Psych 1X03 C01 Professor Kim & Professor Cheal 05/28/12

Module 1: Introduction to Memory

Common Memory Memory acts like video camera, filing cabinet, computer?? Problems with Memory Data o Stored data = identical to inputted info o Retrieved data = identical to inputted information Memory o Stored memory = personal details and interpretations o Retrieved memory may be lost or altered Data Memory Frederic Bartlett all these metaphors have something in common o Each = useful way of thinking about memory still misleading Assumes memory can store experiences in original, undistorted form Assumes memory retrieval = simply accessing previously stored item

Module 2: The Basics of Memory

Types of Questions Studying memory from scientific perspective = need testable hypotheses 3 general questions: o Questions about memory acquisition & what will be stored in memory o Questions about memory storage and how it will be stored o Questions about memory retrieval & how we bring it back to conscious The importance of Cues Like cue-response mechanisms studied by behaviourists one memory acts as cue to trigger another memory o Early research of memory influence by behaviourists interaction with encoding and retrieval mechanisms of memory Necessary 1st step to studying how memories are triggered = bring it into controlled lab setting o Hermann Ebbinghaus operationally defined memory as serial learning tasks Memorizing word lists each word on list = cue that triggered memory of following word Cueing = important concept in encoding specificity phenomenon where encoding/retrieval = linked through cues Testing out hypothesis Psychologists rely on cognitive models to understand complex cognitive function like memory o Models describe/organize data & make specific testable predictions Basic memory task involves 2 phases o Encoding phase: subject learns list of items/words/pictures o Retrieval phase: subjects tested for memory of items presented in encoding phase

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Psych 1X03 C01 Professor Kim & Professor Cheal 05/28/12 Simple experiment same lists for 2 groups; one group told to learn items & control group = distracted

Recall &Recognition Recall test: subject asked to write down as many terms as her can remember Recognition test: subject shown several items and asked to judge whether each item is New (not presented during encoding phase) or Old (item was presented during encoding phase) In simple experiment, both recall & recognition tests show subjects who were clearly asked to learn list of items, perform better than those who were distracted/ unexpectedly given test after exposure to list Hermann Ebbinghaus Used basic encoding/retrieval design to learn about cueing/forgetting memories o Encoding pace memorized lists of nonsense words (used himself as a subject) o Retrieval stage tested recall ability Nonsense words chosen to minimize prior experience on test results How long can memories be maintained # of words remembered decreases over time o Forgetting curve

Module 3: The Multi-Store Model

Multi-Store Module Most popular memory model Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) Assumes that memory is composed of short and long term storage systems o Incoming info 1st stored in short term memory buffer Similar to RAM available for online tasks, not stored permanently o Important info in short term memory can be transferred to long term memory system Similar to files saved on hard drive of computer Rehearsed short term memory = long term memory George Miller For most short term memory tasks, people can remember 7 2 items o Memorizing random phone number o More than that short term memory = strained If rehearsal stops short term memory can fade People can re-organize or chunk info in meaningful packets allows more info to be held in short term memory CBCFBICIARSVPIBM vs CBC FBI CIA RSVP IBM o Letter groupings forming words pack more info onto single chunk 7 random letters of alphabet vs 7 names of animals o Expert and novice chess players shown chessboard with many pieces When asked to recall several errors If both shown pieces form actual game expert has upper hand

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Psych 1X03 C01 Professor Kim & Professor Cheal 05/28/12 Memory Experiments Cognitive models & Multistore Model of Memory power lies in ability to make testable predictions about how memory works If short term memory/long term memory represent separate stores interacting dynamically should be able to isolate changes in each (manipulate variables associated with memory)

Module 4: Serial Position Curve

Serial Position Curve Subject asked to learn list of words in encoding phase o Results from recall test during the retrieval phase Memory performance = best for items early/later in list & worst for middle Multi-store model of memory can explain why memory performance in tasks depend on order which info is encoded Primacy Primacy Effect: items encoded early in list = better memory performance o First to enter short term memory most opportunity to be rehearsed o First item in memory list most rehearsed = higher chance to be transferred into long term memory permanent storage o Middle less opportunity Recency Recency Effect: last items on list have least opportunity for rehearsal & transfer into long term memory Recall is still good Multi store model can explain this pattern too: all encoded info 1st sent to short term memory (limited to hold around 7 items o As long as you go through the list, newest items replace oldest items in short term memory buffer

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Psych 1X03 C01 Professor Kim & Professor Cheal 05/28/12 o o As you reach end of list last 7 or so items = not replaced by new items & will remain in short term memory Therefore, memory performance good for last few because still active in STM storage

