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FOOD SPOILAGE AND ADDITIVES

It is an often overlooked fact that just about every food item we eat is biological in origin, i.e. it comes from living organisms, so a knowledge of biology is important in all aspects of initial food production, as well as preparation and distribution. In particular, we expect our food to be fresh and wholesome, and not to contain any unnecessary added impurities (adulterants). Food can deteriorate as a result of two main factors: 1) growth of micro-organisms - usually from surface contamination - especially important in processed food - see below 2) action of enzymes - from within cells - part of normal life processes, (responsible for respiration, for instance). It is important to note that many plants - fresh vegetables and fruit - are still alive when bought and even when eaten raw, and meat from animals undergoes gradual chemical changes after slaughter. Micro-organisms are sometimes also called microbes (or the old-fashioned word "germs"), and include the following groups: bacteria and fungi (including yeasts) Various members of these groups may cause changes in the character of food, which may be classed as "positive" or "negative". Products of "positive" microbial transformations include cheese, yoghurt, and wine, which can be seen as increasing the nutritional value or keeping quality of products with a short shelf life (see later topics). "Negative" aspects of microbial growth include food deterioration and spoilage by decay, and food poisoning, mainly caused by different and less widespread bacteria. As they grow, microorganisms release their own enzymes into the liquid surrounding them, and absorb the products of external digestion. This is the main basis of microbial food spoilage, which lowers its nutritional value. Bacteria and moulds may also produce waste products which act as poisons or toxins, thus causing the renowned ill-effects. It is perhaps worth noting that, viewed from another angle, bacteria and fungi have a major positive role in the recycling of all forms of biological waste in nature, and that yet other bacteria (together with viruses) are the main agents of infectious diseases in plants and animals, including Man.

Conditions for microbial growth (and also for enzyme action)

1) organic food (proteins, carbohydrates, fats) - same as humans! 2) suitable temperature 3) moisture (water) 4) [in some cases] air 5) suitable pH For numbers 2-5, this (scientific) knowledge can be applied to (technological) processes in order to control food spoilage.

Temperature treatments
For each 10 C rise in temperature, the activity of micro-organisms and enzymes increases by at least 2x, in the range 0-60 C. Above this, heat quickly destroys enzymes and stops living cells from working. Decreased temperatures therefore work by slowing down these changes. The technology involved may be fairly expensive, and is needed continuously, but it does not change the flavour of food. In a refrigerator (about 4 C) food keeps longer because it decays more slowly. Bacteria are not killed, but merely less active. If milk goes off in 1 day on a warm summer day (24C), how long will it last in a fridge? > 4 days ( 10 C warmer means 2x faster, 20 C warmer means 2x2 faster ) In a freezer (about -15 C) bacteria are completely inactive, but internal enzymes are still active. For this reason, frozen vegetables such as peas are blanched by treatment with boiling water before freezing. Give 2 examples of food that is adversely affected by freezing. Think about the effects on cell structure! > celery etc > lettuce and other 'crunchy' vegetables The cooling process may also have the effect of removing water from food, so it is necessary to wrap it to prevent dehydration. Where does the water go from unwrapped food, in a fridge or freezer? > it condenses, solidifies and freezes to the side of the freezer or cooling
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Increased temperatures can have a more permanent preservative effect, and only require a fairly brief treatment. They may also alter the flavour of food. Gentle heating (about 60-70 C, up to boiling, 100 C) kills most bacterial cells in a few minutes, but does not affect some species which form spores. It also denatures proteins, so it

deactivates enzymes. Most cooking does this, and pasteurisation of milk is carefully controlled (63-66 C for 30 minutes) to prevent flavour changes, although it does not quite kill all contaminating bacteria. Pressure cooking raises the temperature (usually to 120 C or more), which kills bacterial cells in seconds, although spores need about 15-20 minutes. This is called sterilisation. Apparatus called an autoclave is used commercially, and for preparing sterile media for growth of microorganisms in the laboratory. Ultra-high temperatures (UHT) - 132+ C for at least 1 second) are at the basis of treatment of liquids like milk, and fruit juices, so that these have a "long life". After heat treatment, it is essential to ensure that foods cannot become contaminated by contact with raw food, because they are now more easily colonised by bacteria. List some food handling precautions to achieve this. > keep on separate shelf of fridge (cooked above raw)
food shops must have separate storage units

