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Shiksha Kendra, 2, Community Centre, Preet Vihar, Delhi-110 092 India
Class XII
A Textbook of
(An academic elective offered
in various CBSE affiliated Schools)
Mass Media
STUDIES
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Mass Media Class XII
PRICE : Rs.
FIRST EDITION 2011 CBSE, India
COPIES:
PUBLISHED BY : The Secretary, Central Board of Secondary
Education, Shiksha Kendra, 2, Community Centre, Preet Vihar,
Delhi-110092
DESIGN, LAYOUT : Multi Graphics, 5745/81, Reghar Pura, Karol Bagh,
New Delhi-110005, Phone : 25783846
PRINTED BY :
"This book or part thereof may not be reproduced by
any person or agency in any manner."
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THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
PREAMBLE
1
WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a SOVEREIGN
SOCIALIST SECULAR DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC and to secure to all its citizens :
JUSTICE, social, economic and political;
LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship;
EQUALITY of status and of opportunity; and to promote among them all
2
FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the [unity and integrity of the Nation];
IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this twenty-sixth day of November, 1949, do HEREBY TO
OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION.
THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
Chapter IV A
Fundamental Duties
ARTICLE 51A
Fundamental Duties - It shall be the duty of every citizen of India-
(a) to abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the National Flag and the National
Anthem;
(b) to cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle for freedom;
(c) to uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India;
(d) to defend the country and render national service when called upon to do so;
(e) To promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people of India
transcending religious, linguistic and regional or sectional diversities; to renounce practices
derogatory to the dignity of women;
(f) to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture;
(g) to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers, wild life and to have
compassion for living creatures;
(h) to develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and reform;
(i) to safeguard public property and to abjure violence;
(j) to strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity so that the nation
constantly rises to higher levels of endeavour and achievement.
1. Subs, by the Constitution (Forty-Second Amendment) Act. 1976, sec. 2, for "Sovereign Democratic Republic (w.e.f. 3.1.1977)
2. Subs, by the Constitution (Forty-Second Amendment) Act. 1976, sec. 2, for "unity of the Nation (w.e.f. 3.1.1977)
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Acknowledgments
Advisory Body Editorial Board
Material Production Group :
Grateful Acknowledgment to :
Vineet Joshi Dr. Sadhana Parashar
(IAS) Chairman, CBSE Head (I & R), CBSE
Dr. Sadhana Parashar Prof. Anil Zankar
Head (I & R), CBSE Senior Professor Film
Appreciations (WWI.Mumbai)
Mr. Al Hilal Ahmed,
Assistant Education Officer, CBSE
Ms. Anjali
Assistant Education Officer, CBSE
Shri Anil Zankar, Senior Professor Film Appreciation, WWI,
Mumbai- Coordinator
Shri Umesh Gupta, Vice president- Academics, WWI, Mumbai
Dr. Keval J. Kumar, Adjunct Professor, ISBM, Pune
Shri Salim Arif, HOD Production Design, WWI, Mumbai
Ms. Avnita Bir, Principal, R.N. Poddar School, Mumbai
Ms. Sunita George, Vice Principal, R.N. Poddar School, Mumbai
Ms. Rashmi Singh, PGT English, R.N. Poddar School, Mumbai
1. Shri Samar Nakhate, Media Consultant, Former Dean (TV), FTII, Pune
2. Shri John Lee, Dean, WWI, Mumbai
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Preface
In the modern technology driven world, it is almost impossible to compete and survive without the
knowledge or access to modern modes of communication and technology. The information and
technology has made the world almost borderless. Information and data travel within no time. Media is
playing an important role in almost all fields. It is educating, entertaining and influencing people
throughout the world. In the last decade Mass Media has become a significant force. Its importance is
immense. Never before in the history of mankind have the media had such a significant impact on the
lives and behaviour of the people.
Mass Media is the most significant way to reach out to a large number of audiences. With the ever
expanding reach even to the homes of the people of underdeveloped and developing nations it
becomes very important to study the nuances of the subject. People around the world these days rely
on the various sources of Mass Media for the news and information which has given Mass Media the
status of a big industry. We cannot think of a single day without newspaper, television or internet
especially the younger generation. The speed with which information travels and the kind of power it
has to influence the minds of people, make it essential that it should be handled by the trained and
responsible professionals. That is why professional study of the theory and practice of Mass Media has
got tremendous impetus in the last decade. It is offering employment to thousands of young aspirants
giving them the opportunity to explore their creative self. For the trained and the skilled professionals,
the future in Media industry is vivid and promising.
CBSE as a national board has initiated the study of Mass Media to cater to the changing ways and
demands of the modern technological world so that the students may be prepared to face the
challenges of the present global world. The Board has come out with elective subjects in Mass Media
both in academic as well as vocational field. The aim of the subjects includes grooming the natural
talent of students and exposing them to ever changing skills needed in the media and
entertainment industry with hands on experience. The Academic elective Mass Media Studies may be
taken by students as the main elective with any popular combination of subjects.
The schools may offer two vocational electives that may be combined with one language and three
academic electives. The present learning resource is full of interesting activities and has been designed
keeping in view the practical approach towards learning Students are supposed to undergo a
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compulsory one week intensive training at an institution approved by CBSE. The people involved in the
development of the material are the people who have practical knowledge of the Mass Media industry
and are requirements and the responsibilities of the industry to the core.
The present learning resource for Mass Media Studies for class XII is designed to impart the
students, the in-depth knowledge of media literacy, audience theories, media ownership, media
representation, different media like radio, television and internet, graphic designing and convergence
of media. Based on authentic sources and facts, the text is developed in a systematic way with
a lucid style assimilating features necessary for a school textbook.
I hope the resource will prove helpful in achieving the objectives set in the curriculum.
I acknowledge with gratitude the teachers and resource persons in the material development group
who have helped us in exploring ideas and techniques in writing the present text. As the present text
is the first edition and due to constraint of time, has been brought out in an exceedingly short span
of time, I wholeheartedly welcome suggestions for the further improvement of the resource.
Vineet Joshi
Chairman
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Unit I :
UNIT II : EVOLUTION OF THE MEDIA
UNIT III : CONVERGENCE OF THE MEDIA
UNIT IV : SELLING/MARKETING/EXHIBITING A PRODUCT THROUGH ADVERTISING
UNIT V GRAPHIC DESIGN-MULTIMEDIA APPLICATIONS
UNDERSTANDING THE LANGUAGE OF THE MEDIUM Page No
Chapter I Media Literacy
Chapter 2 Aspects of Film Language
Chapter 3 Content Analysis of TV programmes
Chapter 4 Content Analysis Of Newspapers And Periodicals
Chapter 5 Content Analysis Of Radio Programmes
Chapter 6 Features Of The Internet

Chapter 1 The Evolution Of International Cinema
Chapter 2 The Evolution Of International Television
Chapter 3 Evolution of PRINT MEDIA
Chapter 4 The Evolution of RADIO
Chapter 5 Evolution of the Internet
Chapter 1 Independence and inter-convertibility of the media
Chapter 2 Convergence and the new possibilities of communication

Chapter 1 Profile of a Product
Chapter 2 The Task of Advertising
Chapter 3 The Available Media
Chapter 4 Forms of Advertising
Chapter 1 Introduction to multimedia
Chapter 2 Text
Chapter 3 Still image
Chapter 4 Video Applications
Chapter 5 Sound
Chapter 6 Creating a Multimedia project
Contents
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Unit - 1
Understanding the
Language of the Medium
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Chapter 1
Media Literacy
3
I. Introduction
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We live in a world where we are constantly bombarded with images, views, opinions, lifestyle, consumption
patterns, trends and more. For most of us, life without media would be unthinkable. We catch news on TV, read
opinions in the newspaper, use TV for entertainment, surf the world wide web to check out the latest trends, make
friends on Facebook, tweet our opinions, use our blackberry to stay connected, upload videos and share files. The
Media seems to be everywhere and manages to pervade every part of our life.
But, it is not just because it is ubiquitous that we are interested in the media - but, the fact that it influences - to a
greater or lesser degree - our actions, our opinions, our perceptions and our world view. Our understanding of
'good' and 'bad', 'acceptable' and 'unacceptable', 'beauty' and 'ugliness'; 'right' and 'wrong', 'patriotism', culture,
history and tradition all are influenced and shaped by the media.
Therefore, as citizens and as media practitioners it is important for us to understand certain very basic aspects of
the media - such as ownership, agenda, and interest - so that we become able to discern the messages that the
media puts out, enabling us to make better and more informed decisions. This awareness of the media is called
Media Literacy.
The Media Awareness Network defines Media Literacy as
Media literacy is the ability to sift through and analyze the messages that inform, entertain and sell to us every
day. It is the ability to bring critical thinking skills to bear on all media- from music videos and Web
environments to product placement in films and virtual displays on bill boards. It is about asking pertinent
questions about what is there, and noticing what is not there. And it is the instinct to question what lies
behind media productions- the motives, the money, the values and the ownership- and to be aware of how
these factors influence content.
At the core of being 'media literate' is understanding and internalizing that :
media messages are constructed
messages are created differently for different media, keeping in mind the characteristics and strengths of each
medium - take for example the Commonwealth Games - if television media wishes to tell you about the delays
in the games it will show you unfinished construction. If the print media wants to tell you about the delays it will
give you a table with promised delivery, current status and how long it will take to complete a project.
Media messages are created for a particular purpose. For example, the purpose of a fairness cream
commercial is to sell the product and not to increase the confidence; similarly breaking news is not about
anything urgent, but is created to keep you hooked to the TV set.
People tend to view the same piece of the content differently. For example, for some, a particular movie could
be great entertainment, others viewed it as flawed story telling
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Media Awareness Network - http://www.media-awareness.ca/english/teachers/media_literacy/what_is_media_literacy.cfm
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Media Literacy
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II. Introduction to Mass Media
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The message are often baised and carries the biases of the creator or funder of the message.
Media messages can influence behaviors, believes, attitudes, and values.
Given the role it plays in a society and in our everyday lives, it is important to study media and how it works.
Studying media involves the detailed analysis of the images, sounds and the text that we experience via the media.
It is the study of individual media texts (such as movies, TV shows, magazines, websites) and asking some key
questions:
Who made them? ("institution")
How were they made? ("process")
Why were they made? ("purpose")
Who were they made for? ("audience")
What were the rules followed while marking them? ("conventions" and "genre")
To be a media literate, it is important to understand the nature of the media and its impact on the audiences. The
study of media is relatively a new discipline about a century old. That is because, media itself became mass - only
about a 100 or so years ago.
In the last 100 years or so the role of Mass Media has been very important and influential in every day life. That is
because it is :
All pervasive - impacts every aspect of our lives
Inclusive - includes all aspects of society. For example, the role of media in depicting various parts of India as
parts of the whole.
Socialiser - tells us about the acceptable modes of behaviour and the unacceptable modes of behaviour. For
example, the role of media in encouraging people to give polio vaccines to children.
Activity 1
Watch Hindi feature film "Peepli Live" and have a class discussion on the role of media in shaping
opinions.
In groups use internet to find out the reasons why a farmer commits suicide and compare your
findings with the reasons put forward in "Peepli Live"
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Media Literacy
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What is the Media?
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Influencer - influences behaviour. For example, the role of media in encouraging people not to drink and drive.
Aspiration Driver - For example, the role of media in encouraging consumption patterns such as the use of
microwaves or modular kitchens.
Persuader/ Seller/Nagger - for example, advertising and how it acts on the psyche, especially minds of the
youth.
Awareness Creator/ Informer - for example, the role of media in propagating spread of information - be it news
or current affairs or government policies
Education - the role of media in spreading education
Before we get down to deepen out understanding on ways to deconstruct media messages, we need to
comprehend some basics - including what the media is, what the audiences are, what the various theories that are
used to look at both the media and the audiences.
'The media' refers to the different channels we use to communicate information in the everyday world. 'Media' is the
plural of medium (of communication), and the main media forms are
Print Radio Film
Television Internet
And the main content forms of this media are
Advertising Books Canned Fiction Entertainment
Canned Non Fiction entertainment Feature Films Music
News Websites
The media is essentially an amalgamation of content and technology that allows a set of people to
communicate with each other. This communication can be:
Between individuals - one to one or peer to peer. For example a phonecall.
Between organisations - business to business. For example a corporate film
Between organisations & individuals - business to consumer for example advertising or a feature film or a
TV programme or a newspaper.
When we study the media, as media practitioners, what we are interested in is:
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What is the Media Studies?
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What do people consume in terms of media?
Why do they consume it?
What do they do after they consume it?
What are the consequences of that action?
What is the role of the media in our life?
Media Studies is the study of what the media is composed of and how it affects the audience. It employs theories
and methods from a number of fields of study including communication, sociology, social theory, literature, literary
theory, political economy, film/video studies, cultural studies, cultural anthropology, philosophy, design, history,
politics, information theory, and economics.
Media Studies focuses on the Mass Media - its political, social, economic and cultural role and its impact in creating
and distributing content to media audiences.
Key concepts in Media Studies include:
How the audiences are identified, constructed, addressed and reached; how audiences find, choose,
consume and respond to the media texts.
What kinds of technologies are available to whom, how to use them, the differences they make to the
production process as well as to the final product.
Activity 2
Look at the last Sunday's issue of your local newspaper and make a list of all advertisements in the paper.
Note down which of these are between individuals, between organisations and between organisations
and individuals.
Media audiences: Who is watching?
Media technologies: How is it produced?
Media agencies/ ownership - Who makes /owns what?
Media Literacy
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Who produces the text; its role in production process, media institutions, economics and ideologies,
intentions and results.
How does the media produce meanings; codes and conventions; narrative structure.
Different media (television, radio, cinema etc); forms (documentary, advertising etc); genres, other ways of
categorising text; how categorisation relates to understanding.
How are things, places and people portrayed in the media? The relation between media
texts and the actual places, people, events, ideas; stereotyping and its consequences.
Watch half an hour of Television this evening. Note down the advertising during that half an hour. And,
write down the answers to the key questions listed above for each piece of advertising.
The single most important concept - when we study media - is the concept of "Mass". Be it mass society, mass
culture, mass media or mass audiences. The concept of mass is associated with the modern world. It is
differentiated from earlier types of society - called traditional society.
Before we look at the concept of "Mass" - especially with reference to audiences & media - it is important for us to
understand the following:
The term traditional, in this context, is used to describe pre-industrial societies and their interrelationships.
Traditional Society is community based. They usually exists within a specific geographic space and are
symbolized by shared traditions, cultures, values and language. They are denoted by a lack of individual
privacy, and a feeling of "social good". For example, think of a small village where everyone knows the other
person.
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Key Concepts in Studying the Media
Traditional
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Media languages How do they convey meaning?
Media categories: What is it?
Media representation
Activity 3
Traditional Society
Media Literacy
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Mass
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A set of cultural values and ideas that are shared by the community.
In traditional society messages were communicated through stories, folklore, myths, and legends, through
song and dance, verse and prose, philosophy and drama. Usually storytellers and bards carried these forward
as part of the oral tradition. It was spread through word of mouth and stories were adapted from culture to
culture.
1. Watch the film Seven Samurai in class by Akira Kurosawa and follow this up with a discussion
based around the nature of traditional society including concepts of hierarchy, honour and
'societal good'.
2. Read an articles on different types of Ramayan and appreciate how the same story changes from
region to region and culture to culture.
Until a century ago, media was elite in nature. Small groups of publishers - published material for small groups of
readers, who would mostly agree with those views. The publishers were among the elite as were the readers. The
spread of media penetration was restricted by lack of mass literacy. The all pervasive presence of print media was
possible since only after the introduction of print technology.
However, when education became compulsory, media owners realized that there was more profit to be made
from attracting the newly educated lower classes, than the elite who were far fewer in number.
The publishers that appealed to this audience, as opposed to the elite audience, were called mass media and the
audiences were called mass audiences. Both terms were used in a derogatory manner. The term "mass" had
negative connotations. 'Mass' was perceived as the multitudes or common people who were mostly uneducated,
ignorant and potentially irrational, unruly and even violent. The concept of Mass involved:
Large aggregate Undifferentiated
Mainly with a negative image Lacking order and organisation
Reflective of mass society
Traditional Culture:
Traditional media for transmission of message
Activity 4
Media Literacy
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The Oxford English Dictionary, in fact, defined mass as as an "aggregate in which individuality is lost
However, this attitude towards the term "Mass" changed in the post First World War (1914-1919) era, when the
world began seeing many mass movements including the Russian Revolution, the Trade Union Movement, the Indian
Independence Movement, the Movement towards empowerment of women and others. The power of the 'mass'
began to be recognized by the media owners and a new era of communication was born. The term 'mass
communication' and 'mass media' came into use in 1930's.
The term Mass, in this context, is used for industrial and modern society, a society that is more urbanized, where
social ties are more flexible and where there is a high degree of individualism and anonymity.
The term Mass Society refers to a society with a mass culture and large-scale, impersonal, social institutions. Given
that the most complex and modern societies have (social relationships, family, friends, groups et al) the concept
of mass society can be thought of as an "ideal type", but it does not exist in reality. However, the term is designed to
draw attention to the way in which life in complex societies, with great specialization and rationalized institutions,
can become clouded in anonymity and impersonality and fail to support adequate bonds between the individual
and the community.
Mass culture is a set of cultural values, ideas, forms of practice that arise from the exposure of a population to the
same cultural activities, communication media, music and art, etc. For example, in India traditionally the 'Sangeet'
on the night before wedding was a part of North Indian culture - more specifically Punjabi culture. It was a woman's
festival which aimed to tell a young girl who was getting married on what to expect from marriage. Mass culture's
depiction of the wedding sangeet has now turned it into an all India phenomenon where people of both genders
participate.
Compare and contrast the depiction of Sangeet in the following two songs
'Mere haathon mein nau nau chudiyaan hai' -from 'Chandini
'Mehendi sajaake rakhna' - from 'Dilwaale Dulhaniya Le Jaayenge
And, talk to people from the senior generation (60+) from the Punjabi community on what Sangeet
traditionally used to be.
Mass Society
Mass Culture
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Activity 5
Media Literacy
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Mass culture becomes possible with modern communication and electronic media. Mass culture is transmitted to
individuals, rather than arising from people's daily interactions, and therefore lacks the distinctive content of
cultures rooted in community and region. Mass culture fosters the view of the viewer as a consumer and as an
individual.
The mass media is that media (radio, television, newspapers, etc) which is targeted at the mass rather than at
specific group or community.
Folk Culture grew from the grass roots. It was spontaneous expression of people, shared by themselves preferably
in their own communities to suit their own needs. Mass culture is imposed from above. It is fabricated by
technicians hired by businessmen; its audiences are passive consumers, their participation limited to the choice
between buying and not buying. It is a debased, trivial culture that voids both the deep realities (sex, death, failure
and tragedy) and also make the simple, spontaneous pleasures: Macdonald, 1957, Introduction: The Dangers of
Mass Culture
One of the biggest differences between traditional modes of communication and mass communication is how the
latter allows the same message to be delivered to a large mass of people, audience simultaneously.
In the modern world, the scale and operations of the mass media may vary for instance some people watch a film in
a village tent or on a movable screen, and others in multiplexes, some watch TV on 29" plasma screens, yet others
on community TV sets yet there are certain basic core attributes of the mass media
They derive from technologies of mass reproduction and distribution and certain forms of organization. The
movie that you watch in a theatre in Mumbai is identical to the same movie someone else watches in Delhi
They are designed to reach the Many e.g. on an average; a TV serial on an entertainment channel in India is
watched by millions of viewers.
Potential audiences are viewed as large aggregates of more or less anonymous consumers and the relationship
between the sender and the receiver is influenced by this fact, for example, two people watching the same
show are in Nasik and Gurgaon - don't necessarily have any connection with each other.
The sender is often the organization itself or a professional communicator as almost all shows, film and news
are produced by companies or professionally trained media practitioners.
It may also be the voice of the proprietor - advertiser, politician, religious leader, NGO which has its own
agenda.
Mass media to transmit message
The difference between folk (traditional) and mass culture
Mass Media Technologies
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Media Literacy
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Mass Audience
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Herbert Blumer (1939) defined the mass as a new type of social formation in modern society by contrasting it with
other formations - especially the group, crowd and public. He said:
Groups are small as most people know each other. They share common values and believe in certain structure
of relationships that is stable over a period of time. The groups interact with each other to achieve predefined
objectives for example, a film appreciation group.
Crowds are larger but still restricted within observable boundaries in a particular space. It is however
temporary and seldom reassembles with the same composition. It exhibits a high degree of identity and shares
the same 'mood', but there is no structure or order to its moral and social composition. It can act, but its actions
are often seen to have an affective, emotional and often irrational character for example the crowd in a railway
station.
Public is relatively large, widely dispersed and enduring. It tends to form around an issue or cause in public life,
with its primary purpose to advance an interest or opinion and to achieve political change. It is an essential part
of democratic societies, for example, the public that came together to campaign for justice for Jesicca Lall.
And finally, the Mass audience is widely dispersed, its members are not known to each other or even to those
who brought the audience into existence. It lacks self awareness and self identity and is incapable of acting
together in an organized way to secure objectives. It is marked by shifting composition within changing
boundaries. It does not act for itself, but is acted upon - therefore subject to manipulation. It is heterogenous -
consisting of large numbers from all social strata and demographic groups. But, it is also homogenous in its
choice of some particular object of interest to the perception of those who would like to manipulate it, for
example, the mass audience response to 'Dabaang' as part of popular response.
Watch 'Dabaang' and 'Amar Akbar Anthony' and discuss the elements that made the films mass
entertainment. In groups, write a comparative critique of the two films, keeping the context of the period
(years) in mind.
Activity 6
Media Literacy
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III. Audience Theories
Hypodermic Theory or the Magic Bullet Theory
When we study the media - it is important to understand the theoretical constructs that underpin the discipline.
Most of these discuss the impact of media communication on audiences. While we may never be called upon to sell
a show or make a film on the basis of these theories, understanding them and appreciating them would enable us
to make a better show or a better film.
The reason we study the media in close detail, is because of the impact it has on audiences. Therefore it is hardly
surprising that the early theories looked at how media impacts or effects audiences. These theories are called
"Media Effects Theories" or "Audience Theories". These theories seek to understand how audiences respond &
react to the media messages.
One of the first major theories of the impact of mass media on audiences was "The Hypodermic Needle Theory" or
the "Magic Bullet Theory". Postulated in the early 1920's this theory believed that the media was all powerful and
had a similar direct effect on the audiences.
According to these 'Media Effects Theories' viewers are passive and are directly affected by what they consume in
the media. They accept the message that they read, hear or see without considering whether the message has any
merit or not. In other words, the media content is shot at the audience like a magic bullet and it directly penetrates
the viewer's mind and changes it. The supporters of this theory believed that the media could shape public opinion
and persuade the masses toward any desired point of view. In this way messages strike all members of the
audience equally causing to think in a uniform fashion.
Harold Lasswell was one of the most prominent thinkers who propagated this model. He in 1927 postulated that
the mass media could influence and sway public opinion in very direct ways. . He wrote, that "propaganda is one of
the most powerful instrumentalities in the modern world" capable of welding " millions of human beings into one
amalgamated mass of hate and will and hope"
Propaganda is the manipulation of public opinion through mass media messages with the purpose of getting them
back to a certain public cause or a mode of action. In a way, the role played by propaganda in the Soviet Union
previously to gain acceptance for a Communist Government as well as in Nazi Germany from 1933 onwards
seemed to suggest that the magic bullet theory was accurate.
Author George Orwell, in his book 1984 talks about how a future dictatorship would use propaganda to control its
people. This is a theme that is revisited in the graphic novel 'V for Vendetta'
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Activity 7
Activity 8
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Propaganda
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Watch 1984
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Watch V for Vendetta
In groups, discuss the role of the media in keeping people subjugated and prepare a powerpoint
presentation on the strong messages being propagated through the films.
Progpaganda is a term that is used fairly frequently in the discussion of the media. It is considered to be the content
that tries to portray 'an ideology' as the best and in doing so tries to portray all other view points as being
unacceptable or evil in nature.
Propaganda is seen to mean a point of view that is biased towards one agenda - and the term itself has negative
connotations.
Propaganda is usually of two types :
Direct or obvious political propaganda - which tells the audience directly why a particular government or a
cause is wonderful; This would include news clips or interviews that speak in favour of that cause. And,
Subtle propaganda - Propaganda that is disguised as entertainment. In this mode you will see those that the
propaganda seeks to deride being presented as demonized characters - with no redeeming qualities.
For example, when the cold war between the USA & the USSR was in progress (1945- 1991), there were news clips
in the USA that opposed the USSR and talked about how totalitarian that regime was. However, movies like 'Rambo
III' - that were based in Afghanistan and showed Rambo taking on the 'evil' Soviet empire are instances of more
subtle propaganda.
Individually read 'The Ministry of Illusion - German cinema in the Goebbels Era' by Bruce Thompson.
In groups or as a whole class watch 'Rambo III' and attempt to distinguish between the good and the bad
guys.
Watch the movie - The Triumph of will by Leni Riefenstahl - a propaganda film commissioned by the Nazi Party
to put forth their point of view.
