek letter pi (TT), and is equal to 3.1416. The ratio of the circumference to the diameter of a circle is always pi. Regardless of the size of the circle, pi is a constant. The circumference of a circle is found by multiplying pi times the diameter, and the area is calculated by multiplying pi times the square of the radius. For example, if a circle has a diameter of 10 inches, determine the circumference and area. Example: Circumference = TTD
C = 3.1416 x 10 C = 31.416 inches Area = TTT2

THE CIRCLE A circle is a closed figure bounded by a single curved line. Every point on the line forming a circle is an equal distance from the center. The distance

A = 3.1416 X5 2 A = 3.1416 X25

A = 78.54 square inches

COMPUTING VOLUME
Solids are objects with three dimensions: length, width, and height. Having the ability to calculate volume enables you to determine the capacity of a fuel tank or reservoir, figure the capacity of a cargo area, or calculate the displacement of a cylinder. Volumes are calculated in cubic units, such as cubic inches, cubic feet, and cubic centimeters. However, volumes are easily converted to useful terms such as gallons. For example, to convert cubic inches to gallons, divide the total number of cubic inches by 231. If converting cubic feet to gallons, remember that 1 cubic foot holds 7.5 gallons.

Mathematics

1-19

VOLUME OF A RECTANGLE
The volume of a rectangular solid is found by multiplying the dimensions of length, width, and height. When calculating volume, it is important that all measurements be in like terms. The formula for determining the volume of a rectangular solid is: V-LxWxH Where: V = volume L = length W = width H = height

VOLUME OF A CYLINDER
A cylinder is a solid with circular ends and parallel sides. Its volume is found by multiplying the area of one end by the cylinder's height. The formula is expressed as: Volume = 7ir2H D = 8 inches H = 8 inches

VOLUME V V

LxWxH

=24x18x12 = 5,184 CUBIC INCHES

VOLUME OF A CUBE
A cube is a solid with equal sides. Since all dimensions of a cube are identical, its area is calculated by multiplying one dimension by itself three times.

VOLUME = n r2H V = 3.1416 x42x 8 V = 402.1248

1-20

Mathematic s

As a technician, you can use this formula to calculate piston displacement. Piston displacement is defined as the volume of air displaced by a piston as it moves from bottom center to top center. For example, one cylinder of a four-cylinder aircraft engine has a bore, or diameter, of four inches and the piston has a stroke of six inches. Stroke is defined as the distance the head of a piston travels from bottom center to top center. What is the total cylinder displacement? Where: Bore = 4 inches Stroke = 6 inches Volume = 77-r2H Volume = 3.1416 x 22 x 6 Volume = 75.4 cubic inches Once you know the volume of one cylinder, you can calculate the engine's total displacement. The total piston displacement is defined as the total volume displaced by all the pistons during one crankshaft revolution. To calculate the displacement of an entire engine, multiply the volume of one cylinder by the number of cylinders on the engine.

The volume of a sphere is determined by multiplying the cube of the diameter by a factor which is V6 pi, or 0.5236. If you want to find the volume of a sphere that is 6 inches in diameter, you must first cube the diameter and multiply the resulting value by 0.5236. For example, calculate the volume of a sphere with a diameter of 6 inches.

TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
Trigonometry basically deals with the relationships that exist within a right triangle and is commonly used in the shop for sheet metal layout. Because trigonometry is a based on the ratio of the sides of a right triangle to one another, you must be familiar with how these ratios are derived. Figure 1-5 illustrates a right triangle with the sides and angles labeled for identification. Angle C is the right angle (9021). For this explanation, angle A is the angle for which you are setting up the relationships. Side c is the hypotenuse, which, by definition, is the side opposite the right angle. Side a is the side opposite angle A, and side b is the side adjacent, or next to, angle A. Using these labels, examine the three relationships that exist within this triangle.

VOLUME OF A SPHERE A sphere is any round body having a surface on which all points are an equal distance from the center of the sphere. A sphere has the greatest volume for its surface area, and is used in aircraft systems for hydraulic accumulators and liquid oxygen converters.

D = 6 INCHES

VOLUME = 1/6 7i D3 V = .1667x3.1416x216 Figure 1-5. Trigonometric relations of a right triangle.