> use separate knives for raw and cooked food etc

Removal of water
Many foods can be preserved by being simply dried (dehydrated, desiccated), perhaps in the sun (not usually in England!). Water may be added to rehydrate it before consumption, or if eaten dry, digestive juices moisten it and make it available to our bodies. Give some examples of foods which are available in dried form: > fruits e.g. apricots, raisins Salted foods, and foods with added sugar are also effectively using the same technique, since the water they contain is unavailable for microbial growth. Indeed, cells of micro-organisms become plasmolysed when they come into contact with the surfaces of these foods. What happens to the cytoplasm of any such micro-organisms? (Clue: think about osmosis!) > loses water: so micro-organism dies Smoking foods, as well as drying, covers the outside (most exposed to microbial contamination) with a thin film of antimicrobial chemicals. Some people even like the taste!

Removal of air
This technique is not usually used on its own - in fact some of the worst food poisoning bacteria thrive in the absence of oxygen. Vacuum packing is, however, often used in conjunction with other techniques. Give some examples of vacuum-packed foods, and say what other preservation methods are combined with it.

> bacon (salting/smoking) > cheese (salt/low pH :see below)

Alteration of pH
Pickling, usually in vinegar or other acids, lowers the pH so that bacterial enzymes cannot operate.

Combined treatments - provide extremely long keeping qualities.


Freeze drying is a relatively recent method of preservation involving the removal of water (as vapour) from frozen food under reduced pressure. List and explain some advantages of the product of the process. > lighter, and does not need refrigeration - lower transport & storage costs Canning is heat-treatment in an autoclave, together with sealing of the food in an air-tight container. List and explain some disadvantages of the process. > Heavy > Metal may contaminate > Needs can-opener!

Food additives
It is sometimes wrongly thought that food additives are a recent development, but there has certainly been an increase in public interest in the topic. Not all of this has been well-informed, and there are signs that commercial interests have been influenced by consumer pressure, as well as food producers manipulating the situation by marketing techniques. Various labelling regulations have been put into effect to ensure that contents of (processed) foods are known to consumers, and to ensure that food is fresh - important in unprocessed foods and probably important even if preservatives are used. E numbers are a short method of declaring some common food additives (not actual ingredients of food as such), which have been cleared as probably harmless to most people by EEC bureaucrats. However, some authorities disagree about their methods, and say that some iniduals may be susceptible to ill effects. Others distrust the system, and believe it is used to mislead. It is not universal, and other names can be substituted. Terms like natural are certainly used in a cynical way by some manufacturers. The same system covers both artificial (synthetic) and natural substances, which are not by definition without risk! Flavourings are not covered by the system, either.

Food additives fall into several categories: Try to find a food item containing an example of each, with its name &/ E number, and any further information. Preservatives (E nos in range 200- ) Colourings (E nos in range 100- ) n.b. some are "natural", e.g.> Many are synthetic dyes derived originally from coal tar - "azo dyes" (originally recommended because they are so stable) e.g.> Emulsifiers and anti-oxidants (E 300- ) Other categories List some advantages, of additives in food. > > and some disadvantages