Improving Primacy Multi store model testable predictions Ex. Primacy effect driven by rehearsing primacy effect influenced by manipulation that changes subjects ability to rehearse items Can be tested by manipulating presentation time of each to be remembered item o More time to encode item = more time for rehearsing items into LTM o Therefore primacy effect enhances for list of items given with long interval presentation rather than short interval presentation Diminishing Recency If Recency Effect driven by items remained active in STM, then the effect should be influenced by any manipulation that affects contents of STM store o EX. Manipulation causes most recent contents of STM to be replaced/ disrupted should neutralize Recency Effect

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Psych 1X03 C01 Professor Kim & Professor Cheal 05/28/12 Idea tested asking subject to perform distracting task right after encoding phase o Performing distracting task requires STM resources causes last of the to-beremembered items to be disrupted from being active in short term buffer Ex. Experiment with 3 groups o 1st group memorize list of items, then perform distracting task for 30 sec o 2nd group memorize list of items & wait 30 sec before recalling list o 3rd group memorize list of items & immediately recall list with no delay Recency effect disappears only for the group performing distracting task

Sum up Serial Position Curve = robust finding in memory research handled well by multi-store model o Testable predictions can be made that can be studied under controlled lab settings

Module 5: The Levels of Processing Model

Levels of Processing Suggests that memory performance depends on level of which items are encoded o Shallow level encode physical characteristics requires little effort Poor memory performance o Deeper level encode semantic/meaning characteristics requires significant effort Better memory performance Craik & Lockhart tested levels of processing model o Directly manipulating level where subject encoded list of words Levels of Processing Principle: the more we try to organize/understand material, the better we remember o Passively skimming reading/ verbatim notes = shadow level o Actively reading/note taking making connections with knowledge= Deep level

Module 6: Encoding Specificity

Levels of Processing Labs simplified memory tasks with controlled/manipulated variables Real world memories not restricted to learning lists of items/isolated info o Memories = rich/detailed, experienced in context of environment

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Psych 1X03 C01 Professor Kim & Professor Cheal 05/28/12 Environmental cues = incorporated into memories with learned items

Encoding Specificity Encoding specificity: Memory encodes all aspects of experiences o Encode word in memory experiment encode all aspects of that experience (properties of room, font of notes, chair) influence memory performance in future Aspects act as specific cues for even/item being recalled Godden& Baddelley tested encoding specificity o Asked scuba divers to encode list of words on land (beside pool) or underwater (in pool) o Follow up recall test done in either same or different encoding context Results: encoding context mattered subjects could remember items form list better when in same context during memory test Eich et al. tested if internal state of subject influences memory ability o Manipulated when or not subjects under influence of drugs while attempting to encode o One group smoke marijuana and other received placebo o Follow up recall test in either same or different internal state from encoding phase Results: group smoking marijuana had overall worse performance However, those who smoked it in encoding and not during recall test did poorer

Module 7: Memory Illusions & Fluency

Loftus & False Memories Memory does not function as seamlessly as implied by cameras/filing cabinet/computer o Memories differ from original experiences can even be faulty (events did not occur) Elizabeth Loftus experimental design to implant false memories o Described 4 memories of 4 childhood memory events obtained from parents o 3 real & 1 fake fake = getting lost in mall, crying, comfort from elderly woman o Subjects asked to recall/describe 4 experiences over period of 3 days o Results: 1st day subjects correctly identified fake experience By 3rd day more than 20% believed the fake experience to be true False memories suggest memory = highly constructive implications for eye witness testimony False Memory Implantation Induced false memory was plausible in the Loftus study What about something more extreme? completely implausible/bizarre memories? Tested by Seamon & colleagues (2006) o Repeatedly imaging event leads to formation of false memories (even if bizarre) Subjects visited various locations on university campus, @ each stop bizarre or familiar action was performed or imagined Subject asked to do bizarre (proposal) or familiar (looking for change) action when in from of a vending machine

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Psych 1X03 C01 Professor Kim & Professor Cheal 05/28/12 o Follow up test 2 weeks later imagining bizarre action just once more likely to claim actually performed, not imagined action Memory can be mislead into confusing imagined/performed events no matter how crazy

Attributional view of Memory False memories more support for idea that memory = reconstructive process o recalling memory = open to interpretation and suggestion Support reconstructive nature of memory view studied on attribution and fluency memory illusions Attributal views of Memory Experiment on bus, sees a person who looks familiar cant remember from where o Old friend, tv, internet, maybe dont even know them Fluency: the ease with which experience is processed some easier (more fluent) than others o Familiar experiences are more fluently processed than new ones Attribution Attribution: judgement tying together causes with effects o Make judgement that identifies cause/source to feeling of processing fluency o Feeling of processing fluency about stranger - potentially make different attributions Ex. Feeling of fluency can be attributed to mean you know person from somewhere or other attributions unusual looking person, unconventional, looks like someone from your TV show Becoming famous overnight Jacoby & Colleagues @ McMaster provide many examples of fluency illusions Popular example experiment becoming famous overnight o Subjects 1st asked to read list of peoples names in pronunciation task o Group A went home for 24 hrs delay, & group B moved into second phase o 2nd phase subjects given fame rating task View list of names, asked to rate how famous person on list was Included celebrities, non famous fictional names, new fictional names & others from the memory list that participants encoded in 1st phase o Results Group B (directly into 2nd phase) appropriately rated famous names, moderately famous as not-so famous & fictional names as not famous Group A (24 hr delay) appropriately rated famous names as famous, moderately famous as not-so famous BUT old fictional names (from memory list) more famous than the new fictional names o Having names in 1st phase 24 hrs earlier = illusion that names somehow famous o Illusion = False fame effect

