People Plato: (c. 429 c. 347 BC) Greek philosopher.

r. A disciple of Socrates and the teacher of Aristotle, he founded the Academy in Athens , one of the first institutions of higher learning in the Western world. His theory of ideas or forms contrasts abstract entites or universals with their objects or particulars in the material world. His philosophical writings are presented in the form of dialogues, and his political theories appear in the Republic. Socrates: (c. c. 470 BCE c. 399 BCE) Socrates was born in 470 BC, in Athens , Greece . We know of his life through the writings of his students, including Plato and Xenophon. His "Socratic method," laid the groundwork for Western systems of logic and philosophy. When the political climate of Greece turned, Socrates was sentenced to death by hemlock poisoning in 399 BC. Hammurabi: Hammurabi was born in 1795 BC in Babylon , modern day Iraq . The lasting contribution of Hammurabi on Babylonian society was his set of laws written on twelve stones and displayed publicly for all to see, the most common being, "Eye for eye, tooth for tooth." Alexander the Great: also known as Alexander III or Alexander of Macedonia (born 356 bce, Pella , Macedonia died June 13, 323 bce, Babylon ), king of Macedonia (336323 bce). He overthrew the Persian empire, carried Macedonian arms to India, and laid the foundations for the Hellenistic world of territorial kingdoms. Already in his lifetime the subject of fabulous stories, he later became the hero of a full-scale legend bearing only the sketchiest resemblance to his historical career Abraham of Ur : whose birth name was Abram, is the eponym of the Abrahamic religions, among which are Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Christians believe that Jesus was a descendant of Abraham through Isaac, and Muslims believe that Muhammad was a descendant of Abraham through Ishmael Siddhartha Gautama: (Religious leader) Siddhartha Gautama, or, Buddha lived in Northern India during the 6th to 4th century B.C. His life serves as the foundation for the Buddhist religion. Scholars agree that he lived, but the facts of his life are debated. Buddhists believe he was a teacher who found enlightenment by sitting under the Bodhi Tree in meditation. When he died, it is believed that he told his disciples to follow no leader. Confucius: Confucius is an ancient Chinese thinker and social philosopher. Scholars believe he was born in 551 B.C. near the city of Qufu . Brought up in poverty, he meditated a great deal about social relationships; his philosophies emphasized personal and governmental morality. Confucius' beliefs form a kind of ethic. His disciples later turned his teachings into a list of elaborate rules. Pericles: Leader of Athens from about 461 to 429 BC, Pericles built the Acropolis, promoted the arts, and fostered democracy. Pericles (born c. 495) was born to a wealthy family, and entered politics at a young age. He financed playwright Aeschylus' Persian trilogy, and used his military triumphs to gain power over Athens ' democratic party. Martin Luther: Theologian Martin Luther forever changed Christianity when he began the Protestant Reformation in 16th-century Europe . Born in Germany in 1483, Martin Luther became one of the most influential figures in Christian history when he began the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century. He called into question some of the basic tenets of Roman Catholicism, and his followers soon split from the Roman Catholic church to begin the Protestant tradition. John Calvin: Theologian John Calvin was the leading French Protestant Reformer and the most important figure in the second generation of the Protestant Reformation. John Calvin was born July 10, 1509, in Noyon , France . A theologian and ecclesiastical statesman, he was the leading French Protestant Reformer and the most important figure in the second generation of the Protestant Reformation. His interpretation of Christianity and the institutional and social patterns he worked out for Geneva influenced Protestantism elsewhere in Europe and in North America . Charles the V (of HRE): Holy Roman emperor (151956), king of Spain (as Charles I, 151656), and archduke of Austria (as Charles I, 151921), who inherited a Spanish and Habsburg empire extending across Europe from Spain and the Netherlands to Austria and the Kingdom of Naples and reaching overseas to Spanish America. He struggled to hold his empire together against the growing forces of Protestantism, increasing Turkish and French pressure, and even hostility from the Pope. Voltaire: Voltaire was a 18th-century writer known for his satirical wit in such works as Candide and Zadig. After being exiled from France due to his writing, Voltaire came back only to again flee Paris after another uproar. Beyond his works on philosophical and moral issues, he wrote contes (tales), including Zadig, Micromgas and his best-known work, Candide (1759), a satire on philosophical optimism. He also took an interest in any cases of injustice, especially resulting from religious prejudice. Thomas Hobbes: Thomas Hobbes was an English philosopher, scientist and historian, best known for his political philosophy, articulated in his masterpiece Leviathan. Thomas Hobbes was an English philosopher, scientist and historian, best known for his political philosophy, articulated in his masterpiece Leviathan. His ideas formed the basis of almost all Western political ideas, including the right of the individual; that political power must be "representative"; and a liberal interpretation of law (acts are allowed if they are not explicitly forbidden). John Locke: English philosopher John Locke's works lie at the foundation of modern philosophical empiricism and political liberalism. John Locke, born August 29, 1632, in Wrington, Somerset , England , went to Westminster school and then Christ Church , University of Oxford . At Oxford he studied medicine, which would play a central role in his life. He became a highly influential philosopher, writing about such topics as political philosophy, epistemology, and education. Locke's writings helped found modern Western philosophy. Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a prominent Swiss-French philosopher who defended the idea that man is good by nature but is corrupted by society. Born in 1712 in Geneva , Switz., Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a prominent Swiss-French philosopher. At the age of 16, he fled to France to live with his lover, the baronne de Warens. His first and famous work was the Discourse on the Arts and Sciences, where he defended the highly contentious idea that man is good by nature but is corrupted by society. He also composed operas. He died insane in 1767. Baron de Montesquieu: Montesquieu was one of the great political philosophers of the Enlightenment. Insatiably curious and mordantly funny, he constructed a naturalistic account of the various forms of government, and of the causes that made them what they were and that

advanced or constrained their development. He used this account to explain how governments might be preserved from corruption. He saw despotism, in particular, as a standing danger for any government not already despotic, and argued that it could best be prevented by a system in which different bodies exercised legislative, executive, and judicial power, and in which all those bodies were bound by the rule of law. This theory of the separation of powers had an enormous impact on liberal political theory, and on the framers of the constitution of the United States of America . James Madison: Born on March 16, 1751 in Port Conway, Virginia, James Madison served as the fourth President of the United States (18091817) and is considered one of the Founding Fathers of the United States . He was the principal author of the United States Constitution, and is often called the "Father of the Constitution." As Jefferson's Secretary of State, Madison supervised the Louisiana Purchase . Adam Smith: (Philosopher, ) Adam Smith was baptized June 5, 1723, in Kirkcaldy , Scotland . After publishing The Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759), he became the tutor of the future Duke of Buccleuch; with him he traveled to France , where Smith consorted with other eminent thinkers. In 1776, Smith published An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, the first comprehensive system of political economy. King Louis the XVI: Louis XVI was born Louis-Auguste at Versailles on August 23, 1754. Following the death of his grandfather Louis XV, he ruled as King of France. One day after being convicted of conspiracy with foreign powers and sentenced to death by the French National Convention, King Louis XVI is executed by guillotine in the Place de la Revolution in Paris . - King Henry VII: 28 June 1491 28 January 1547 besides his six marriages, Henry VIII is known for his role in the separation of the Church of England from the Roman Catholic Church. Henry's struggles with Rome led to the separation of the Church of England from papal authority, the Dissolution of the Monasteries, and establishing himself as the Supreme Head of the Church of England. Muhammed Ali: (4 March 1769 2 August 1849) was an Albanian commander in the Ottoman army, who became Wli, and self-declared Khedive of Egypt and Sudan. Though not a modern nationalist, he is regarded as the founder of modern