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The Two Step Model
Despite, the fact that the media seems to influence audiences in terms of their opinions and actions - there were
several critical issues with the Hypodermic or Magic Bullet theory, the primary one being that the audience is
seldom as passive it is made out to be. Even in Nazi Germany, where the propaganda machinery demonized the
Jewish people, there were Germans who risked their lives to oppose the Nazi Government and save Jews (watch
'Schindler's List') the Soviet Union which also effectively used propaganda also saw numerous voices raised against
Communism.
In a world where there was only one media source and which was completely under the control of one interested
party, the Hypodermic Theory or the Magic Bullet theory worked. However, we, do not live in such a world any
longer. The media landscape is now diverse as are the sources of information.
Besides, individuals do not make up their mind purely based on the media, they also talk to friends, family and
others in their social circle before making up their minds. For example, if you have to buy a new vehicle or a new
mobile you are not going to rely merely on media messages. You will probably talk to other users about how good
or bad that product is?
The Two Step Flow theory proposed by Paul Lazarsfeld, states that messages from the media get transmitted in two
distinct stages:
1. Through Opinion Leaders who pay close attention to the mass media and its messages.
2. These opinion leaders then pass their own interpretations in addition to the actual media content.
The term 'personal influence' was coined to refer to the process between the media's direct message and the
audience's ultimate reaction to that message. Opinion leaders use their personal influence to get people to
change their attitudes and behavior.
The two-step flow theory has improved our understanding of how the mass media influences decision making. The
theory refined the ability to predict the influence of media messages on audience behavior and it helped explain
why certain media campaigns may have failed to alter audience attitudes and behavior.
For example, one of the reasons why celebrities frequently endorse products, is because they act as the 'influencer'
or opinion leader.
Watch the documentary "Merchants of Cool" in class and discuss the issues that arise with reference
to the Indian context. (http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0279224/)
Activity 9
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Uses and Gratifications Model
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Both the Hypodermic Theory model and the Two Step Flow theory model assumed that the bulk of the audience
are passive consumers of content and opinion. Both these theories asked the question 'What does the Media do to
the Audience".
However, in the 1960's when there was a proliferation of the media and people started to make distinct choices
between the forms of media that they consumed, researcher Katz asked a very different question, "What do the
audiences do with the media?" Its postulates that 'media' is a highly available product and audiences or consumers
use this product in the same way as they would any other product or service.
The appearance of this approach marks an important change in the way media researchers think about the
audience. Previously, they saw the audience as passive or made up of people who simply accepted whatever was
put in front of them. In these models latter following the gratification approach, the audience is active. Audience
members are seen as consumers of a media product, and as with consumers of other goods and services, they
shop around, consider alternatives, and make choices.
The earlier approaches assumed that the content of the media has some effect on the audience members and the
researchers spent their time trying to locate and measure those effects. However, rarely substantial effects were
found, perhaps because the model for the audience was too simplistic.
The uses and gratifications approach seems to provide a richer way of looking at the audience. Instead of asking,
"How does the media change our minds?" the uses and gratifications researchers ask "What is the role of media in
our lives?"
Here are some examples of the uses to which the media are put:
Getting the "news"
Getting information about available products and services
Starting the day in the morning or ending it at night
Establishing common topics to talk about with friends
Creating a substitute for having friends
Providing a way to feel connected to other members of the audience
Providing a way to escape from the day's problems and worries
Hearing someone else support our own values and opinions.
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In this view media becomes just one of many cultural influences in our environment, and far from the most
important.
Therefore, in order to ensure that the consumer chose them, media began to put out the kind of content that
consistently and constantly attracted audiences.
In pairs, construct a checklist or a questionnaire to carry out a survey amongst thirty different people. Ask
them to
list down the forms of media - (TV, print, radio, web, movies) that they are accustomed to.
the brands of media that they consume - tv channel, newspaper/magazine, radio channel, websites,
social networking, films they watch
their objectives in accessing different forms and kinds of media.
The time spent in a week/day, in various kinds of activities connected to the media.
The media space in India is dominated by large conglomerates who own different media.
Media has evolved in India over the last 20 years. In addition to technological changes and mass penetration,
there has been consistent rise in power of few media houses. Or in other words, there is growing concentration of
media ownership. The increasing control of the media by a handful of corporate entities means that dominance of
the ideology of the elites and powerful defines the views and shapes the opinion of the common reader.
Media controls our access to manufacture, distribute, and consume information. In order to understand the media
it is important to identify with who owns the means of communication. In India, a few large business houses own
media in English, Hindi and in vernacular languages and account for a large part of the total circulation. Another
interesting aspect is the formation of joint stock companies and conglomeration of companies for example Dainik
Bhaskar & Zee together own the DNA newspapers. Anand Bazar Patrika and News International (Rupert Murdoch)
owns Star News. CNN and TV18 own CNN IBN. These instances of conglomeration of companies illustrate the
trends that is shaping the current and future of media in India.
Often, politicians have large stakes in these news media and most newspaper owners have political links. Aware
of the power of the press, many political parties have even nominated media magnates as members of parliament.
Activity 10
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IV. Media Ownership
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Understanding Media Ownership, becomes one of the key aspects of media literacy. When we look at media
ownership we must understand the following:
concentration of ownership
advertising as the prime source of media income
journalists' reliance on 'legitimate' (often official) sources
dominance of one kind of ideology (pro free market, pro corporate, anti- union)
A few years ago, 'The Centre for Science & Environment' had investigated and found that leading cola
brands had traces of pesticides in them. What happened to that investigation?
In groups research on the web and analyze and report your findings to the rest of the class.
Some of India's media conglomerates with interests in television, print, internet, films, entertainment, mobile
content and allied businesses are Network18, Times Group, India Today group, New Delhi Television, UTV, Sun TV
group.
For example,
Times of India, Economic Times, Navbharat Times, Mirror, Crest, Zoom, Times Now, Radio Mirchi are all under
the same broad ownership
Zee TV, Zee Regional, Zee News, Siticable, Dish TV, DNA are all under the same broad ownership. Furthermore,
the company also produces films.
Sahara runs Sahara One, various Sahara Samay news channels, Rashtirya Sahara Newspapers and is also in the
business of films
Anil Dhirubhai Ambani Group or ADAG are the stakeholders in the Big brand which has under its banners Big TV,
Big DTH, Big Motion pictures and Big FM
Sun Network has under its umbrella Sun TV and three other General Entertainment channels in the South of
India, various news channels, DTH and newspapers
India Today group under its brand ownership has the brands of India Today and all the Regional Editions, Aaj Tak
and Headlines Today
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TV-18 carries under its umbrella CNBC, CNBC Awaaz, CNN-IBN, Colors, Studio 18 and Web 18
If you look at the media closely, in India and elsewhere, you will find the same set of companies owning various
media brands across multiple forms such as TV, Print, Radio and the Web.
When we look at media messages, one of the key questions that needs to be asked and answered is who is putting
out the message and what is their agenda or point of view. In a modern, free market society, a simple answer would
be that the owner of the media is putting out the message and their agenda is profit. However, the world is not that
simple. Often the agenda of the owner or the leading advertiser becomes all pervasive and takes precedence over
everything else.
Watch the documentary "Outfoxed" in class - and discuss the role of agenda and ownership in
changing mindsets.
Read - Corporate Television: Who Owns The Networks? which presents an analysis of American media
ownership patterns. You will find that most of those companies are present in India.
One of the key issues in media literacy is Media Representation. Representation refers to the construction in any
medium (especially the mass media) of aspects of 'reality' such as people, places, objects, events, cultural
identities and other abstract concepts. Such representations may be in speech or writing as well as still or moving
pictures. A key concern in the study of representation is the way in which representations are made to seem
'natural'.
Often we use media in advertising, entertainment and news industries. This is because we know that people
understand certain codes instinctively and media often needs instant understanding of an image to transmit
information. For example - a person with a stethoscope around their neck - is a stereotype of a doctor, as is a
person with a white coat. A woman in a sari is usually married and a mother.
Stereotypes have little to do with reality - it is more a function of manufactured reality. Stereotypes are codes that
allow audiences to make a snapshot judgement about a person or a group of people regarding their age,
background, ethnicity, gender, their class, social role or occupation.
For example, study the following stereotypes represented in the media:
Gurkhas - notice the accent of those presented as Gurkhas
Muslims - why do Muslims in the Indian media always speak chaste Urdu? Why would a Muslim whose mother
tongue is Bengali be speaking to his family in Urdu?
Activity 12
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Mothers - why do mothers, in the media, always wear saris and smile. Do mothers never get angry?
Tribal - why are they represented in a certain way irrespective of their rich culture?
widows - white sarees without any trace of colour.
students - jeans, tee shirt - do students never wear Indian clothes ?
A key part of media literacy is understanding and deconstructing images and constructs that are thrown at us
by the media. When we look at images we need to ask the following questions:
What is being represented?
How is it represented? Within what genre?
How is the representation made to seem 'true', 'commonsense' or 'natural'?
What is in the foreground and what is background? Are there any notable absences?
Whose representation is it? Whose interests does it reflect? How do you know?
At whom is this representation targeted? How do you know?
What does the representation mean to you? What does the representation mean to others? How do you
account for the differences?
How do people make sense of it? According to what codes?
With what alternative representations could it be compared? How does it differ?
A reflexive consideration - Why is the concept of representation problematic?
In Hindi cinema, when protagonists make fun of ethnic minorities, or dark people, or fat people - often it is because
the film makers do not think through the scene, or thinks it would be funny. However, this creates its own problems.
It tends to
perpetuate prejudice and bias
maintain inequalities
reduce diversity and pigeonhole differences.
transform assumptions about particular groups of people into "realities"
create stereotypical and flat images which come to symbolize
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Media Literacy
Representation of Gender
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Gender, is one of the key constructs
insociology and an important issue when
we discuss representation. Essential
elements of our own identity, and the
identities we assume other people
possess, come from the concepts of
gender - what does it mean to be a boy or a
girl, a man or a woman.
Many objects, not just humans, are represented by the media as being particularly masculine or feminine - specially
in advertising - and we grow up with an awareness of what constitutes 'appropriate' characteristics
When we look at representation of male attributes and female attributes the following stereotypes are usually
reinforced across various forms of media:
A woman and a man, as gender constructs are different from the 'biological' male and female. Culture, socialisation
and specific roles define gender. In Urban India, traditionally a woman stayed at home covered her face and took
care of her family. On the other hand, amongst the peasants, especially in rural India, the woman had no choice but
to work. She was engaged either in the fields or in the stable or for collecting wood and water.
When you look at media representation of women - you will find one of the two things:
The ultra modern, skirt or jeans clad girl, who has more in common with her western counterpart represents the
career minded modern Indian woman; or
The ultra traditional Indian woman who is clad from head to toe and adopts a completely traditional lifestyle
that has more in common with an Indian woman from a century ago
Mass Media reinforces these stereotypes through messages in image and in text . A woman or a girl is portrayed as
one with the single minded objective of marriage or catching the right man as their goal in life. Career women -
especially in TV serials, are usually portrayed in a negative light. Representation of women in the media presents
and reinforces the following aspects in a stereotypical fashion
Beauty, size and physique are portrayed within narrow conventions. Women who are heroines are generally
portrayed as being fair, slim and traditional. Yet, India is a diverse country in terms of body types, colouring,
and attitudes.
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Gender Identity - In most of Hindi films a rich girl loves a poor boy. if the woman is single her goal is always to
get married to a suitable, educated, professional, wealthy partner. If she is married her sexuality is submerged
under duty. And, if she is a mother she has no sexuality . The only woman who is aware of her sexuality is the
vamp who is always blatant and generally assertive and pushy.
Emotional - women are portrayed as making decisions based on emotional considerations as opposed to
intellectual ones. The only women who make intellectual decisions are shown as villains or vamps.
Relationships - a woman is defined by her relationships. She is always reduced to a cubby hole existence
either as a daughter, wife or mother. She is rarely, if ever, portrayed as an independent entity with a mind of her
own.
Individually, watch one episode each of a TV soap on Star, Zee, Colors, Sony and note down the following:
Name of the serial and the connotation Name of the heroine
Name of the hero What does the heroine do?
What is her relationship to the remaining members of her family?
How does she conduct herself, with respect to the other members of her family? Then, in pairs discuss
the points and present to the rest of the class either through a slide show or power point presentation
you may use stills or self shot sound clippings from the serial to substantiated your points.
While watching the serials for the activity also observe the advertisements during the break and note
down the following:
What is the product being advertised?
Is there a woman in the advertisement?
What is she wearing?
How does she look (short, thin, fat, fair, dark, traditional, modern) ?
What does she do (is she a housewife, career woman, a glamorous girl)?
In groups, repair a manifesto with ten points own how gender stereotypes are being perpetuated
Activity 13
Activity 14
Media Literacy
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* P Sainath, The Largest Wave of Suicides in History -
Media Literacy
through the mass media. Also provide ten points which are solutions of how to check the meaningless
perpetuation.
Read - Changing sex roles in Indian advertisements by Shoma Chatterji and discuss in the class.
70% of India lives in its villages. So rural life should be adequately represented in main stream media. Usually, when
the media portrays rural India it uses words such as poverty, illiteracy and backwardness to describe people and
places. Yet, rural India is one of the fastest growing sections of Indian society. When we see stories on rural India, we
essentially see stories of only gloom and doom. Of Khap panchayats and caste murders; of rural poverty and
farmer suicides. Or we see nothing at all. It is almost always either sensationalised or ignored.
With an increase in commercial media or media that depends on advertising for survival, a number of key issues get
ignored, for example,
Farmer suicide - it is only in the last two years that there has been a focus on farmer suicides, although it has
been a burning issue since the 1990's. It is estimated that in the decade between 1997 and 2007, almost
20,000 farmers committed suicide . Given that farmers, especially those who commit suicide, are not likely to
be consumers, almost all forms of media avoid presenting, reporting or focusing on them.
Naxal Issue - although the issue is more than 25 years old, the media began highlighting it less than 18 months
ago. Had the media given constant attention to the deprivation and lack of development in these Naxal
affected areas earlier it may never have grown to such magnitude.
Media managers will often tell you when they run programmes with these issues their ratings drop. Mass audiences,
it is believed, do not want to watch programmes that are gloomy and sad. They would much rather watch or read
content that is lighter in nature. But, that is human nature. If you saw two headlines - one of which said "Leading
Actor involved in a scandalous case" and the other which said that "Global Warming to increase food insecurity"
which are you more likely to watch / read. However, the role of the media is not just to put out content that
audiences want to see, but also content that they need to see and must be aware of. The media also has a social
responsibility.
The next issue that comes into question is Representation where we need to see whether all sections of society
are adequately represented by the Media, and more importantly how they are being represented.
Activity 15
Representation of Rural Issues
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Some concerns are reflected below:
How is the (North Eastern India) being represented in the media?
What do Manipur and Assam have in common, that Assam and Kerala don't?
Should there be a representation of seven culturally distinct states as a monolithic bloc.
What is South India? Do Kerala and Andhra Pradesh have anything in common, in terms of politics or culture or
language, that Kerala and Haryana don't?
What percentage of news or entertainment on national channels is focussed on non-Hindi speaking areas?
How much is the representation of Christians or Muslims in the media ?
Given that SC & ST make up 18% of the population and OBC's make up 52% of the population - why is it that
there is no representation of SC's or OBC's in film or entertainment television?
Given that Dalits and OBC's make up 70% of India - what proportion of them are in the main stream Media as
journalists or as content producers
These are the important questions to ask and do not by any means comprise a comprehensive list. This is generally
because we take whatever we see, hear or read for granted. As citizens and as media consumers we do not really
ask ourself what is behind the content. Very often, media leaves out certain aspects of society and glosses over
issues as discrimination or poverty because it does not want to make audiences or advertisers uncomfortable. But,
in doing so, the media runs the risk of creating a false image for the audience.
Watch a news programme on any news channel across one week and note down the following:
What are the top stories on the channel?
How many of these have to do with Mumbai or Delhi ?
How many of these are celebrity oriented ?
How many of these are crime oriented ?
In what context are the other states mentioned?
Are there any stories on the "north east" - what are they ?
Are there any stories on states such as Jharkhand or Uttarnchal or Orissa? What is the nature of these
stories ?
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Activity 16
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Amit Bhattacharya, TNN, Apr 8, 2006, - An ABC of the OBCs -
Mayawati & the Media's Caste Bias - Hoot, Sevanti Ninnan -
Media Literacy
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Are there any stories on religious linguistic minorities and if there are, what is the nature of these
stories?
Watch the documentary "Bowling for Columbine" - and discuss how media shapes opinions
One of the most famous novels in India is 'Devdas'. Written by Sarat Chandra Chaterjee it tells the story of
Devdas - who comes from a wealthy Bengali family and falls in love with Paro - the daughter of merchants.
When the marriage is opposed by his family because the girl belongs to a 'different caste' - Devdas takes to
alcohol and dies. The story also looks at his relationship with a courtesan Chandramukhi.
When Bimal Roy made this film in 1953 he did not ignore the caste factor. It is the guilt of discriminating
against Paro that drives Devdas to alcohol. In 1953, a newly independent India looked to the limited media
that existed to help overcome age old issues of discrimination and inequality. Films across the board
reflected a variety of socially relevant issues and chose to change mindsets using the power of the visual
medium through films.
However, by the time Sanjay Leela Bhanasali remade Devdas audiences and especially urban centric
populace had moved on believing the caste system (as in significant entity). And, hence you will find very
little representation of that issue in this version.
In groups, watch Bimal Roy's Devdas and Sanjay Leela Bhansali's Devdas and describe and discuss how each
one of them deals with the issue of caste and class. Compare and contrast another peace either from
literature, culture or films which reflects a similar predicament.
Watch two episodes of Tom & Jerry - and list down the violent acts in the two
If you ask children who their role model is, you will often hear in answer by invoking Spiderman or Batman or
Superman or Krish. All these are in the superhero space and all these have a high degree of violence featured in the
films .
Activity 17
Activity 18
Activity 19
5
CHILDREN AND VIOLENCE IN THE MEDIA - http://www.peace.ca/sheet15.htm
Media Literacy
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With the increased penetration of television more recently of video and computer games, children, in general and
teenagers in particular are exposed to increasingly higher doses of aggressive images and often told that violence
is fun. Violence and crime is on the rise amongst the youth and we are often told that TV or media encourages this
kind of behaviour by portraying it as being glamorous.
Many of the issues concerning the representation of violence in the media arise not from what is represented but
how it is represented. The media is accused of showing violence as cool, glamorous, easy, or justified, thus inspiring
imitative behaviour.
Similarly, victims and perpetrators of violence can be depicted in a manner (e.g. the victim as a young and beautiful
woman) that reinforces stereotypes.
For example, when Hrithik Roshan plays a robber in Dhoom, he plays a positive role model. Similarly, when a Salman
Khan plays a character such as Chulbul Pandey in Dabaang and uses violence to achieve his objectives, however
much noble it may be, he encourages similar kind of behaviour amongst his fans. When a Salman Khan saves an
Ayesha Takia in Wanted, he is infact reinforcing the sterotype of a hero saving a damsel in distress .
Bollywood as well as television tends to desensitize children towards violence. Guns, bullets, deaths are seen as
'fun' and seem to bear no consequence for those who kill. 2010's two biggest hits have been "Dabaang" and
"Robot' - both of which had a 'young' fan following and both of which had high levels of violence.
There are several key technical codes which very powerfully affect the way violence is represented in the media.
Music is a very powerful emotive tool. It can change the mood of the visuals as it can suggest pain, or
triumph, or connote justification, or humour. Compare the music in the film Mr.India where a bomb goes off
killing a child to the scene in Gaddar Ek Prem Kahani where Sunny Deol takes on the might of the entire Pakistani
army
Sound can enhance the meaning of a scene. Extra gunshots, for example add to chill and
induce fear. How does a slap sound? In reality is it really that loud ? The work of the foley artist is very important
in tweaking scenes in film in its post production phase, and much time is spent developing the sound effects for
the scenes.
Different kinds of camera angle create emphasis and power in films. High camera angles
suggest victims. Low camera angles suggest the perpetrator. If the camera continually takes a character's point
of view then, sympathy can be generated for that character. Which end of the barrel of the gun is the audience
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Camera Angles -
Media Literacy
5
CHILDREN AND VIOLENCE IN THE MEDIA - http://www.peace.ca/sheet15.htm
A Foley Artist works to recreate the natural looking background sounds that a film portrays.
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looking down - this is particularly important in computer games, where the audience is the perpetrator of
violence, especially in first person shoot outs.
be it a slap, a gunshot or a knife stab - occur in a fraction of a second, in reality. However, in
films and TV, this violence is emphasised through slow motions, ramp up shots and the like, almost as though
the film maker expects the audience to savour the violence.
In groups, watch "Robot" or "Ghajini" and make a complete list of
violent scenes in the film
Violent scenes in the film that are justified
Violent scenes in the film where the hero saves the damsel in distress.
Attempt to write a critique on 'How violent video and computer games wreak havoc in the minds and
attitudes of young children'.
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Activity 20
Media Literacy
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Exercises
Section A
Section B
Section C
Answer these questions in brief
1. Which are the five major mass media today?
2. When did the media become mass media?
Discussion and Writing
1. How do mass media play the role of socialiser?
2. Does mass media affect the aspirations of people?
3. What are the key concepts in Media Studies? Explain each of them in not more than two lines each.
4. What is media literacy? What are the core components and the areas of study involved? ?
5. What is the relationship between media studies and other subjects?
6. Why is the concept of mass society far removed from reality?
7. Distinguish between folk and mass culture.
8. Mention at least three stereotypes that we see in Indian popular films. Describe them briefly.
9. Analyse the repercussions of media ownership in a few hands on the Indian media Space.
10. How did Herbert Blumer distinguish between group, crowd, public and mass audience?
11. Briefly explain the stages of The Two Step Flow Theory of media influence on audiences. In what way has the
'The Two Step Flow Theory' resulted in a better understanding of audience response?
12. Critically analyse the Hypodermic Needle Theory of mass media impact on audiences.
13. Enumerate the reasons why the 'Uses and Gratifications Model' concludes that media is just one of many cultural
influences in our environment and not the most important.
Writing for your Portfolio
Research online and try to read news reports on the Jessica Lal Murder Case. You may watch the film [ No One Killed
Jessica] also. Develop a perspective of your own.
Media Literacy
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The case became a cause celebre for the media. It even inspired a novel by diplomat Vikas Swaroop, the
author of the book on which the Oscar-winning "Slumdog Millionaire" was based. The case was something
of a pot-boiler where fashion, high society, crime, political influence and media activism came together. The
case also highlights the bias of the English-speaking media. Had Jessica been some ordinary woman in a
village would the case and the interest of the media have been sustained this long?
Further Research
a) 'How can we detect bias in news?'
We have learnt that there is no such thing as unbiased communication. The next step is to find out ways to
detect bias in media reports and coverage.
Given below are broad techniques for you to detect how journalistic bias can creep into
the news (both newspapers and television news). Explore further and elaborate on the
techniques. You may add some more techniques also.
Bias through selection and omission Bias through placement
Bias by headline Bias by photos, captions and camera angles
Bias through use of names and titles Bias through statistics and crowd counts
Bias by source control Word choice and tone
Thereafter you should read the daily newspaper and try to cross check instances of bias in news coverage and
reporting.
b) Find out the role played by state-controlled media (which comprised TV channels, numerous radio
stations, dozens of newspapers and magazines) as agents of the Egyptian government's propaganda
organ during the regime of President Hosni Mubarak.
Section D
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Chapter 2
Aspects of Film Language
THE CONCEPT OF MISE EN SCENE
CHARACTERS
Mise en scene [ pronounced 'meez-ahn-sen"] is a French term that literally means ' to put into scene' or ' staging an
action'.
This usually includes production design, set, location, actors and their movements, costumes, make up, sound, shot
compositions and lighting. All these elements blend together in the construction/ composition of a scene in a film.
In other words mise en scene signifies the director's control over the frames and individual shots. [In French films,
the term mise en scene as seen in the credit titles means 'direction'].
This term has its origin in the art of Theatre. In Europe, plays were mostly static scenes managed by the actors
themselves till the Nineteenth century. The players were called actor-managers. Each of them would look after
his/her own speech, appearance etc. There was no concept of a director. The nineteenth century saw the
emergence of the new a kind of theatre in the work of Ibsen, Chekhov and others. Also the institution of a Director
came into being around the same time. Theatre directors like Edward Gordon Craig[ UK] and Stanislavski [ Russia]
gave a completely new dimension to the art of staging plays. They choreographed the scenes with minute attention
to details such as the sets, costumes, make up, properties, lighting. This created a well defined space for the actors
to move within. So the concept of synchronization of the actors' movements in relation to the other actors and
properties began to get defined. Theatre became dynamic in space as compared to Shakespeare's days, when
the plays were mostly static declamations.
Take the first scene from Chekhov's One Act play 'The Anniversary'. [We have already studied it in STD XI in
the Unit? Chapter Understanding Cinema I].
Given below is the First scene of the play.
