EMERGENCY AND DISASTER NURSING TERMS USE: 1.

Trauma - Intentional or unintentional wounds/injuries on the human body from particular mechanical mechanism that exceeds the bodys ability to protect itself from injury 2. Emergency Management - traditionally refers to care given to patients with urgent and critical needs. 3. Triage - process of assessing patients to determine management priorities. 4. First Aid - an immediate or emergency treatment given to a person who has been injured before complete medical and surgical treatment can be secured. 5. BLS - level of medical care which is used for patient with illness or injury until full medical care can be given. 6. ACLS ADVANCE CARDIAC LIFE SUPPORT- Set of clinical interventions for the urgent treatment of cardiac arrest and often life threatening medical emergencies as well as the knowledge and skills to deploy those interventions. 7. Defibrillation - Restoration of normal rhythm to the heart in ventricular or atrial fibrillation 8. Disaster - Any catastrophic situation in which the normal patterns of life (or ecosystems) have been disrupted and extraordinary, emergency interventions are required to save and preserve human lives and/or the environment. 9. Mass Casualty Incident - situation in which the number of casualties exceeds the number of resources. 10. Post Traumatic Stress Syndrome - characteristic of symptoms after a psychologically stressful event was out of range of an normal human experience. 11. EMERGENCY IT IS WHATEVER THE PATIENT OR THE FAMILY CONSIDERS IT TO BE. 12. EMERGENCY NURSING - It is the nursing care given to patients with urgent and critical needs 13. EMERGENCY NURSE - has a specialized education, training, and experience to gain expertise in assessing and identifying patients health care problems in crisis situations a. establishes priorities, monitors and continuously assesses acutely ill and injured patients, supports and attends to families, supervises allied health personnel, and teaches patients and families within a time-limited, high-pressured care environment 14. DISASTER NURSING - a branch of emergency nursing, it refers to nursing care given to patients who are victims of disasters, whether it is manmade or natural phenomena. 15. INCIDENT COMMAND SYSTEM - It is a management tool for organizing personnel, facilities, equipment, and communication for any emergency situation. 16. INCIDENT COMMANDER - The head of the incident command system a. He must be continuously informed of all the activities and informed about any deviation from the established plan SCOPE AND PRACTICE OF EMERGENCY NURSING The emergency nurse has had specialized education, training, and experience. The emergency nurse establishes priorities, monitors and continuously assesses acutely ill and injured patients, supports and attends to families, supervises allied health personnel, and teaches patients and families within a time-limited, high-pressured care environment. Nursing interventions are accomplished interdependently, in consultation with or under the direction of a licensed physician. Appropriate nursing and medical interventions are anticipated based on assessment data.

The emergency health care staff members work as a team in performing the highly technical, hands-on skills required to care for patients in an emergency situation. Patients in the ED have a wide variety of actual or potential problems, and their condition may change constantly. Although a patient may have several diagnosis at a given time, the focus is on the most lifethreatening ones

ISSUES IN EMERGENCY NURSING CARE Emergency nursing is demanding because of the diversity of conditions and situations which are unique in the ER. Issues include legal issues, occupational health and safety risks for ED staff and the challenge of providing holistic care in the context of a fast-paced, technology-driven environment in which serious illness and death are confronted on a daily basis. The emergency nurse must expand his or her knowledge base to encompass recognizing and treating patients and anticipate nursing care in the event of a mass casualty incident. Issues Includes: o Actual Consent o Implied Consent o Parental Consent Good Samaritan Law o Gives legal protection to the rescuer who act in good faith and are not guilty of gross negligence or willful misconduct. Focus of Emergency Care Preserve or Prolong Life Alleviate Suffering Do No Further Harm Restore to Optimal Function Golden Rules of Emergency Care Dos o Obtain Consent o Think of the Worst o Respect Victims Modesty & Privacy Donts o let the patient see his own injury o Make any unrealistic promises Guidelines in Giving Emergency Care A Ask for help I Intervene D Do no Further Harm Stages of Crisis 1. Anxiety and Denial encouraged to recognize and talk about their feelings.