Egypt because of the dramatic reforms in the military, economic and cultural spheres that he instituted. He also ruled Levantine territories outside Egypt . The dynasty that he established would rule Egypt and Sudan until the Egyptian Revolution of 1952 Peter the Great: Political Leader, Tsar / 1672 1725 Peter the Great was a Russian czar in the late 17th century who is best known for his extensive reforms in an attempt to establish Russia as a great nation. He created a strong navy, reorganized his army according to Western standards, secularized schools, administered greater control over the reactionary Orthodox Church, and introduced new administrative and territorial divisions of the country. Max Robespierre: Maximilien de Robespierre was on born May 6, 1758 in Arras , France . He was a radical Jacobin leader and one of the principal figures in the French Revolution. In the latter months of 1793 he came to dominate the Committee of Public Safety, the principal organ of the Revolutionary government during the Reign of Terror, but in 1794 he was overthrown and guillotined in the Thermidorian Reaction. Napoleon: Military general and first Emperor of France, Napoleon Bonaparte was born on August 15,1769 in Ajaccio , Corsica . One of the most celebrated personages in the history of the West, he revolutionized military organization and training; sponsored the Napoleonic Code; reorganized education; and established the long-lived Concordat with the papacy. Bonaparte died May 5,1821 on St. Helena Island . Simon Bolivar: Simn Bolvar was a Venezuelan military leader who was instrumental in freeing Latin America from the Spanish Empire. After Napoleon named Bonaparte king of Spain 's colonies in the New World . Bolvar joined and eventually led the resistance movement. Under his leadership, the country of Bolivia was created. He united much of South America and many plazas are named after him throughout the world. George Washington: American general and commander in chief of the colonial armies in the American Revolution (177583) and subsequently first president of the United States (178997). Toussaint l' Overture: Toussaint l'Ouverture was the son of an educated slave, and in a sudden slave revolt (August 1791), he discerned the ineptitude of the rebel leaders and scorned their willingness to compromise with European radicals. Collecting an army of his own, Toussaint trained his followers in the tactics of guerrilla warfare, and by 1795 lOuverture was widely renowned for ending slavery on the island. Louis Pasture: Louis Pasteur (born Dec. 27, 1822, Dole , France ) is one of the most important founders of medical microbiology. He pioneered the study of molecular asymmetry; discovered that microorganisms cause fermentation and disease; originated the process of pasteurization; saved the beer, wine, and silk industries in France ; and developed vaccines against anthrax and rabies. Eli Whitney: Eli Whitney is best remembered as the inventor of the cotton gin (1793), which led to greatly increased production of the short-staple cotton grown in much of the South, making the region prosperous. The most important innovation credited to Whitney may be the concept of mass production of interchangeable parts. This idea helped inaugurate the vastly important American System of manufacture. Thomas Edison: the quintessential American inventor. Before he died, he gave us the phonograph, the transmitter for the telephone speaker, an improved lightbulb, and key elements of motion-picture apparatus, as well as other bright inventions. He also created the world's first industrial research laboratory. Abraham Lincoln: Abraham Lincoln is one of America s greatest heroes because of his unique appeal. His is a remarkable story of the rise from humble beginnings to achieve the highest office in the land; then, a sudden and tragic death at a time when his country needed him most to complete the great task remaining before the nation. His distinctively human and humane personality and historical role as savior of the Union and emancipator of the slaves creates a legacy that endures. His eloquence of democracy, and his insistence that the Union was worth saving embody the ideals of self-government that all nations strive to achieve. Mohandas Gandhi: born on October 2, 1869 in Bristish India . He became the pre-eminent political and ideological leader of India during the Indian independence movement. He pioneered a belief in resistance to tyranny through mass civil disobedience, based on total nonviolence. This concept helped India to gain independence, and inspired movements for civil rights and freedom across the world.

 Francis Ferdinand: Ferdinand was born February 26, 1861, in Vienna , Austria . The youngest son of Prince Augustus I of Saxe-CoburgGotha, he was elected prince of Bulgaria in 1887. He became an important factor influencing national affairs. In 1908, he used the occasion of the eve of the Austro-Hungarian annexation of Bosnia-Hercegovina to proclaim Bulgaria 's full independence and assumed the title of king Gavrilo Princip: (On 28 June 1914) was the man who assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria and his wife, Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg, in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. Otto von Bismarck: prime minister of Prussia (186273, 187390) and founder and first chancellor (187190) of the German Empire. Once the empire was established, he actively and skillfully pursued pacific policies in foreign affairs, succeeding in preserving the peace in Europe for about two decades. But in domestic policies his patrimony was less benign, for he failed to rise above the authoritarian proclivities of the landed squirearchy to which he was born. Rudyard Kipling: Rudyard Kipling was born in India and suffered an abusive childhood after his parents sent him back to England for schooling. Upon returning to India , he worked as a journalist for seven years. When he started writing poetry and fiction - before the radio or TV existed - his work brought him immense fame. He is best remembered for his adventure novel The Jungle Book and the poemsGunga Din and If. Woodrow Wilson : Woodrow Wilson was born December 28, 1856, in Staunton , Virginia . After serving as president of Princeton University , he became governor of New Jersey in 1910. He became the 28th president of the United States in 1913, and was reelected in 1916. On October 2, 1919, he suffered a massive stroke that left him partially paralyzed. He finished his term but never again fully functioned as president. Tsar Alexander II: Alexander was born in Moscow on April 17, 1818, and came to the throne on February 19, 1855, after the death of his father. After his accession to the throne, Alexander II implemented important reforms, notably the abolition of serfdom, as well as changes in national, military and municipal organization. He also rethought foreign policy: Russia now refrained from overseas expansion and concentrated on strengthening its borders. His greatest foreign policy achievement was the successful war of 1877-8 against the Ottoman Empire, resulting in the liberation of Bulgaria and annulment of the conditions of the Treaty of Paris of 1856, imposed after Russia 's defeat in the Crimean War. - Tsar Nicholas II: was the last Emperor of Russia Nicholas II ruled from 1894 until his abdication on 15 March 1917. His reign saw Imperial Russia go from being one of the foremost great powers of the world to economic and military collapse. Critics nicknamed him Bloody Nicholas because of the Khodynka Tragedy, Bloody Sunday, the anti-Semitic pogroms, his execution of political opponents, and his pursuit of military campaigns on a hitherto unprecedented scale. Vladimir Lenin: founded the Russian Communist Party, led the Bolshevik Revolution and was the architect of the Soviet state. He was the posthumous source of Leninism, the doctrine codified and conjoined with Marx's works by Lenin's successors to form MarxismLeninism, which became the Communist worldview. He has been regarded as the greatest revolutionary leader and thinker since Marx. David Livingstone: David Livingstone was ordained in 1840 and decided to work in Africa to open up the interior for colonization, extend the Gospel and abolish the slave trade. In his explorations into Africa , he penetrated spots deeper than any white man previously. His attempt to find the source of the Nile failed, but he produced a complex body of knowledge that took decades to mine. Documents: English Bill of Rights: Declaration of Independence : When armed conflict between bands of American colonists and British soldiers began in April 1775, the Americans were ostensibly fighting only for their rights as subjects of the British crown. By the following summer, with the Revolutionary War in full swing, the movement for independence from Britain had grown, and delegates of the Continental Congress were faced with a vote on the issue. In mid-June 1776, a five-man committee including Thomas Jefferson, John Adams and Benjamin Franklin was tasked with drafting a formal statement of the colonies' intentions. The Congress formally adopted the Declaration of Independence--written largely by Jefferson--in Philadelphia on July 4, a date now celebrated as the birth of American independence. Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen: One of the basic charters of human liberties, containing the principles that inspired the French Revolution. Its 17 articles, adopted between August 20 and August 26, 1789, by France 's National Assembly, served as the preamble to the Constitution of 1791. Similar documents served as the preamble to the Constitution of 1793 (retitled simply Declaration of the Rights of Man) and to the Constitution of 1795 (retitled Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man and the Citizen). Louisiana Purchase: Encompassing the western half of the Mississippi River basin , the Louisiana Territory was acquired from France in 1803. At less than three cents per acre for 828,000 square miles (2,144,520 square km), it was the greatest land bargain in U.S. history. The purchase doubled the size of the United States , greatly strengthened the country materially and strategically, provided a powerful impetus to westward expansion and confirmed the doctrine of implied powers of the federal Constitution. Treaty of Versailles : The Treaty of Versailles, signed in the Versailles Palace outside Paris on June 28, 1919, between the Allied and Associated Powers on the one hand and Germany on the other, brought World War I to an end. From the moment of its signature, the treaty ignited a continuing controversy over its treatment of Germany , with some arguing from the beginning that it was far too harsh, and others that it was too lenient to ensure a lasting peace. Emancipation Proclamation: When the American Civil War (1861-65) began, President Abraham Lincoln carefully framed the conflict as concerning the preservation of the Union rather than the abolition of slavery. Although he personally found the practice of slavery abhorrent, he knew that neither Northerners nor the residents of the border slave states would support abolition as a war aim. But by mid-1862, as thousands of slaves fled to join the invading Northern armies, Lincoln was convinced that abolition had become a sound military strategy, as well as the morally correct path. On September 22, soon after the Union victory at Antietam , he issued a preliminary Emancipation Proclamation, declaring that as of January 1, 1863, all slaves in the rebellious states "shall be then, thenceforward, and forever free." While the

Emancipation Proclamation did not free a single slave, it was an important turning point in the war, transforming the fight to preserve the nation into a battle for human freedom. U.S. Constitution: The U.S. Constitution established America 's national government and fundamental laws, and guaranteed certain basic rights for its citizens. It was signed on September 17, 1787, by delegates to the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia , presided over by George Washington. Under America 's first governing document, the Articles of Confederation, the national government was weak and states operated like independent countries. At the 1787 convention, delegates devised a plan for a stronger federal government with three branches-executive, legislative and judicial--along with a system of checks and balances to ensure no single branch would have too much power. The Bill of Rights--10 amendments guaranteeing basic individual protections such as freedom of speech and religion--became part of the Constitution in 1791. To date, there have been a total of 27 constitutional amendments. Zimmermann Telegram: a 1917 diplomatic proposal from the German Empire to Mexico to make war against the United States . The proposal was intercepted and decoded by British intelligence. Revelation of the contents outraged American public opinion and helped generate support for the United States declaration of war on Germany in April.[ A White Mans Burden: a poem by the English poet Rudyard Kipling. It was originally published in the popular magazine McClure's in 1899, with the subtitle The United States and the Philippine Islands .[1] Although Kipling's poem mixed exhortation to empire with somber warnings of the costs involved, imperialists within the United States understood the phrase "white man's burden" as a characterization for imperialism that justified the policy as a noble enterprise Social contract/constitution: Artistic Movements - Impressionism-Impressionism is a 19th century artistic movement that swept much of the painting and sculpture styles of the period. It was not just a passing fad but has defined an entirely modern way of expressing ones artistry that eventually rubbed of in other art forms like literature, photography and film making in modern film schools. - Romanticism-attitude or intellectual orientation that characterized many works of literature, painting, music, architecture, criticism, and historiography in Western civilization over a period from the late 18th to the mid-19th century. Romanticism can be seen as a rejection of the precepts of order, calm, harmony, balance, idealization, and rationality that typified Classicism in general and late 18th-century Neoclassicism in particular. It was also to some extent a reaction against the Enlightenment and against 18th-century rationalism and physical materialism in general. Modernism-in the arts, a radical break with the past and the concurrent search for new forms of expression. Modernism fostered a period of experimentation in the arts from the late 19th to the mid-20th century, particularly in the years following World War I. - Cubism-highly influential visual arts style of the 20th century that was created principally by the artists Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque in Paris between 1907 and 1914. The Cubist style emphasized the flat, two-dimensional surface of the picture plane, rejecting the traditional techniques of perspective, foreshortening, modeling, and chiaroscuro, and refuting time-honoured theories that art should imitate nature. Cubist painters were not bound to copying form, texture, colour, and space; instead, they presented a new reality in paintings that depicted radically fragmented objects. - Dada movement-nihilistic movement in the arts that flourished primarily in Zrich, Switzerland; New York City; Berlin, Cologne, and Hannover, Germany; and Paris in the early 20th century Events - Renaissance-Rebirth of Greco-Roman culture (arts and intellectual pursuits) that lasted from 1300s to 1500s. Reflected the spirit of individualism and encouraged a split from religious-based thinking and a focus on the things of this world (secularism). Artists such as Donatello and Michelangelo studied muscle structure, and their work accurately reflects the natural from. Architecture mimicked the simple and elegant structures designed by Greco-Roman builders with the addition of the dome. Humanist scholars concentrated on morals, literature, and history based on a deep commitment to Christianity. - Protestant Reformation-Martin Luther found support following the publication of his Nine-five Thesis, and a movement to reform the Roman Catholic Church followed. The movement was widespread across Germany ; many churches reformed their religious services to reflect Protestant doctrine. The reformation spread beyond Germany into England and Switzerland . In England , King Henry VIII established the Anglican Church, naming himself the highest religious authority in the land. In Switzerland , John Calvin founded a Protestant community. Catholic authorities began their reform, the Counter-Reformation. - Bolshevik Revolution-The second part of the Russian Revolution led by Vladimir Lenin and his Bolshevik Party. In October 1917the Bolsheviks gained control of the Petrograd soviet and overthrew the provisional government in a bloodless coup. With the Bolsheviks in control, efforts were made to transform the political and economic landscape of the nation; Russia pulled out of WWI, and legislation was passed that redistributed land to the peasants. Russia , renamed the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was the worlds first communist nation. - Bloody Sunday-In 1905 a peaceful demonstration at the tsars winter palace in St. Petersburg turned violent when the tsars guards opened fire on the unarmed crowd. The protesters, led by a priest, wanted to present a petition to Czar Nicholas II asking for a representative assembly; instead many protestors were killed. Unrest broke out across the country, and soon soviets (local councils) were organized, seeking to organize strikes and gain political rights. The czar responded by creating the Duma, Russia s first parliament. The czar was able to restore some level of stability to the nation, but many lost faith in the Romanovs, and the stage was set for the end of imperial rule. - Taiping Rebellion-A rebellion by Chinese peasants that threatened the Qing dynasty. The Taiping offered a new vision of China that included the redistribution of land, public education, and the rights of women. The Qing organized a powerful army that had the support of the scholar-gentry, the class most threatened by the Taiping reforms. Although the rebellion failed, the destruction and death it caused were massive and forced the Qing to make reforms; the most well-known was called the Self-Strengthening Movement. - Sepoy Rebellion-A revolt led by Indian soldiers against the British East Company in protest of rules that threatened religious traditions. Rebellion broke out, and although it was quickly put down, the British government took direct political control of India .