Title: The Anniversary
Author: Anton Chekhov
ANDREY ANDREYEVITCH SHIPUCHIN, Chairman of the N---- Joint Stock Bank, a middle-aged man, with a monocle
TATIANA ALEXEYEVNA, his wife, aged 25
KUSMA NICOLAIEVITCH KHIRIN, the bank's aged book-keeper
NASTASYA FYODOROVNA MERCHUTKINA, an old woman wearing an old-fashioned cloak
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DIRECTORS OF THE BANK
EMPLOYEES OF THE BANK
AND MONEY EMPLOYED IN THE PLAYS, WITH ENGLISH EQUIVALENTS
1 verst = 3600 feet = 2/3 mile (almost)
1 arshin = 28 inches
1 dessiatin = 2.7 acres
1 copeck = 1/4 d
1 rouble = 100 copecks = 2s. 1d.
[The private office of the Chairman of Directors. On the left is a door, leading into the public department. There are
two desks. The furniture aims at a deliberately luxurious effect, with armchairs covered in velvet, flowers, statues,
carpets, and a telephone. It is midday. KHIRIN is alone; he wears long felt boots, and is shouting through the door.]
Send out to the chemist for 15 copecks' worth of valerian drops, and tell them to bring some drinking water into
the Directors' office! This is the hundredth time I've asked!
I'm absolutely tired out. This is the fourth day I've been working, without a chance of shutting my eyes. From morning
to evening I work here, from evening to morning at home.
And I've got an inflammation all over me. I'm hot and cold, and I cough, and my legs ache, and there's something
dancing before my eyes.
The action takes place at the Bank.
RUSSIAN WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
The Anniversary.
KHIRIN.
[Goes to a desk]
[Coughs]
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[Sits]
[Writing]
SHIPUCHIN.
KHIRIN.
SHIPUCHIN.
Our scoundrel of a Chairman, the brute, is going to read a report at a general meeting. "Our Bank, its Present and
Future." You'd think he was a Gambetta.... [At work] Two... one... one... six... nought... seven.... Next, six... nought...
one... six.... He just wants to throw dust into people's eyes, and so I sit here and work for him like a galley-slave! This
report of his is poetic fiction and nothing more, and here I've got to sit day after day and add figures, devil take his
soul!
[Rattles on his counting-frame]
I can't stand it!
That is, one... three... seven... two... one... nought.... He promised to reward me for my work. If everything goes
well to-day and the public is properly put into blinkers, he's promised me a gold charm and 300 roubles bonus....
We'll see. [Works] Yes, but if my work all goes for nothing, then you'd better look out.... I'm very excitable.... If I lose
my temper I'm capable of committing some crime, so look out! Yes!
[Noise and applause behind the scenes. SHIPUCHIN'S voice: "Thank you! Thank you! I am extremely grateful." Enter
SHIPUCHIN. He wears a frockcoat and white tie; he carries an album which has been just presented to him.]
[At the door, addresses the outer office]
This present, my dear colleagues, will be preserved to the day of my death, as a memory of the happiest days of my
life! Yes, gentlemen! Once more, I thank you! [Throws a kiss into the air and turns to KHIRIN] My dear, my respected
Kusma Nicolaievitch!
[All the time that SHIPUCHIN is on the stage, clerks intermittently come in with papers for his signature and go out.]
[Standing up]
I have the honour to congratulate you, Andrey Andreyevitch, on the fiftieth anniversary of our Bank, and hope that...
[Warmly shakes hands]
Thank you, my dear sir! Thank you! I think that in view of the unique character of the day, as it is an anniversary, we
may kiss each other!...
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[They kiss]
[Sighs]
KHIRIN.
SHIPUCHIN.
KHIRIN.
SHIPUCHIN.
[Takes the report]
I am very, very glad! Thank you for your service... for everything! If, in the course of the time during which I have had
the honour to be Chairman of this Bank anything useful has been done, the credit is due, more than to anybody else,
to my colleagues.
Yes, fifteen years! Fifteen years as my name's Shipuchin!
[Changes his tone]
Where's my report? Is it getting on?
Yes; there's only five pages left.
Excellent. Then it will be ready by three?
If nothing occurs to disturb me, I'll get it done. Nothing of any importance is now left.
Splendid. Splendid, as my name's Shipuchin! The general meeting will be at four. If you please, my dear fellow. Give
me the first half, I'll peruse it.... Quick....
I base enormous hopes on this report. It's my _profession de foi_, or, better still, my firework. [Note: The actual
word employed.]
My firework, as my name's Shipuchin!
[Sits and reads the report to himself]
I'm hellishly tired.... My gout kept on giving me trouble last night, all the morning I was running about, and then these
excitements, ovations, agitations... I'm tired!
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KHIRIN.
SHIPUCHIN.
[Rudely]
What is a ground plan?
Two... nought... nought... three... nine... two... nought. I can't see straight after all these figures.... Three... one...
six... four... one... five....
[Uses the counting-frame.]
Another unpleasantness.... This morning your wife came to see me and complained about you once again. Said
that last night you threatened her and her sister with a knife. Kusma Nicolaievitch, what do you mean by that? Oh,
oh!
As it's an anniversary, Andrey Andreyevitch, I'll ask for a special favour. Please, even if it's only out of respect for my
toil, don't interfere in my family life. Please!
Analyze the scene with attention to the following.
See how the office has been described in detail by the writer with the lay out of it in terms of doors, furnitures and
other properties. Also notice the bold details of both the characters. This helps one to visualize the action with
details.
1. Vocal acting - Let the students read out the dialogues dramatically as are meant to be delivered on
stage.
2. Ask them to draw on paper the diagram- Ground plan.
A ground plan is a diagrammatic representation of what the setting looks like in a scene.
For instance given below is a ground plan of a drawing room. It is as the architects call it the elevation view. Imagine
a modern day living room in the cities. A ground plan of it may look like as beneath.
Activity 2
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Key-
W- window, D - door, T - teapoy, Sh -shelf
W W
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LARGE SOFA
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B SOFA SOFA
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A ground plan forms the reference. One has to put a careful thought into designing the given space with furniture
and props and then stage the action of the actors within that.
So prepare a ground plan for the action in the scene of the play described above. Then perform the same while
standing but without costumes and with some elementary properties like tables and chairs.
Ask them to improvise a situation in the class.
The situation could be a simple everyday situation like two/three of them talking about an issue during the
school recess. Give a preparation time in the class of about 15 minutes for them to come up with a scene of
about 4/5 minutes. Let them act it out first in an improvised manner, then write it out to refine it and then
plot the action on a ground plan.
Activity 3
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SCENES FROM FILMS
THE CONCEPT OF FILM ANALYSIS
In the film 'ANADI' directed by Hrishikesh Mukherjee, there is scene that takes place between Raj Kapoor and Nutan.
He is walking along the pavement heading for an interview. Nutan is trying to runaway from the finishing school that
she is studying in. She does so in a dramatic fashion by first throwing her shoes over the compound wall and onto
the pavement. The shoes land in front of Raj Kapoor making him stop in his track. Nutan appears over the wall and
after a bit of exchange of words, he helps her to climb down. This is also their first encounter in the film.
The entire scene takes place in front of the wall and on the pavement.
Identify the extract from the film.
See it once.
Then see it shot by shot stopping/pausing at the end of each shot to note down the details.
Sketch every shot.
Make a ground plan or a floor plan for the entire scene.
Similarly, the following sequences would provide excellent examples as of understanding a the concept of mise en
scene in a variety of ways.
1. Pather Panchali- [Satyajit Ray, Bengali, 1955] The scene wherein the children go to see the train for the first time
in their lives.
2. To Live - [Zhang Yimou, China, 1992] The opening scene immediately after the titles, wherein the protagonist
spends an entire night in the saloon gambling.
The purpose of this exercise is to see as to how directors actually plan and execute individual scenes. Choosing
scenes from various cultures will lead to a heightened awareness of the art of the mise en scene and an
understanding of the universal fact that all good works of cinema are well conceived, minutely planned and
efficiently executed.These appropriate tools for the analysis of films will enable the students to develop both their
own enjoyment of film and inculcate the habits of critical inquiry.
Film analysis is the process in which a film is analyzed in terms of mise-en-scne as well as content. It is a way of
trying to understand a film in a comprehensive way.
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Fiction films -
Parameters of Film Analysis
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Films that tell a story with imaginary characters, plots, locations are fictional films. A film may be based on real
events or real people and may have their names as characters in the film, but they are still fiction. Gandhi [Sir Richard
Attenborough], films made on Shahid Bhagat Singh are examples of fiction. The scripts were written for these films,
actors played the roles of the historical characters and everything we saw on the screen was conceived and staged
for the camera. This is the essence of fiction.
In the chapter on the mise en scene, we have tried to analyze a scene intensively as if through a microscope. The
purpose of this exercise was to decipher the complex logic that is operating in the filmmaker's mind, while he is
making the film. We can see a film as a design.
Choose any one or more films from the following collections of the short films-
1. Tehrir Munshi Premchand Ki- [Gulzar]
2. Malgudi Days[ Shankar Nag]
After seeing the film, write down your observations in the following manner
What is the film about ? [ Theme/s]
What happens in the film ? [plot/synopsis]
How is the film structured as a narrative in time and space?
What are the prominent techniques used in making of the film?
Does the film succeed in achieving what it is set out to achieve?
Teacher should take one of the short films in the class for this exercise. Screen it fully.
Lead a discussion on it.
It is not necessary that the students agree with each other or the teacher. What is important is that multiplicity of
viewpoints should come out.
The exercise on the whole should help the students to look at films analytically and then articulate their reactions.
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Non-fiction films
Parameters of Film Analysis
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Films which are about real people and present them as such. Films which are about real issues and present them as
such. Films that deal with facts. Films that are expected to be authentic to history. Films that raise social. Political,
economic issues.
John Grierson [UK], who pioneered the concept of documentary, defined it in a famous phrase as 'creative
treatment of actuality'.
Documentaries are narratives, but unlike fiction [although sometimes they may employ the techniques of fiction]
they do not tell a story with a plot and sub-plot, but raise arguments and counter arguments or develop issues as
themes. They are more like essays. Hence, the mode of anlyzing them is somewhat different from the one used for
analyzing fiction.
Another important factor that needs to be taken into account is that the nonfiction films are usually not meant for
'the general audience', but have a primary audience in mind. The size of this audience is much smaller as compared
to the fiction film audience. A nonfiction film is typically shown in small halls and to a variety of groups spread over a
period of time. Now a days there are some TV channels dedicated to showing nonfiction programmes.
Choose any one or more films from the following -
1. Rabindranath Tagore [ Satyajit Ray, Films Division]
2. Framework of Famine[ Pratap Sharma, Films Division]
3. Any documentary from the international TV channels like BBC, CNN, NDTV, DISCOVERY, ANIMAL PLANET etc.
After seeing the film in pairs, write down your observations in the following manner
What is the film about? [ theme/s]
Who do you think is the primary audience of the film?
What communication strategies are employed in conveying the messages?
How is the film structured as a narrative in time and space?
What are the prominent techniques used in making of the film? How does it present its themes/ arguments? [
case study, interviews, re-creation of events, live footage etc].
Does the film succeed in achieving what it is sets out to achieve?
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Analysis of Feature film
Activity I
A feature film is much larger in scope as compared to the short film. It can tell a story of various dimensions. The
story can be spread over a long period of time, can have a large number of characters and situations, can take
place over many locations, can have sub-plots within the plot and therefore, look to entertain the audience at the
highest possible level. The impact of the feature films is on a large scale and the most successful of them quite often
capture the imagination of the audience, sometimes over generations. In such films, people see reflections of their
hopes, aspirations, anger, frustration and amusement. Cultural beliefs, historical details, socio-economic problems
are also reflected in films. Therefore analysis of a feature film means much more than understanding the mere
technicalities of film language. The content of the film is much more than a story, plot and its development. It is
always a reflection of the larger social reality of which the film is a part of.
The concept of film analysis involves a close reading of a film. Two areas of learning are essential before we go
deep into the act of analyzing films. Firstly, film must be understood as a medium in its own right and secondly, the
terminology of the medium must be understood as well.
Film as a medium and an art is different from other arts and media -
Watch the beginning portion of Lagaan FROM 00- TO 16 minutes.
Observe and write down the following details.
Write a summary of what actually happens [the plot]
Who are the characters? Describe them with respect to the following details - age, gender, appearance, clothes,
emotional states.
What is their environment? And what does it tell you about the time period of the story?
Do you think that these sequences were filmed on sets or actual locations?
What are the different sounds that you hear?
Now see the same segment of the film again and see in light of what you have written, whether you have observed
all the minute details in the first viewing or left out some of the details.
Consider the following statement -
"Films are difficult to explain, because they are easy to understand!"
Christian Metz, French critic, Theoretician.
Why are films easy to understand?
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Activity II
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See about 10 minutes of a film in that is a language that you do not understand. The film should be without subtitles
and/or not dubbed in a language that you understand.
Now, compare this experience with your normal film viewing experience.
What was missing when you were watching a film in the language that you did not understand? What does it tell you
about the nature of the cinema as a medium?
Cinema is essentially a story-telling or in other words a narrative medium.
Cinema tells stories on screen by means of visuals and sounds i.e. in audio-visual manner.
Cinema tells stories that are bound in space and time i.e. they are spatio-temporal.
Summing Up
Cinema is an audio-visual, spatio-temporal and narrative medium.
Visuals on screen contain
Actors Locations Lighting Objects Compositions
Sound-track consists of
Speech Effects Music Silence
These are the basic elements that go into the composition of any film. That is how, Cinema tells stories in its own
way.
Medium and material -
Every medium has its own material through which it realizes itself.
Literature uses words [language].
Painting uses lines, surface [canvas], colours/tones, shapes and two-dimensional space.
Sculpture uses solid objects [like metals, stones, real objects], textures, colours/tones and three-dimensional
space and offers multiple points of view of looking at an object.
Architecture uses building blocks [like brick and mortar, stones, metals], textures, colours/tones and three-
dimensional space.
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Music uses sound and silence.
Theatre uses actors and space.
Cinema uses the story-telling techniques of literature.
Cinema uses the same basic elements of line, shapes and colours/tones in composing visuals like Painting.
Cinema uses [the illusion of] the three-dimensional space and composes figures in depth and offers multiple points
of view.
Cinema uses architecture and natural structures as settings.
Cinema uses music as a part of the story and dramatic structure.
Cinema uses actors and depends upon their performances.
Thus, cinema is closely related to the other major arts, but still is different from the other arts.
To record these elements separately and then edit them into a meaningful whole is the ability which lies at the crux
of the art of cinema. A film image has a rich content of people, places, colours, nature and it is accompanied by
sounds of different kinds. This makes cinema a complex narrative.
What makes film a complex narrative?
A film is written A film is acted A film is photographed
A films is recorded A film is edited A film is directed
A film is produced
And as a narrative,a film is structured in time and space in a dynamic way.
All these factors have direct bearing on the quality of the film
In other words, there is lot of things to be observed in a film in terms of the techniques used and the pattern of
story telling. Moreover, all these details have to be observed while the film is running. A book can be read, or a
painting can be observed at one's own pace or leisure. But, we have no such choice in case of films, as they run at
their own pace on screen.
BUT CINEMA USES ALL OF THESE.
Cinema as a complex narrative-
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And you have 'watched' the film in the real sense only when you have seen all these details.
Let us try and understand as to what exactly happens when we watch a film by trying to analyze our own
experience.
When we see a film for the first time, through its story & acting done by the actors engrosses us. But at the same
time we are also aware of the quality of photography, music, special effects and locations etc.
And although we watch a film as a continuous thing, we are aware of the changes of scene and time, sequential
nature of the happenings.
STORY
Story is the skeleton. It is a summary or a synopsis of what happens in the film.
What matters in cinema is that how a story is told.
The first step towards that is to structure a story in terms of time and space.
That leads to plot and macro structure.
PLOT
Many people have attempted to define plot in different ways. Novelist E.M .Forster's example [ from his book
Aspects of the Novel] would be very useful for us here. He elucidates the difference between story and plot with
the following simple example.
Consider the following two statements-
The king died and the queen died.
The king died and the queen died of grief.
The first one is what Forster calls a Story. In a story, he feels that the events could be narrated one after another in a
loose manner. In the first sentence , we just know that one death followed another. But, in the second one the
words of grief add a couple of dimensions. Firstly, the causal connection between the two deaths is established
and therefore, by implication the closeness or immediacy [ the time factor] between the two deaths is also
expressed. Hence, the second sentence is more structured and is indicative of Plot. During the process of writing a
script, a Macro-structure of the film emerges.
How do we watch the films?
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MARCO STRUCTURE
Macro structure of a film is structuring of the story in a definite spatio-temporal order
This is the composition of the film in a broad sense. It determines whether the film is a linear narrative, or a story told
in a flashback or in any other way.
Micro-structure refers to the directorial and technical aspects of the film craft. Such as composition of the shots,
composition of the sound track , pace of editing etc. This process begins at the shooting stage and is completed in
Editing.
Sequence is the basic unit of Macro-structure.
A sequence is composed of one or many shots.
A shot is the basic unit of micro-structure and also is the basic unit of meaning in cinema.
Shot in cinema has THREE aspects
1. Visual 2. Audio 3. Editing[transitions]
Image size - Long Shot /Medium Shot/Close Up- depends upon the distance of the subject from the camera
Viewpoint - High/Low/Eye level- corresponds to whether the subject is at a higher level than the camera[low
angle], whether the subject is at a lower level than the camera[ high angle] and whether the subject is at the
same level as that of the camera
Static/Moving camera. Our viewpoint is either static or mobile depending upon , whether the camera is static
or mobile.
Movement- Pan, Tilt, Track are the three basic types of Camera movements . Pan- the movement of the camera
in a horizontal plane ,either from left to right or vice versa. Tilt- the movement of the camera in a vertical
plane ,either tilt up or tilt down. Track is the physical displacement of the camera either on ground or in air or in
water.
Lenses- wide angle/normal/telephoto are the three types of lenses.
Micro-structure
Elements of Micro-structure
Shot
Visual aspects of a shot
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Depth of field. A technical term that refers to the range of focus.
Planes- foreground/background
Aspect ratio- refers to whether the film is in widescreen, cinemascope etc. This is the ratio of the width to
height of the projected picture frame on the screen.
Graphic quality- Colour or B-W
Lighting is mostly subliminal. It denotes the time, season and mood. Enhances the quality of the presence of the
actors.
Speech/Effects/Music/Silence - These are the four components of the sound track. Speech can be in various
forms such as monologue, dialogue, voice over etc. Sound effects can be of the actions seen on the screen or
suggestive of an ambience. Music can be incidental- like an instrument being played in the scene or a song.
Silence creates dramatic pauses and sometimes evokes an ambience.
Mode of use- On screen/Off screen [diegetic/non-diegetic], these terms refer to the mode of using these
components. If the source of any sound is seen on the screen it is on screen sound otherwise it is an off screen
one.
Cut - It is a straight and an instant change in visual.
Fade in/out. The shot already on the screen begins to go dark and then finally the screen becomes completely
dark. This is the fade out. Then the next shot begins to appear slowly from darkness and attains brightness
gradually. This is fade in.
Dissolve. The shot already on the screen begins to slowly disappear and another one begins to emerge
simultaneously. The first shot is said to be dissolved into the second one.
Superimposition- It is simlar to dissolve, except that both the shots stay on screen for a length of time. There
could be more than two shots used at times.
Bleach. This is opposite of fade. The screen begins to get brighter and brighter till all the details of the shot are
like 'bleached' and there is only brightness on the screen.
Freeze. It is an instant stop in a running film. A moment is like frozen in a still picture.
Wipe. It is a lateral movement of the new incoming shot that wipes or pushes away the existing shot.
Audio aspects of a shot
Editing transitions are the ways shots are changed in cinema.
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Morphing. It is a special effect generated by means of computer graphics wherein one object changes its
shapes to become another one like a motorcycle become a cheetah and vice versa. It is a short form of
metamorphosis.
See some of the following films in the class.
Then choose some sequences from them and analyze them as macro-structure and micro-structure.
Last year we have studied the history of Indian cinema. The life story of Dadasaheb Phalke and his pioneering effort
is a saga. Director Paresh Mokashi has made a film in Marathi 'Harishchandrachi Factory'. This film is a depiction of his
noble effort. This film may be shown with a brief introduction by the teacher. Then a discussion should be
conducted in the class discussing the above parameters. As a follow up to it, the same film should be seen again,
but in parts, stopping at intervals to discuss the details.
The other films recommended for a similar exercise are Pather Panchali[ Satyajit Ray], Where Is My friend's Home[
Abbas Kiarostami, Iran], Bandini[ Bimal Roy], Chalti Ka Naam Gadi[ Satyen Bose], Pyaasa[ Guru Dutt], The Circus [
Charlie Chaplin, USA].
The aim of this exercise is to inculcate practice of deep study of a film as a work of art/text by noting down students
reaction and engaging in group discussion as well as by reading critical literature.
A recapitulation-
Feature Length Fiction films -
What is the film about? [ Theme/s]
What happens in the film.-[plot/synopsis of the film]
How is the film structured as a narrative in time and space?
What are the prominent techniques used in the making of the film?
Does the film succeed in achieving what it was set out to do?
Students will be expected to move between close textual analysis of specific scenes and analysis of films as a
whole, contextualizing meanings within a larger framework.
Textual analysis will involve commenting upon such elements as the following, and on relationships between
them:
narrative construction representation of characters and issues
Suggested class room exercise for feature film analysis -
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Non-fiction films
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acting and performance camera angles, shots and movement
editing and sequencing lighting, shade and colour
sound location and set design
target audience historical, economic, socio-cultural and institutional factors.
Films which are about real people and present them as such, films which are about real issues and present them as
such, films that deal with facts, films that are expected to be authentic to history, films that raise social, political,
economic issues are Non-fiction films.
John Grierson [UK], who pioneered the concept of documentary, defined it in a famous phrase as 'creative
treatment of actuality'.
Documentaries are narratives, but unlike fiction [although sometimes they may employ the techniques of fiction]
they do not tell as story with a plot and sub-plot, but raise arguments and counter arguments or develop issues as
themes. They are more like essays. Hence, the mode of anlyzing them is somewhat different than used for analyzing
fiction.
Another important factor that needs to be taken into account is that the nonfiction films are usually not meant for
'the general audience', but have a primary audience in mind. The size if this audience is much smaller as compared
to the fiction film audience. A nonfiction film is typically shown in small halls and to a variety of groups spread over a
period of time. Nowadays there are some TV channels dedicated to showing nonfiction programmes.
Choose any one or more films from the following -
1. Rabindranath Tagore [ Satyajit Ray, Films Division] 2. Framework of Famine[ Pratap Sharma, Films Division] 3. Any
documentary from the international TV channels like BBC, CNN, NDTV, DISCOVERY, ANIMAL PLANET etc.
After seeing the film, write down your observations in the following manner
What is the film about? [ Theme/s]
Who do you think is the primary audience of the film?
Parameters of Film Analysis[ Nonfiction]
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What communication strategies are employed in conveying the messages?
How is the film structured as a narrative in time and space?
What are the prominent techniques used in making of the film? How does it present its themes/ arguments?
[ case study, interviews, re-creation of events, live footage etc].
Does the film succeed in achieving what it set out to do?
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Exercises
Discuss and Write
Writing for your Portfolio
Further Research
Section A
Section B :
Section C :
Setting
Context
Section D :
Answer these questions very briefly
1. What is the literal meaning of the term mise en scene ?
2. Where did the term mise en scene originate?
3. What is a ground plan of a scene?
Why is the concept and practice of mise en scene important in the process of filmmaking?
Enumerate the broad points of observation to be made during film analysis.
What makes film a complex medium?
Watch a scene from any of your favourite films. Answer these questions to analyse the
scene. You may write in the following format: (Attach the answers to your portfolio.)
TITLE OF THE FILM:
DIRECTOR OR AUTHOR:
Character and Casting
Who is in the scene?
What is each person's motivation in this scene? (In other words, what does eachcharacter want?)
How does the casting influence how you see the characters?
How do costumes contribute to how you see the characters?
Where is the scene set?
Why/how is this setting significant?
What is the outstanding element in the setting?
What is the context of this scene in the larger work?
What is the historical, cultural, and/or political context?
Find out about the legacy of the renowned English modernist theatre practitioner Edward
Gordon Craig especially his concept of scenography, innovations in stage lighting, mise en scene elements etc.
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Chapter 3
Content Analysis of TV programmes
SPECIFICITY OF TELEVISION AS A MEDIUM
Before we proceed to study the nature of TV programmes, we must understand the specific nature of television as
a medium. A basic knowledge of this system is necessary to comprehend the nature of the content of the various
programmes made for the television.
Television (TV), to put it simply, is a medium that makes you run back from your outdoor activity at a particular time
to catch one of your favourite shows on it . It can update you through news bulletins and discussion programmes
about what is happening in your and other societies. It is the medium that enthralls millions of people all over the
world during the FIFA world cup, or the coverage of the elections or any popular entertainment programme. It is a
medium of individual as well as family entertainment. This entertainment consists of a variety of items tailored to suit
the needs of various age groups.
Some people call it as the Idiot Box, whereas some others have called it as Tube of Plenty.
The statement given above expresses two diametrically opposite attitudes to television.