 asking questions is encouraged. honest answers given prolonged denial is not encouraged or supported 2. Remorse and Guilt verbalize their feelings 3. Anger way of handling anxiety and fear allow the anger to be ventilated 4. Grief help family members work through their grief letting them know that it is normal and acceptable Core Competencies in Emergency Nursing Assessment Priority Setting/Critical Thinking Skills Knowledge of Emergency Care Technical Skills Communication Assess and Intervene Check for ABCs of life A Airway B Breathing C - Circulation Team Members Rescuer Emergency Medical Technician Paramedics Emergency Medicine Physicians Incident Commander Support Staff Inpatient Unit Staff Emergency Action Principle I. Survey the Scene Is the Scene Safe? What Happened? Are there any bystanders who can help? identify as a trained first aider! II. Do a Primary Survey - organization of approach so that immediate threats to life are rapidly identified and effectively manage. Primary Survey A - Airway/Cervical Spine - Establish Patent Airway - Maintain Alignment - GCS 8 = Prepare Intubation

B Breathing - Assess Breath Sounds - Observe for Chest Wall Trauma - Prepare for chest decompression C Circulation - Monitor VS - Maintain Vascular Access - Direct Pressure D Disability - Evaluate LOC - Re-evaluate clients LOC - Use AVPU mnemonics (Alert, Voice, Pain, Unresponsive) E Exposure - Remove clothing - Maintain Privacy - Prevent Hypothermia III. Activate Medical Assistance Information to be Relayed: o What Happened? o Number of Persons Injured o Extent of Injury and First Aid given o Telephone number from where youre calling IV. Do Secondary Survey Interview the Patient S Symptoms A Allergies M Medication P Previous/Present Illness L Last Meal Taken E Events Prior to Accident Check Vital Signs V. Triage comes from the French word trier, meaning to sort process of assessing patients to determine management priorities Categories: 1. Emergent - highest priority, conditions are life threatening and need immediate attention Airway obstruction, sucking chest wound, shock, unstable chest and abdominal wounds, open fractures of long bones 2. Urgent have serious health problems but not immediately life threatening ones. Must be seen within 1 hour Maxillofacial wounds without airway compromise, eye injuries, stable abdominal wounds without evidence of significant hemorrhage, fractures 3. Non-urgent patients have episodic illness than can be addressed within 24 hours without increased morbidity Upper extremity fractures, minor burns, sprains, small lacerations without significant bleeding, behavioral disorders or psychological disturbances.

4. Non-urgent patients have episodic illness than can be addressed within 24 hours without increased morbidity Upper extremity fractures, minor burns, sprains, small lacerations without significant bleeding, behavioral disorders or psychological disturbances.
TRIAGE CATEGORY PRIORITY COLOR

IMMEDIATE DELAYED MINIMAL EXPECTANT

1 2 3 4

RED YELLOW GREEN BLACK

Field TRIAGE 1. Immediate: Injuries are life-threatening but survivable with minimal intervention. Individuals in this group can progress rapidly to expectant if treatment is delayed. 2. Delayed: Injuries are significant and require medical care, but can wait hours without threat to life or limb. Individuals in this group receive treatment only after immediate casualties are treated. 3. Minimal: Injuries are minor and treatment can be delayed hours to days. Individuals in this group should be moved away from the main triage area. 4. Expectant: Injuries are extensive and chances of survival are unlikely even with definitive care. 5. Fast-Track: Psychological support needed FIRST AID Role of First Aid Bridge the Gap Between the Victim and the Physician Immediately start giving interventions in pre-hospital setting Value of First Aid Training Self-help Health for Others Preparation for Disaster Safety Awareness

BASIC LIFE SUPPORT - an emergency procedure that consists of recognizing respiratory or cardiac arrest or both the proper application of CPR to maintain life until a victim recovers or advance life support is available. Artificial Respiration A way of breathing air to persons lungs when breathing ceased or stopped function. Respiratory Arrest A condition when the respiration or breathing pattern of an individual stops to function, while the pulse and circulation may continue.