V = 113.1 CUBIC INCHES

Mathematics

1-21

Because trigonometric relationships are constant for a given angle, they are often times presented in a Table of Trigonometric Functions. Trigonomic tables usually only list the angles to 45 degrees. [Figure 1-6] By referring back to figure 1-5, you see that the Sine (Sin) of angle A is the ratio of the length of the side opposite the angle to the length of the hypotenuse. For any degree of angle A, this ratio is constant, regardless of the size of the triangle. In the trig table, the sine of 3022, which is written Sin 3022, is 0.500. This means that the side opposite a 3022 angle is 50%, or one-half the length of the hypotenuse. For a 4522 angle, the ratio is 0.7071, indicating the side opposite the 4522 angle is 0.7071 times the length of the hypotenuse. The Cosine (Cos) of an angle is the ratio of the length of the side adjacent to the angle, to the length of the hypotenuse. Cosine is found on the same table used to find the sine of the angle. The cosine of 3022 is 0.8660 and tells you that the length of the side adjacent to the 3022 angle is 0.8660 times the length of the hypotenuse. The third ratio appearing on the Trigonometric Function Table is Tangent (Tan). This is the ratio of the length of the side opposite the angle to the length of the side adjacent the angle.

THE METRIC SYSTEM

The metric system is the dominant language of measurement in use today. However, in the United States, the customary units of measurement include the English units of inches, feet, ounces, and pounds. While these units have proved functional for many years, they are cumbersome to convert. The meter as a standard was developed in France and adopted by the National Assembly of France in the late 18th century. The United States government legalized the use of the metric system in 1866, but it was not until the Metric Bill of 1975 that its use became common. We are still in a time of slow conversion to the metric system and in many cases both Metric and English units appear together on packaging, speedometers, and thermometers. The metric system is built on decimal units. Each basic unit is divided or multiplied by ten as many times as necessary to get a convenient size. Each of

Figure 1-6. In this table, the numbers in the left-hand column go from 022 to 4522 whereas the numbers in the right-hand column begin at 4522 and continue to 9022. The names of the columns at the bottom are opposite the names at the top of the same column. When reading values for angles less than 4522, use the columns labeled on the top. When the angle is greater than 4522, use the column headings at the bottom of the chart.

1-22

Mathematic s

the multiples has a definite prefix, symbol, and name. As a technician, you must be familiar with each of them. [Figure 1-7]

electronic calculators now have specific function keys for making these conversions. There are also several charts that supply conversion factors. [Figure 1-8]

MATHEMATICAL HARDWARE
While there is no substitute for a basic understanding of mathematical principles and proficiency in performing mathematical operations, certain mathematical hardware offers increases in both calculating speed and accuracy. This hardware often takes the form of detailed function tables, or the electronic calculator. Either one is easily obtainable, portable, and easy to use.

Figure 1-7. Listed are the common prefixes, symbols, and multiples for basic metric quantities.

The Decimal Equivalent chart (Figure 1-9) and the Function of Numbers chart (Figure 1-10) are presented for the convenience of making common calculations. As you become familiar with the information presented on these charts you will begin to see the advantages of "ready-made" computations.

There are six base units in the metric system. The unit of length is called the meter, and is approximately 39 inches. The metric unit of mass, or weight, is the gram. The unit of time is the second. The unit of electrical current is the ampere. The unit of temperature is the degree Celsius, formerly called degree Centigrade. The unit of luminous intensity is the candela. All other units of measurement in the International System of Units, which is now called SI, are derived from these six. Conversion from English to Metric systems is accomplished in a variety of ways. Many hand-held

ELECTRONIC CALCULATORS The advent of the inexpensive hand-held electronic calculator has changed forever the way mathematical operations are performed. While you still need a basic understanding of mathematical operations and logic, the calculator typically helps increase speed and reduce errors. There is no "right" calculator for the aviation maintenance technician. However, there are calculators with function keys for many of the operations discussed in the chapter. The selection of a calculator should be based on its anticipated use.

Mathematic s

1-23

Figure 1-8. Metric conversion factors.

7-24

Mathematic s

Figure 1-9. Decimal Equivalent Chart.

Mathematic s

1-25

Figure 1-10. Function of Numbers Chart.

1-26

Mathematic s

Figure 1-10. Function of Numbers Chart.