Let the class be divided into two groups. Group 1 takes the attitude that TV is an idiot box and argues the
points in support of this assumption. Group 2 takes the attitude that TV is the tube of plenty and argues
the points in support of this assumption.
Students meet in groups in the class and discuss among themselves the points of arguments for about 10
minutes. Then Group 1 gets 10 minutes to argue out their points. That is followed by a session of 10
minutes for Group 2 to argue their points.
But, before we pass judgments on TV as being useful or harmful, we have to ask the question -Do we sufficiently
understand TV as a medium in its real form? And to do that we have to know as to how does it function on
technical, commercial and other levels.
Cinema arrived before Television and both being audio-visual media exhibiting dramatic programmes, the
comparison of the two is inevitable.
Cinema is often called celluloid , as the images that we see on screen are optical images.
What is Television?
Speaking technically
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Activity 1
*Celluloid was a trademark for the first synthetic material used to make photographic films.
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Television unlike Cinema is the reproduction of Electronically transmitted moving images accompanied by
sound from a distance to several receiving sources popularly called Television sets.
The name of this telecommunication system is derived from Greek Tele, meaning far and Latin Visio, meaning to see.
Our Doordarshan in Hindi means the same. Although this technology is also used in several other applications like
Closed-Circuit Television (CC TV), Television as a term is generally associated with Broadcast Television which
evolved from Radio Broadcasting systems in 1920's,making use of High Powered Radio-Frequency transmitters to
send signals to individual TV receiver sets.
All television content comes to our TV sets via broadcast signals. There are four broadcast signals, each of which,
separately controls the following:
Brightness of the image Colour of the image
Audio from the image Synchronization of the transmitter and the receiver
The central principle of all video equipment is that a focused image must be converted into a broadcast signal,
which is then transmitted by radio waves. These waves travel through the atmosphere at the speed of light, and can
accommodate vast amounts of information. When the signal is received, it is reassembled on a screen as a visible
image.
Watch a Television programme in the classroom on a television set with your classmates for ten
minutes and write a note on the difference in your experience as compared to that of watching a
movie in a cinema hall. Also write how different it is than watching TV at home.
As you have noticed, the image on Television is smaller than real life, and is not as visually rich as it is in a Cinema hall.
Motion Picture is very often used to define Cinema and rightly so because a film comprises of a series of picture
images put together in a way to create the semblance of movement on a screen with the help of a projector which
enlarges the small pictures optically onto a big screen in a space specially created for that purpose. It is larger than
life two-dimensional image with illusion of three-dimensional depth. Television images as you know by now are
transmitted as electronic signals in analogue and/or digital language, which is of low definition in comparison to
cinema. While watching Television very often you are not secluded from your surrounding and the audio-visual
experience is not as gripping as it is inside a Cinema Hall. The effort you make to go to a Cinema Hall once in a while
makes it a social occasion unlike the daily intrusion of television right in your homes.
Now, how does TV do all this?
Activity 2
Content Analysis of TV Programmes
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Differences between cinema and TV:
Non-Broadcast Video -
As technology of television progressed over the years, apart from broadcasting of programmes live into our
homes, it developed into recording and relaying of content specifically for this new medium. Visual and Audio put
together created the term Video which got associated with recorded electronic signals of a feature film
transferred from an optical signal or of an event like marriage or a football match onto a spool or cassette of
magnetic tape known by the brand name VHS (Video Home Service). It also led to what we call the Home Video
phenomenon where videos were not necessarily generated for broadcast but done essentially for audiences
wanting to watch them at their leisure at home on their TV set, played back on video players. It also made recording
of programmes from telecast possible with recorders attached to television sets at home. This also led to a splurge
of amateur and professional portable cameras with recording facility and several formats of recording tapes and
playback systems leading to current DVD (Digital Video Disc/ Digital Versatile Disc] and Blue Ray formats.
TV
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TV is available in people's homes, can be viewed
at an individual level
TV uses video tapes
TV images are virtual and erect on projection
TV images are produced when video signals are
transmitted with the help of radio or digital
signals
The number of picture frames running in one
second in video is 25-30, depending on the
format
TV has the scope of diverse content for
entertainment through its various channels, at a
time
TV can be used to show films
TV is a multi-channel experience, the choice of
changing from one to another is entirely in your
hands.
Cinema
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Cinema is theatre centric. Films on celluloid
cannot be viewed in people's houses
Cinema uses 'film' as a medium to capture images
Cinema projects 'real' images on the screen,
which are inverted on projection
Film making includes developing the film roll(s)
and printing them
The number of frames exposed per second in
films is 24, irrespective of the type of the film
used
At a given time, cinema can only show the
content created by one person
Cinema can never show any TV programmes or
shows
Cinema uniquely is a singular event
Content Analysis of TV Programmes
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Activity 3
Two groups will work on this exercise in the following manner-
One group of students will select an event or a function that has taken place in their school recently. This
group will gather facts and work on writing a report of it for a TV news bulletin. This group will write the text
of the item- not exceeding two minutes - and then one person from the group will read it before a handy
cam like a newsreader and the same will be recorded. This group will keep in mind that this news story is
intended for outsiders not familiar with the school.
The second group of students will enact a five- ten minutes scene from a a short skit or a play. This activity
will be shot using a Handycam. The programme material thus generated is for the internal use.
After the exercise see and compare the results. Both the groups should discuss their approaches with each
other to see as to how the experience varies.
One of them was meant to be a news item for outsiders, while the other was supposed to be a compilation
for school's own record.
Television depends upon specialised, modern and evolving technology for production as well as distribution of
programme. Big commercial corporations come into play, involving large-scale operations and finance. In most
open societies State-owned Television exists alongside and in competition with private, regulated, public-service
Television.
The Structure of the TV Industry:
The TV industry can be broadly divided into three parts:
The client (the channels like Star TV, Sony, Zee, Colors, etc)
The producers
The sponsors (the various advertisers)
You must have heard of the people who come to survey the most watched programmes in your homes. Their data
is thoroughly researched and studied by various research groups and passed on to the content providers of the
television industry. This helps various networks to understand audience-viewing patterns and they create and
place content accordingly. This segmented viewership with specific target audience is unique to television and
Nature of TV Production and Consumption -
Research:
Content Analysis of TV Programmes
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decides the fate of a programme. It is a judicious combination of several genres with specific time slots created for
specific programmes. The target audience group helps a channel to decide on these time slots of a day keeping in
mind the possible revenue that can be generated from each of these slots.
For, it is important to remember that although TV programmes are centrally produced, and globally beamed, they
are most of the time privately consumed in a domestic, close atmosphere .
The carefully compiled research data is vital to the planning of the day to day schedule of TV transmission. On a
popular Infotainement Channel like Doordarshan, the day is divided into parts, although the times have been
blurred somewhat. Breakfast television airs between 7-10 AM. On other television news channels these are usually
long news programs featuring entertainment, light fare, and features aimed toward women. On entertainment
networks there might be a re-run of a popular episode shown having the night prime slot earlier.
After breakfast comes daytime television, which, like the previous day part, targets women (and also notably
college students), particularly old and retired and stay-at-home mothers and housewives; the soap opera, tabloid
talk shows and (much more rarely since the 1990s) the game shows are popular genres in this part of the day .
The later part of the daytime slot can sometimes be targeted for children and teenagers, who come home from
school and watch television in the afternoon.
Local news is usually coupled with a half an hour network newscast and possibly a syndicated news program.
Unlike morning news shows, these are generally targeted programs and feature more hard news stories. Private
satellite channels usually air syndicated sitcom reruns or continue daytime programming during this part of the day.
The prime time begins after the news.
Prime time is the most sought after time of the television, from 7pm or 8pm to 10pm or 11pm, depending upon
the network and time zone. The highest rated programs on television are often aired during prime time, and almost
all scripted programmes (except soap operas) are aired during the prime time slots. The main reason for the high
profile of prime time television is due to the fact that many people who come home from work and school prefer
to watch TV than doing any other activity. The late newscast is often aired after prime time followed by late night
shows.
But in India, with a diverse audience having a large base, we have several regional language channels as well as
News and Sports Channels dedicated to specific nature of programming.
Television programmes today offer a variety which in totality defines what we call Infotainement, Information with
Entertainment. While film based and film like fictional stories form part of this package, it is the continuing stories
called serials and soap-operas that form a major part of the programmes shown these days on various channels.
Logic of programming
*
Content Analysis of TV Programmes
*Arranged news items (with/without visuals) Sold to a number of different newschannels.
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SOAP OPERA
Soap Opera is a term we usually associate with a continuously running episodic work of dramatic fiction on
television. It has nothing to do with Opera or its form as we know of a stage musical. But the name has stuck as part
of a generic term that gained popularity to describe an ever changing, ongoing fictional piece of dramatic
episodes running into several episodes with an open narrative. Since the initial sponsors of these shows from radio
days were soap manufacturers of popular brands of consumables, these programmes were referred to as Soap
Operas. On weekdays the time slots of these programmes are aimed at house-wives - the target audience also
became the target consumers for these products. Romantic and family dramas became the regular content for
these shows with a few exceptions now and then. These are usually conceived as long running shows with a large
number of episodes therefore to have an open ended story with multiple characters becomes a need in this format
of Television show. Each episode ends with a promise that the storyline is to be continued in another episode,
whetting the appetite of the audience.
We also refer to Soaps on television as Television Serials in common everyday use.
Hum Log was the first television soap programme to be telecast by Doordarshan in 1984 nationwide in one fixed
time slot across all centres as part of National Network. This became the landmark serial in India. Doordarshan
being a government body had the main objective of assisting in the process of social and economic development
of the country and to act as an effective medium of providing information, education and entertainment. The
impulse to follow the Mexican formula of regular soap operas with social messages came from the then Secretary,
Ministry of Information and Broadcasting Mr.I.S.Gill. This was with a view to utilize the enormous reach which
television coverage in India had achieved in the post Asiad (1982) expansion.
Hum Log -a serial set in a lower middle class family of North India was a serial written by Manohar Shyam Joshi and
directed by P.Kumar Vasudev. A story of the quintessential middle-class joint family, their struggles and aspirations,
Hum Log struck a chord with the viewers who were glued to it week after week. Vinod Nagpal (as Basesar Ram),
Joyshree Arora (Bhagwanti), Sushma Seth (Daadi), Divya Seth (Majhli), Loveleen Mishra (Chutki), Seema Bhargava
(Badki) and Abhinav Chaturvedi (Nanhe) formed the big joint family. For a long time, the cute-looking Abhinav was
known by his screen name Nanhe. The highlight of the show was Ashok Kumar coming at the end of every episode,
discussing and commenting on the situations that happened in the episode in his inimitable style with couplets.
The serial very cleverly created characters, with which the audience could immediately identify. They seemed to be
people from their neighbourhood, with their concerns and aspirations and the show acquired a realistic credibility
with a set of new actors in believable characters, coming into the drawing rooms of lower middle class families
Daily soap
When did it all begin in India?
Content Analysis of TV Programmes
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across India. Unlike the popular mainstream Hindi films, which were selling dreams and escapist fare, Hum Log was
placed on a very realistic ground. The characters of Dadi, Dada, Basesar, Badki, Chhutki, Nanhe and Lallu appealed
to the domestic audience in a way that every member of a family had someone to identify with. The episodic
structure gave each of them a parallel life to be explored inside and outside of their home, keeping the story of that
family moving in various directions yet tied to a central spine. A trend setter on the Government controlled
Doordarshan, Hum Log became a milestone and tried to combine entertainment with an attempt to promote
social values through television drama. It ran for 156 episodes in seventeen months. The central theme of Family
Planning got diluted and the story got more dominant than the message so that the audience would not be put off.
It had its share of followers and detractors, but the serial remains a landmark in the history of television soaps in
India.
Hum Log also launched very powerfully two Minute Noodles, the food product which sponsored it. Thus, the
seeds for commercial sponsored programming and soaps on television in India were sown and flowered to bring
in radical changes in the policy of Government controlled media flagship. Since television sponsorship had
succeeded richly in chalking up sales for a new product via Hum Log, other advertisers got the message and
climbed on to the Doordarshan bandwagon. A variety of serials went on air. Between 1985 and 1988 Doordarshan
was able to raise its advertising rates at least three times.
The plot of a Soap opera has a few parallel tracks or sub-plots in the storyline which run simultaneously with the
main story, providing possibility of a bigger expanse and larger number of characters. This is usually done to
provide enough substance for a soap to run for a year or more in say five days a week format. This weekly soap may
also have intersecting storylines with a possibility of one track getting more popular than the other and certain
characters becoming the focal point of the audience interest. This audience opinion is then factored in while
scripting further episodes and certain pre planned sub plots are put on hold to feed the immediate desire of the
audience. The flexibility of tracks and characters are intrinsic to the planning of soap. It is very rare that a soap opera
will have a defined conclusion .Enough care is taken to provide female characters in various age groups in any soap
to have an identifiable protagonist for the cross section of audiences sitting at home. For instance in Baa Bahu aur
Baby,the title itself suggested the three main protagonist of the serial. Baa the Mother, Leela a daughter-in-law Leela
and Baby the young disabled daughter in the house targeted towards housewives, found an instant rapport with
audience.
A soap accommodates a large number of situations and characters in its sweep. Usually there is a centrally defined
milieu, situation such as a family or office to which all characters belong. To this central plot are added many sub-
plots depending upon the individual activities of the characters 'outside' the central milieu. Thus the writer is able to
The Script- structure of soap operas
Significant features of a soap opera
Content Analysis of TV Programmes
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bring in variety and play around with possibilities of plot-twists and surprise the audience. The key thing is to whet
their appetite at the end of the episode with what happens next. Usually, but not necessarily they are shot on
standing sets. So the milieu is established firmly and the character's entries and exits can be manipulated
accordingly. This also is driven by practical necessities of production. Actually this way, the writing of a daily soap
involves two traditions from two different arts viz. theatre and literature. In theatre, a playwright has to have a
limited settings for his action unlike in cinema. Literature has a very old tradition of long episodic narratives that
seem to go on forever. Most of the ancient literature in all lands is full of these kind of stories, sagas, epics. They
were born in the days of oral story telling.
There is an added concept of interactivity in television, because it is a market driven phenomenon. Higher the TRPs,
more is the revenue from advertising. There is a full time specialized mechanism keeping track of the TRPs and
audience responses. If at a given point the TRPs are perceived to be dwindling, then an alternative or a strong
diversion or a sub-plot to the current story-line is suggested to the writers, as 'mid course correction'.
In Daily soap the narrative is closely followed on a day to day basis, but in a weekly soap, there is relatively more
scope to try out other alternatives.
There are many genres of soap operas that are seen in contemporary television. The main ones can be listed as
family dramas, romance, detective stories, thrillers, horror, children's programmes, action-adventure, comedies,
mythological, historical, iconic[ fictional portrayal of the lives of great personalities]. The basic narrative strategies
would broadly remain similar in all forms, but the content would be shaped by the nature of audience that the
genre is catering to.
A good amount of research goes into what kind of audience will be the primary audience for the programme to be
produced and launched. This perspective includes their life style, the preferred range of products by this segment,
so that the potential advertiser could be attracted to sponsor/advertise the programme. Marketing strategies play
a major role in these decisions.
Although this audience is segmented by nature as all television audiences are, it is perceived as a unit or a
constituency in marketing terms.
Choose either a daily soap or a weekly soap that is currently running on any one of the channels and do a detailed
analysis of the programme to bring out the following factors-
Genres of Soap Opera
Primary audience of each genre and the segmented nature of the audience
Portfolio
Content Analysis of TV Programmes
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Content Analysis of TV Programmes
1. genre
2. primary audience
3. time slot of the programme
4. content of the programme - theme, milieu /set up time period of the story
5. main plot, sub-plots, main characters.
Raymond Williams [UK] was an influential critic, sociologist and novelist. In his book television: Technology and
Cultural Form he proposes the term "flow" to describe the distinctive nature of television. "In all developed
broadcasting systems the characteristic organisation, and therefore the characteristic experience, is one of
sequence or flow. This phenomenon of planned flow, is then perhaps the defining characteristic of broadcasting,
simultaneously as a technology and as a cultural form."
Raymond Williams on his trip to USA, - in the 1970s -became aware of the 'continuous interruption ' of advertising
messages into the main body of the programme be it a film or a soap opera. British TV of those days did not have
such interruptions, so it was a novel experience for him. Analyzing this experience, he submits that film and
literature have set up a classical pattern of narrative with continuity. But television transmission develops a different
model of narrative communication. It has an on going main narrative, which is constantly interrupted with
advertisement and messages. Over a period of time, the audiences get used to it, so that this continuous
interruption becomes a part of the overall narrative. So a process of fragmentation and condensation goes on all
the time.
Record the same. Then go through the details of the content like the scenes, transitions, ads, graphics, any other
detail. List out these to see how much of a variety, in terms of audio-visual messages we get in a television
transmission. Notice how it is organized in terms of time.
This exercise willl help us understand the significance of Raymond Williams's observation.
Gaze of the audience, concept of a flow, continuous interruption
TELEVISION WANTS TO LOCK OUR GAZE, DEMANDING PERCEPTUAL CONTINUITY WITHIN THE FRAGMENTED
FLOW OF PROGRAMMES AND COMMERCIALS.
Activity
Watch two programmes of 30 minutes duration each.
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Media Culture in Film and Television
Television in out homes happens to be the most important window to the outside world. Be it entertainment ,
information or news,we are serviced by this audio visual box 24 hours a day. The convenience of watching a
programme in comfortable surroundings at home and an instant access to information about happenings in the
outside world,gives this medium a unique place in our everyday life.What came to us earlier through several
sources like oral history traditions, books and education at school is now shown to us on television.
We are now a society which is affected more by visuals than the printed word, and this plays a big role in defining
our aspirations and identity.The subtle interplay of visuals and information the way it is presented to us, goes a long
way in shaping our opinion about issues and incidents. This manipulative power of the medium is at the core of
media culture in our social life. For instance, 'Mahabharat' and 'Ramayan' our two well known mythological epics
which have been handed down several generations through books and oral narrative traditions. Ramleela during
the season is still an annual affair of performances, but once the television serial came, it affected the consumption
and presentation of Ramayan and now it is quite possible that instead of reading the epic, one may see the TV
versions of Ramayan and Mahabharat for reference. This TV version will define the epics for anyone who has not
read the original epics and done some research on the subjects. This becomes a cultural influence and affects the
way we look at those ancient classics.
What was considered a reporting of facts in news and the choice of content is at times influenced by what sells
more. So, a farmer's suicide may not get the same emphasis or screen time in a bulletin as compared to a cricket
match. What should be a very serious social issue of concern for all of us is glossed over by the feel good wedding
stories. This choice of selection by a channel is very often based on what has been most watched. In order to play
safe, channels do not take risks in choosing content that may be more relevant socially and otherwise. The
economics of running a show brings a certain pressure that creates a tendency to stick to a successful formula. This
in turn reinforces the stereotype and till the programmes fail, channels do not want to change. Much like our
popular cinema, the commercial pressure has a bearing on content on television also. With an increase in number of
channels and the power of remote in the hand of the viewer have started a severe struggle to capture and retain
the eyeballs of the audience.
It is also important to note how our advertising films have changed in the last few years. Satellite channels took the
first step in lowering the bar on things considered taboo for Indian television. With multi nationals coming in, we
find a large emphasis on beauty products. When we see a whitening cream for men being sold in India, we see an
interesting example of how western aesthetics are being imposed in a nation where darker skin is natural.
Similarily, the dimensions and notion of female beauty is again with reference to western role models. Girls of only a
certain height and dimensions become eligible for being a crowned winner and runners up in beauty peasants. The
rest are advised through Advertisements to use several beauty products to measure upto those standards. This is a
Content Analysis of TV Programmes
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very clever and cruel way of setting aspirations in young minds and making them slaves to these beauty products
for a feeling of assurance. This goes a long way in creating our attitudes towards ideas of beauty, race and gender
issues.
With the growing demand for new and innovative programmes, the competition between various channels has
indeed grown tough. Various reality shows, music shows, sports broadcasting rights and movie licensing has
created a greater stir through different channels. A metric called Television Rating Point (TRP) is used to determine
the collective popularity of these shows, and thus the channel's. Amidst these competitions, our good old
Doordarshan seems to have lost its charm and it surely is the time now for the government to dust off ideas and
stand up to the competition being offered by the private players in the field .
Films are so integral to the Indian psyche that the small screen has only helped the big screen to further pervade the
popular consciousness. In in states like Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh, temples have been built to a popular star
and we have had two popular film stars as Chief Minister's cinema impacts life in big ways Doordarshan in early days
had three very popular film based programmes called Chitrahaar (Hindi film songs put together in a show of 30
minutes),Phool Khile Hain Gulshan Gulshan (a half an hour show of interviews with film personalities hosted by
Tabassum) and Sunday Feature Film. Eagerly awaited, these programmes were the only window to popular film
content for a long time on the state owned TV Channel. With an increase in telecast time and commercial service
with sponsorship schemes, and creates larger then images of stars in the eyes of the common people there was
sudden spurt in the variety of film based shows made by private producers for DD. Show Time with scenes from
films woven together on a common theme ran for quite some time as did shows like Chitrahaar a later version of
Chaayageet assemblage.
Regional Award winning films got a slot on Sunday which led to further presence of films on TV.A few efforts to
make films for Doordarshan in collaboration with NFDC did happen for a while, but eventually with the arrival of
private networks like ZEE and Star TV, films became a source to shift viewership to these channels. This led to a
flood of films on TV and led to an increase in the presence of Cinema on TV screens.
A few of them could have a separate channel devoted to films on a regular basis for 24 hrs. Kaun Banega Krorepati
with Amitabh Bachchan as the host became a landmark in television. Not only did it break TRP records, it created a
trend for Mega Stars from Films to come on television with never heard remuneration and hype. From a window to
older films and song based shows, TV channels started to have separate channels devoted to films and film based
shows. Some independent TV Film channels like B4U also came up around this time.
Films occupy a large chunk of our TV audiences. It is largely due to Movie Channels that films now are not having re
release in theatres .Instead they are shown regularly on TV within the first nine months of their release. Besides, the
various scenes and songs are also packaged by these channels in various shows to provide a 24 hour option of film
Culture of Film based programmes
Content Analysis of TV Programmes
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based shows. Songs from older films are quite popular and when assembled around a theme or director or music
director, they become a segment of film based shows. They may have an anchor to link these portions, or they
might be joined together randomly one after the other.
It is common to find a popular star being brought in to provide an added attraction to running shows which need
some innovation. It also suits these stars who use these shows to promote their forthcoming films.
With an influx of film music based shows like Philips Top 10, TV became the avenue for reaching out to huge numbers
for forthcoming films. Interestingly, TV became the medium where Films were promoting their first look, much like
the trailer of a film in theatre. Now the first visual glimpse of a new film is seen on television. Television ironically has
become the biggest promoter of films and not its main competitor.
Evidently, there is no denying that films sell everywhere, but also extensively in India. When private TV came into this
country, few imagined that the boom and the growth would be so quick. As a result, there simply wasn't enough
software going around. Which is why, most channels have begun relying heavily on movie broadcasts. Not
surprisingly, even countdown shows have continued to stay popular since.
Generally films and film based shows earlier took almost 30% of time across various channels in the nineties. With an
independent policy guideline, private channels used popular films to shift viewership on to their channels from
Doordarshan. They also did countdown shows and a variety of film based shows to garner TRPs and devoted one
channel to films. But film based shows remain an important attraction across various channels. The reality shows and
various musical shows also relied on film Songs to a large degree. And now it is common to find a popular film star
as the host of several reality shows.
Hindi films in general it would seem, remains the opium of the masses in television programmers' perceptions.
Television has not risen above what films or cricket matches can provide for them -- they rely heavily on blockbuster
films or T20 matches to get the highest TRPs for them. TV programming is yet to come into it's own in India.This
dependence on mainstream popular films has led to a situation where the growth of indigenous content,
independent films for TV has taken a back seat.
Gone are the days when one could look forward to a miniseries like Tamas, or a region based gem like Malgudi
days. Rural countryside, with its limited economic purchasing power is sadly seen only in a Peepli Live kind of role in
films and TV seems to be oblivious of that large majority. The market forces and consumer giants have managed to
marginalize culture based content and replace that with popular films which sadly are becoming a reference for
our popular culture.
Do any ONE of the following assignments in groups
Content Analysis of TV Programmes
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Content Analysis of TV Programmes
Assignment 1: Find out the time which is given to film based programmes on Doordarshan
every week with names of the programmes and Time Slots.
Assignment 2: Do a project on film based shows currently on air on any three TV Channels of
your choice giving a synopsis of the content as well as time slots. Please
ensure that the channels you chose are not channels devoted entirely to films.
Assignment 3: Do another project on any three popular reality shows of your choice,
describing their content,participants and host with time slots and channels.
Try to find their TRPs of the last four weeks.
Since the early days of Doordarshan, music and dance made a regular part of programming package of television in
India. With its vast repertory of classical forms from various regions, Indian music has a lot to offer. But on a popular
channel like DD light classical forms like Thumri, Ghazal and Dadra had a regular presence in the black and white
days. Almost all iconic legends in vocal and instrumental area of music have recorded and presented their works on
DD which for a long time borrowed ideas of shows from Radio. Being part of the same ministry and mind set, the
official network took a long time to come into its own. Still, the most popular programme on TV has been Chitrahaar
,a collection of Film songs from various Hindi films. Most widely watched in the 1970s, the word Chitrahaar literally
means 'a garland of pictures'. It was for half an hour every week on prime-time where the videos of songs from Hindi
film music were televised.