Causes: Choking, Electrocution, strangulation, drowning and suffocation. WAYS TO VENTILATE THE LUNGS 1. MOUTH-TO-MOUTH = a quick, effective way to provide O2 and ventilation to the victim. 2. MOUTH-TO-NOSE = recommended when it is impossible to ventilate through the victims mouth. (Trismus, mouth injury) 3. MOUTH-TO-NOSE and MOUTH = if the pt. is an infant 4. MOUTH-TO-STOMA = used if the pt. has a stoma; a permanent opening that connects the trachea directly to the front of the neck. Table of Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation for Adult, Child & Infant Adult Lower half of the sternum but not hitting the xiphoid process: measure up to 2 fingers from substernal notch. Approximately 1 to 2 inches Heel of 1 hand, other hand on top. 30:2 (1 or 2 rescuers) 5 cycles in 2 minutes Child Lower half of the sternum but not hitting the xiphoid process: measure up to 1 finger from substernal notch. Approximately 1 to 1 inches Heel of 1 hand. 30:2 (1 or 2 rescuers) 5 cycles in 2 minutes Infant Lower half of the sternum but not hitting the xiphoid process: 1 finger width below the imaginary nipple line. Approximately to 1 inch 2 fingers (middle & ring fingertips) 30:2 (1 or 2 rescuers) 5 cycles in 2 minutes

Compression Area

Depth How to compress Compressionventilation ratio Number of cycles per minute Procedure Safe Approach Assess for Response

Infant(0-1yr) Approach and assess situation Shout and gently pinch

Child(1-8 yrs)

Adult

Gently shouting are you ok? then shake the victim

Positioning Open the Airway

Placed Supine on a firm and flat surface Check for foreign bodies then remove using finger sweep Head-tilt-chin-lift maneuver Jaw-thrust Maneuver

Assess for Breathing

Bring cheek over the mouth and nose of the casualty Look for chest movement Listen for breath sounds Feel for breathing on your cheek The Casualty is NOT Breathing:

Go for Help

if someone responds to your shout for help send that person to phone for ambulance if youre on your own, leave the casualty and make the phone call for yourself * never leave if the patient has collapsed as a result of trauma or drowning or if the casualty is a child 5 rescue breaths Place mouth over the nose and mouth of the infant look for chest rising pinch nose and ventilate via mouth look for chest rising 2 rescue breaths seal lips around the mouth and blow steadily for 1.5 2 seconds look for chest rising

Give Rescue Breaths

The Casualty is Breathing: Place in recovery position Before moving casualty remove any objects safely from her pockets Kneel beside casualty, place arm nearest at right angles, and then bend elbow keeping the palm uppermost. Bring far arm across the casualtys chest and hold back of the casualtys hand against the nearest cheek With your other hand grasp the far thigh just above the knee, then pull the casualty towards you and on to his or her side CRITERIA FOR NOT STARTING CPR - All patients in cardiac arrest receive resuscitation unless: 1. The pt. has a valid DNR order 2. The pt. has signs of irreversible death: rigor mortis, livor mortis, algor mortis, decapitation 3. No physiological benefit can be expected because the vital functions have deteriorated despite maximal therapy 4. Withholding attempts to resuscitate in the DR is appropriate for newly born infants with: - Confirmed gestation less than 23 weeks or birthweight less than 400 grams - Anencephaly When to Stop When the patient has spontaneous breathing When the first aider is too exhausted to continue When another first aider takes over When EMS arrives and takes over Physician assumes responsibility COMPLICATIONS OF CPR: Rib Fracture Sternum Fracture Laceration of The Liver Or Spleen Pneumothorax, Hemothorax

CHAIN OF SURVIVAL 1. EARLY ACCESS early recognition of cardiac arrest, prompt activation of emergency services 2. EARLY BLS prevent brain damage, buy time for the arrival of defibrillator 3. EARLY DEFIBRILLATION - 7-10% decrease per minute without defibrillation 4. EARLY ACLS technique that attempts to stabilize patient