- Crimean War-In the 19th century, war between Russia and an alliance of British, French, and Ottoman troops broke out after Russia had threatened the stability of the Ottoman Empire by seeking to take Ottoman-controlled territory in the Balkans. Russia was easily defeated; the defeat was humiliating and evidence of the Wests superior military and industrial strength. In response to the defeat, Russian czars sought to reform the Russian military and economy. - Congress of Vienna -A meeting held from 1814 to 1815 in Vienna and attended by representatives of nations that had defeated Napoleon Bonaparte. The goal was to restore Europe to the way prior to the French Revolution. Led by Prince Metternich of Austria , the representatives wanted to reestablish boundaries, restore legitimate monarchs, and negotiate a balance of power in the hopes of preventing any one nation in Europe from gaining too much power. - Armenian Genocide-The massive and deliberate killing of Armenian civilians by the Ottoman Turks. With an increase in nationalism, the government, which historically had been tolerant of the many religious and ethnic groups living in the empire, began to distrust its citizens. In the 1890s, the Turks targeted Christian Armenians, believing that they were supportive of Russia and no longer loyal to the empire. Genocide ensued, and millions of Armenians were killed over a 25-year period. - Russo-Japanese War-Imperial rivalries led to armed conflict between Russia and Japan for control of parts of Korea and Manchuria . Japan s victory over China surprised many and worried the Russians, who had imperial hopes of controlling Korea and Manchuria . In 1904, Japan attacked Port Arthur , a Russian port in southern Manchuria, and then Korea . Russia and Japan battled on both land and sea; the Japanese were victorious. Russia s defeat in East Asia marked the first time an Eastern power had won a decisive victory over a Western one and paved the way for Japan to be the premier empire builder in Asia . - Berlin Conference-A meeting of European powers in which the rules for colonizing Africa were established: European powers had to notify one another of their intentions to take control of an area. Occurred in response to the establishment of British and Belgian colonies in Africa as European nations scrambled to get a piece of the continent. The entire continent was completely divided up by 1885 with the exception of Liberia and Ethiopia . The drawing of new boundaries with no regard for the natives who lived there eventually contributed to numerous problems, including civil wars. - Haitian Revolution-Begun as a slave revolt in which enslaved Africans rebelled against French settlers. The French colony of Saint Domingue was the first colony in Latin America to gain its independence. Leaders such as Toussaint-Louverture, a slave himself, organized the rebellious Africans into an army. Fearful that the slaves might succeed in overthrowing the white settlers, Napoleon sent troops to the island to put down the revolt. In 1804, Saint Domingue declared its independence; renamed Haiti , it became the first republic in Latin America . - Industrialization Revolution-The advent of mechanization revolutionized the production of goods. Key inventions included the flying shuttle and the spinning jenny-designed to make cotton spinning quicker and more efficient. At first machines were powered by wind and water, but by the late 1700s, the steam engine was powering machines, as well as making changes in the transportation industry. Advances in steam power and steel production revolutionized the transportation industry. Steamships and railroads were used to transport cargo. Rail lines connected industrial centers to mines and ports. - Mexican-American War-The Mexican-American war an argument over Texas borders. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo on February, 1848 allowed U.S. to buy Texas from Mexico . Fifteen million to Mexico , for land of Californian , Nevada , parts of Arizona , New Mexico , Colorado , and right for Texas . - Boxer Rebellion-An internal rebellion led by a group known as the Boxers, who unsuccessfully sought to rid China of foreign influence. Following their attempt to gain control of foreign embassies in Beijing , foreign forces moved quickly to put down the rebellion. The defeat of the Boxers allowed foreigners to gain even more concessions from the Qing; China had to pay for damages to foreign-held property. The rebellion further weakened the ruling family, who within a decade would be overthrown by Chinese nationalists. - Spanish-American War-In response to the destruction of a U.S. ship in Havana s harbor and under the guise of protecting American business interests in Cuba , as well as the interest of those Cubans suffering under Spanish rule, the United States declared war on Spain . The U.S. quickly defeated the Spanish and gained control of Cuba , Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines . The U.S. emerged as an imperial power. - Enlightenment- Enlightenment ideas were unpopular with many governments and with the church, both of whom sought to censor both of whom sought to censor new ideas about reason and logic. In the late 18 th and early 19th centuries, Enlightenment ideas played a key role in the American and French Revolutions, as well as in the Latin American wars for independence. - Sino-Japanese War-A war fought between China and Japan for control of Korea . Korea became a target of Japan s expansionist policy following rapid industrialization in the Meji era. Japan s modern army quickly defeated the Chinese troops, and in April 1895 the Qing signed the Treaty of Shimonoseku. The Qing agreed to stay out of Korea , gave up rights to parts of Manchuria, and ceded Taiwan to the Japanese. The war a clear indication of Japan s imperial aspirations in Asian and a reflection of China s inability to keep pace with a fast-changing world. - Opium War-A conflict fought between Britain and China (1839-1842) over British sale of opium in China . Because China had a favorable side, the British took action. Britain defeats Chin and makes them sign unequal treaties such as the Treaty of Nanjing which made China pay for damaged opium. Chinese economy fell due to this. - Scientific Revolution-The intellectual movement in Europe , initially associated with planetary motion and other aspects of physics that by the seventeenth century had laid the groundwork for modern science. - Emancipation of the Serfs-Following a humiliating defeat by Western power in the Crimean War, Russian czars sought to reform society through state-sponsored industrialization. Following years of social unrest and demands to end serfdom on moral grounds, Czar Alexander II abolished serfdom in 1861. Some emancipated serfs remained on the land, but their lives barely improved; many others moved to cities and became a new urban workforce in Russia s push to industrialize. Agricultural productivity was improved. By the turn of the 20 th century, the nation was on the brink of revolution. - American Revolution-The thirteen British colonies in North America resented legislation passed by the British Parliament levying taxes to pay off their debts accumulated during the Seven Year and Indian War and infringing on their rights. Under the banner No taxation without

representation they sought the right to govern themselves. In 1774, the Continental Congress was formed to oversee the colonists anti-British actions, and on July 4, 1776, the Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence. The declaration, greatly influenced by Enlightenment thinking, provided the colonists with a justification for seeking independence from the crown, arguing that government is based on the consent of the governed and that the purpose of government is to protect and secure the rights of its citizens. War began, and with the aid of France , the colonists forced the British to surrender in 1781. - French Revolution-In 1789, King Louis XVI summoned representatives to a meeting of the Estates General to convince them of the necessity of raising taxes. France was deeply in debt as the result of foreign spending. Representatives from the Third Estate, which equal over 95 percent of the population, met with the king to convince him to approve extensive social, economic, and political reforms that would accord them more rights and protections. With each of the three estates receiving one vote, a favorable outcome was unlikely. In 1789, the Third Estate broke away from the Estates general and declared themselves the National Assembly. The following month, with the storming of the Bastille, revolution spread from the streets of Paris to the peasants in the country. Under the banner life, liberty, and fraternity, the National Assembly wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Man, which identified the natural rights of citizens, stated the equality of all men, and expressed the belief that sovereignty belonged to the people. Mexican Revolution-Discontent after decades of limiting social reform led Mexicans to demand change. After Mexico gained independence from Spain in the early 1800s, it quickly fell under the control of a series of dictators. General Porfirio Diaz ruled Mexico in the early 1900s; although he improved the economy, socially Mexico was suffering. Mexican nationalists, including Emiliano Zapata and Pancho Villa, gained support from the peasants and together with the middle class overthrew Diaz in 1911. In 1917 Mexico adopted a new constitution that established land reform through the government policy of land redistribution and granted rights to workers and women. Education and healthcare were improved. Universal suffrage was granted. Mexican nationalism encouraged the government to take control of industry and discouraged foreign-owned businesses. - 2nd Agricultural Revolution-Started in the 1750s. The old methods had improved by the Dutch. New methods such as: creation of more farmland, fertilizers from livestock, mixing soils, farming journals, crop rotation, seed drill and land enclosures. The revolution led to industrialization along with rapid population growth. - French Invasion of Russia-In 1812. Napoleon decided to invade Russia . At the head of the Grande Armee he crossed into Russia in June 1812. The strategy of Russian general Kutusov was to refuse an open battle - in which Napoleon was regarded superior - and instead to retreat, leaving nothing behind that might be of use and to constantly harass the enemy. Napoleon emerged victorious from the Battles of Smolensk and Borodino and entered Moscow in September, with only 110,000 of his soldiers remaining. However, many Moscovites had left the city, and Russia did not surrender. Instead, the Russians set their ancient capital afire again and again. After weeks of waiting, Napoleon realized that Russia would not surrender and he and his army would starve to death during the coming winter. So he decided to retreat. Kutusov had the Russian army shadow the French and constantly harass them. When Napoleon reached the Berezina river, only 30.000 were left. While the remnant of the Grande Armee was crossing the icy river, Russian cannons opened fire. The bridge was destroyed, and so was the Grande