Doordarshan was the only television channel accessible a little over 20 years ago. The show 'Chitrahaar', to this day,
is a popularly viewed television program on DD National, the national television channel of India. 'Chayyageet' was
yet another similar show from Mumbai Doordarshan, comprising of mostly songs from films in Black and White Days.
With a vast repertoire of films and songs to choose from, it was a random assembly of song videos taken out from
several films in a half hour show. When it initially came out in the early 1980s, Chitrahaar was an innovation as it didn't
have to go toe to toe with satellite music channels. 20 years hence, the concept is worn-out and overdone. All
channels have one or two or several more such countdowns. DD began another program called Rangoli (the name
is derived from Rangoli, a visual art form) that is founded on the similar film-music theme, and has extensive rural
viewership
Of late, Chitrahaar has begun employing Same Language Subtitling (SLS), where Hindi subtitles of song lyrics
appear across the screen. The idea behind SLS is that folks that are learning to read would gain from reading lyrics
of the songs they are listening to and watching. It's a charming manner in which to encourage literacy, particularly in
Culture of Music based programmes
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rural parts of the country.
Another Film music based show that made a mark was Superhit Muqabla. It was an immensely popular countdown
show of popular Hindi film songs that was broadcast on the Indian TV channel DD National of Doordarshan
network, for several years in the 1990s.
It had an anchor as a host, Baba Sehgal in its earlier days, and being one of the first interactive content programmes
on air. The top 10 songs were decided every week by the polls sent in by the viewers. The response each week was
immense in spite of the painstaking postcard polls compared to the SMS poll-ins of these days. The impact of the
show can be imagined by the fact that it got its own award show SUMU Awards, which became hugely popular as
well. It spawned a number of countdown shows on similar formats but none made an impact much like Superhit
Muqabla. It was the first show to have its own theme see as much popularity and recognition as many of the songs
featured in it.
Superhit Muqabla was touted as the longest running one-hour-long sponsored programme on DD, watched by
over 50 million viewers over nine million TV house- holds. Wild, wacky and no-holds barred entertainment was the
motto of Muqabla, which changed the drab and no-fun look of the state run media years ago. It brought in
variations in the way a song based show could be presented on TV; on location shoots, crackling VJs, gags on
Mumbai Films and the filmi avatars these spin-offs were inevitable.
This culture of music based programmes has changed dramatically after the coming up of private and
mutli-national channels.
List out some of the most popular programmes like sa re ga ma pa runing on hindi as well as regional
languages.
Compare the changes with reference to the earlier days described above.
.
MTV was the first channel to realize the potential of a separate music channel. Catering essentially to youth, it
brought in foreign videos in Indian homes. These music videos made a huge impact on Hindi Film songs and their
picturisation. They altered the entire grammar of a film song making it into an individual entity.
Initially, ongs which could be sung by a common man were popular, but with the impact of foreign music videos,
the beat and groove of a song became far more important.Now any song which can lend to dance becomes
popular, leading to a rising number of Item Songs. MTV has ventured into other kind of shows, its MTV Roadshow
was quite popular and the recent Emotional Atyachar is a popular programme these days.
Activity 4
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Content Analysis of TV Programmes
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Channel V: Another music channel on the lines of MTV,it later on ventured into more of youth based programming,
but music remains its staple diet.
9XM is India's number 1 Hindi Film Music Channel owned by 9X Media. It shows Music songs interspersed with rib-
tickling jokes and anecdotes by a gang of super cool animated characters, namely Bade Chote, Bheegi Billi, Badshah
Bhai and The Betel Nuts.
ETC Networks Ltd. is one of the leading television networks in India that owns two channels - ETC Hindi and ETC
Channel Punjabi. It has a very popular Punjabi music section.
Ever since its launch in 2006, Music India, a 24-hour music channel, has constantly re-invented itself and found new
ways to communicate with its audience, who are ever so fickle .Within a short span of time, Music India has carved a
unique and distinct niche in the minds of its viewers by providing a 360-degree view of Hindi music and the film
industry through a journey of fresh Indian music from indipop to bhangra, retro to remix and from raga to rock.
B4U Music is a music-themed digital TV channel available on more than 8 different satellites, in more than 100
countries including the USA, UK, Europe, Middle East, Africa, Mauritius, Canada and India. The channel broadcasts a
mixture of contemporary Bollywood, Indipop, Bhangra, and international music. Programmes include star
interviews, artist profiles, concerts and chart rundowns, as well as video request shows.
Television first came to India on Sept 15, 1959 as the National Television Network of India. The first telecast started
on Sept 15, 1959 in New Delhi. After a gap of about 13 years, second television station was established in Bombay
in 1972 and by 1975 there were five more television stations at Shrinagar (Kashmir), Amritsar (Punjab), Calcutta,
Madras and Lucknow. For many years the transmission was mainly in black & white. Television industry got the
necessary boost in the eighties when Doordarshan introduced colour TV during the 1982 Asian Games.
The second phase of growth was witnessed in the early nineties and during the Gulf War, that foreign channel like
CNN, Star TV and domestic channels such as Zee TV and Sun TV started broadcast of satellite signal. This changed
the scenario and the people got the opportunity to watch regional, national and international programmes.
Starting with 41 sets in 1962 and one channel , at present TV in India covers more than 70 million homes giving a
viewing population more than 400 million individuals through more than 100 channels.
In India, since the inception of TV network, television has been perceived as an efficient force of education and
development. With its large audience it has attracted educators as being an efficient tool for imparting education
to primary, secondary and university level students.
Several efforts have been made in the last fifty years to use television for educational purpose. Some of the
Educational TV, Non-fiction on TV
Content Analysis of TV Programmes
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important efforts are listed below.
1. Secondary School Television Project (1961)This was part of a project to teach XI standard
Physics,Chemistry,English and Hindi in schools in Delhi.
2. Krishi Darshan (1966)-A project of Delhi Agriculture Television (DATV), this was done for farmers around Delhi as
a way of providing agricultural information through community viewing.
3. Satellite Instructional Experiment (SITE) was an ambitious experiment in role of TV in Education in 1975
4. Indian National Satellite Project (INSAT) in 1982 was essentially targeted at rural masses with an intention of
making them aware of developments in areas of Health,Hygiene and agriculture.It also had an Educational
project (ETV) for developing of educational programmes for communities.
5. IGNOU-DD telecast -1991 was a programme for distance learners.
6. Gyan -Darshan Educational Channel(2000) Prasar Bharti,the new incarnation of Doordarshan services with help
from IGNOU,Ministry of HRD and I & B launched a separate channel devoted to Educational purposes.
Education through Television in India has seen many changes since its inception days. Largely a government
supported enterprise, it has been put to use in distance as well as conventional learning educational initiatives.The
above mentioned programmes have played a major role in underlining the role which televsion can play in a
diverse and developing country like India.
Satellite Instructional Experiment (SITE) initiative of 1975
INSAT Project of 1982
Gyan Darshan Channel with details of its programming and time slots of each week.
Non-fiction TV shows range from serious news and current affairs broadcasts to programs that are purely
entertaining. It lets us look at a wide range of everyday television, and to analyze television in its very ordinariness.
Television documentary is an adaptable form of nonfiction programming that has served various functions
throughout the medium's history: as a symbol of prestige for advertisers and networks, a focal point for national
attention on complex issues, a record of the human experience and the natural world, and an instrument of artistic
and social expression. Consequently, the health of the documentary form serves as an indicator of a network's
commitment to news and as a barometer of social, political, and economic dynamics.
A documentary is defined as a nonfiction report that devotes its full time slot to one thesis or subject, usually under
the guidance of a single producer. Part of the fascination with documentaries lies in their unique blend of writing,
Research the following
Non -Fiction Shows on TV
Content Analysis of TV Programmes
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visual images, sound tracks, and the individual styles of their producers. In addition to their particular contribution
to the television medium, however, documentaries are notable because they have intertwined with wrenching
moments in history. These characteristics have inspired some to describe documentaries as among the finest
moments on television and as a voice of reason, while others have criticized them as inflammatory. TV
documentaries, as explained by A. William Bluem in the classic, Documentary in American Television, evolved from
the late 1920s and 1930s works of photojournalists and film documentarists, like Roy Stryker, John Grierson, and
Pare Lorentz. Bluem writes, "they wished that viewers might share the adventure and despair of other men's lives,
and commiserate with the downtrodden and underprivileged."
Documentaries on Doordarshan have been quite frequent,at times borrowing several titles from Films Division of
India for telecast. They have been mostly biographies on personalities,and some have been made specially as
Television documentaries on current affairs or events,mostly providing the official point of view to issues of national
concern.
Documentaries and nonfictional programming such as news and sports shows are usually not classified as reality
shows.
Reality television is a genre of television programming that presents purportedly unscripted dramatic or humorous
situations, documents actual events, and usually features ordinary people instead of professional actors,
sometimes in a contest or other situation where a prize is awarded. The genre has existed in some form or another
since the early years of television, began in earnest as a television formula in the 1990s, and exploded as a global
phenomenon around 1999-2000, via series such as Big Brother (known in India as Big Boss)and Survivor. Programs
in the reality television genre are commonly called "reality shows" and often are produced in series.
The genre covers a wide range of programming formats, from game or quiz shows like Zor Ka Jhatka or KBC,to Sach
Ka Saamna or Swayamvar.There are at times demeaning shows produced in Japan in the 1980s and 1990s (such as
Gaki no tsukai), to surveillance- or voyeurism-focused productions such as Big Boss.
Reality television frequently portrays a modified and highly influenced form of reality, utilizing sensationalism to
attract viewers and so to generate advertising profits. Participants are often placed in exotic locations or abnormal
situations, and are sometimes coached to act in specific scripted ways by off-screen "story editors" or "segment
producers," with the portrayal of events and speech manipulated and contrived to create an illusion of reality
through editing and other post-production techniques.
Reality television as it is currently understood can be directly linked to several television shows that began in the
late 1980s and early 1990s. COPS, which first aired in the spring of 1989 and came about partly due to the need for
new programming during the 1988 Writers Guild of America strike,showed police officers on duty apprehending
criminals; it introduced the camcorder look and cinma vrit feel of much of later reality television.
Reality Television
Content Analysis of TV Programmes
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India with its substantial television viewer ship provides an impetus to programmers to try out several adaptations
of successful programmes abroad.It is inevitable that a successful show abroad comes up in an Indian Avatar to
garner viewer ship and a large chunk of revenue available from the advertisers.
Answer these questions briefly
1. Why is cinema also called celluloid?
2. Mention at least 5 genres of soap operas.
3. When was the first television programme telecast and on which station?
4. What is a documentary?
Discuss and Write
1. Who is the target audience of prime time television? What kind of programme is telecast on prime time?
2. What does the term television soap opera mean?
3. How did the name soap opera originate?
4. What is the underlying objective behind providing Same Language Subtitling(SLS) of popular programmes such
as Chitrahaar on Doordarshan?
5. How does the image you see on television differ from that in a cinema hall?
6. Which intrinsic feature in the script of a soap opera makes it possible for it to run for a year or more?
7. In what way does TRP affect the story-line of a television serial?
8. What were Raymond William's views on the television model of narrative communication?
9. What purpose do television documentaries serve?
10. How real is reality television?
11. Give examples to show the influence of television in shaping the culture and ethos of present day society. (LA)
12. Briefly discuss the reason why the serial 'Humlog' is considered a milestone in the history Of television soaps in
India.(LA)
Exercises
Section A
Section B
Content Analysis of TV Programmes
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Writing for your portfolio:
Choose either a daily soap or a weekly soap that is currently running on any one of the television channels and do a
detailed analysis of the programme to bring out the following factors:
Genre
Primary audience
Time slot of the programme
Content of the programme viz theme, milieu/set-up, time period of the story
Main plot, sub-plots, main characters.
FURTHER RESEARCH
1. Find out the time allotted to various film based programmes on Doordarshan every week. Write down the
names and the time slots.
2. Do a project on film based shows currently being aired on 3 TV channels of your choice by writing a
synopsis on their content. Please ensure that the channels you choose are not entirely devoted to films.
3. Do another project on three popular reality shows of your choice, describing their content, participants
and their hosts along with the allocated time slots and the channels on which they're aired. Try to find their
TRPs of the last four weeks.
4. Do a research and find out about the Satellite Instructional Experiment (SITE) initiative of 1975.
5. Find out about the INSAT project of 1982.
6. Do a research on Gyan Darshan Channel with details of its programme structure and time slots.
Content Analysis of TV Programmes
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Types of Print Media
What is 'News'?
The term 'print media' refers to a whole range of media which make use of printing machines to make multiple
copies. Since the invention of the printing press, first by China and almost 400 years later by Johannes Gutenberg
of Germany and William Caxton of Great Britain, a number of types of print media came into existence. Leaflets,
pamphlets and books were the first to be published; these were the earliest print media. To 'publish' then meant
to announce and to make known to the public, that is the readers. Religious literature comprised the earliest print
media. The Bible was the first to be printed and widely circulated in the vernacular languages of Europe; this book
remains a bestseller to this day.
But by the late 17th century, newspapers and periodicals came to be published on a regular basis in the countries
of Europe. News of all kinds dominated the print media, which came to be now known as 'the press', and the
professional writers who wrote for the press, came to be called 'journalists' and the profession they practiced
'Journalism.' The first doctoral thesis on practices in Journalism, entitled 'On News Reporting' was submitted to the
University of Leipzig in 1690.
List the various types of print media that you have access to. Would you consider posters for films and outdoor
hoardings /billboards as 'print media'?
The nature of Journalism and one's approach to what Journalism is, therefore depends on one's perspective of
news and news values. 'News is the account of an event, not something intrinsic in the event itself'. Hence 'news' is
the written, audio or visual construction of an event or happening or person. There is nothing in the event itself that
makes it news; the event is not the news. Rather, the 'news' is the write-up or the audio or visual presentation of the
event. Further, such a presentation or 'representation' or 'construction' of an event has to be in a particular format
and is selected according to a certain professional value-system to make it 'news'. It needs to be emphasised that
'news is the end-product of a complex process which begins with a systematic sorting and selecting of events
according to a socially constructed set of categories'. So, it is not the event which is reported that determines the
form, content, meaning or 'truth' of the news, but rather the 'news' that determines what it is that the event means.
The meaning results from the cultural discourse that 'news' employs. As one social linguist puts it: News is a social
institution and a cultural discourse which exists and has meaning only in relation to other institutions and discourses
operating at the same time'.
Like language, news is a map, not the terrain which the map represents. A map uses codes, conventions, signs and
symbols which have to be 'read' or actively interpreted. So does news; news as it were 'maps' the world. News
selects, processes, produces and shapes an event or happening, but it is we as readers who select what is of
interest to us and make our own sense of the news.
Chapter 4
Content Analysis of NEWSPAPERS AND PERIODICALS
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Mainstream journalism treats news as a commodity to be bought and sold in the market place of information. In
order to keep costs of news-gathering down, newspapers and other media subscribe to news agencies for news
stories and visuals; their primary sources of revenue are advertising and circulation. The media are run, like any
other business or industrial enterprise, in the tradition of mainstream journalism. The focus is on the 'exceptional'
and the 'elitist, and the preferred format is the 'inverted pyramid' news report; other formats include features,
editorials and columns/opinion pieces.
Journalists work for the 'broadsheet' (or 'quality' or 'serious') press and the 'tabloid' (or 'popular' or 'sensational')
press. The terms 'broadsheet' and 'tabloid' (or 'compact') usually describe the two main formats of newspapers,
but the labels also connote two kinds of news stories selected, and more importantly, the presentation, treatment
and style as well. However, this distinction is now blurred, especially when the serious or quality papers (such as
The Times of India, the Indian Express and The Asian Age) choose to highlight the private lives of public figures and
the tabloids (such as Midday, the Afternoon Dispatch and Courier, and Today) to publish serious investigative
stories of corruption in high places. A third format is termed the 'Berliner' which is popular with European (Le
Monde, The Guardian, and La Stampa) and some North American (The Journal and Courier) daily newspapers. HT
Media's business daily Mint, published in partnership with the Wall Street Journal, uses the Berliner format. The
'Berliner' is a little narrower and shorter than the broadsheet and slightly taller and wider than the tabloid. Like the
broadsheet, it connotes quality and serious journalism.
'Tabloid Journalism' is frequently termed 'yellow journalism' primarily because of its tendency to sensationalize and
trivialise events, issues and people. The staple of the 'tabloids' is the private lives of famous people, crime,
accidents, disasters, public corruption, sex, etc.(E.g. Midday, Mumbai Mirror, Pune Mirror). Tabloid journalists are
believed to indulge in 'Chequebook Journalism' which implies that the subjects of the news stories are bribed to
sell their 'true confessions'. Such journalists are also believed to indulge in 'keyhole journalism' or 'sting journalism' in
their attempts to probe the private sexual infidelities and peccadilloes of well-known people and public officials.
Then there is 'Page 3' Journalism which focuses on the social lives of celebrities and film stars and sports heroes.
These journalistic practices raise several ethical questions about the invasion of the privacy of individuals and the
public's right to information. In most democracies, reasonable restrictions are imposed on these intrusions on
privacy, especially if they are not in any way related to the 'public interest'.
'Tabloid television' follows the pattern of selection, treatment and style of the tabloid press. In the pre-satellite
television era (the 1980s) the video newsmagazines 'Newstrack' and 'Eyewitness' were in the tabloid tradition. In
recent years. India TV, Janmat (now Live India) and the crime-based programmes on several television news
channels verge on the sensational and the tabloid.
Analysing Newspapers and their Content
Content Analysis of NEWSPAPERS AND PERIODICALS
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Draw up a list of different types of content in your daily newspaper (E.g. news stories, advertisements)
Write down the news stories that appear on the front page of today's newspaper.
What is the order in which they are printed? Why is such an order followed?
What is the 'lead' or main news story? What is it that makes you think it is the 'lead' story? (E.g. position on the page,
space devoted to it, the font size of the headline, the number of columns it covers)
Select any news story on the front page. What is the headline? What is the date line? Is it a by-lined story?
What is the source of the news story? (E.g. Reporter, Correspondent, News Agency, etc.)
What is an 'anchor story' on the front page of a daily newspaper? What is the position of the story on the front
page?
Usually, there is a single display ad on the front page. Find out what this special display ad is called?
Pages 2, 3 and 4 are usually dedicated to city news; hence they are called 'the city pages'. These are generally
followed by 'national' and 'regional' page/s. In the middle of the newspaper, on the left hand side, is the Editorial
Page. On the right, is the 'Op-Ed' Page; this is the abbreviation for 'Opposite to the Editorial Page'.
1. The Editorial Page is made up of a number of articles and a Letters to the Editor column. On the extreme left of
the page are two or three 'editorials'. In the top middle is a lengthy article; this is the lead feature. Below it is
what is simply called 'the middle', usually a short article written in a light vein. There may be one or two other
articles or 'columns' on the page
How is an editorial different from a News Report? Read the first editorial and analyse its structure and style.
What is the purpose of including a Letters to the Editor column on this page? Why is that some papers provide
more space to this column than others?
The Editorial and Op-Ed Pages are usually followed by a page or two of 'International News' (sourced from the
global news agencies, Reuters, AP (Associated Press), AFP and DPA). The final pages of a newspaper are devoted
to reports and features about sports. Often, advertisements appear prominently on these pages. Several daily
newspapers devote whole pages to classified advertisements (situations vacant, situations wanted, matrimonial,
and so on) and display advertisements (corporate and industrial ads, consumer ads, tenders, notices, retail ads
and real estate ads.

Let's analyse the two pages now. First, the Editorial Page:
Content Analysis of NEWSPAPERS AND PERIODICALS
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Daily newspapers have a main section and accompanying it are one or more supplements. For instance, the Times
of India, the Indian Express, the Hindustan Times and other city papers carry a City Supplement. Some daily papers
have additional Supplements such as a Business Supplement, a Lifestyle Supplement, a Real Estate Supplement,
and so on. ' Supplement Journalism' has taken off in a big way in city papers because this marketing strategy allows
for local retail advertising and for segmentation of readers in terms of their interests and the
neighbourhoods/suburbs where they live.
List the supplements in your city paper. Then list the kind of contents found in the supplement. What are the kind of
advertisements you find in the supplement.
Newspapers may be in one of three formats: broadsheet, tabloid and Berliner.
Each type is associated with a particular approach to the publication of news. Generally, a broadsheet is
associated with a more serious approach to news reporting; the language is formal, not conversational or chatty. A
tabloid, on the other hand, is associated with a more flippant and playful approach to journalism. The language
used is informal and conversational and the approach is more visual; photos, graphics and bold snappy headlines
tend to dominate.
Journalists work for the 'broadsheet' (or 'quality' or 'serious' press and the 'tabloid' (or 'popular' or 'sensational')
press. The terms 'broadsheet' and 'tabloid' usually describe the two main formats of newspapers, but the labels
also connote two kinds of news stories selected, and more importantly, the presentation, treatment and style as
well. However, this distinction is blurred, especially when the serious or quality papers (such as The Times of India,
the Indian Express, The Hindustan Times, and The Asian Age) begin to highlight the private lives of public figures
and the tabloids (such as The Mail Today, Midday and DNA) begin to publish serious investigative stories of
corruption in high places.
'Tabloid television' follows the pattern of selection, treatment and style of the tabloid press. Segments of round-
the clock news channels such as STAR News, Zee News, NDTV, CNN and the BBC are in the tabloid tradition. Current
affairs programmes like 'Entertainment Today' (ET) also follow the tabloid approach. Newspapers like the Mumbai
Mirror as well as the evening papers (such as Today, Midday and the Afternoon Dispatch and Courier) are 'tabloids'
not only in format but in their content as well. Macrocomposition of Newspapers:
Work in Groups : Each group selects a mainstream daily newspaper (in broadsheet format) and a tabloid
newspaper (e.g. Midday, Mail Today) of the same day.
List the various sections of the broadsheet (Main Section and Supplements):
Activity 1
Content Analysis of NEWSPAPERS AND PERIODICALS
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SECTION PRIMARY CONTENT SECONDARY CONTENT
The Front Page
City Page/s
Regional Page/s
Editorial Page
Op-Ed Page
Business Page/s
Sports Page/s
Entertainment Page/s.
Supplements
What is the primary content (and also the secondary content) in each section: news stories, features, columns,
photos, Infographics, advertisements. Besides news related content, what else do you find on the different
sections/pages?
A tabloid newspaper is structured in a similar way. List the various sections:
(Group leaders present the findings of each group).
Have you noticed that besides text there are several visual elements in a newspaper. List these elements in two
newspapers of your city: (E.g. photographs, cartoons, infographics, tables, advertisements, etc.)
Why do you think so many visual elements are introduced?
What is the approximate proportion of text and visuals in broadsheets and tabloids?
The language of Journalism is sometimes termed 'journalese'. It is marked by simple words and phrases used in
everyday conversation and also by short sentences and paragraphs. 'Action' words are preferred.
Micrcomposition of a daily newspaper:
The Language of Newspapers
Content Analysis of NEWSPAPERS AND PERIODICALS
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Activity 2
PERIODICALS
REFERENCES
Write down the headlines on the front page of any two newspapers of your city. What are the common 'action'
words used? You would have noticed these are simple everyday words.
What is the tense in which the headlines are written? (Why are they all in the present tense while the reports below
are all in the past tense?)
How many sentences are there in each paragraph? (Why do you think the paragraphs are so short, compared to the
paragraphs in an editorial or a feature?)
Find out the source of each news item on the Front Page. (International news agency, national news agency,
reporter/correspondent, news service).
Write down the titles of magazines available in your city.
Now categorize them in terms of 'general interest' magazines and 'special interest' magazines.
Select one 'general interest' magazine and select the major topics it deals with. Who do you think is the target
reader of such a magazine? Which products and services does it advertise?
1. Parthasarthy Rangaswamy : Basic Journalism.
2. Saxena Sunil : Writing Headlines.
3. Saxena Sunil : Breaking News.
4. Gonsalves Peter : Exercises in Media Education.
Content Analysis of NEWSPAPERS AND PERIODICALS
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Exercises
Section A
Section B
Section C
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Section D
Answer these questions briefly
1. Who was Lionel Fielden?(SA1)
2. Explain the difference between news bulletins and news reels.(SA2)
3. What comprises the subject matter of radio documentaries or radio features? (SA2)
4. What kind of language should radio talk presenters use? (SA 2)
Discuss and Write
1. Why do you think music programmes on radio enjoy immense popularity?(SA2)
2. How would you classify the various genres of radio programmes? (LA)
3. How different are radio plays from stage plays? Highlight the chief characteristic of radio plays.(LA)
Writing for your portfolio
(Group Work)
Search on the website http://video.google.com for the play 'War of the World' by Orson
Welles. Listen to the play. You may listen to any other radio play if you wish.
a) Discuss in groups and write an article on the reason you think the radio play managed to create panic in the
United States?(This is with reference to 'War of the Worlds' )
b) For those who may have listened to various other plays; you should discuss the following points:
What is the theme of the play? Describe its structure: is it linear, non-linear, circular and loose or any
other type?