COMMON PROBLEMS ON EMERGENCY AND DISASTER NURSING

Airway obstruction KINDS OF AIRWAY OBSTRUCTION: Anatomic Airway Obstruction Mechanical Airway Obstruction TYPES OF AIRWAY OBSTRUCTION Partial Airway Obstruction with Good Air Exchange Partial Airway Obstruction with Poor Air Exchange Complete Airway Obstruction Clinical Manifestations: UNIVERSAL DISTRESS SIGNAL (patient may clutch the neck between the thumb and fingers), choking, stridor, apprehensive appearance, restlessness. CYANOSIS and LOSS of CONSCIOUSNESS develop as hypoxia worsens. Management for airway obstruction HEIMLICH MANEUVER (Subdiaphragmatic Abdominal Thrusts) For Standing or sitting conscious patient: Stand behind the patient; wrap your arms around the patients waist Make a FIST, placing thumb side of the fist against the pts abdomen, in the midline SLIGHTLY ABOVE the UMBILICUS and WELL BELOW the XIPHOID PROCESS Make a quick INWARD and UPWARD thrust. Each thrust is separated. For patient lying (unconscious): position patient at the back (supine); kneel astride the patients thigh Place HEEL of one HAND against the pts abdomen, place the second hand directly on the top of the fist. Make a quick UPWARD thrust FINGER SWEEP: used only in unconscious adult client Make a TONGUE-JAW LIFT. Opening the pts mouth by grasping both tongue and lower jaw between the thumb and fingers, and lifting the mandible. Insert index finger of other hand to scrape across the back of the throat Use a hooking action CHEST THRUST: used only in patients in advanced stages of pregnancy or in markedly obese clients a. Conscious Patient standing or sitting Stand behind the client with arms under patients axilla to encircle patients chest Place thumb side of fist on the MIDDLE of STERNUM, grasp with the other hand and perform BACKWARD thrust until foreign body is expelled.

Measures to establish airway A. HEAD-TILT-CHIN-LIFT MANEUVER B. JAW-THRUST MANEUVER C. OROPAHRYNGEAL AIRWAY D. ENDOTRACHEAL INTUBATION Indications: To establish an airway for patients cannot be adequately ventilated with an oropharyngeal airway To bypass upper airway obstruction To permit connection to ambubag or mechanical ventilator To prevent aspiration To facilitate removal of tracheobronchial secretions E. CRICOTHYROIDOTOMY a puncture or incision of the cricothyroid membrane to establish an emergency airway in certain emergency situations where endotracheal intubation or tracheostomy is not possible. indicated to pts. with trauma to head and neck, and in allergic reaction causing laryngeal edema use of gauge 11 needle or scalpel blade Actions: Extend the neck. Place towel roll beneath the shoulders Insert the needle at a 10 to 30 degree caudal direction in the midline jest above the upper part of the cricoid cartilage Listen for air passing back and forth Direct the needle downward and posteriorly, and tape it. Injuries to head, spine, and face A. HEAD INJURIES 1. OPEN HEAD INJURY skull is fractured 2. CLOSED HEAD INJURY skull is intact 3. CONCUSSION temporary loss of consciousness that results in transient interruption if the brains normal functioning 4. CONTUSSSION bruising of the brain tissue 5. INTRACRANIAL HEMORRHAGE significant bleeding into a space or potential space between the skull and the brain Epidural hematoma o the most serious type of hematoma; forms rapidly and results from arterial bleeding o forms between the dura and the skull from a tear int the meningeal area Subdural hematoma o forms slowly and results from a venous bleed o a surgical emergency Intracerebral hemorrhage o bleeding directly into the brain matter ALERT: Assume cervical spine fracture for any patient with a significant head injury, until proven otherwise. PRIMARY ASSESSMENT: Assess for ABC