Currently, the consumer stands confused in front of the vast amount of different varieties of canned food, whether animal or vegetable origin, which has provided from many of the manufacturers of canned food for the selection of his choice, and satisfy the taste of the consumer in quality and appearance . Because of the excessive increase to address the food by the consumer at the present time as they provided him the meals of high nutritional value of protein, carbohydrates, fats and salts, in addition to being accepted by the housewife for being easy to prepare and cook, we must remind the consumer the most important health damage that may result from eating canned food . The nutritional value of canned food The food lose a lot of its nutritional value when packaging due to the high temperatures used in sterilization, where the waste occurs in the nutritional value of proteins as a result because of the high-temperature decomposition to multiple peptides, including bilateral or trilateral . The excess heat adversely affect the meat protein leads to increase in the amount of ammonia, in addition lead to exposure of proteins responsible for the taste and flavor to the complex chemical changes, and these materials and glutamic glutamine and glutathione which disintegrate by sterilization gives hydrogen sulfide. The sterilization is also has a direct impact on the fatty substances, causing a slight degradation leading to an increase in the proportion of free fatty acids, while glycogen in the food, it is converted by excess heat to jelly. The nutritional value of vitamins also decrease 40-70% in canned food, especially vitamin A and C, thiamin and riboflavin . Health damage resulting from the preservatives materials used in canned food

Some canned food companies are unique in the selection and use of preservatives for materials canned food, without taking into account the health and safety of consumers, as some of them uses some of the preservatives in the paint cans to avoid the interaction of material with the metal wall of canned food, , and the other part of the preservatives used either to prevent the disintegration of canned food for the longest period of time or to give color and taste and smell or to remove the color of food . The latest survey of U.S. Food and Drug Administration reported more than 3000 type of material is now used as preservatives in food preservation. Many recent studies and research reported that many of the preservative materials that are added to canned food have a serious effect on human health, for example, the use of Butylated hydroxyanisole and Butylated hydroxytoluene as a preservative against food spoilage lead to many diseases in humans such as cancer, enlargement of the liver and the weakness in growth and reproduction , diabetics and heart disease . Also the use of nitrates and nitrites as a preservative against botulism poisoning and to improved the taste and smell of canned meat, has negative effects on human health, where the materials would be chemically linked with substance amines that existing naturally in meat and in the human body , which leads to the formation of a chemical called Nitrosamine, this is directly responsible to cause various cancers in the human body . The use of certain sugars such as industrial Saccharin and Acesulfame - K as preservatives in the canned food to give food taste sweet, is also a risk to human health . Such materials are classified by U.S. Food and Drug Administration as slow cancer materials and have a negative impact on the central nervous system of children .The alternatives to sugar industrial material such as Aspartame, which is used in some soft drinks and canned foods cause many clinical sings, such as headaches, nausea and dizziness . The statistics provided by U.S. Food and Drug Administration, reported that millions of Americans today are sensitive to Sulfites material such as sodium and potassium metasulfite and sodium bisulfite , which is used as a clearing of the natural colors as well as to prevent bacterial multiplication in dried fruits and vegetables . In this aspect , research and studies have shown, that these substances cause asthma and sometimes death due shock, where 5 - 10% of cases of asthma in the United States caused by the use of a sulfites in canned food, which leads U.S. Food and Drug Administration to prevent added as preservatives in the canned food. Recent research also indicated that the use of industrial dyes in the canned food, are directly related to thyroid cancer and the emergence of asthma . Some companies also use chemical substances for the purpose of paint cans of food and their lids from the inside to prevent interaction of the canned food with the tin cans, and these substances are hazardous material such as Dimethyl bisphenol and Bisphenol A . In recent study in the United States was found that these chemicals cause carcinogenic to humans, especially in females, such as cervical , breast and vaginal cancer . Phosphorus compounds are used in food for many purposes, such as phosphoric acid which is used in soft drinks and calcium phosphate for the purpose of making canned food more solid, and sodium phosphate which is used in dried food. Scientists have warned in their study of these chemicals, that excessive use of such substances in food cause an imbalance in the absorption of calcium from the body, especially in children, which leads to osteoporosis . Poisoning diseases resulting from eating canned food Food poisoning are usually occur in canned food, either during the stages of preparation or manufacturing or packaging or during or after sterilization, especially when the sterilization was not up to or through additional defects in the cans after the final stage of the process of closure . Bacterial poisoning is the most important and dangerous types of food poisoning, such as Clostridium botulinum , Salmonella , a Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus cereus, and all of these bacteria releases toxins into the canned food caused damage to the human health, as that these toxins have the ability to resist high temperatures when sterilization .Symptoms of food poisoning usually begin to appear after a period of time ranging from 1 - 36 hours of eating contaminated food, according to the causes of illness , such clinical symptoms are vomiting, diarrhea, headache, nausea, dehydration, especially in children and the elderly with a rise in body temperature. Clostridium toxins also caused disruption of the central nervous system, and death due to paralysis of the breathing muscles, where one milligram of these toxins are enough to kill sixteen thousand people.