What background effects have been used?
What kind of language has been used: formal/informal, conversational, literary or any other?
Thereafter write an article based on your conclusions.
FURTHER RESEARCH
Find out about the various genres/types of music programmes available on two local FM radio stations. Analyse
what is it that differentiates one type from another?
Content Analysis of NEWSPAPERS AND PERIODICALS
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Chapter 5
Content Analysis of RADIO PROGRAMMES
Genres in Radio Programming
Radio programmes may be classified into two broad groups:
(1) Spoken word programmes, which include news bulletins, talks, discussions, interviews, educational
programmes for schools and colleges, specific audience programmes directed at women, children, rural and
urban listeners, quizzes, talk shows, radio plays, radio features and documentaries.
(2) Music programmes which include disc jockey programmes, musical performances of all types: instrumental
and non-instrumental (classical, semi-classical, popular), film songs and variety programmes.
It is obvious that a good number of programmes like drama, features and documentaries need both the spoken
words and the music. This holds true for a good number of radio programmes on FM stations, All India Radio and
Vividh Bharati.
Write down the names of FM radio channels available in your city or town: Which company owns and runs
them?
Why do you think there is a need to classify radio programmes into genres? Find out the origin of the word
'genre' and what it means.
News Bulletins: News bulletins are put out by AIR almost every hour of the day in English and the various regional
languages. The major bulletins are of fifteen minutes' duration, while others are of only five
minutes' duration. They present summaries of news stories in order of importance and interest-
value. National and international happenings get pride of place, while regional and local news is
included if time permits. Human interest stories and sports news generally round off the major
bulletins. News bulletins are not yet allowed on private FM stations, though news about traffic,
sports and weather may be transmitted.
Discuss in groups
Why do you think the Indian government does not allow news to be broadcast on private commercial FM
channels? Is this a good policy, since there is no such restriction on private television channels?
Activity 1
Activity 2
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Newsreels: Newsreels, generally of fifteen minutes' duration, present 'spot' reports, comments, interviews, and
extracts from speeches. A much more complex and expensive format than the news bulletin, it calls for skilled tape
editing and well-written link narrations.
Documentaries/Radio Features: Documentaries or radio features are usually factual, informational in character
and sometimes educational in intent. They bring together the techniques of talks and drama to tell the story of
events, past or present or those likely to happen in the future. They may sketch the biography of a great leader, or
merely offer an interpretation of the world around us, or teach us about peoples and cultures unfamiliar to us, or
even inquire into social, political, economic or cultural problems. Indeed, any subject of interest is grist to the mill
of a feature writer.
The use of a narrator interspersed with voices of real people or/and actors and of appropriate background effects
and music bring a documentary/feature to throbbing life. In Lionel Fielden's words, 'a feature programme is a
method of employing all the available methods and tricks of broadcasting to convey information or entertainment
in a palatable form'. (Fielden was the first Controller/Director-General of All India Radio).
What kind of social issues do you think lend themselves to treatment as radio features?
Select one such social/cultural/political issue and discuss it in the format of a radio feature/documentary
Radio Plays: Radio drama is a story told through sound alone. The sound is of course that of dialogue and voices of
people, background or mood effects, musical effects, atmospheric effects and the like. Radio drama, like stage
drama is based on conflict, uses characters and has a beginning, a middle and an end. Movement and progress,
generally to a crisis or climax, must be suggested in radio drama through sounds. The voices of characters must be
sufficiently distinguishable, one from the other, lest the listener gets confused. They must sound natural, true to the
character and above all, be interesting.
Radio listeners would be confused by the presence of more than three to four characters. In fact, the shorter the
drama (the average duration is 30 to 60 minutes) the fewer should be the major characters. In the early years of
Indian broadcasting, the radio play took on the characteristics of the theatre as it existed on the stage in a particular
region. Radio plays were broadcast then for three hours at a time. In Bombay, Parsi, Gujarati and Urdu plays were
frequently put on the air: in Madras, mythological plays proved very popular. Fielden introduced the present norm
of the 30-minute radio play on AIR.
Activity 3
Content Analysis of RADIO PROGRAMMES
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Activity 4
Activity 5
In groups, Search on the website http://video.google.com for the radio play 'War of the Worlds' by Orson
Welles. Listen to the play.
Why do you think the radio play managed to create a panic in the United States?
Write a short script for a radio play on a theme or story of your choice.
Talks: Radio talks are not public speeches; they are chats with a friend who does not see you, but is nevertheless
close and attentive to you. Radio talks should give the impression to a listener that the speaker is addressing him
alone in an informal manner.
The words of a radio talk need to be kept simple and familiar, yet descriptive and powerful, and the sentences
short and without dependent clauses and awkward inversions. Care should be taken to keep close to the rhythm
of ordinary speech when writing the talk, and also when recording it. Radio talks have no definite structure. All that
the listener expects from them is that they should be interesting and informative.
Prepare a five minute talk for radio on a topic of interest to you. How is writing for radio different from writing for a
newspaper?
Music Programmes: Music programmes enjoy much greater popularity than talk shows, as is evident from the
popularity of FM stations and Vividh Bharati which are musical through and through. We enjoy music for its rhythms,
melodies and harmonies and above all for the relaxation it provides.
Like any talk show, a music programme must have unity and form. Disc jockey programmes of 'pop' or 'disco',
therefore should not be mixed up with classical or light classical music. Variety is the keynote to any music
programme; the different items should be linked together with interesting comments, announcements and
narration. Phone-in request programmes draw large audiences.
Movie trailers: Vividh Bharati's movie trailers are sponsored programmes usually of 15-30 minutes' duration. They
are fastpaced, and packed with extracts of dialogue and songs from the film being advertised. The narrator links
the elements with dramatic appeals and announcements. The names of stars, of the producer, director, playback
singers and musicians figure prominently in the trailers.
Quizzes: One of the most popular quiz programmes on radio has been Bournvita's Quiz Contest which used to be
broadcast every Sunday afternoon on Radio Ceylon . Beginning with the Bournvita jingle, the programme got off
the ground quickly and moved at a hectic pace, taking listeners along with it. It's the sense of participation and
involvement in the quiz questions that made the programme very enjoyable family fare.
Content Analysis of RADIO PROGRAMMES
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Activity 6
Activity 7
Draw up a list of questions for a Quiz on 'Current Affairs. Take on the role of a Quiz Master and conduct a
Quiz Programme for two or three teams of students. Record the programme.
Play back the recorded quiz programme. What have you learnt from this exercise?
Live Coverage of Sports and other national/international events: Running commentaries of sports events make
for exciting radio programming. They bring cricket, football and hockey matches alive with fast-paced narratives
and visually rich words and phrases. They attempt to turn home audiences into spectators at a stadium.
Content Analysis (or Textual Analysis) is about taking a close, often critical, look at words, images and sounds in
media texts so as to better understand their meaning, both manifest or surface meanings and deeper meanings. In
Content Analysis of newspapers and news magazines, for instance, we study the structure and meaning of news
reports, features, editorials and the use of photographs, cartoons and graphics. In television which is an
audiovisual medium, we take a close analytical look at different types of programmes such as soap operas, sitcoms
(or situation comedies), reality shows, talk shows, music videos and so on. Each type or genre has its own story to
tell; each genre has its own structure (or form) and content. This is equally true of cinema, also an audiovisual
medium; feature films have their own genres or types (musicals, action, horror, romantic comedies, westerns, etc.),
so do documentaries, animation and short films.
Content Analysis is different from Audience or Reception Analysis. In Audience Analysis the focus is on the way in
which listeners respond to and interpret the text. Did the members of the audience, for instance, enjoy the
programme? In what way did they understand the programme? How credible was the programme from the
audience perspective?
Radio is a very different kind of medium. It is purely an audio medium; it addresses the ear alone.
In groups, Write down the different kinds/types of programmes you listen to on radio:
(Check whether you have included the following common radio programmes: news bulletins, interviews, talks,
magazine programmes, dramas/radio plays, music programmes, interactive programmes like phone-ins, live
interactions, sports commentaries, etc.)
Content Analysis of RADIO PROGRAMMES
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Activity 8
Activity 9
Compare your list with that of your fellow-students. What do you have in common? Discuss this common
list.
Let's now take one common radio programme: the news bulletin.
Listen to a news bulletin on All India Radio or BBC World Service ( or any other radio channel that you have
access to). As you listen, note down the various news items in the order in which they are presented,
beginning with the main headlines.
All of you would have noted that there is a broad structure (or format) of the news bulletin: first the
headlines, then the details of each headline news item, then the sports news and finally the weather.
1. How many news items was there altogether in the bulletin? If there is a difference in the number some
of you noted down, why do think this is so? (Could it possibly be that each of you has defined a news
item differently?)
2. Categories the news items into international, national, regional, local.
3. What is the order in which these occur in the bulletin? Which categories get priority? Why is it so?
4. Now categories the news items in terms of topics: politics, business/economics, lifestyle,
disasters/accidents, sports, weather, human interest, etc. Which topics get priority? Why do you think
this is so?
5. So, what is 'news' according to you?
6. What have you noticed about the language used for the news bulletin? Is it formal or informal? What
are the frequently occurring words/phrases?
7. Who do you think is the target audience that is addressed?
Radio drama is a story told through sound alone. The sound is of course that of dialogue and voices of people,
background or mood effects, musical effects, atmospheric effects and the like. Radio drama, like stage drama is
based on conflict, uses characters and has a beginning, middle and an end. Movement and progress, generally to a
RADIO PLAYS
Content Analysis of RADIO PROGRAMMES
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crisis or climax, must be suggested in radio drama through sounds. The voices of characters must be sufficiently
distinguishable, one from the other, lest the listener gets confused. They must sound natural, be true to the
character and above all, be interesting.
Radio listeners would be confused by the presence of more than three to four characters. In fact, the shorter the
drama (the average duration is 30 to 60 minutes) the fewer should be the major characters. In the early years of
Indian broadcasting, the radio play took on the characteristics of the theatre as it existed on the stage in a particular
region. Radio plays were broadcast then for three hours at a time. In Bombay, Parsi, Gujarati and Urdu plays were
frequently put on the air: in Madras, mythological plays proved very popular. Lionel Fielden, the first Controller of
All India Radio, introduced the present norm of the 30-minute radio play on AIR.
Listen to a radio play on any Indian or overseas radio station or on the Internet. (Orson Welles' 'War of the Worlds',
the famous 1938 radio play, is available on youtube; so are many other radio plays). Discuss in groups
What is the theme of the play? Describe its structure: Is it linear, non-linear, circular, loose, or any other type?
What kind of background effects (music, environmental sounds,) are used?
What is the kind of language used? ( formal/informal, conversational, literary, )
We enjoy music for its rhythms, melodies and harmonies and above all for the relaxation it provides. Like any talk
show, a music programme must have unity and form. Disc jockey programmes of 'pop' or 'disco' therefore should
not be mixed up with classical or light classical music. Variety is the keynote to any music programme; the different
items should be linked together with interesting comments, announcements and narration.
Write down the various genres/types of music programmes available on two local FM radio stations.
What is it that differentiates one type from another? (E.g. beat, rhythm, melody, lyrics, )
Most music programmes on FM stations are based on film songs. How do you account for this
dependence?
1. Peter Gonsalves: Exercises in Media Education.
MUSIC PROGRAMMES
REFERENCES
Activity 10
Content Analysis of RADIO PROGRAMMES
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Exercises
Section A
Section B
Section C
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Section D
Answer these questions briefly
1. Which country invented the printing press?
2. What comprises the primary source of revenue of newspapers?
3. Name the global news agencies that supply International News.
4. Describe the term 'broadsheet press'.
5. What was the earliest form of print media?
6. Give reasons why newspaper supplements are so popular?
Discuss and Write
1. How is the editorial page of a newspaper structured?
2. Is the language of newspapers different from other forms of writing? Why do you think so?
3. What kind of news gets featured through tabloid press?
4. How different are broadsheet and tabloids from each other in their approach towards news reporting?
Writing for your portfolio
Pick up any mainstream daily newspaper. Read it carefully and make rough notes on the following points:
What kind of news is featured on the front page?
What is the order in which they are printed? Why do you think such an order is followed?
What is the 'lead' or main news story? Why do you think it is the 'lead' story? (E.g. position on the page, space
devoted to it, the font size of the headline, the number of columns it covers etc.)
FURTHER RESEARCH
Tabloid Tales/Broadsheet Business
Find about all the newspapers that are published/distributed in your city/town. Make a list of their names.
Categorise them into broadsheet and tabloid based on the newspaper size, news content and focus, language
used, vocabulary and any other criteria you consider
Content Analysis of RADIO PROGRAMMES
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Origins
The Internet's Fundamental Rings
The Internet was born from the communication benefits of linking two single computers together via a cable to
share each other's data. This powerful communications model quickly grew up to multiple computers being linked
together by cables and the data between them being controlled and regulated by a device known as a "router."
This device's sole function is to control the routing of data between computers. Multiple linked computers in a
network are sometimes referred to as a local area network, or LAN.
The power of data being exchanged in such an expedient, efficient manner quickly gave rise to standardization of
hardware devices and software commands and packages that enabled both expanded network connections,
categories of confidential and other classes of data to be sent and the creation of universal computer networking
protocols.
The architecture of these networks soon adapted to the use of already existing communication cables. Telephone
entities engaged relationships allowing the use of their telephone lines for computer network transmission. This
later spread to cable television entities engaging relationships for their lines and soon the invention and use of
highly efficient cables specifically for network data carriage.
Businesses and governments quickly became financing and user participants, eagerly receiving the new data
connectivity benefits, soon providing them communication speeds for even heavy bandwidth data of pictures,
music, video, voice and confidentiality never before available.
The interweaving of these networks together came to be known as the Internet. The Internet's software command
structure is called Internet protocols or IP.
There are three basic Internet architecture communication rings. The first, or sending layer, addresses and sends
data to the third or receiving layer. The data passes through the second, or middle layer, often referred to as the
cloud.
The sending and receiving layers may be inhabited by massive commercial or government computing systems, or
simply individual users with computers or other Internet connected devices such as game consoles or sufficiently
smart phones.
The cloud is participated in by literally every telephone, telco, and communication entity. These include Vodafone,
Bharti Airtel, Reliance BSNL, MTNL, Tata, AT&T, British Telecom, Google,, AOL, Yahoo, Hotmail, Etc. Each network's
infrastructure is patched together, allowing all transmission signals to pass through the entire Internet. The cloud is
ever-expanding in processing muscle and speed.
Chapter 6
Features of the INTERNET
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Powerful new transmission cabling made of glass, often referred to as fiber, allow heavier (higher concentration)
data to travel at much higher speed. Fiber is now laid on much of the planet, strong cables criss-crossing every
ocean and sea. The data moves through the Internet through the use of more sophisticated routers than those of
LAN networks.
Though data may appear as all one communiqu, for instance an email message, it is actually sent in a series of data
packets. Each packet of data having an individual identification label. This is an important part of the Internet
Protocol (IP) structure, allowing each Internet transmission to be identified with its unique packet ID.
As routers are used to regulate the flow of data through the Internet, so are switches used to verify each
transmission's packets and assure that all the packets that were sent are received to the point of each participating
switch. If a data packet is lost or corrupted (unreadable), a switch detects the need and requests a replacement
packet. In this interactive fashion, each transmission's integrity is sustained and received as they are sent.
The IP allows packets being received to be collected into a buffer before it is revealed to the user. We may see this
in music or video transmissions we are receiving. A line may appear to "fill-up" before the video image begins or we
hear the music. This line reveals our buffer being filled. If the receiver's line speed is slow, the data in the buffer may
expire before the transmission is complete. If this happens, the receiver's audio or video is automatically paused as
the buffer fills. The receiver ring of the Internet is sometimes referred to as the edge, or the last mile. As the edge is
often under-developed for consumers, heavy bandwidth data such as pictures, music and video are often said to
create congestion at the edge, because there is a greater user demand than the edge infrastructure can
accommodate. The sender and cloud are typically not congested, only the edge is.
Powerful edge infrastructure is enabled for multinational corporations, schools, hospitals, communication
companies and others who must have constant, uninterrupted transmissions.
As the Internet continues to connect greater numbers of people and entities, it transforms entire industries in a
manner like an avalanche. Consider how email has affected postal services. Or, how the ability to speak and even
see the other party as you talk them by using VOIP, which is 'Voice over Internet Protocol,' typically at no cost to the
users, has changed phone unity companies. Or, how search engines have changed the way we take our purchase
decisions, vastly reduce the visits to the libraries and wiped-out the purchase of physical encyclopedias.
It is also transforming every culture with access to the Internet. The term, 'the world is flat,' refers to the Internet
putting everyone within immediate reach of everyone else. Even if we speak another language, we can click or drag
a translator into what we want to read. For almost every culture's language, the translator coverts, Russian, or Urdu,
or Mandarin, Thai, etc. into our language.
Data Transmission Process
Features of the INTERNET
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Open Source
Multicast and Unicast
Seeing the only thing holding the Internet back from even greater innovations, software engineers have surfaced
project sites on the Internet, many of which are purely voluntary. Other software engineers join in, contributing their
help in the creation of powerful new software. This is done because the engineers want to further the progress of
the Internet for the benefit of all users. There is typically no user-cost for this software. Such projects are enabled by
the Internet and all users of the Internet are powerfully benefited. As these software and other facilities are created
for the general public good, people have a tendency to trust them and want to show their appreciation by using
them.
These volunteer group initiatives are often referred to as "Open source," because the source code of the software
is open for qualified engineers to see and improve and everyone to use.
Open Source has become a cultural term generally referring to initiatives taken up by volunteers for the public
good. This attitude reflects an important culture with far reaching potential effects that was born on the Internet,
but is being generally applied as a life and business practice. People with open source attitudes are drawing closer
to one another and beginning to insist on more open, transparent, fair and ethical action from those in charge of
companies, schools and governments. Open Source initiatives appear will continue to grow in both technology
and as a social initiatives.
Wikipedia is an example of an extraordinarily, far-reaching, beneficial open source initiative.
Apple open-sourced a major portion of its iPhone, allowing applications to be developed for its phone. Hundreds
of thousands of companies leapt into this space, with thousands of strong applications benefiting new companies
as well as iPhone users. Apple was also benefited by deepening iPhone user satisfaction and iPhones market
presence.
There are open-source still photography sites for amateur and professional photographers to surface their photo
art. The photographers used are credited, advancing or establishing them professionally and users are benefited
by access to pictures they could not otherwise afford.
Not surprisingly, education and health open-source issues have also surfaced.
All of these are not only inspired by Internet Open Source, but may be searched and read about on the Internet.
Radio, television and satellite transmission is referred to as 'multicast,' referring to one way communication, from a
single sending source to an unlimited number of receivers. The transmitter sends the signal, but it is up to the
receiver to assure that he gets it. Multicast has no natural capability for the sender to ascertain if the transmission is
received or to determine the quality/integrity of its signal.
Features of the INTERNET
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The Internet's primary transmission method is 'unicast,' referring to being interactive, or two-way communication,
as well as it being from one sender to just one receiver. Unicast's IP includes the sender's assurance that the
transmission is received and its quality is complete. If message transmission is problematic, it is either resent or a
message is given to the sender reporting the problem.
As edge congestion is overcome, this will enable the emergence of the first Internet Television System, ITS. This will
enable traditional consumer television to be interactive, each consumer's preference profile will instruct their
channel line-up and individual program preferences, commercials, programming costs and even the cost of the
Internet Television System, which will likely be free.
The Internet is today and tomorrow's new frontier. Most futurists agree the Internet has barely taken its first steps
relative to its maturity. Communication, family relationships, education, health, entertainment, media and business
all will continue to change in its use significantly. Its new transformations will largely be imagined and implemented
by the first generation internet-literate.
Today Internet has become so much a part of our lives and we use it so profusely for so many of our requirements,
that we take it for granted. We execute multiple functions to realize one programme or project while sitting at one
place.
But, life was not always like this a few decades ago
Time is 1991.
Mr Patil stays in Kolhapur, which is in South Maharashtra. He is planning to go to Poland to attend a
conference in Warsaw. The conference is for three days and he would like to spend a week touring Poland.
This is the first time he is going to that country. Very few people spoke English at that point of time in Poland,
compared to today. He does not know anyone personally there. There was no Internet and no cell phones
then. List out all the things that he would have to do to prepare for his trip to and fro.
Write out all the key actions that he would have to take to plan this trip and make it come good.
Imagine ALL that he would have to do to make the trip come good: like making phone calls, visiting
various agencies and offices etc.
You may consult your elders, teachers to get a first hand information about how things were in those days.
Internet's Future
Many Needs, One Point Solution -
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Features of the INTERNET
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Plan out this Ten day trip for him in 2011 using Internet
Book tickets for his journey, book hotels, transport, find out about the likely climate during the time of
his visit and shopping etc.
Observe through this exercise as to how you yourself have gained information about a distant country that
you have never visited yourself.
Websites -Educational sites, Entertainment sites, Information sites, Social networking sites, Business sites
While conducting the above exercise, you would have dealt with a number of websites. These would have been
primarily information websites having an interactive menu and essentially transacting commercial transactions.
Sometimes there are umbrella websites that connect you to various websites that are related to your queries and
needs. For instance, if you are traveling from Kochi to Chandigarh, you can pose your query regarding the flights,
railway, road connections, hotel stays etc. the master website will in one stroke connect you to all the airlines,
hotels by culling out authentic information from their websites and not only offer you the choices, but also confirm
the booking on the Internet for you.
Then there are some websites that mostly communicate information about certain organizations and their
activities, facilities etc. They are interactive in the minimal sense of answering queries
Educational websites deal with educational content in a variety of ways. Some offer structured on line education
and courses for a price, while some offer free of cost content online like lesson plans references etc. Some
popular websites like Wikipedia have far more users today than the printed encyclopaedias.
Business websites especially of the corporations are defined according to their corporate imaging and norms and
are not open to use by public. They are the technical, specific, meant to be used only by the people within the
organizations or by people who are related to them through work.
Social Networking websites are the latest additions to the Intenet. Websites like Orkut, Facebook began as
websites popular with the youth, but have grown phenomenally all over the world. They offer a lot of applications
and combine possibilities of personal and social communications that could not have been thought of till we
actually saw them recently. You can send messages, write e mails, post a link to your/someone else's wall, write your
small essays/notes and circulate them to selected friends, share your photo-albums share content from other
websites , play games, meet new people, form an e- group etc. etc. The possibilities are only increasing.
Features of the INTERNET
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E mail has in many cases substituted the old 'snail' mail. It has been given a legal validity now. E mail took
communication forward with the facility of Cc and group mail personal, social and economic agenda got built
around that. Earlier personal and social communication were quite distinct with different forms being utilized.
Internet has created new possibilities while accommodating the old functions e mail expanded the functions.
Blogs are websites or parts of them maintained by individuals. They are expected to make regular contributions to
the blog and these contributions are in various audio-visual forms. Blogs vary in form and content depending upon
the themes and primary audience they sometimes may be aiming at.
Blogs are being taken seriously in social communication now.
"An early milestone in the rise in importance of blogs came in 2002, when many bloggers focused on comments by
U.S. Senate Majority Leader Trent Lott.[16] Senator Lott, at a party honoring U.S. Senator Strom Thurmond, praised
Senator Thurmond by suggesting that the United States would have been better off had Thurmond been elected
president. Lott's critics saw these comments as a tacit approval of racial segregation, a policy advocated by
Thurmond's 1948 presidential campaign. This view was reinforced by documents and recorded interviews dug up
by bloggers. (See Josh Marshall's Talking Points Memo.) Though Lott's comments were made at a public event
attended by the media, no major media organizations reported on his controversial comments until after blogs
broke the story. Blogging helped to create a political crisis that forced Lott to step down as majority leader.
Similarly, blogs were among the driving forces behind the "Rathergate" scandal. To wit: (television journalist) Dan
Rather presented documents (on the CBS show 60 Minutes) that conflicted with accepted accounts of President
Bush's military service record. Bloggers declared the documents to be forgeries and presented evidence and
arguments in support of that view. Consequently, CBS apologized admitting what it said were inadequate
reporting techniques (see Little Green Footballs). Many bloggers view this scandal as the advent of blogs'
acceptance by the mass media, both as a news source and opinion and as means of applying political pressure."
It is not only the academics, scholars and dilettantes , who browse through the various blogs, but nowadays
diplomatic circles, defence studies analysts, intelligence gatherers are also keeping a watch on various kinds of
blogs. It is estimated that in USA, the reach of the blogs will exceed that of the print media in the coming decades.
The dynamic nature and range of communication has changed our experience of the world that we live in.
Blogs as personal expressions
See the following example from Wikipedia -
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Portfolio
"December 17: Mohammed Bouazizi, an 26-year-old man trying to support his family by selling fruits and
vegetables in the central town of Sidi Bouzid, douses himself in paint thinner and sets himself on fire in front of a
local municipal office.
Police had confiscated his produce cart because he lacked a permit and beat him up when he resisted. Local
officials then refused his hear his complaint. He is taken to a hospital near Tunis for treatment of his third-degree
burns.