Armee. Napoleon, leaving his army behind, fled on a sled. Only 5.000 of his soldiers reached Poland in December. - U.S. Civil War-The American Civil War (1861 - 1865) was one of the most violent times in the History of the United States. Many books have been written on all aspects of the Civil War. Eleven southern states withdrew from the Union . The southern states believed they didnt need the rest of the U.S. The northerners fought for abolishing slavery and free labor. More than 600,000 men gave their lives for their country in this war. This is more lives lost in one war than in all wars and conflicts combined following this period in time. - 1905 Russian Revolution-The 1905 Revolution was an uprising of the people of Russia calling for a change in their government. It was started by anxious troops opening fire on peaceful marchers in St. Petersburg on January 9, 1905, a date which has since been called "Bloody Sunday." Tsar Nicholas II, after struggling to regain control of the nation for almost a year, found peace by creating the October Manifesto, a document which granted basic civil liberties and rights to the Russian people and gave citizens a voice in the government through the election of the Duma. The 1905 Revolution caused significant reform in Russia . - Sinking of the Lusitania-The sinking of the Lusitania and resulting deaths of civilians and neutral nationals aboard the ship is considered one of the first modern examples of total war and a turning point in World War I. The nature of the explosions that sank the ship and the politics surrounding her demise remain controversial topics. Contrary to popular belief, the Lusitania disaster was not the proximate cause of the United States entering the First World War; however, the sinking of the steamship Lusitania is often credited for turning the then-neutral American public opinion against Germany . Furthermore, Germany , fearing American wrath, restrained themselves in submarine warfare, which may have been Germany s best chance at winning the war. Yet, it was Germany s very resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare in early 1917 that finally forced the U.S. to declare war. - Battle of Verdun -The Battle of Verdun is considered the greatest and lengthiest in world history. Never before or since has there been such a lengthy battle, involving so many men, situated on such a tiny piece of land. The battle, which lasted from 21 February 1916 until 19 December 1916 caused over an estimated 700,000 casualties (dead, wounded and missing). The battlefield was not even a square ten kilometers. From a strategic point of view there can be no justification for these atrocious losses. - Battle of the Somme-The battle most people associate with the Somme is the one that opened on 1 July 1916 when a mainly volunteer British Army of 16 divisions in concert with 5 French divisions attacked entrenched German positions in the Department of the Somme in France . Over-reliance by the British on the destruction of the enemy defenses by preparatory artillery bombardment led to almost 60,000 British casualties on the first day and more than 400,000 before the fighting ended on 17 November 1916. The maximum advance made in all that time was six and a half miles. Total German casualties are estimated to have been about the same as the British, and the French were almost 200,000. In the larger Somme guide book the actions of the Australians, Canadians and Americans on the Somme are covered. - Battle of Gallipoli-The Gallipoli Campaign of 1915-16, also known as the Battle of Gallipoli or the Dardanelles Campaign, was an unsuccessful attempt by the Allied Powers to control the sea route from Europe to Russia during World War I. The campaign began with a failed naval attack by British and French ships on the Dardanelles Straits in February-March 1915 and continued with a major land invasion of the Gallipoli Peninsula on April 25, involving British and French troops as well as divisions of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps.

Lack of sufficient intelligence and knowledge of the terrain, along with a fierce Turkish resistance, hampered the success of the invasion. By mid-October, Allied forces had suffered heavy casualties and had made little headway from their initial landing sites. Evacuation began in December 1915, and was completed early the following January. - Armistice Day-When the fighting stopped, leaders of several countries signed an Armistice on the 11th hour, of the 11th day, of the 11th month. An Armistice is an agreement to stop all fighting, in other words a truce. This truce was signed on November 11th, 1918 at 11 A.M. This is important to know because Veterans' Day was originally called Armistice Day. This day was set aside to reflect and remember the sacrifices men and women made during World War I in order to ensure peace. The first official celebration was on November 11th, 1919. 2nd part of terms - Clergy: one who is a priest, preacher, pastor, or other religious professional. Depending on the religion, clergy usually take care of the ritual aspects of the religious life, teach or otherwise help in spreading the religion's doctrine and practices. In Christianity there is a wide range of formal and informal clergy positions, including deacons, priests, bishops, preachers, pastors, and ministers. The specific names and roles of clergy vary by denomonation. In Shia Islam, religious leaders are usually known as imams or ayatollahs. In Judaism religious teachers are usually known as rabbis. - Nobility: is a social class distinguished by high hereditary or honorary rank that possesses privileges, or eminence, and certain rights not granted to members of other classes in a society. The privileges of the nobility often comprise substantial real advantages, including rights of access that vary from country to country and era to era. Traditional membership in the nobility is highly regulated by monarchist governments, which grant the ranks and titles to members of the elite. - Manifest Destiny: was the 19th century American belief that the United States was destined to expand across the continent. It was used by Democrats in the 1840s to justify the war with Mexico. Manifest Destiny played an important role in the expansion of Texas and American relationship with Mexico. Destiny was cited to promote overseas expansion - Imperialism: the process whereby the dominant politico-economic interests of one nation expropriate for their own enrichment the land, labor, raw materials, and markets of another people. The term as such primarily has been applied to Western political and economic dominance in the 19th and 20th centuries. the term "Age of Imperialism" generally refers to the activities of nations such as the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy, Japan and the United States in the early 18th through the middle 20th centuries, e.g., the "The Great Game" in Persian lands, the "Scramble for Africa" and the "Open Door Policy" in China. Europe s expansion into territorial imperialism had much to do with the great economic benefit from collecting resources from colonies, in combination with assuming political control often by military means. - Old vs. New Colonialism: Colonialism is generally defined as the occupation and control of one nation by another. - Protectorate: it retains formal sovereignty, and remains a state under international law. A territory subject to this type of arrangement is also known as a protected state. a protectorate was established by or exercised by the other form of indirect rule. A protected state is a territory under a ruler which enjoys Her Britannic Majesty's protection, over whose foreign affairs she exercises control, but in respect of whose internal affairs she does not exercise jurisdiction - Direct vs. Indirect Rule: indirect was a system of government that was developed in certain British colonial dependencies (parts of Africa and Asia ). By this system, much of the day-to-day government of localities was left in the hands of traditional rulers thus allowing a limited number of European colonial administrators to effectively oversee the government of large numbers of people spread over extensive areas. Direct rule also used the strategy of "divide and rule" by implementing policies that intentionally weakened indigenous power networks and institutions. - Propaganda: Each of the nations which participated in World War One from 1914-18 used propaganda posters not only as a means of justifying involvement to their own populace, but also as a means of procuring men, money and resources to sustain the military campaign Propaganda was used and the truth suffered. Propaganda ensured that the people only got to know what their governments wanted them to know. - Wilson s 14 Points: On 8th January, 1918, President Woodrow Wilson presented his Peace Programme to Congress. He believed the enactment of these would form the basis for a just, lasting peace. They were however considered as controversial by America 's Allies in the war, and were resisted during the subsequent Paris Peace Conference, although they had formed the basis for Germany 's surrender in November 1918. - League of Nations: (On 28 June 1919, 44 states signed the Covenant, including 31 states which had taken part in the war on the side of the Triple Entente or joined it during the conflict.) was an intergovernmental organization founded as a result of the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War. It was the first permanent international organization whose principal mission was to maintain world peace. Its primary goals, included preventing war through collective security and disarmament, and settling international disputes through negotiation and arbitration - Schlieffens Plan: Alfred von Schlieffen, was given instructions to devise a strategy that would be able to counter a joint attack Schlieffen argued that if war took place it was vital that France was speedily defeated. If this happened, Britain and Russia would be unwilling to carry on fighting. Schlieffen calculated that it would take Russia six weeks to organize its large army for an attack on Germany . Therefore, it was vitally important to force France to surrender before Russia was ready to use all its forces. - unrestricted submarine warfare: unrestricted submarine warfare) used constantly by Germany in February 1917) is a type of naval warfare in which submarines sink merchantmen without warning. While such tactics increase the combat effectiveness of the submarine and improve its chances of survival, they are considered by some [7] to be a breach of the rules of war, especially when employed against neutral country vessels in a war zone. U-boat campaign of World War I, waged intermittently by Germany between 1915 and 1918 against Britain and her allies. This warfare was ostensibly the casus belli for the United States and Brazil's entry into the war in 1917. - Armistice: is generally referred to in context of the agreement between the Germans and the Allies to end the war on November 11, 1918. was signed at 5 a.m. on the morning of 11 November 1918, and came into effect six hours later at 11 a.m. All territorial conquests achieved by the Central Powers had to be abandoned.