Causes and symptoms

Food poisoning can be divided into two basic types: illness caused by infectious organisms and illness caused by chemicals. The infectious organisms (pathogens) that cause food poisoning are bacteria, viruses, and parasites. Chemicals can be either natural toxins (poisons) found in plants (e.g. poisonous mushrooms) and animals (Japanese puffer fish) or they can be man-made chemicals such as pesticides or herbicides. Symptoms of food poisoning usually develop anywhere within 1-48 hours after eating contaminated food. Symptoms of chemical food poisoning often appear very quickly. The type of symptoms and their severity depend on the cause of the food poisoning, the amount of contaminated food eaten, and the health of the individual. Symptoms usually develop suddenly. Some common symptoms of food poisoning include:

nausea followed by forceful vomiting frequent diarrhea. Stools can be extremely watery and may or may not contain blood painful stomach cramps fever headache dizziness blurred vision, difficulty breathing, tingling in hands and feet (chemical food poisoning)

Microorganisms responsible for common food-borne illness


Microorganism Food-borne illness Symptoms Common food sources Incubation

Bacillus cereus Intoxication Watery diarrhea and Cooked product that is left 0.515 hours cramps, or nausea uncovered milk, meats, vegetables, fish, rice, and and vomiting starchy foods Campylobacter Infection jejuni Diarrhea, perhaps accompanied by fever, abdominal pain, nausea, headache, and muscle pain Raw chicken, other foods 25 days contaminated by raw chicken, unpasteurized milk, untreated water

Clostridium botulinum

Intoxication Lethargy, weakness, Inadequately processed, 1836 hours dizziness, double home-canned foods; vision, difficulty sausages; seafood products; speaking, swallowing, chopped bottled garlic; and/or breathing; honey paralysis; possible death

Microorganism Food-borne illness Clostridium perfringens Infection

Symptoms

Common food sources

Incubation

Intense abdominal cramps, diarrhea

Meats, meat products, 824 hours gravy, Tex-Mex type foods, other protein-rich foods Contaminated water, 1272 hours undercooked ground beef, unpasteurized apple juice and cider, raw milk, alfalfa sprouts, cut melons

Escherichia coli Infection group

Watery diarrhea, abdominal cramps, low-grade fever, nausea, malaise

Listeria Infection Monocytogenes

Nausea, vomiting, Ready-to-eat foods Unknown; diarrhea; may contaminated with bacteria, may range progress to including raw milk, cheeses, from a few headache, confusion, ice cream, raw vegetables, days to 3 loss of balance and fermented raw sausages, weeks convulsions; may raw and cooked poultry, cause spontaneous raw meats, and raw and abortion smoked fish Abdominal cramps, diarrhea, fever, headache Foods of animal origin; 1272 hours other foods contaminated through contact with feces, raw animal products, or infected food handlers. Poultry, eggs, raw milk, meats are frequently contaminated Fecally contaminated foods 1248 hours

Salmonella species

Infection

Shigella

Infection

Fever, abdominal pain and cramps, diarrhea

Staphylococcus Intoxication Nausea, vomiting, Foods contaminated by aureus abdominal cramping improper handling and holding temperatures meats and meat products, poultry and egg products, protein-based salads, sandwich fillings, cream-

112 hours

Microorganism Food-borne illness

Symptoms

Common food sources

Incubation

based bakery products Hepatitis A Infection Jaundice, fatigue, abdominal pain, anorexia, intermittent nausea, diarrhea Raw or undercooked 1550 days molluscan shellfish or foods prepared by infected handlers

Norwalk-type viruses

Infection

Nausea, vomiting, Shellfish grown in fecally 1248 hours diarrhea, abdominal contaminated water; water and foods that have come cramps into contact with contaminated water Diarrhea, abdominal Water and foods that have 12 weeks come into contact with cramps, nausea contaminated water Nausea, diarrhea, vomiting, fatigue, fever, abdominal cramps Raw and undercooked pork 12 days and wild game products

Giardia lamblia Infection

Trichinella spiralis

Infection

(Illustration by GGS Information Services/Thomson Gale.) Contamination that causes food poisoning can occur at every level of the food production process Some examples follow.