SECONDARY ASSESSMENT: Change in LOC most sensitive indicator in the pts condition CUSHINGS TRIAD ( bradypnea, bradycardia, widened pulse pressure) indicating increased intracranial pressure unequal or unresponsive pupils; impaired vision Battles sign bluish discoloration of the mastoid, indicating a possible BASAL SKULL FRACTURE Rhinorrhea or otorrhea indicative of CSF leak Periorbital Ecchymosis indicates anterior basilar fracture ALERT: If basilar skull fracture or severe midface fractures are suspected, a nasogastric tube(NGT) is CONTRAINDICATED! Management: Open airway by Jaw-Thrust Manuever, suction orally if needed Administer high flow oxygen: most common death is CEREBRAL ANOXIA In general, hyperventilate the patient to 20-25 bpm, causing cerebral vasoconstriction and minimizing cerebral edema Apply a bulky, loose dressing; dont apply pressure IV line of PNSS or Plain LR prepare to manage seizures maintain normothermia Medications: o Diazepam o Steroids o Mannitol Prepare of immediate surgery if pt. shows evidence of neurologic deterioration B. SKULL FRACTURES SIMPLE closed COMPOUND open LINEAR Fx common hairline break, w/o displacement of structure COMMINUTED Fx splinters or crushes the bone in several fragments DEPRESSED Fx pushes the bone toward the brain CRANIAL VAULT Fx top of the head BASILAR Fx base of the skull and frontal sinuses ALERT: Damage to the brain is the first concern, it is considered a neurosurgical condition In children, skulls thinness and elasticity allows a depression w/o a break in the bone CAUSES: Traumatic blows to the head, VA, severe beatings S/Sx: scalp wounds, agitation and irritability, loss of consciousness, labored breathing, abnormal deep tendon reflexes, altered pupillary and moor response IF CONSCIOUS: complains of persistent localized headache IF JAGGED BONE FRAGMENTS: may cause cerebralbleeding HALO SIGN blood-tinged spot surrounded by lighter ring IF SPHENOIDAL Fx: damages the optic nerve and may cause BLINDNESS IF TEMPORAL Fx: may cause unilateral deafness or facial paralysis

Treatment: For LINEAR FRACTURES: supporative (mild analgesics) cleaning and debridement of wounds If conscious: observed for 4 hours; if not, admit for evaluation if VS stable, may go home with instruction sheet For VAULT and BASILAR FRACTURES: Craniotomy to remove fragemnts anti-biotics Dexamethasone Osmotic Diuretics (MANNITOL) if increased ICP is present NURSING CONSIDERATIONS: Maintain patent airway; nasal airway contraindicated to basilar fx Support with o2 administration Suction pt. Through mouth not nose if csf leak is present Rhinorrhea wipe it, dont let him blow it! Otorrhea cover it lightly with sterile gauze, dont pack it! Position head on side Maintain a supine position with bed elevated to 30 degrees Dont give narcotics or sedative Assist in surgery, maintaining sterile technique C. CERVICAL SPINE INJURIES Primary assessment: immediate immobilization of the spine A B C ( Intercoastal paralysis w/ diapragmatic breathing) Subsequent assessment: Hypotension, bradycardia, hypothermia - suggests SPINAL SHOCK Total sensory loss and motor paralysis below the level of injury Management: Nasotracheal intubation initaite IV access, monitor blood gas indwelling urinary catheterization prepare to manage seizures Meds: High dose steroids and diazepam D. MAXILLOFACIAL TRAUMA Primary assessment: Immobilization of spine while performing assessment ABC (tongue swelling, bleeding, broken or missed teeth) Subsequent assessment: Paralysis if the upward gaze indicative of INFERIOR ORBIT FX Crepitus on nose indicates nasal fracture Flattening of the cheek and loss of sensation below the orbit indicates ZYGOMA (cheekbone) FX Malocclussion of teeth, trismus indicative of MAXILLA FX Primary interventions:

Insertion of oral airway or intubation Nasopharyngeal airway should only be used if no evidence of nasal fracture or rhinorrhea Apply bulky, loose dressing; apply ice to areas of swelling