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Psych 1X03 C01 Professor Kim & Professor Cheal 05/28/12 False fame effect explains subjects attributed processing fluency produced in phase 1 pronunciation task Phase 2 rating task when old fictional name encountered, participants experience feeling of processing fluency key = how processing fluency interpreted/attributed by subject o Immediate test group false-fame effect because fluency feeling is properly attributed o 24 hr delay test group misattribution because mistakenly attribute fluent processing of name to persons fame, not due to reading it a day earlier

Module 8: Conclusion
Problems with Memory Metaphors Memories work like data storage/retrieval presents us with accurate picture of world o Many people seeing same event may remember it differently memories can be changed or forgotten Creating adequate model to describe memory must move beyond comparing brain to familiar household objects Memory is a Reconstructive Process Bartlett Memories are not something we store in a memory system; memories exist by reconstructing them when we need to remember them o Radical view implied memories dont exist until present situation requires we construct memory Bartlett memory system pile of building blocks using raw materials of perception/experience o Memory system = reconstruct something resembles prior experience o Also capable of constructing experiences that didnt happen o True objective memories inexact memory = often subject to substantial amount of interpretation/reconstruction Chunking and acronyms are known as medium level studying

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Psych 1X03 C01 Professor Kim & Professor Cheal 05/28/12

TUTORIAL 7 ATTENTION & MEMORY

3 Stages of Memory 1) Encoding information input 2) Storage information maintained 3) Retrieval information recovered Assumptions: Stored in original unaltered form Retrieval as simple as accessing a file The Multi-Store Model Short Term Memory Incoming info gets processed in short term memory Important info gets transferred to long term memory o If items in short term memory are rehearsed, might become part of long term memory storage o <1 sec for input of stimuli, 20-30 seconds (short term memory) o Longer than 30 sec = long term The Primacy Effect More rehearsal time = better encoding The Recency Effect Short term memory is more easily recalled

Levels of Processing
Shallow Physical characteristics Requires little effort Poor memory performance Deep Semantic characteristics Requires much effort Better memory performance Experiment by Craik & Lockheart Asked to look at physical characteristics of word Some were asked to listen to the word Some were asked to think of what was related to the word o Those who processed at deeper level could remember the words better than those who were listening to it or looking at physical characteristics

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Psych 1X03 C01 Professor Kim & Professor Cheal 05/28/12 Forgetting Not all memories are stable over time Recalling memories Building blocks = raw materials for perception and experience o Construction of real memories (proper brick wall) o Construction of False memories (not properly made brick wall) William James Attending to an object causes that object to be selected apart from other background objects Change Blindness (Monkey Business) Bottom up processing: attention is guided by salient stimuli or environmental changes. Automatically captures attention Top down processing: attention is purposely directed. Attention is directed to match goals and expectations Automatic attention: a form of involuntary capture that is fast and efficient Controlled attention: form of conscious attention that is slow and effortful

Controlled processes Resources are limited Compensatory adjustments must be made The Spotlight Model Suggests attention functions in a manner analogous to how a spotlight draws your attention to the most important actor in a play when in spotlight o high accuracy o faster reaction time The Spatial Cueing Paradigm When attention is directed away from target appearance harder to respond Broadbents Single Filter Model of attention Selscts important info based on characteistics and passes it through to processing Info that isnt selected cant be accessed anymore Support Individuals played something they must attend to in one year and ignore in the other year (in headphones) They fail to notice anything weird is going on in the unattended ear o Attention focused on attended ear info

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Psych 1X03 C01 Professor Kim & Professor Cheal 05/28/12 Problems If trained individuals to respond to a certain word Some process will happen in attended ear Cocktail party effect o Other conversations, including yours o If someone across the room says your name, you will hear it Duel Filter Model 2 filters that happen when we attend to something Physical characteristics go through first filter (attenuated) Then goes through late filter semantic analysis) Physical characteristics early filter late filter selected input Example Man getting directions from pedestrian 2 people holding painting passes The initial man getting directions switches with a man holding the painting Pedestrian does not notice Visual search Set size: number of stimuli in a search field Set size effect: an increase in the number of stimuli causes an increase in task difficulty Pop-out effect: a feature (such as color) causes the item being searched to be found rapidly, regardless of set size Conjunction search: searching for an item with two or more features (colour & orientation)

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