Growers: application of illegal pesticides and herbicides or their application higher than approved concentrations. In the United States, pesticides use is regulated by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Processors: use of contaminated water in processing, inadequate disinfecting of processing equipment, inadequate time and temperature in processing canned or cooked foods, contamination with poisons used to control factory pests, and improper handling of raw materials. In the United States, meatpacking plants are inspected by the USDA, and other food processing plants are inspected by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Storage and transportation: holding fresh or frozen foods at improper temperatures, inappropriate use of fumigants in warehouses or trucks, inadequate sanitizing of food-carrying tanker trucks (e.g. milk, corn syrup), and contamination by insects or rodent droppings in storage areas

Retail outlets and restaurants: food kept at improper temperatures, cross-contamination between raw and cooked food, improper disinfecting of food preparation surfaces, transmission by infected food handlers,

KEY TERMS

PathogenAn organism that causes a disease. ToxinA general term for something that harms or poisons the body. and failure of food handlers to wash their hands. Restaurants are inspected by local health authorities.

Home preparation: letting food sit out too long at room temperature, inadequate cooking, cross-contamination between cooked and raw food, failure to properly reheat leftovers

Bacteria

Bacterial contamination is the leading cause of food poisoning. At room temperature, bacteria reproduce at astounding rates. A single bacterium that divides every half hour can produce 17 million offspring in 12 hours. Bacteria fall into two general categories. One group causes symptoms of food poisoning by directly infecting the intestines causing irritation and diarrhea. The other group release toxins (poisons) as they grow and reproduce. These toxins affect the digestive system and often cause vomiting first followed by diarrhea. Many bacteria cause food poisoning. A few of the more common ones are described below. Bacteria of the genus Salmonella are common in reptiles, birds, and mammals. They are found most often in eggs, poultry, dairy products, and beef. Infection with Salmonella causes nausea, vomiting, stomach cramps, headache, and low-grade fever. Symptoms begin anywhere from 6 to 48 hours after exposure and may last for 7 days. In people with weakened immune systems, Salmonella Bacteria of the genus Campylobacter cause more diarrhea illnesses worldwide than any other group of bacteria. They produce fairly mild diarrhea, fever, and stomach cramps. Campylobacter bacteria are found in almost all raw chicken and turkey. Cross-contamination, that is putting cooked food down where raw food had been, is a leading cause of food poisoning from Campylobacter These bacteria are also transmitted by water contaminated with animal feces. Escherichia coli are a large group of bacteria, only some of which cause food poisoning. E. coli food poisoning usually begins with watery diarrhea that later turns bloody. One strain of E. coli known as 0157:H7 is most often found in undercooked hamburger, but has also been found in ready-to-eat raw spinach. This particular strain can cause kidney failure and death, especially in children and the elderly. Clostridium botulinium is a bacteria that causes the disease botulism. C. botulinium produces a toxin that affects the nervous system and can cause difficulty breathing and paralysis. Symptoms

do not appear until 1 to 4 days after exposure. Botulism is associated with improperly canned food, smoked fish, and honey. Infection with C. botulinium is serious and often fatal.
Viruses

A large group of viruses called Norwalk or Nor-walk-like viruses are an extremely common cause of foodborne illness. In the mid-2000s, Norwalk viruses were often in the news for causing outbreaks of gastrointestinal disease on cruise ships and in nursing homes. They cause more vomiting than diarrhea than any other viruses. Unlike many of the other causes of food poisoning, these viruses are not usually naturally present in food. They are usually transferred from the hands of infected food handlers to the food that they are preparing, especially to foods such as salads and sandwiches.
Parasites