- Total War: "total war" was identified by scholars as a separate class of warfare. In a total war, there is less differentiation between combatants and civilians than in other conflicts, and sometimes no such differentiation at all, as nearly every human resource, civilians and soldiers alike, can be considered to be part of the belligerent effort. - Technologies of WWI: reflected a trend toward industrialism and the application of mass production methods to weapons and to the technology of warfare in general. The earlier years of the First World War can be characterized as a clash of 20th-century technology with 19th-century warfare in the form of ineffectual battles with huge numbers of casualties on both sides. : artillery was often sited in the front line to fire over open sights at enemy infantry, mustard gas, aircraft, the tank, etc. - Bolsheviks: were a faction of the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labor Party which split apart from the Menshevik faction at the Second Party Congress in 1903. The Bolsheviks were the majority faction in a crucial vote, hence their name. They ultimately became the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.[5] The Bolsheviks came to power in Russia during the October Revolution phase of the Russian Revolution of 1917, and founded the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic which would later in 1922 become the chief constituent of the Soviet Union. - Red vs. White army: known as the White Guard was a loose confederation of Anti-Communist forces. The movement comprised one of the politico-military Russian forces who fought the "Red" Bolsheviks in the former Russian Empire after the October Revolution, and then against the Red Army in the subsequent Russian Civil War (191723). Workers' and Peasants' Red Army started out as the Soviet Union's revolutionary communist combat groups during the Russian Civil War of 1918-1922. It grew into the national army of the Soviet Union . By the 1930s the Red Army was among the largest armies in history. The "Red Army" name refers to the traditional color of the workers' movement. - peace, land, bread: was the battle cry of the 1917 October Revolution, which overthrew the Russian Provisional Government. Lenin had promised "Peace, Land, and Bread." To the people who helped fight in the war alongside of the Bolsheviks. After several false starts, the Bolsheviks successfully negotiated a separate peace with the Germans, the famous Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. - lost generation: is a term used to refer to the generation, actually a cohort, that came of age during World War I. The term was popularized by Ernest Hemingway who used it as one of two contrasting epigraphs for his novel, The Sun Also Rises. In that volume Hemingway credits the phrase to Gertrude Stein, who was then his mentor and patron. Stein, in telling Hemingway the story, added, "That is what you are. That's what you all are...all of you young people who served in the war. You are a lost generation." the term is used for the period from the end of World War I to the beginning of the Great Depression, though in the United States it is used for the generation of young people who came of age during and shortly after World War I, alternatively known as the World War I generation - isolationism: is the policy or doctrine of isolating one's country from the affairs of other nations by declining to enter into alliances, foreign economic commitments, foreign trade, international agreements, etc., seeking to devote the entire efforts of one's country to its own advancement and remain at peace by avoiding foreign entanglements and responsibilities. Isolationism refers to America 's longstanding reluctance to become involved in European alliances and wars. - Central vs. Allied Powers: Central Power in 1914 came after the Triple alliance of Germany , Austria-Hungary , and Italy . It became the Central powers after Italy left the alliance and the Ottomans and Bulgaria joined the alliance. In the beginning (1914) the Allied powers came after the Triple Alliance with Great Britain , Russia and France and then later on Italy and the US joined. - Trench warfare: Trenches were a major part of WW1. Each side had their own trenches filled with soldiers. The soldiers stayed there for protection from the enemy. The Central and Allied powers fought each other on the Western front in these trenches. - Western vs. Eastern Front: western front- Militarily the war in the west began on August 4, 1914, when German troops from seven Armies swept into Luxembourg and Belgium as part of the "Schleiffen plan," which required a sweeping move through neutral Belgium and down to Paris from the North., The war in the east began with the Russian invasion of East Prussia and the Austro-Hungarian province of Galicia. The first effort quickly turned to a defeat following the Battle of Tannenberg in August 1914. The second incursion was completely successful, with the Russians controlling almost all of Galicia by the end of 1914. - No mans land: associated with the First World War to describe the area of land between two enemy trenches to which neither side wished to move openly or to seize due to fear of being attacked by the enemy in the process. The terms used most frequently at the start of the war to describe the area between the trench lines included 'between the trenches' or 'between the lines'. The term 'no man's land' was first used in a military context by soldier and historian Ernest Swinton in his short story The Point of View. - reparations: were the payments and transfers of property and equipment that Germany was forced to make under the Treaty of Versailles (1919) following its defeat during World War I. Impact of the reparations demands both before and after the publication and signing of the Treaty of Versailles and other Treaties in 1919. - Suez Canal: is an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt, connecting the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. Opened in November 1869 after 10 years of construction work, it allows transportation by water between Europe and Asia without navigation around Africa The geographical position of the Suez Canal makes it the shortest route between East and West as compared with the Cape of Good Hope . - Boers/Boer war: was the name given to the South African Wars of 1880-1 and 1899-1902, that were fought between the British and the descendants of the Dutch settlers (Boers (farmers)) in Africa. After the first Boer War William Gladstone granted the Boers self-government in the Transvaal. TERMS NEOLITHIC The Neolithic Age or the New Stone age was the period in human history where we went from the Old Stone Age to the Bronze Age in technology. It started around 9,500 BC. Humans went from being hunter-gatherers to agrarian. DIRECT DEMOCRACY Direct democracy or pure democracy is a system of government where the people vote on political matters directly. It was first introduced in Athens, Greece in the 5th century.

