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12.1 Introduction
Mechanics is a branch of the physical sciences that is concerned with the state of rest or motion of bodies subjected to the action of forces. o Statics is concerned with the equilibrium of a body that is either at rest or moves with constant velocity. o Dynamics deals with the accelerated motion of a body. Kinematics is a study of the geometry of the motion of a body. Kinetics is a study of the forces causing the motion of a body. Mechanics
Statics
Dynamics
Kinematics
Kinetics
o If the particle moves through a displacement r during a time interval t, the average velocity of the particle during this time interval is
v avg = r t
o The instantaneous velocity is the rate of change of displacement with time. It is expressed as
v = ds dt
(1) o Note that velocity is a vector quantity. It is different from speed, which is distance divided by time. Acceleration: o The average acceleration of the particle is
a avg = v t
o The instantaneous acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with time. It is expressed as
a = dv dt
(3) o Note that acceleration is a vector quantity. o When the particle is slowing down, it is said to be decelerating. In this case, acceleration will be negative (i.e. the body is accelerating in the direction opposite to the direction of v). o When the velocity is constant, the acceleration is zero. A differential relation involving the displacement, velocity, and acceleration along the path may be obtained by eliminating dt between equations (1) and (2). The result is
a ds = v dv
Consider a particle with the following initial conditions: s = so and v = vo when t = 0. When the acceleration is constant, equations (1), (2), and (4) can be integrated to obtain the following: .. (5) .. (6) .. (7)
v = vo + ac t
s = so + vo t + a c t 2
2 1
2 v 2 = vo + 2a c ( s s o )
(8) Note: The direction of v is tangent to the curve. o The instantaneous speed is
v = ds dt
(9) Thus, the speed can be obtained by differentiating the path function s with respect to time.
o The locus of points for the arrowheads of the velocity vector forms a curve called the hodograph (see details on page 32 of textbook). o The instantaneous acceleration is
a = dv dt
(12)
o The direction of r is specified by the components of the unit vector ur = r/r. Velocity: o The velocity of the particle is
v= dr = vxi + v y j + vzk dt
(13) where the components of v are the first time derivatives of x, y, z, i.e.
vx = x vy = y vz = z
(14)
o The magnitude of v is
v =
2 2 vx + v2 y + vz
o The direction of v is specified by the components of the unit vector uv = v/v. This direction is always tangent to the path (see fig. 12-17b). Acceleration: o The acceleration of the particle is
a= dv = a xi + a y j + a zk dt
(15) where
x = ax = v x y = ay = v y z = az = v z
o The direction of a is specified by the components of the unit vector ua = a/a. In general, the direction is not tangent to the path; it is tangent to the hodograph (see fig. 12-17c). Note: Since rectilinear motion occurs along each coordinate axis, the motion of each component is found using equations (1), (2), and (4).
(a)
o Vertical Motion (ay = -g): Equations (1), (2), and (4) give
v y = ( vo ) y g t
(b)
1 gt2 2
y = y o + ( vo ) y t
2
(c) (d)
2 vy = ( v o ) y 2 g ( y y o )
Note: By eliminating t between equations (b) and (c), equation (d) is obtained. Therefore, only two of equations (b), (c), (d) are independent. The problem involving projectile motion can have at most 3 unknowns. The 3 equations to be used are equation (a), and two of equations (b), (c), and (d).
(17) where
v = ds dt = s
(18) Acceleration The acceleration of the particle has components on the two axes. It is written as
a = at ut + a n un
(19) where
at = v
or
a t ds = v dv
(20) and
an = v2
(21) In equation (21), is the radius of curvature of the path at P. If the path is expressed as y = f(x), at any point on the path is determined from the equation
[1 +( dy
dx )
3/ 2
d 2 y dx 2
(22) The tangential component of acceleration, at, is the result of the time rate of change in the magnitude of velocity. The relations between at, v, t and s (i.e. equations 20) are the same as for rectilinear motion. It at is constant, equations 5-7 apply. The normal component of acceleration, an, is often referred to as the centripetal acceleration. The magnitude of the acceleration is
a =
2 at2 + a n
(23) Special cases 1. If the particle moves along a straight line, then and, therefore, an =0. Thus, . a = at = v
= 0 and a = an 2. If the particle moves along a curve with a constant speed, then a t = v 2 = v /.
For some engineering problems, it is convenient to express the path of motion in terms of cylindrical coordinates, r, , z. If the motion is restricted to the plane, the polar coordinates r and are used. Polar Coordinates The radial coordinate, r, extends outward from the fixed origin O to the particle. The unit vector ur defines the positive direction of the r coordinate (see Fig. 12-30a). The transverse coordinate, , is the counterclockwise angle between a fixed reference line and the r axis. The unit vector u defines the positive direction of the coordinate (see Fig. 12-30a). The angle is generally measured in degrees or radians, where 1 rad = 180o/. Position o At any instant the position of the particle is defined by the position vector
r = r ur
(25) where
vr = r v = r
(26) o The radial component vr is a measure of the rate of increase or decrease in the length of the radial coordinate. o The transverse component v can be interpreted as the rate of motion along the is called the angular velocity. circumference of a circle having a radius r. The term o The magnitude of velocity (i.e. speed) is
v =
2 2 vr + v
(27) o The direction of the velocity is tangent to the path (see Fig. 12-30c). Acceleration o The instantaneous acceleration of the particle is
a = a r ur + a u
(28) where
2 r ar = r + 2r a = r
(29)
= d 2 dt 2 is called the angular acceleration. o The term
(30) Cylindrical Coordinates If the particle moves along a space curve as shown in Fig. 12-31, then its location may be specified by the three cylindrical coordinates. The position, velocity, and acceleration of the particle can be written in terms of its cylindrical coordinates as follows:
r = r ur + z uz
u + z ur + r uz v = r
2 u + r + 2r u + uz a = r r z r
Time Derivatives
, and , , r The equations of kinematics requires that we obtain the time derivatives r in order to evaluate the r and components of v and a. See pages 65 and 66 of the textbook for examples in which these derivatives are obtained.