Injuries To Soft Tissues, Bones And Joints A. SOFT TISSUE INJURIES 1. CLOSED WOUND A. CONTUSION bleeding beneath the skin into the soft tissue B. HEMATOMA well-defined pocket of blood and fluid beneath the skin 2. OPEN WOUND A. ABRASION superficial loss of skin from rubbing or scraping B. LACERATION tear in the skin, can be insicional or jagged C. PUNCTURE penetration of a pointed object, can be penetrating or perforating D. AVULSION tearing off or loss of a flap of skin E. AMPUTATION traumatic cutting or tearing off of a finger, toe, arm or leg Primary management D- IRECT PRESSURE E- LEVATION P- RESSURE POINTS S- OAK, SOAP, SCRUB, SURGERY A- NTI-TETANUS, ANTIBIOTICS I- RRIGATE D- RESS B. INJURIES TO BONES AND JOINTS 1. FRACTURE a break in the continuity of the bone; occurs when stress is placed on a bone is greater than the bone can absorb ALERT: fractured cervical spine, pelvis and femur may produce life threatening injuries; posterior dislocations of the hip are life- and limb-threatening emergencies due to potential blood loss. Clinical Manifestations: Pain and tenderness over fracture site Crepitus or grating over fracture site swelling and edema Deformity, shortening of an extremity or rotation of extremity EMERGENCY Management: IMMOBILIZE, INITIATE IV Management process of fractures REDUCTION setting the bone; refers to the restoration of the fracture fragments into anatomic position and alignment IMMOBILIZATION maintains reduction until bone healing occurs REHABILITATION Regaining normal function of the affected part

use of cast and splint to immobilize extremity and maintain reduction Skin Traction force applied to the skin using foam rubber, tapes Skeletal Traction force applied to the bony skeleton directly, using wires, pins, tongs placed in the bone ORIF operative intervention to achieve reduction, alignment and stabilization Endoprosthetic Replacement implantation of metal device Nursing considerations: Elevate to prevent or limit swelling Apply ice packs or cold compress; not place directly in skin Splint and maintain in good alignment, immobilize the joint above and below the fracture Give pain medications as ordered Assist in casting; use the palm of your hands in holding a wet cast Avoid resting cast on hard surfaces or sharp edges Do neurovascular checks hourly for the first 24 hours Assess for COMPARTMENT SYNDROME check for 6 Ps If Compartment syndrome is suspected, do not elevate limb above the level of the cast Notify the physician Bivalve the cast 2. TRAUMATIC JOINT DISLOCATION - occurs when the surfaces of the bones forming the joint no longer in anatomic position ALERT: this is a medical emergency because of associated disruption of surrounding blood and nerve supplies * Subluxation partial disruption of the articulating surfaces Clinical Manifestations: a. Pain and deformity b. Loss of normal movement c. X-ray confirmation of dislocation w/o assoc. fracture Management: Immobilize part, Secure reduction of dislocations manually (usually preferred under anesthesia) Nursing Considerations: Assess neurovascular status before and after reduction of dislocation Administer pain medications (NSAIDs) Ensure proper use of immobilization device (elastic bandage, splints) 3. SPRAIN an injury to the ligamentous structure surrounding a joint; usually caused by a wrench or twist resulting in a decrease joint stability Clinical Manifestations: Rapid swelling due to extravasation of blood w/n tissues Pain on passive movement of joint discoloration, and limited use or movement 4. STRAIN a microscopic tearing of the muscle cause by excessive force, stretching, or overuse Clinical Manifestations: Pain with isometric contractions Swelling and tenderness Hemorrhage in muscle

Management of sprains and strains COMPRESSION (Elastic Bandage)