Parasites that cause food poisoning usually come from contaminated water. They often cause mild symptoms that are slow to develop but last for several weeks. Giardia causes watery diarrhea and is often acquired by drinking untreated water from lakes or streams. Cyrptosporidium is a parasite that causes large amounts of watery diarrhea for 34 days. Healthy people usually recover quickly, but in people with weakened immune systems, symptoms can persist for a long time.
Natural toxins

Natural poisons found in some wild mushrooms can cause anything from nausea and vomiting to hallucinations, coma, and death, depending on the amount and species of mushroom eaten. Mushroom poisoning is a medical emergency. People who believe they have eaten a poisonous mushroom should, if possible, take a sample of the mushroom or their vomit to the emergency room with them. Identifying the type of mushroom causing the illness can help determine the most effective treatment.
Manmade toxins

Manmade toxins include all pesticides, fertilizers, disinfectants, and any other chemicals remaining in food when it is eaten that can cause illness. Contamination is accidental, and often the result of ignorance or a misunderstanding of how to apply the chemical. Symptoms may develop rapidly or slowly depending on the type of chemical and the amount of exposure. Chemical poisoning requires prompt medical evaluation.

Diagnosis
Food poisoning is caused by many different organisms, but identifying the exact organism is not usually necessary. Most mild food poisoning is diagnosed by the symptoms of vomiting, diarrhea, and stomach cramps coupled with information about that the individual has recently eaten. The length of time between eating the suspect food and the start of symptoms gives physicians a clue about what particular organism may be causing the food poisoning. Blood and

urine tests may be ordered to determine the individuals degree of dehydration and electrolyte (chemical) imbalances. In most cases, determining the exact pathogen that is causing the food poisoning is relatively unimportant, as treatment tends to be the similar for most causes. However, if diarrhea is persistent, a stool culture may be done to provide more specific information. When chemical or natural toxin poisoning is suspected, determining the exact cause is more important, and treatment is specific to the cause. The stomach may be pumped and the contents tested. Extensive blood tests are usually needed. Sometimes activated charcoal is used to help absorb the poison in the stomach.

Treatment
The main goal of treatment for food poisoning is to keep the individual from becoming dehydrated. A loss of 20% of a persons body fluid is fatal, and 10-15% is serious. In food poisoning, huge amounts of both water and electrolytes can be lost quite rapidly. Vomiting and diarrhea in infants and young children require especially prompt professional treatment because small children can become dehydrated within hours. Mild cases of food poisoning can usually be treated at home, especially if they are not accompanied by a fever. Dehydration in infants and children can be prevented or treated by giving them oral rehydration solutions such as Pedialyte, Infalyte, Naturalyte, Ora-lyte, or Rehydralyte. These are available in supermarkets and pharmacies without a prescription. Oral rehydration solutions have the proper balance of salts and sugars to restore fluid and electrolyte balance. They can be given to young children in small sips as soon as vomiting and diarrhea start. Children may continue to vomit and have diarrhea, but some of the fluid will be absorbed. In the past, parents were told to withhold solid food from children who had diarrhea. New research indicates that it is better for children should to be allowed to eat solid food should they want it, even though diarrhea continues. Older children and adults who are dehydrated can be given oral rehydration solutions or sports drinks such as Gatorade. Adults and older children with food poisoning should avoid drinking coffee, tea, and soft drinks, especially soft drinks that contain caffeine, as these liquids promote dehydration. Over-the counter medications to stop or slow diarrhea such as Kaopectate, PeptoBismol, or Imodium will not shorten the duration of the disease, but may give the individual some control over his or her bowels. Consult a physician before giving these over-the-counter medicines to children. Individuals of all ages who are seriously dehydrated need to be treated promptly by a medical professional. In the case of severe dehydration, the individual may be hospitalized and fluids given intravenously (IV; directly into the vein). Drugs may also be prescribed to stop persistent vomiting. Although bacteria cause many cases of food poisoning, antibiotics are not routinely used in treatment. Some studies have shown that antibiotics are necessary only in about 10% of cases.