REPUBLIC A republic is a form of government where the people elect other people to decide on political matters. It is the standard form of government throughout the world. ATHENS The capital and also the largest city of Greece. It was in Athens where democracy was first introduced. The protector or goddess of the city was known as Athena. Its rival city was Sparta. SPARTA The city state was located on the Peloponnesus, a peninsula southwest of Athens. Sparta was a militaristic state. The Spartan government was founded on the principle that the life of every individual belonged to the state. MONOTHEISM Monotheism is the belief in only one god. It is the characteristic of the three Abrahamic faiths: Christianity, Islam, and Judaism. POLYTHEISM Polytheism is the belief in more than one god. Polytheism was the typical form of religion during the Bronze and the Iron Age. In polytheism, there is usually one creator god and a lot of lesser deities. PATRICIANS Upper class of Ancient Rome who elected the two consuls of the Roman republic. The patricians or the aristocracy had the only representation in government thus the republic promoted their interests and did not care about the plebeians or the commoners. This eventually led to conflict between the wealthy and the common people. PLEBIANS The plebeians were the lower class of Ancient Rome. They included everyone in Ancient Rome except the patricians. It ranges from well to do tradesmen all the way down to the very poor people. JUDIASM Judaism was the first monotheistic faith that emerged among the Middle Eastern people known as the Hebrews (the terms Jews and Jewish were not commonly used until the 900s B.C.E.). According to Judaic tradition, the patriarch Abraham entered into a covenant with the god Yahweh who swore to make the Hebrews his chosen people and led them to the promised land of present day Israel. Basic Jewish principles include the worship of a single god, diet restrictions, rules governing sexual practice, practice of slavery, but Jewish scripture also insists on charity, social responsibility, and concern for the poor. CHRISTIANITY Historically and philosophically, Christianity is a child of Judaism. The founder of Christianity was Jesus of Nazareth (4 B.C.E. 29 C.E.) Jesus taught people that charity, compassion, and forgiveness were of paramount importance. Jesus was crucified by the Christians and later venerated into heaven, and thus Christianity was born. Although Christianity became outlawed in the Roman empire, it spread as it appealed to the lower classes of Roman society and thus spread all over Europe to become one of the most practiced religions today. HINDUISM Hinduism is a major religion and cultural tradition of the Indian subcontinent. It developed from the Vedic religion. It is the religion of most of the people in India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and Nepal. BUDDHISM A widespread Asian religion or philosophy founded by Siddhartha Gautama in northeastern India in the 5 th century B.C. The teaching of Buddha is life is permeated with suffering caused by desire, that suffering ceases when desire ceases, and that enlightenment obtained through right conduct and wisdom and meditation releases one from desire and suffering and rebirth DAOISM A Chinese school of thought founded by Laozi. It originated during the Warring States period in China. It offered an alternative to the Confucian emphasis on duty and hierarchy. Thought that humans were good by nature but blinded by needs. Also one should be one with nature. CONFUCIANISM A school of thought founded by Confucius. It originated during the Warring States period in China. It emphasized several qualities. One called Ren, an attitude of kindness. Another was called Li, a sense of propriety. Yet another quality it emphasized was xiao, filial piety. LEGALISM Legalism was the third school of thought that emerged in China during the Warring States period. Unlike Confucians, legalists didnt concern themselves with ethics and morality. Unlike Daoists, they cared nothing about principles governing the world. They devoted all their attention to the states. ISLAM The monotheistic religion articulated by the Quran, the holy book of the religion considered to be the word of Allah. The majority of Muslims are Sunni and the rest are Shia. It is the second-largest religion in the world. COMMITTEE OF PUBLIC SAFETY The Committee of Public Safety created in April 1793, by the National Convention was the executive government in France during the reign of terror. Its power peaked under the rule of Maximilien Robespierre and the radical Jacobin party. NATIONAL ASSEMBLY In June 1789, the third estate of the Estates General broke away and declared them the National Assembly. The National Assembly was greatly influenced by the Enlightenment thinkers and the American Revolution. The National Assembly wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Man, which identified natural rights of citizens, and stated the equality of all men and the belief that sovereignty belonged to the people. In 1791, a constitutional monarchy was established, and the king only had a few powers. Unhappiness with this new form of government led to the creation of a new constitution and the end of the National Assembly

THE DIRECTORY The Directory was a group of conservative men of property who seized power and ruled France after the end of the Reign of Terror. They were unable to resolve the economic and military problems that plagued revolutionary France. ESTATES GENERAL The Estates General was an assembly that represented the entire French population through groups known as estates. In the ancien regime there were three classes; 100,000 Roman Catholic clergy, 400,000 nobles, and 24,000,000 French. Representatives were called into session by Louis at the royal palace of Versailles. TENNIS COURT OATH The Tennis Court Oath was an oath the third estate of France, the commoners, made in an indoor tennis court. They seceded from the Estates General and swore that they would not disband until they have provided France with a written constitution. The group later called themselves the National Assembly. JACOBINS The Jacobins were the most prominent clubs of the French revolution. It started off with good intentions but later became notorious for its implementation of the Reign of Terror. In 1793 and 1794 the Jacobin part and Maximilien Robespierre dominated the Convention. PROLETARIAT An economic and social that emerged during industrialization. The class of wage laborers especially those who work for a living or are dependent on work to survive on a daily basis: the working class. In Ancient Rome, the proletariat was the lowest or poorest class of Rome possessing no private property. URBANIZATION It is the movement from the country side to the cities. The rapid increase in urban population during the Age of Industrialization increased dramatically. Industrial Britain led the world in urbanization. Later about three-quarters of the population were living in cities and working. MAJOR I.R INVENTIONS A lot of major inventions came in at the time of the industrial revolution. John Kay invented the flying shuttle which sped of the weaving process and stimulated the demand for thread. Samuel Crompton invented the mule in 1779 which was adapted for steam power by 1890. SOCIALISM An ideology created by Karl Max and Friedrich Engels where a society doesnt recognize social classes and everyone is equal. According to Marx, socialism is the period of transition between the overthrow of bourgeois rule and the development of a classless, communist society. While somewhat vague about specifics, Marx described the function of socialism as completing the process of equalizing UTOPIA An imaginary place considered to be perfect or ideal in some sort of aspect. Many powerful leaders have tried to establish a utopia (Hitler) but ultimately failed. A utopia will cease to exist due to the imperfect nature of man which ultimately prevents it from happening. COMMUNISM Communism is a theory and system of social and political organization that dominated much of the history of the 20th century. In theory, communism is a classless society in which all property is owned by the community as a whole and where all people enjoy equal social and economic status. As a political movement, communism sought to overthrow capitalism through a workers revolution and redistribute the wealth in the hands of the proletariat, or working class. Marxists believe that just as society has evolved from feudalism to capitalism; it will evolve into socialism and eventually Communism. ZIONISM A nationalist movement that emerged in the late 1800s with the stated goal of establishing a Jewish state in Palestine. After WWII, Zionist goals were realized. After years of conflict between Arabs of Palestine and the more recently arrived Jews, the United Nations took control of the region, and in May 1948 the state of Israel was proclaimed a Jewish state. The creation of the state of Israel led to the Arab-Israeli conflict, a conflict that still continues to this day; since 1948, Zionists have continued to support the country and the efforts of its Jewish population to maintain Israels security. MONROE DOCTRINE A document that sought to limit European interference in the Americas. President Monroe regarded the Americas as a U.S. protectorate and thus saw threats to the region as threats against the U.S. The doctrine indicted that attempts by Europe to take control of land in the Americas would be viewed as a hostile act and that the U.S. would respond. Most significantly, the doctrine would provide justification for the U.S. to intervene in the affairs of the Western Hemisphere. THE PANAMA CANAL A canal built through the Isthmus of Panama connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. When the U.S. took control of the project, Panama was under Colombian control and it failed to give its permission to build. President Roosevelt offered Panamanian rebels the support of the U.S. navy as an incentive to seek Panamanian independence. In 1903, Panama declared its independence and soon granted the U.S. the right to build the canal. The canal was opened in 194 and quickly became an important commercial waterway. The U.S. controlled the canal until 1999, and then the control of the canal reverted to the Panamanian government. CAPITALISM A combination of economic practices that became institutionalized in Europe between the 16th and 19th centuries, especially involving the formation and trade in ownership of corporations for buying and selling goods, as well as capital goods (including land and labor), in a relatively free (meaning, free from state control) market. MERCANTALISM An economic system (Europe in 1700s) to increase a nation's wealth by government regulation of all of the nation's commercial interests. DEISM