REST ICE (for the first 24 hrs; 1 hr on, 2 hrs off during waking hours) MEDICATIONS ( NSAIDs) ELEVATION SUPPORT (Use of crutches, splints)
Nursing considerations: Apply ice compress for the first 24 hrs to produce vasoconstriction, decrease edema, and reduce discomfort Apply warm compress after 24 hrs to promote circulation and absorption (20 to 30 minutes at a time) Educate to rest injured part for a month to allow healing Educate to resume activities gradually and to warm up Shock and internal injuries A. Shock - Inadequate tissue perfusion, resulting in failure of one or more of the ff: - Pump failure of the heart - Blood volume - Arterial resistance levels - capacity of venous beds - Can be classified as: A. HYPOVOLEMIC - occurs when significant amount of fluid is lost in the intravascular space (Ex. Hemorrhage, burns, fluid shifts) B. CARDIOGENIC occurs when the heart fails as a pump. Primary causes includes MI, dysrhythmias; Secondary causes includes mechanical restriction of cardiac function or venous obstruction like in Cardiac Tamponade, tension pneumothrorax, VCO C. SEPTIC SHOCK from bacteria and their products circulating in the blood Primary interventions: Assess for ABC Resuscitate as necessary Administer O2 to augment O2-carrying capacity of arterial blood Start cardiac monitoring Control hemorrhage SUBSEQUENT ASSESSMENT: o Assess LOC, decreasing LOC indicates progression of shock o Monitor arterial blood pressure (narrowing pulse pressure, fall in systolic pressure) o Assess pulse quality and rate change (tachycardia, weak and thready) o Assess urinary output (25ml/hr may indicate shock) o Assess capillary perfusion o Assess for metabolic acidosis due to anaerobic metabolism of cells o Assess for excessive thirst, hyperthermia on septic shock Management: Administer O2 via ET or nonrebreather face mask (if intubated, may be hyperventilated to control acidosis)

Fluid resuscitation (2 large-bore IV lines, Ringers Lactate, BT) Insertion of an indwelling catheter Maintain patient in a supine position with legs elevated Continue to monitor VS, ECG, CVP, ABG, UO, HCT, Hgb,and electrolytes; refer changes on the following Maintain normothermia (high fever will increase the cellular metabolism effects of shock Medications: Inotropics, Vasopressor, and Anti-biotics ELECTROCARDIOGRAM - It is a useful tool in the diagnosis of those conditions that may cause abberations in the electrical activity WAVE INTERPRETATIONS: P WAVE : Atrial Depolarization; first positive deflection Q WAVE: first negative deflection R WAVE: first positive deflection S WAVE: negative deflection, after R wave QRS COMPLEX: Ventricular Depolarization T WAVE: Ventricular Repolarization Nursing Responsibilities during ECG Check order for ECG, in cases of arrest, prepare the machine at the bedside at ER Provide Privacy Instruct patient to lie still and avoid movement Remove metal objects on the patients (jewelries) Place Chest leads as labeled: Lead 1: Red, Right Arm Lead 2: Yellow, Left Arm Lead 3: Green, Left Foot Neutralizer: Black, Right foot V1: Red, 4th ICS, Right Sternal Border V2: Yellow, 4th ICS, Left sternal border V3: Green, midway between V2 and V4 V4: Brown, 5th ICS, Left MCL V5: Black, 5th ICS, LAAL V6: Violet, 5th ICS, LMAL B. BLUNT CHEST INJURIES - It is a trauma in the chest without an open wound usually cause by VA, blast injuries Signs/Symptoms: RIB FRACTURES: tenderness, slight edema, pain that worsens with deep breathing and movement, shallow and splinted respirations STERNAL FRACTURES: persistent chest pain MULTIPLE RIB FRACTURES: - FLAIL CHEST (loss of chest wall integrity) decreased lung inflation, paradoxical chest movements extreme pain rapid and shallow respirations hypotension, cyanosis