Individuals who think their food poisoning symptoms are caused by chemicals or natural toxins should seek emergency medical care immediately. These types of food poisoning are too serious to try to treat at home.

Nutrition/Dietetic concerns
Certain foods are more commonly associated with food poisoning than others. These include:.

raw and undercooked meat, especially ground meat raw or undercooked poultry raw or undercooked eggs and egg products such as mayonnaise or raw cookie dough. Estimates are that 1 of every 20,000 eggs is contaminated with Salmonella unpasteurized milk products or unpasteurized fruit juice raw shellfish, especially oysters, clams, scallops, and mussels ready-to-eat raw fruits and vegetables wild mushrooms. Note: many mushrooms that are poisonous in North America look almost identical to safe-to-eat mushrooms found in Europe improperly prepared fish such as barracuda or Japanese puffer fish improperly canned foods (homemade or commercial). Note: any can that is leaking or bulging should be discarded soft cheeses such as brie or feta lunch meats or deli meats

Although the food in the United States is very safe, occasionally major outbreaks of food poisoning occur that can be traced to a breakdown in the food handling system. Larger outbreaks can be identified and traced to their source because each state has a list of diseases that health professionals are required to report to the county public health service once positive diagnosis is made. Most states require that doctors and hospitals report confirmed cases of disease caused by Salmonella and E. coli 0157:H7 and several other food poisoning pathogens. This information is then passed on to the CDC. Most food poisoning occurs to single individual or to a small group of people, such as a family at a picnic. A major food poisoning outbreak is suspected when many people develop the same symptoms of food poisoning within a short time or within the same geographic area. A major outbreak sets off a full investigation by a team of microbiologists, food scientists, process engineers, specialists in food sanitation, and others. In a larger outbreak, the CDC usually coordinates the investigation. The CDC has established a special system called FoodNet to monitor food poisoning reports and look for patterns that suggest an outbreak. Information on chemical and natural toxin poisonings is also collected by the American Association of Poison Control Centers.

Prognosis
Most people have unpleasant gastrointestinal symptomsvomiting and diarrheafor a few days and then recover fully from food poisoning. In young children, dehydration is always a cause for concern. Worldwide, dehydration from diarrhea is the biggest killer of children under age 5. If

dehydration can be controlled in young children with food poisoning, most recover with few complications. However, E. coli 0157:H7 can cause fatal renal failure in 3-5% of children. This bacteria is most often acquired by eating unpasteurized apple cider or apple juice, alfalfa or bean sprouts. More serious long-term health problems often result from chemical poisonings. Toxins found in some wild mushrooms and some fish can cause permanent liver damage requiring a liver transplant or death. Pesticides and other chemical contamination can cause liver damage, kidney failure, and nervous system complications. In 2007, apparent chemical contamination of pet food caused the death of hundreds of dogs and cats in the United States.

Prevention
Appropriate food handling procedures at every level of the production process can go a long way in preventing food poisoning. Growers should apply only approved pesticides and herbicides at levels recommended by the Environmental Protection Agency and the Department of Agriculture. Processors must use clean sources of water to wash produce. Processing machinery must be disinfected regularly, and pesticides used in processing plants must be safe for use around food. In restaurants, food must not be held under warming lights of on buffet tables for long periods. At home, individuals can help prevent food poison by following these guidelines.

Wash hands, food preparation surfaces, and utensils often when handling food Prevent cross-contamination of raw and cooked food. Do not put cooked food back on the same plate or surface that held it when it was raw Cook foods to internal temperatures between 140F and 180F (60-83 C) Refrigerate or freeze fresh foods and leftovers promptly Defrost food in the refrigerator or microwave and not on the counter at room temperature. Cook promptly when defrosted Keep food at temperatures above 140F (60C) or below 40F (4 C) Throw out food that has sat at room temperature for 2 hours or more

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