Bouazizi's act of desperation highlights the public's boiling frustration over living standards, police violence,
rampant unemployment, and a lack of human rights. The protests begin in Sidi Bouzid that same day. They quickly
spread across the region, then the country."
This was the beginning point of a sweeping pro-democracy and human rights movement in many countries of Asia
and Africa like Egypt, Syria, Lebanon,Yemen.
1. Gather an account of the chronological development of these events and prepare a timeline of the same
beginning with the event above.
2. Find out what important role social websites like Facebook, YouTube played in the spread of the pro-
democracy movement. Write your observations in 300 words.
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Exercise
Section A
Section B
Section C and D
Answer these questions briefly
1. What is understood by IP?
2. Which are the communication rings of the internet?
Discuss and Write
1. How do routers and switches function?
2. What is the difference between multicast and unicast transmission?
3. Explain the ways in which educational websites deal with educational content?
4. What are the benefits of social networking sites?
5. Explain the term open source initiative with suitable examples?
Writing for your portfolio/FURTHER RESEARCH
Read the given news item.
"December 17: Mohammed Bouazizi, a 26-year-old man trying to support his family by selling fruits and vegetables
in the central town of Sidi Bouzid, douses himself in paint thinner and sets himself on fire in front of a local municipal
office.
Police had confiscated his produce cart because he lacked a permit and beat him up when he resisted. Local
officials then refused his hear his complaint. He is taken to a hospital near Tunis for treatment of his third-degree
burns.
Bouazizi's act of desperation highlights the public's boiling frustration over living standards, police violence,
rampant unemployment, and a lack of human rights. The protests begin in Sidi Bouzid that same day. They quickly
spread across the region, then the country."
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This was the beginning point of a sweeping pro-democracy and human rights movement in many countries of Asia
and Africa like Egypt, Syria, Lebanon, Yemen.
1. Gather an account of the chronological development of these events and prepare a timeline of the same
beginning with the event above.
2. Find out what important role social websites like Facebook, YouTube played in the spread of the pro-
democracy movement. Write your observations in 300 words. Add it to your portfolio.
1. Do stereotypical images created in films or television have negative socio-economic-political repercussions?
Support your view with suitable examples.(LA)
2. Write your observations on gender stereotypes in media representation.(LA)
3. Briefly discuss the difference between cinema and television. (LA)
4. What is the influence of films on the production and telecast of television programmes?(SA2)
5. To what extent does tabloid journalism rely on films and television for its content (movie reviews, personality
features etc.) Support your answer with examples.(LA)
6. How does content analysis of films, television and newspapers differ from audience analysis of the same?
(SA 2)
7. Analyse the reasons why music programmes on FM radio channels and many television channels are dependent
on films? (SA2)
This exercise aims to help students to critically think about where they are and with whom when they consume
media, and what kind of media content they "allow" into their lives.
a) In order to do this they would have to keep a "Mass Media Journal" for five consecutive days. Each day they
should log the amount of time spent with media as well as the types of media they interact with.
Mass Media would include:
Print (viz. newspapers, magazines, books), Radio, Television, Films, Internet
Students would have to be aware of each time they come in contact with media.
UNIT END QUESTIONS
UNIT 1 - UNDERSTANDING THE LANGUAGE OF THE MEDIUM
PORTFOLIO
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For example, if a person sitting across from you is reading a newspaper and you read some of the headlines on that
paper, you have interacted with a mass medium. The journal should be logged in the following manner:
Record the item - (name of print or TV/radio program)
Name the medium - (television, book, internet etc.)
Record the amount of time spent with the medium (rounding off is fine)
Record the context of interaction - (" in my room, with my sister, while riding in the car, waiting at the dentist'
clinic etc.)
Explain why the interaction took place - (research for homework, entertainment, boredom etc.)
At the conclusion of five days, every student would use the journal to compute the amount of time spent
with each mass medium and chart the circumstances and reasons why.
Essay: Write a short essay about the mass medium you use the most in your life. Some points for you to
include would be:
On average, how much time do you spend with this medium?
What role or purpose does this medium fulfil for you? What do you get from this medium? Do you tend to
use this medium to satisfy a need such as information, entertainment or to fill the boredom?
Do you use this medium during certain times of day or in certain situations?
Do you use this medium alone or with others?
How do you think your life would be different if this medium didn't exist?
When this medium was first introduced, what impact do you think it had on our culture?
Is there anything about your consumption of media you would like to change?
c) As a student of media studies, you have a voice and a role to play as active media consumers who can talk to
the entertainment industry and present their opinions on public forums. The Internet has opened up important
avenues for reaching producers and sharing views. So what are you waiting for? Create a blog (or a common
blog for your class) expressing your views as well as inviting others to share their views on the 'portrayal of
violence in films and on television'.
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Evolution of the Media
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Chapter 1
The Evolution of INTERNATIONAL CINEMA
'The machine for taking likenesses'
Pre-cinema Period
-Charles Dickens
About the still camera-
History of the Films
The year 1895 AD is considered as the year of the birth of the Cinema. In the year 1836 AD two convectors
convinced the still Camera, the daguerreotype. They were Daguerre and Niepce and both of them were French.
Peter Mark Roget, in the year 1822, discovered the principle of 'Persistence of version' which shed light on the basic
biological mechanism through which the things around us could be seen and perceived. The birth of still
photography made it possible even for a lay man to create images. The creation of picture was no more a realm of
an artist alone. Now a machine could do it. The Kodak Company, very aptly said, "You just press the click, we do the
rest, when they marketed their camera. Cameras produced life like images of the subjects be it a person, a
landscape or anything else. This satisfied the urge in human beings to see the exact copies of things around them
and it triggered off another impulse to see these images in motion.
In Europe and America, many researchers were experimenting to create a new instrument. They succeeded in
inventing the machine that we today call motion picture camera, to go beyond the experience of still photography.
Thomas Alva Edison and his brilliant assistant Dickson, actually succeeded in making a motion picture camera and
set up a studios called 'Black Marie' Studios in 1880s/ Edison's machine was essentially a 'Peeping Machine', and only
one person at a time could see through it.
Since 1836 the still camera had been around and had begun to enter people's consciousness. In Charles
Dickens's Oliver Twist [1838] we find the following mention of it. Young Oliver has fallen ill and is being nursed in
the house of a kind gentleman called Mr. Brownlow. Mrs Bedwin is the housekeeper, who is attending to him.
Oliver looks at a painting that hangs in his room and comments that the lady has a beautiful, mild face. In
response to that Mrs. Bedwin replies -'Ah!' said the old lady,' painters always make ladies out prettier than they
are, or they wouldn't get any custom, child. The man that invented the machine for taking likenesses might have
known that would never succeed; it's a deal too honest.'
Many inventors in Europe and America were experimenting to create an instrument that today we call as Motion
Picture Camera to go beyond the experience of still photography. Thomas Alva Edison assisted by his brilliant
assistant 'Dickson', had actually succeeded in making a motion picture camera and had set up a studio called Black
Maria studio in the 1880s. Edison's machine was essentially a Peeping Machine, and only one person at a time could
see the show. However, the credit of making and presenting world's first film and film projection system goes to
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Louis Lumiere and August Lumiere of France. The first ever show of cinema called Lumiere Programme was held at
Caf Grand, Paris, France on 28th December 1895.
Lumiere Brothers
The Lumiere Programme was of less than ten minutes duration and consisted of filming small events as they occur in
daily life around them. There was no story, script or actors. Workers leaving a factory at lunch time, demolition of a
wall, train entering a station, boat leaving a harbour, fire engines running in the street were the events that were
captured by the camera. Capturing something by chance was possible now. Lumiere Brothers called their
apparatus Cinematograph and the word cinema was derived from that.
Lumiere Programme was an instant success and received good coverage in the press. The audiences were
spellbound by this new experience. Encouraged by this the Lumiere brothers began exhibiting the show all over
France and then in the year 1896, they toured as far as London, New York, Buenos Aires and Mumbai. On July 7,
1896 the first show of Lumiere Programme was held at Watson Hotel at Kala Ghoda in South Mumbai.
The complex form that cinema has evolved into has a history of about eleven decades. Initially the films were simply
curiosity satisfying pieces. The early audiences were thrilled to see that the pictures could at last move. This was
something they had been waiting for. Even the pioneers- Lumiere brothers- did not have the vision of the narrative
or artistic potential of cinema. For them it was a great technical innovation to be proud of. They thought that once
the novelty of watching the images of the real world in motion wears off, interest in cinema would dwindle. But,
cinema caught on the imagination of the people world over of the public like very few things in the Twentieth
century did.
The Cinderella of All Arts
Although the youngest of the arts, it has a history as rich and as diverse as any other art-forms. What has
taken place in the other arts over the centuries, an equivalence of that has taken place in cinema in merely
eleven decades. That is why, cinema is called The Cinderella of All Arts.
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It is necessary for us to know the outline of the history at least to the extent that we can see the important stages
that made a major contribution to the growth of this medium. Principally, the history of cinema is divided into.
Motion pictures were a quantum leap forward from the still photograph. A still photograph is a frozen instant; it has
permanence and a timeless existence like a painting. It was not sufficiently potent to satisfy the human urge to see
images in motion. In fact, it served to intensify the urge. The very first films were nothing but snippets of reality
captured on camera without any mediation by the filmmakers. From this simple actuality coverage to dramatic
story-telling was next big step. And that step was taken rather fast. Thus cinema began to communicate in fictional
as well as non-fictional mode.
The content of Lumiere Programme is not what modern day audiences would accept as cinema. Lumiere Bothers
had no idea of intervening into the things going around them; they were content to simply capture them and make
an authentic record of them. They were no story-tellers. By hindsight, historians of cinema have called it the
tendency towards realism and documentary or non-fiction.
George Melies was the contemporary of Lumiere Brothers in Paris. In fact, he was present at the very first show of
the Lumiere Programme. He was enamoured of what he saw, and wanted to buy the camera of the Lumiere
Brothers right there. He was thinking of presenting his own images on screen, but not of the kind the Lumiere
Brothers presented. Melies was a professional magician. He thought of using the camera through trick effects to
produce the magical effects like objects and people vanishing in front of one's eyes, creating landscapes which
were totally imaginary or fantastic like the surface of the moon, space travel etc. The subjects of his films were - A
Trip to the Moon, Cinderella, The Magician, Merry Frolics of the Satan, The Fantastic Hydrotherapy and others. They
are like the magic shows on stage, with a loosely told story held together by spectacular trick effects producing
wonder and humour. Unlike Lumiere Brothers every event in his films was staged. It was a fictitious world
completely created for the camera. By hindsight, historians of cinema have called it as the tendency towards
fiction, fantasy and expressionism. Melies was most active between 1897 to about 1907.
Thus right at the inception stage we find that both realistic and fantastic tendencies manifest themselves in cinema.
These trends have continued in cinema: sometimes in opposition to each other and sometimes by seeking a
confluence.
R.W. Paul, William Robert Frieze-Green and G.A. Smith in UK were doing short films around the same time and some
of their work is no less interesting than Melies's.
A. The Silent Era [1895-1927]
Lumiere brothers versus George Melies - The realistic versus the fantastic
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Thus from the very beginning we have the following -
Polarity of cinema
LUMIERE MELIES
Realism Non-realism
Documentary Fantasy
Actuality Magic
Reportage Imagined event
Edwin S. Porter in USA made two films called life of An American Fireman [1902] and The Great Train Robbery
[1903]. In the first film, he inserted an incident, which he had staged into the actual footage that he had shot. That
seemed to work very well. It emboldened him to try out an adventure film shot indoor, as well outdoor, with
shifting of location and action from one point to another. The result was The Great Train Robbery. This film was a
tremendous success and helped set up an exhibition chain of theatres called Nickelodeons. Porter was trying to
advance the story-telling techniques and in the bargain discovered some specificities of the medium.
There was another trend of thought in France called Film d'Art [Art films]. Films being a very popular form of
entertainment were considered a low-brow form of art. To alter this perception, some people in France thought
that if they would take up 'prestigious' themes from a respected art like the theatre and work them into cinema,
they would be acceptable to all. That led to the production of the so called art films. Plays like Hamlet were done,
but they turned out to be simply terrible examples of the photographed theatre.
Porter's success and the failure of the Film d'Art both pointed to the same point and that was therefore film as a
medium may seem close to theatre, but it is deceptively so. The need to develop the narrative potential of the film
to make it an autonomous medium became apparent to all.
D.W. Griffith was the first filmmaker to discover and demonstrate the power of dramatic story-telling that cinema is
capable of. He discovered that the use of close up could highlight a detail in a dramatic way and thereby could
even a small gesture of human beings or an object or even a shadow of a living thing could be noticed on the
screen. He learnt to effectively utilise the camera movement, so that it introduced an unprecedented dynamism in
to film-craft. These two techniques were mainly the ones that stressed the independence of cinema from theatre.
Griffith also realised that space and time are very elastic in cinema. He masterfully created the technique of the
parallel action, wherein, two or more events taking place in different locations were shown on the screen in a
manner that showed that they were related. That also created the interpretation that these events were happening
Primitive attempts at story-telling, the trial and errors-
D. W. Griffith and the art of dramatic story-telling
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simultaneously, but in two different places. Thus he created conventions, which have lasted till date.
The success of films enjoyed by American Film Companies was huge. Popular forms like adventure, romance and
slapstick comedy made American films well known all over the world. During World War I the film production in
Europe had declined. America was not involved in this war. They eyed the global market. They had a popular
product and new stars like Charlie Chaplin, Mary Pickford, Douglas Fairbanks had emerged. In one suburb of Los
Angelis , California - a new city came up and by the name Hollywood that became the film capital of America and
the largest entertainment industry of the world. Major film Companies like MGM, 20th Century Fox, Universal
Studios, United Artists set up establishments known as film studios. This was a new concept, wherein everything
that happens in film making- from the writing of the script to processing and printing the final print of a film
happened under one roof or within the same premises. It was a well equipped set up with all the specialized
departments and skilled personnel available for work in one place. A Studio had shooting floors, sound studios,
editing rooms, film laboratory, a variety of locations and various other departments like make up, costume, art
design, publicity etc. It was a comprehensive set up catering to artistic, technical and commercial needs of
filmmaking.
The October revolution of 1917 was an epochal event in the human history. A centuries old order and the system of
monarchy was overthrown to establish a new world order that proclaimed to establish a new society that would
be devoid of exploitation, believed in equal opportunities to all, and would eradicate poverty. Under the new
system all means of production and all property was nationalized in the name of the people by the state. Anatoly
Lunacharsky the famous writer and educationist was in charge of HRD in the Socialist government led by Lenin. In
the cultural policy framed by him, cinema was given much importance as the famous statement given by Lenin
shows. The reason was obvious, USSR at that point of time was mainly an agrarian country spread over a vast area.
Literacy rate was not too high all over the region. In such, circumstances cinema became the ideal medium to reach
out to the masses to the new government as it had no language barrier and did not demand any literacy. Since
cinema plays directly on the senses of human beings, it could be understood by the illiterates ,who lived in the
remote region. 'Art at the service of mankind' and 'Socialist art - the new art of the masses' being the mottos, cinema
assumed an important position in the state policy.
An institute was set up to study cinema scientifically and Lev Kuleshov a young man barely past twenty was put in
charge of it. He was soon joined by more young minds and some path breaking work followed over the next few
years.
Establishment of the studio system in Hollywood
Soviets and the principle of montage
'Cinema is the most important of all arts.' Lenin
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Soviet filmmakers in the 1920s hailed D.W Griffith as the master and taking him as the starting point went on to
develop the expressive possibilities of the medium further. To them cinema was much more than story-telling.
Griffith's intuitive findings were studied scientifically by them and then they proceeded to experiment further.
The Soviets, inspired by the Marxist world, viewed that an alternative society to the bourgeois one was possible.
The world was not merely to be interpreted but changed through human endeavour and correct political thinking.
Their entire conception of characters, situation and dramatic conflict was derived from this viewpoint, which was
drastically different from Griffith. They formulated the concept of montage. Montage to them was much more than
parallel action. It was a higher unity of things. Two shots collided on screen to give rise to a new meaning not
contained in individual shots. The idea was partially derived from the Japanese picture script [hieroglyph]. In the
Chinese and Japanese scripts a picture[ Kanji in Japanese] stands for one concept. For instance there is a kanji for
water and there is another for the human eye. When these were brought together to form a new character, it
became a 'tear' signifying pain or grief. Thus by combination or fusion of these two concepts a totally new concept
and meaning emerged. This was montage. It created symbolic meanings by associations. Montage was a way of
thinking and making films.
Lev Kuleshov was the first scientist -cum-film- maker of cinema. He began the practice of film-experiments to
actually discover principles of film language. One of the exercises was to re-edit Griffith's and some other American
films to find out new possibilities of meaning in the same shots. Then he shot some scenes for the sake of
experiments with the audience. Two of his experiments called 'creation of geography ' and 'the face of Moszhukhin'
are most remarkable.
In 'creation of geography',he used an actress and an actor. He established in the beginning that they are as if
proceeding to meet each other. And then took shots of them against different backgrounds. These backgrounds
were various landmarks of Moscow situated at various distances from each other. To this he added a shot from an
American film that showed the facade of White House. The shots of the actor and the actress walking towards each
other alternated on the screen till they finally met. So when viewed by public an impression was created that all
those locations, which were in reality some kilometres away from each other in fact are across and adjacent to
each other. White House too became a part of Moscow. This was done by using real locations and real shots and
without any trick effects. Thus a simple action photographed against different backgrounds and edited
imaginatively created an entirely new geography, a new screen-reality.
The second famous experiment of Kuleshov consisted of photographing the impassive face of Moszhukhin a
famous Russian actor of those days and cutting it alternatively with a bowl of steaming soup, a rose and a coffin. The
audience, which was not let in to the secret ascribed different emotional qualities to the same face of Moszhukhin.
Experiments such as these proved that a filmmaker could not only make the audience see, but think, believe and
imagine a reality of their own by arrangement if his images.
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The biggest achievement of the soviets through their films and theoretical work was to establish Montage as the
fundamental principle of the film language. Cinema is a language that is composed of various fragments [parts]
which are both visual and audio. The process through which they were combined to give rise to a higher meaning,
not contained individually in the shots was Montage. This whole-part relationship remains at the core of the film art.
It was Segei Eisenstein, who took the concept a lot further through his writings and films.
Lev Kuleshov, Segei Eisenstein [ October, Battkleship Potemkin], V.I.Pudovkin[Mother, Storm Over Asia], Dziga
Vertov[ Man With The Movie Camera], Dovzhenko[ Earth] were the master filmmakers of this school at this time.
For a good comprehension of the concept of parallel editing and montage see the sequence from Francis Ford
Coppola's Godfather Part I, wherein Michael Corleone is a part of the Church ceremony, wherein he accepts to
be the Godfather to his sister Connie's child. While the ceremony is going on, we see the shots of his rival
gangsters being killed one by one by his henchmen. The time of these happenings is the same, but the locations
are different. It looks very ironic and contrasting, when Michael keeps denouncing Satan and proclaiming his
faith in Jesus Christ and God, it is followed by the visuals of killings being conducted at his orders. Thus, by
editing these two sequences together a new meaning is created, that Michael's own baptism by bloodbath
has been carried out, as this is his first major criminal act after taking over the reins of crime from his father. This is
an example of the concept of montage. Had these sequences been shown one after the other, this idea of
Michael's own baptism would not have been present.
To understand 'Creation of Geography' do the following exercise in your school premises. Use two actors and
take their still pictures by means of digital cameras against different backgrounds within the school. Position
the actors in each picture to depict that they are moving towards each other. In the first two pictures itself, you
can establish that they are greeting each other, by having them wave to each other. Make a side show of their
pictures in PowerPoint presentation using their images alternately like Actor 1/Actor 2/Actor 1/Actor and so on
so forth In each shot change the background that they are seen against, that would imply that they are
moving. Finally bring them together in one composite shot with the background also clearly established. Use
either 7 or 9 shots in the fashion described above.
German Expressionism was a movement that ran parallel to the soviets in 1920s. But their mood and
preoccupation were totally different. While Soviets were buoyant with revolutionary euphoria after The Great
October Revolution of 1917, Germans were recovering from a shattering defeat in the World War I[1914-1918].
The humiliation of Treaty of Versailles added insult to the injury. Germany was being bled of its income and
resources. The existential angst of those times was reflected in the films of that period. Most films dealt with
Activity 1
Activity 2
Expressionism - a reality of the inner world projected
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realities that were nightmarish. Cabinet of Dr. Caligari [ Robert Wiene, 1919] has the structure of a story within a
story. The inmate of the mental asylum tells a story that never ever was. But this story has been made to take place in
a totally expressionist landscape. The office, the public buildings, the streets and the rooms even the sky in the film,
bear no physical resemblance to these things as they exist anywhere. The break with reality is complete here. It is a
totally imagined landscape. Thus to move away from a reality of the everyday life, that was excruciatingly painful,
filmmakers constructed a symbolic one. Metropolis[ 1929] Fritz Lang, Nosferatu and The Last Laugh[ Murnau] are
some of the illustrious films of that time.
This movement got its name from the term expressionism that had existed in visual and dramatic arts. It is said that
an expressionist does not see, but has 'visions'. More generally the term refers to art that expresses intense
emotion. The expressinist work is known for dramatic distortion of colour and line, contrast of lights, tones and
colours.
Vincent van Gogh[ Netherlands], Edvard Munch[ Norway] were some of the leading expressionist painters of the
Nineteenth century.
The legacy of expressionist can be seen today in the form of intense psychic dramas with strong, intense,
dominating, self destructive, submissive characters and also in Horror films, known as Film Noir and in Sci-Fi films in
the form of the dark visions of the city, and technological environment etc. [ e.g. Blade Runner-by Ridley Scott,
1982]
In the same decade, which was also to be the last decade of the silent cinema, another avenue of cinematic
expression opened up. The non-fiction films later to be called and articulated as documentaries come into being in
Europe. Joris Ivens in Netherlands, Walter Ruttmann in Germany and Dziga Vertov in USSR pioneered a kind of film
that had nothing to do with fiction. Joris Ivens's Rain[1929] is an impressionistic portrait of Amsterdam over one
afternoon. It is bright and sunny to start with. Gradually it is overcast and then rain really builds up and belts down.
After the shower is over it is back to sunlight and glistening wet surfaces. Like the Impressionists' paintings the entire
film is built out of surface textures. In this nine minute film the city itself is the principal character that changes its
appearance dramatically. There is no script to be executed with staging. Narration is by means of passage of time
depicted through the variety of activities and change in the form of people and objects photographed. He was
shooting this film for over four months.
Walter Ruttmann's [ Germany] Berlin, Symphony of a Great City [1927] is again a portrait of the city based on
observations and is very graphically structured. Dziga Vertov [ USSR] was in fact aggressive in his attitude to fiction.
'Hurrah'! for life as it is, that was his motto. He declared that he was a film-poet who wrote not on paper, but on film.
He did not believe in writing his script on paper. He believed the camera-eye [Kino Eye]to be far more powerful
than the human eye in judging and exploring the chaotic universe. His 'Man With A Movie Camera' [1928] is an
illustration of his skill and ideology.
Non-fiction- No actors, No Stories, but creative treatment of actuality
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Kino-eye
John Grierson [UK]
Our eyes see very little and very badly - so people dreamed up the microscope to let them see invisible
phenomena; they invented the telescopenow they have perfected the cinecamera to penetrate more
deeply into he visible world, to explore and record visual phenomena so that what is happening now, which
will have to be taken account of in the future, is not forgotten.
-Provisional Instructions to Kino-Eye Groups, Dziga Vertov, 1926
Then came along Robert Flaherty [USA], whose films Moana and Nanook of the North were termed by John
Grierson [UK] as documentaries i.e. as 'creative treatment of actuality'. Flaherty studied the life patterns of remote
cultures such as the south sea islanders [Moana] and Eskimos near the North Pole [Nanook of the North]. He became
a participant observer in their lives and documented on film the rhythm of their life cycles. His films were actually
born on locations so to speak. He went there and lived with the subject of his films for days and months together
becoming a participant observer. His narrative was more of a chronicle of human actions photographed directly
from life. He centred the film on a principal character and all the details of his environment, family etc. were
documented in the process of shooting.
John Grierson pioneered the cause of documentaries by a lifelong dedicated work. He called the work of Flaherty
as 'creative treatment of actuality'. He grew up in the times of progressive social movements such as rights of
women and workers. Democratic values meant a lot to him and so he defined the agenda of documentaries to be
the agenda of social debate. 'Real people,' 'real issues were' the keywords for him. This form of a classically
structured documentary was best seen in the works of British film makers like Basil Wright and Harry Watt in films like
The Night Mail, Song of Ceylon etc. Grierson also created a sponsorship structure for documentaries by convincing
Government bodies to invest in the effort. He wrote and lectured about cinema and documentaries all through his
life and also trained filmmakers into this new concept.
Although we have had liberal and humanist artists making use of documentary for a progressive agenda, one must
mention that the Nazis were also very skilful in using this form for their political propaganda. Leni Reifenstahl made
the colossal documentary on the Nurenberg rallies of the Nazi party in 1934 called The Triumph of the Will.