Deism is the belief that the universe was created by a God who then made no further intervention in its affairs, often expressed by the metaphor of the "Divine Watchmaker" who created a mechanism so perfect as to be self-regulating. Deists do not believe in miracles or revelations. Because of their rejection of revelation, they attempt to infer their theology entirely from philosophical arguments. A deist is someone who believes in the existence of the divine, but does not (for whatever reason) ascribe any specifics to that deity (in the form of one or more religions). NATIONALISM A feeling of pride in ones nation, similar to patriotism, but differs in the fact that nationalists think their nation is better than others. The growth of nationalism began during the French Revolution under the dictator of Napoleon and the unification movements in Germany and Italy. Other nationalist movements include Zionism, which aimed at building a Jewish state, as well as the creation of the Indian National Congress in India, which aimed at gaining self-rule for the nation from Britain. TEXTILE A textile is a cloth made up of yarn and other fibers. The textile industry is mostly concerned with the production of yarn and the manufacturing of clothes. PLANTATION/SLAVE LABOR Slave labor was especially horrible. The slaves were forced to work in horrible conditions and they were often overworked. The production of some materials like sugar was exceptionally hard and it took a ton of lives. FACTORY SYSTEM The system that emerged during the age of industrialization. It replaced the putting out system. In this system unlike the putting out system, the workers would leave their homes and come to their place of work instead of working and having the employers come pick up the goods. PUTTING OUT SYSTEM This system of work was replaced the factory system during the industrial age. It was a system where the laborers worked from their home. PARLIAMENT Parliament is the highest legislature, consisting of the sovereign, the House of Lords, and the House of Commons in the United Kingdom. SOCIAL DARWINISM Social Darwinism is a belief, popular in the late Victorian era in England, America, and elsewhere, which states that the strongest or fittest should survive and flourish in society, while the weak and unfit should be allowed to die. The theory was chiefly expounded by Herbert Spencer, whose ethical philosophies always held an elitist view and received a boost from the application of Darwinian ideas such as adaptation and natural selection. INGREDIENTS FOR INDUSTRIALIZATION The four ingredients for industrialization are natural resources, capital, entrepreneurship, and labor. Without any of these four ingredients or some of them missing, it would be impossible for a country to successfully industrialize. ARISTOCRACY An aristocracy is the highest class in certain societies often holding the hereditary titles or offices. It is also a form of government in which power is held by the nobility. SEPARATION OF POWERS It was an idea of enlightenment philosopher, Baron de Montesquieu. It influenced the thought that the government should be separated into three different branches: legislative, judicial, and executive. This was done so no branch could have more power than the other branch. Each branch cannot make a decision without consulting another. CHECKS AND BALANCES The system of Checks and Balances serves as testament to the brilliance and forethought of the drafters of the Constitution of the United States of America. By designing a tripartite federal government, a federal government with three, coequal branches, the drafters bequeathed to their descendants the last, best hope for government of the people, by the people, and for the people. Assuming everything works as designed, the drafters created the governmental equivalent of rock, paper scissors. NATURAL RIGHTS Natural rights are the political theory that maintains that an individual enters into society with certain basic rights and that no government can deny these rights. John Locke was a famous advocate for natural rights. Locke assumed that humans were by nature rational and good, and that they carried into political society the same rights they had enjoyed in earlier stages of society. POPULAR SOVEREIGNITY Popular sovereignty is the belief that the state is created by the mandate of its people, who are the source of all political power. It is closely associated to the social contract philosophers, among whom are Thomas Hobbes, John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. RELIGIOUS TOLERANCE Religious tolerance is the willingness to accept and permit religious beliefs and practices which disagree with one's own. For individuals, religious tolerance generally means acceptance of other people's religions. It does not mean believing that other religions are equally true, but that others have the right to hold and practice their beliefs. Within a nation or ethnic group, it is acceptance of the right to hold beliefs that differ from the dominant religion, worship freely according to these beliefs and attempt to peacefully convince others to convert to that faith. ECONOMIC PROSPERITY Economic prosperity is a relative term. It means that overall, the economy is doing well and most people have sufficient income for essentials and perhaps a little extra. It means that businesses are hiring and jobs are relatively easy to get. It does not mean that everyone has a job or that everyone is well off. The opposite of economic prosperity is recession or depression. LABOR SPECIALIZATION

It is a production process which uses division of labor to produce large number of goods at the lowest possible cost that is by dividing labor into the production of a product by giving a specific task so they can concentrate and produce it more accurately. SUFFRAGE Suffrage means the right to vote. When citizens have the right to vote for or against laws and leaders, that government is called a democracy. In a democracy like that of the United States of America, it is one of the most important principles of government. Many Americans think voting is an automatic right, something that all citizens over the age of 18 are guaranteed. But this has not always been the case. When the United States was founded, only white male property owners could vote. It has taken centuries to achieve the rights that citizens enjoy today. DEPOTISM Despotism is a form of government by a single authority, either an individual or tightly knit group, which rules with absolute political power. In its classical form, despotism is a state where a single individual, the Despot, wields all the power and authority embodying the state and everyone else is a subsidiary person. This form of despotism was common in the first forms of statehood and civilization; the Pharaoh of Egypt is exemplary of the classical Despot. The term now implies tyrannical rule. Despotism can mean absolutism or dictatorship. COLONIALISM Colonialism is the establishment, maintenance, acquisition and expansion of colonies in one territory by people from another territory. It is a process whereby the metrople claims sovereignty over the colony and the colony is changed by colonizers from the metropole. Colonialism is a set of unequal relationships between the metropole and the colony and between the colonists and the indigenous people. The colonial was the era from the 1450s to the 1970s when several European powers (Spain, Portugal, Britain, and France especially) established colonies in Asia, Africa, and the Americas. ABSOLUTE MONARCHY The hereditary, or elected, monarch has absolute power, although they may appoint a prime minister and members of the 'government' to act as advisors and to pursue the monarch's decrees. The divine right of kings is saying that the rulers derived their authority right from God. LIMITED MONARCHY Limited constitutional monarchy is a monarchy in which the powers of the rulers are limited to those granted under the laws of the nation and the constitution. It was the rule in France after Napoleon was defeated. CASH CROPS Cash Crops are crops that are used for profit rather than consumption by a family. A cash crop consists of foods like Tobacco, indigo, rice, sugar, and corn. The use of cash crops can help boost a countrys economy. TARIFFS A tariff is a tax on an imported good. Therefore for each unit of a good that is imported into a country the tariff increases the price of that good buy however much the tariff is. Tariffs are usually implemented when the world price of a good is lower than the domestic price of a good. A tariff thus is a form of protection from foreign competition that can produce that good at a cheaper price. The jobs of that industry are thus protected by the tariff, as opposed to the jobs being eliminated by foreign competition. This makes consumers outside the industry lose because they have to pay a higher price for that good. MIGRATION Migration is regular movement over relatively long distances. Migratory animals generally make one round trip between two regions each year, although there is considerable variation among species. There are three subcategories of migration, or three types. ULTIMATUM An ultimatum is a final demand or statement of terms, the rejection of which will result in retaliation or a breakdown in relations. Some countries in World War I had ultimatums in which the result was war. VICTORIAN AGE The Victorian era is generally agreed to stretch through the reign of Queen Victoria (1837-1901). It was a tremendously exciting period when many artistic styles, literary schools, as well as, social, political and religious movements flourished. It was a time of prosperity, broad imperial expansion, and great political reform. It was also a time, which today we associate with "prudishness" and "repression". It is, however, also the beginning of Modern Times. The social classes of England were newly reforming, and fomenting. There was a churning upheaval of the old hierarchical order, and the middle classes were steadily growing.