respiratory acidosis Complications: 1. TENSION PNEUMOTHORAX o a condition in which air enters the chest but cant be ejected during exhalation o There is lung collapse and mediastinal shift S/Sx: tracheal deviation, cyanosis and severe dyspnea, absent breath sound on the affected side, agitation, JVD 2. HEMOTHORAX collection of blood in the pleural cavity, usually results from ribs, lacerating lung tisssue or an intercoastal artery It is the most common cause of shock following chest trauma 3. LACERATION or RUPTURE of AORTA immediately fatal 4. DIAPHRAGMATIC RUPTURE causes severe respi. Distress; if untreated abdominal viscera may herniate, compromising both circulation and vital capacity of lungs 5. CARDIAC TAMPONADE rapid unchecked rise in intrapericardia pressure that impairs diastolic filling of the heart results from blood or fluid accumulation in the pericardial sac Assessment And Diagnosis: Percussion: - Hemothorax: Dullness - Tension Pnuemothorax: tymphany Auscultation: - Tension Pnemothorax: PMI is deviated - Cardiac tamponade: muffled heart tones X-ray Thoracentesis yeilds blood and serosanguinous fluid ECG Retrograde aortography reveals aortic laceration Echocardiography Computed Tomography Treatment: Simple Rib Fractures mild analgesics, bed rest, apply heat incentive spirometry deep breathing, coughing and splinting Severe Rib Fractures intercoastal nerve blocks position for semi-fowlers, administer O2 Hemothorax Chest tube insertion at 5th-6th ICS anterior to MAL administer IV fuids, O2, Blood Transfusion Thoracotomy Thoracentesis Treatment: Tension Pneumothorax insertion of spinal, 14G or 16G needle into the 2nd ICS at MCL to release pressure

 Chest Tubes Surgical Repair Aortic Rupture/Laceration immediate surgery - synthetic grafts - aortic anastomosis O2, BT, IV Nursing considerations: monitor VS, (q 15, first hour post thoracentesis and post CTT) After CTT insertion, encourage cough and breathing exersises Chest tubes should have continuous FLUCTUATIONS if BUBBLING, air leak is suspected if FLUCTUATION STOPS, mechanical blockage or lung has already expanded have an extra bottle with PNSS, clamps and sterile gauze at bedside in case of dislodgment, cover the opening with sterile/petroleum gauze to prevent rapid lung collapse Assist with proper positioning Bed Rest C. Abdominal injuries 1. PENETRATING ABDOMINAL INJURY usually the result of gunshot wound or stab wounds; may cross the diaphragm and enters the chest 2. BLUNT ABDOMINAL INJURY caused by vehicular accidents or falls Primary assessment and interventions: ASSESS ABC INITITATE RESUSCITATION AS NEEDED CONTROL BLEEDING AND PREPARE TO TREAT SHOCK IF THERE IS AN IMPALED OBJECT IN THE ABDOMEN, LEAVE IT THERE AND STABILIZE THE OBJECT WITH BULKY DRESSINGS General interventions: Keep pt. quiet in the stretcher, any movement may dislodge a clot Cut the clothing, count the number of wounds, look for entrance and exit wounds Apply compression to external bleeding wounds double IV line and infuse Ringers Lactate Insert NGT to decompress the abdomen Cover protruding abdominal viscera w/ sterile saline dressings; dont attempt to place back the protruding organs Cover open wounds with dry dressings Insert indwelling catheter; if pelvic fracture is suspected, catheter should not be placed until integrity of urethra is ensured. Meds: Tetanus Prophylaxis, Antibiotics Assist in peritoneal lavage Prepare pt. for surgery if the condition persists. (Exploratory Laparotomy)

ENVIROMENTAL EMERGENCIES
1. HEAT EXHAUSTION - It is the inadequacy or the collapse of peripheral circulation due to volume and electrolyte depletion

ASSESSMENT: temperature may be normal or slightly elevated, hypotension, tachycardia, tachypnea, pale and moist skin, fatigue, headache, dizziness, syncope DIAGNOSTICS: hemoconcentration, hyponatremia or hypernatremia, ECG may show dysrhythmias MANAGEMENT: Move patient to a cool environment, remove all clothing Position the patient supine with the feet slightly elevated Monitor VS every 15 mins and cardiac rhythm Educate to avoid immediate reexposure to high temperatures 2. HEATSTROKE - It is a combination of hyperpyrexia and neurologic symptoms. It caused by a shutdown or failure of the heat-regulating mechanisms of the body. CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS: bizarre behavior or irritability, progressing to confusion, delirium and coma 40.6 degrees Celcius, hypotension, tachycardia, tachypnea skin may appear flushed and hot; at start it maybe moist progressing to dryness (Anhidrosis) NURSING ALERT: Elderly clients are high-risk to develop heat-stroke Once diagnosis is confirmed, it is imperative to reduce patients temperature