This overview of the first thirty plus years of cinema clearly shows that various approaches to reality had already
developed. They became traditions to be extended by film makers who followed in the sound era. For the lay
audiences they demonstrated the variety of expressions that cinema was capable of depicting. And for the
theorists of cinema they offered models to base their arguments on.
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B. The Sound Era [1927~till today]
In 1927, Warner Brothers in USA produced the first sound film in the world ever. It was called The Jazz Singer and
had a famous black singer Al Johnson acting and singing in it.
This was the beginning of the end of the silent cinema. The other countries followed suit and within the next four to
five years it became universal practice and the age of silent cinema receded in to the past. But, we must note that
although the films themselves were silent in the silent era, the atmosphere in the hall was not.
The atmosphere in which the silent films used to be seen, suggests that every effort was made to fill up the lack of
sound. The live story-teller cum commentator [called Benshi in Japan, the Barker in England] appeared in the
theatre. At times he became too powerful and could help make or mar the effectiveness of the film by his
comments. Sound effects such as horse- hooves were sometimes provided by people, who quickly became
experts in these matters. Live orchestra playing in the pit also made its appearance. It is important to note that the
directors did not really ask for these. But they had no choice in the matter.
The transition to sound altered many things in films. Dialogue became the source of information and even
continuity. Due to spoken language films became more culture-specific and less universal as compared to the silent
era. Forms like the slapstick comedy based on the art of mime and action became a thing of the past. But a new
form of comedy based on dialogues emerged. Documentary, political propaganda film and the musical were new
exciting forms. Indian films stressed their affinity to the indigenous form of theatre, which had strong tradition of
dialogue, heightened speech and songs and dances. A new form evolved from that. Off screen sound suggested
space outside the frame and also created the dramatic possibility of separating action and actor. On the whole
pace of editing, the concept of rhythm changed. It was the beginning of a new epoch in cinema.
One of the most important developments of the sound era was the development of genres in Hollywood. A genre
means a type or a kind.
Comedy, Western, Gangster, Detective, Film Noir, Musical, Sci-fi all these happen to be some of the prominent
genres of American cinema. Each genre has its specificities and its own history. A genre is standardization of certain
situations, character types, settings, and other such conventions. These genres refer to the popular history of
America and the various aspects of 'the American dream'.
Genres in Hollywood
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Activity
Neorealism in Italy
Understanding the genres-
Fill up the following table on the basis of research done by you-
e.g.
Similarly fill up for the rest
Hollywood films are globally the most prominent window of American life-style, beliefs and values. They have
created a glamour of the American society and the way of life in various ways over all the years. The system of
various awards like Oscar, Golden Globe and the big publicity given to them has further helped sustain the glamour.
In Film History three schools have been considered as the most defined and comprehensive in the way, they arose
and made their contributions to the language of cinema. And they are the German Expressionism, Soviet Socialist
Realism and Italina Neorealism.
A School /Trend/Movement in arts is always a product of historical conditions in different societies. It is seen that a
certain tendency or a set of beliefs or an ideology or a world-view is shared between creative minds of the
period. This outlook is seen in the works of the artists belonging to that particular school. Every school has its rise
and fall.
GENRE
Gangster
SETTING
City-super rich with
squalid areas in it
MAIN CHARACTERS
Gangster and his
associates, Moll,
Rivals, Cops,
Victim etc.
THEMES.
KEY WORDS
Power struggle
Violence, Organized
Crime, Loyalty and
betrayal, Corruption,
Justice
GENRE
Comedy
Western
Musical
SciFi
SETTING MAIN CHARACTERS THEMES.
KEY WORDS
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A movement called Neorealism emerged in Italy during the World War II and the fall of fascism. Popular Italian
Cinema in 1940s was completely divorced from real life. They presented super rich, luxurious life of characters that
the audiences could not relate to. Many of these films were full of curios like the white telephone on which
characters were often seen chatting at length in comfortable surroundings. These films were derisively called 'White
telephone films'.
It is against this backdrop that Roberto Rossellini presented his film Rome, Open City (1945). This film was about the
life, as it was, during the last days of the fascist and Nazi occupation by Italy. Thus one sees German soldiers
conducting raids to capture the resistance fighters, black marketing and scarcity of goods bombed out buildings,
common people trying to make both ends meet. "This is the way things are", said Rossellini, when he presented the
film. Actual streets and traffic scenes, sometimes shot with hidden camera give the film Documentary like quality.
Luchino Visconti, Vittorio De Sica were the other leading lights of this movement alongside Rossellini.
made La Terra Trema [ The Earth Trembles] in 1948. It was a film shot in Aci Trezza, a small fishing
village on the east coast of Sicily, Italy. The story takes place in the same very village and it is about the lives of the
fishermen community and their exploitation by the merchants and traders. Visconti did not use any professional
actors to tell the story, but made the fishermen themselves act out their life story in their village and in their homes,
achieving a startlingly authentic quality.
"Bicycle Thieves" also made in 1948, won recognition the world over. It is a story of a common
man Antonio Ricci working as a casual labourer to earn his bread for the family. Jobs are hard to find, he is already in
debt trap. Antonio Ricci has a wife and two children to support, he is desperate for work. He is delighted to at last
get a good job of pasting up film posters in the city, but he has to have a bicycle to get the job. But, his bicycle is
pawned to the moneylender. His wife Maria pawns their bedsheets in order to get money to redeem his bicycle
from the pawnbroker and thus a temporary solution is found.
Tragically, on his first day of work, Antonio's bicycle is stolen by a young thief, who snatches it when he is putting up
a poster. He goes to the police, but that does not help much. Antonio, accompanied by his young son Bruno, walks
the streets of Rome looking for the bicycle Through a simple story that unfolds over two days, De Sica managed
to convey a lot about the life of common citizens on the depressed economy of post World War II Italy. Both these
films have gone to become the classics of the world cinema.
, who was a Left wing writer and the script writer of De Sica's films, once said "I want to make a film
about 90 minutes in a man's life where nothing happens" - He was the ideologue of the new kind of cinema. The
neorealists wanted to forge a new identity of Italian films in contra-distinction to Hollywood.
Cesare Zavattini's criticized American cinema for producing "Sweetened versions of reality " that ignored the social
realities of the day.
Luchino Visconti
Vittorio De Sica's
Cesare Zavattini
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Prof. Umberto Barbar coined the term NEOREALISM [ new realism] in an article written by him in the journal 'Cinema'.
Neorealists brought authenticity of a documentary reality to stories, characters and situations.This authenticity was
achieved through new means like casting non-actors even in lead roles[ Bicycle Thieves],casting stars in opposition
to their images, in non-glamorous roles[ Anna Magnani in Rome, Open city], by shooting on actual locations to get
that vital texture of reality and essentially by filming simple stories, simple characters that are defined more by their
everyday situation.
Hey-days of Neorealism were between 1943-1954. Italian Directors like Francesco Rosi, Michaelangelo Antonioni,
Federico Fellini, who came into prominence in the next decade began as understudies to the Neorealists.
Legacy of Neorealism has been most alive in Africa, Asia, Latin America
These films have been an inspiration as well as method of low budget filmmaking with realistic subjects to various
filmmakers in what was called as the third world.
Films made in Iran, China in the last few decades are distinctly influenced by Neorealism. In India we have had
Satyajit Ray - who refined the model further. Influence of neorealism has been seen in the works of Bimal Roy and Raj
Kapoor's films -particularly in the films written by K.A Abbas.
Charles Correa the famous Indian architect and urban planner says in his book in The New Landscape [ 1985].
Films like Shoeshine and The Bicycle Thief are a revelation. The stories and lives in these films are representative
of lives of common people in hundreds of Asian cities.
World War II and the beginning of the Nuclear Age had brought a lot of consciousness to the thinking minds all over
the world. The practice of subtitling, para-dubbing and holding international film festivals made films from other
lands accessible to people and filmmakers. Cross cultural exchange was strengthened due to these factors.
This decade was dominated by filmmakers like
. Hollywood cinema made the transition to colour rather
gradually and invented new formats like Widescreen to combat the influence of television that had begun
providing competition.
The transition to colour from black and white did happen slowly with a period of time. But qualitatively it was not as
significant and dramatic as the transition from silent to sound films. Sophistication of colour and image due to
better films, lenses and lighting equipment has continued ever since.
1950-1960 The Decade of Classical Cinema
Ingmar Bergman[ Sweden], Michealangelo Antonioni, Federico
Fellini[ Italy], Andrzej Wajda[ Poland], Akira Kurosawa, Kenji Mizoguchi, Yasujiro Ozu[ Japan], Robert
Bresson, Jean Renoir[ France], Satyajit Ray[ India]
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INTERNATIONAL CINEMA IN THE LAST FIFTY YEARS
In the decades beginning with 1960 cinema has expanded qualitatively as well as quantitatively. A lot of new
countries have made their mark. The culture of festivals, international awards and coproductions have
strengthened the international appeal and reach of cinema.
These Developments Are Far Too Many To Enumerate, So We Can Look At Them From A Broad Cultural Perspective
Rather Than On A Historical Time Line.
In Europe Cinema has always been seen as a continuation of Renaissance and as a synthesis of all great arts. The
diversity of cultures within Europe is reflected in cinema
Like in Art, the concept of 'schools' and national styles was a phenomenon practiced and recognized in Europe.
Director is seen as an auteur- an artist with his own perspective as a thinker. Before World war II three Prominent
schools German Expressionism Soviet Socialist and Italian Neorealism have contributed to the world cinema.
After 1960s new and vibrant movements like French New Wave, New German Cinema, The Spring period of the
Czech, Polish, Hungarian films have contributed immensely to world cinema.
But the contemporary situation is quite different in Europe now. They are facing stiff competition from American
films in their own countries. Hollywood films control majority of playing time in Europe. Scarcity of funds has forced
European filmmakers to go for International co-productions. Two or three countries from Europe are combining
together to produce the work of some major directors. Sometimes these films are called 'Euro -puddings'.
Is there a sensibility called Asian sensibility as different from American and Europea? And if there is one, then how
does it express itself in Asian Cinema? Prominent film making countries in Asia are Japan, Iran, Korea, China,Taiwan
and Hong Kong.[ It goes without saying that India produces the largest number of films in the world and is unit on its
own].
Japanese cinema is the most evolved in Asia with its classical age of the masters like Kurosawa, Mizoguchi, Ozu,
which was followed by the avant garde phase of Oshima, Shindo, Shinoda and the contemporary makers like
Yamada, Kitano, Masayuko Suo. These three phases reveal the classical, the modern and post-globalized culture of
Japan as a nation.
China has made its mark post- Mao era i.e. in the 1980s and 1990s. Prominent filmmakers have been Chen Kaige, Zia
Jhangke, Zhang Yimou. Examination of the history, satire, humour have been the characteristics of their work.
In Taiwan King Hu popularized Kung Fu films later on to be made for Bruce Lee. Ang lee belongs to this tradition.
King Hu [along with Shaw brothers in Hong Kong] laid the foundation of the gravity defying action sequences for
European Cinema -
Asian Cinema -
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Bruce Lee earlier and then Ang Lee films. He also brought in the perspective of Zen Buddhism. If there is any genre
to which these films have made a big contribution, then it is the action and spectacle genre. The fantastic stunts, the
opulent sets and costumes, use of nature as well as decorative spaces have made these films to be quite exotic and
popular for the Western viewers.
While Iran has a totally different story. The state has not obstructed filmmaking but severe restrictions remain and
the filmmakers have to operate within them. This had led to simple, uncontroversial stories being told and told in
the humane manner of neorealism. Makhmalbaf, Kiarostami, Majid Majidi have largely worked on stories that stay
very close to the day to day life of the big cities as well as provinces and villages. Jafar Panahi has been a rebel,
relentlessly probing what the State officially denies the existence of. Many of his films are banned in Iran.
The art-house cinema of Kim Ki Duk Korea is noteworthy.
Colonialism has been a big factor in the history of most of African nations. Naturally then issues arising out of that
reality figure prominently in these films. The first African film to win international recognition was Ousmane
Sembne's Black Girl. Sembne certainly made more meaningful films and brought out many aspects of life in
Africa. He is rightly considered to be the 'father' of African Cinema. Following Sembene's example Senegal
continues to be the most important place of African film production till date.
Egypt is another major filmmaking country in Africa, but it has aligned itself more to the West Asian surroundings.
Egyptians films in that sense seem different than many other African nations. Youssef Chahine was their best known
and most prolific filmmaker. His work has always been respected internationally. More than 75% of the Arabic
language films have been made in Egypt.
Countries like Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia have been coming up with interesting films from time to time.
The strong presence of Latin American cinema was felt after the 1960s. Latin America has always been very vibrant
socially and politically and the cinema of the region truly reflects that. Roots of the content of these films are in the
varied historical and socio-economic the situations of countries like Cuba, Argentina, Mexico, Brazil, which have
been the prominent film making countries of Latin America. Latin America has very well integrated with European
art due to colonization, hence quite experimental, unconventional, yet not ignoring the local traditions and art
forms. The extremes of the third world reality. Quite often this cinema is the cinema of the resistance, of the protest,
of the propaganda and of innovation.
Tomas Alea and Humberto Solas have been the great filmmakers from Cuba. Globar Rocha and Nelson Pereira dos
Santos from Brazil, Jorge Polaco, Ferdinanad Solinas, Octavio Gettino, Raymundo Gleyzer from Argentina, Mguel
African Cinema
Latin American Cinema -
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Littin from Chile, Arturo Ripstein, Alfonso Arau, Alfonso Cuarn, Mara Novaro and Alejandro Gonzlez Irritu,
have been some prominent Mexican filmmakers.
Hollywood has come to dominate the playing time in theatres worldwide in the last two decades. In the last two
decades and more, a large percentage of cinema audiences have brought up on television. Unlike their ancestors,
their first experience of film was at home on the tube. Cinema in theatres came later to them. The influence of this
phenomenon [like the low span of attention] is reflected in the subjects and the language of cinema in the last
decade in the mainstream filmmaking throughout the world. Television Internet, Advertising in various forms have
subjected the new audiences to a very different audio-visual culture. Due to the development of technology, the
spread of information and news is almost instant now. The pace of life has changed. 'Keep it short and simple' is the
password in all walks of life today.
The form of films has undergone a lot a changes due to these factors. Also a new phenomenon has occurred
worldwide. Majority of the audiences going to the theatre to watch films now are young people. TV and DVD have
emerged as major sectors of film distribution and exhibition. A contemporary filmmaker has to deal with these
factors while conceiving films.
Cinema in the age of Globalization
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Exercises
Section A
Answer the questions in short.
1. What was the name given to the first still camera that was invented in 1836?
2. Who is credited for presenting the world's first 'motion picture film'?
3. Where was the first Nation Picture shown for the first time in India?
4. Which was the first sound film and who was it produced by?
5. Who were the prominent Neorealist filmmakers?
6. Give the names of some prominent Indian filmmakers whose films reflected the influence of neorealism.
Answer the questions (in 20-30 words)
7. Which art form is called "The Cinderella of All Arts" and why?
8. In what way did John Grierson contribute to the promotion of democratic values?
9. Why are Kung Fu films popular?
10. Why is Japanese cinema considered to be the most evolved in Asia? Give examples.
11. What was the difference between the films of Lumiere Bros and Georges Melies?
12. In what way was the lack of sound compensated for in cinema halls during the era of silent films?
13. What is understood by genres in films? How are American films categorized into genres?
Answer the questions (in 30-50 words)
14. What was D.W.Griffith's contribution to the development of cinema?
15. How important are studios in filmmaking?
16. What gave rise to the Expressionist Movement in cinema?
17. How was German cinema affected by the expressionist movement?
18. Why were the 1950s and 1960s considered the decade of classical cinema?
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Answer the questions (in 80-120 words)
19. What was the contribution of Neorealism to the development of filmmaking?
20. What is understood by the principle of montage?
Discuss about the progress of cinema in India in class and write an essay on it.
Watch a Hollywood movie belonging to each of the following genres viz. Comedy, Western, Gangster,
Detective, Film Noir, Musical, Sci-fi. Read up and find out about the development and history or each genre
and write an essay based on your research analysis. Your essay should also include the names of some of the
greatest films in each genre.
Find out about these popular movements in European films:
French New Wave
New German Cinema
The Spring period of Czech films
Section B
Section C
Section D
Discussion and Writing
PORTFOLIO
FURTHER RESEARCH
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Chapter 2
The Evolution of INTERNATIONAL TELEVISION
Early beginnings from 1926
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The first use of the word television was made in 1900, although it was John Logie Baird [UK], who successfully
created the Cathode ray transmission in 1926 and hence is considered as the pioneer of television.
The evolution of Television can be treated along two lines. One would be the technical development creating
improvement and different viewing facilities
Another dimension of looking at this growth is the diversity of content generated through a variety of formats of
programme presentation.
When compared to films one thing is quite clear that television is not a 'settling' form. In films we can talk of
conventions , a settled language, individual style etc. It does not apply to television. Change is the essence of
television. This is because television is not an art medium, but a communication medium.
Now consider the following information
By the late 1990s, 98 percent of U.S. homes had at least one television set, and those sets were on for an
average of more than seven hours a day. The typical American spends (depending on the survey and the time
of year) from two-and-a-half to almost five hours a day watching television. It is significant that not only this
time is being spent with television but that it is not being spent engaging in other activities, such as reading or
going out or socializing.
This is really significant, as it tells us the following facts:
In the rich societies [ developed nations], not having a television will be considered a serious deprivation.
While with many developing countries like India, television set is an aspiration, but not yet considered a vital
necessity.
In the homes, where the satellite penetration of television has taken place, the viewing hours would have
certainly gone up, but the interest of the viewers would vary drastically as compared to Europe or America.
This section of the priviledged Indians considers themselves 'globalized'[ read more evolved as compared to
those 'TV/Net have nots' in India] and psychologically different and superior to the others in our own society.
If we are spending majority of our time outside work watching television, then to that extent our sense of reality
becomes dependent on television.
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Activity-
Commercial transmission- Local networks
"It is significant not only that this time is being spent with television but that it is not being spent engaging in
other activities, such as reading or going out or socializing.
In light of the above statement, imagine a situation, that you will not watch television at all for one full week.
Calculate the total time that you would have on your hand by not watching television and plan out as to what
will you do during thise hours. Share the results with your classmates and compare.
Todays television transmission can be described as High Definition, Digital, Global hugely and entirely supported by
advertisements. But television transmission has gone through many phases to reach the present stage.
It began as a terrestrial transmission initially limted to local networks then the national and trans-national networks
developed and then with the satellite links were established then it progressed to the present global stage.
It also happened differently in different countries initially, but later on the various experiences were pulled
together to standardise the technical parameters.
Similarly, it was black and white initially, then it was in colour. Same was the case of analogue and digital
transmissions. The digital followed the analogue.
Initailly a lot of transmission was recorded and live was a rarity. With the advancement in technology, and due to the
news channels live transmission increased significantly.
The trend towards DTV 16:9 formats produced three line-scanning standards: 525, 750 and 1125 lines per picture.
The 750 line standard specifies progressive scanning. The 525 and 1125 line standards may use progressive or
interlaced scanning. The refresh rates are based on film rates (24Hz) or power line frequencies (50Hz or 60Hz) at
nominal or NTSC-friendly rates.
Initially , terrestrial broadcasting was the only way television could be widely distributed, and because bandwidth
was limited.
The way broadacsting progressed in some of the adavnced countries can be told in nutshell as follows-
The point of this exercise and analysis is not to criticise television viewing habits, but to see our habits and
lifestyle related to television in perspective.
Television Transmission begins [ Pre World war II]
So what's next?
The Evolution of INTERNATIONAL TELEVISION
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United States
France
Germany
United Kingdom
Soviet Union (USSR)
The first regularly scheduled television service in the United States began on July 2, 1928. It was in 1941, that the
broadcasters were allowed to advertise, subject to certain conditions and commitments on their part.
The first experiments in television broadcasting began in France in the 1930s, but the French were slow to employ
the new technology. There were two main reasons for this. Firstly, the radio was extremely popular as a medium in
part; and the broadcasters as well as listeners were perceived to be not very keen on this new medium. Secondly
the French elite were quite skeptical of television. They hated mass culture and Americanization and perceived
television as a harbinger of these very values.
Germany began transmission in 1929, but those broadcasts were without sound until 1934. They even transmitted
The Berlin Olympic Games in 1936.
The first British television broadcast was made over the BBC radio transmitter in September 1929. Baird provided a
limited amount of programming five days a week by 1930. BBC followed a system of a television licence fee on
owners of television to gather the revenue doing away with the need for advertising. This revenue model was in
vogue for decades and served BBC very well.
The Soviet Union began test broadcasts in Moscow in 1931, and they began making commercially manufactured
television sets in 1932.Full fledged broadcasting began in 1938.
Live Transmission before the age of satellite communication
The first live national television broadcast in the U.S. took place on September 4, 1951 when President Harry
Truman's speech at the Japanese Peace Treaty Conference in San Francisco, California was transmitted over AT&Ts
transcontinental cable and microwave radio relay system to broadcast stations in local markets.
In 1964 color broadcasting began on prime-time television in USA.
The number of television sets in use rose from 6,000 in 1946 to some 12 million by 1951. No new invention
entered American homes faster than black and white television sets; by 1955 half of all U.S. homes had one.
Beginning of the Golden Age of Televsion in USA.[1950s].
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Video and Cable Networks
Cable networks
Satellite communication
Evolution of Fiction and Nonfiction programmes
In the 1970s Philips invented a new medium that was to become very popular all over the world. It was called
Video Home Service -VHS. This was a tape recrding analogue signal and that could be played through the player.
This was followed by VCD. VCD was followed by DVD[ Digital Versatile Disc] and that is followed by Blue Ray. This
clearly created possibilities like recording transmission at home for one and secondly a new market for the video
products. This also created a system of distributing video through NON-BROADCAST situations.
By 1960s appeared the cable networks that would offer an alternative to the major national channels. They were
called CATV (community antenna television) systems.Initially they were an isolated phenomena in different
locations. In the 1970s some of today's prominent channels like Home Box Office [HBO 1975]; ESPN (sports), and
Nickelodeon (children's programming), began as Cable Networks. Ted Turner followed with the Cable News
Network (CNN) the next year.
The development of cable and satellite television in the 1970s allowed for more channels and encouraged
businessmen to target programming toward specific audiences.
With many countries opting to develop and use satellite technology for communication, the scope of Television
transmission went up in big quantums in the 1980s.
We all know what satellite communication is as we experience it in our daily lives.
Compare and contrast the experience of watching live events like sports and news with that of watching a film
or a soap opera.
Early television was quite primitive. Even the very first sports events that were covered live, were covered with a
handful of cameras and with no graphic or data possibilities that we have obtained today. Some of the news and
documentary work was done on 16 mm film camera.
Today we have multiple cameras with a lot of software support to insert text, informations, archival footage,
statistics, graphics and action replays. The live coverage of any event has changed in major way.
Activity-
The Evolution of INTERNATIONAL TELEVISION
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Television coverage of the following events have been considered as watersheds -
The US presidential election in 1960 election, wherein John F. Kennedy emerged as charismatic and triumphant
leader
Vietnam war of the 1960s
Persian Gulf war 1991 covered mainly by Ted Turner's CNN
The assassination of Indira Gandhi- 1984
IPL 4 in 2011.
Find out about these events and how they were televised and what impact was created by them.
It was said that TV covers politics and political news. Today, the paradigm seems to have shifted. Politics is
taking into account the power of television.
Give your studied comments with reference to India.
While fiction programmes seem to be mostly soap operas and films nonfiction programmes have developed a
wider range such as news, news based discussion programmes, interviews, talk shows, debates, reality shows,
competitions of many kinds etc.
Television is called 'Tube of Plenty' by its noted historian Eric Barnouw. It has assimilaited initially radio, then theatre
and then film. It became a vehicle for these forms. Today Internet is becoming the site of convergence of various
media. TV is also converging with Internet.
Explain how
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Fiction Programmes-
Television as a part of the Internet
Activity
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Exercises
Discussion and Writing
PORTFOLIO
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Section A
Section B
Section C
Answer the questions in short.
1. What was the earliest form of transmission on television?
2. Which was the first programme to be broadcast live in the United States?
3. Which broadcasting agency was the first to broadcast television in the United Kingdom?
4. Which decade is considered the beginning of the golden age of television in the USA?
5. Give the names of two popular cable channels which began as cable networks in the 1970s in USA.
6. Make a list of the variety of television programmes that are a part of the genre of non -fiction programmes.
Discuss in class the role television is playing in our lives today. Write a detailed note on different kind of
programmes telecast on T.V. and the role may play in society.
Television coverage of the following events have been considered as watersheds -
The US presidential election in 1960 election, wherein John F. Kennedy emerged charismatic and
triumphant
Vietnam war of the 1960s
Persian Gulf War in 1991 covered mainly by Ted Turner's CNN
The assassination of the Mrs Indira Gandhi in 1984
IPL 4 in 2011.
Find out about these events and how they were televised and what impact was created by them. Write a
The Evolution of INTERNATIONAL TELEVISION
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report on any one of the above events expressing your views on the impact generated by live television
coverage of the event.
1. Find out about John Logie Baird's contributions to the development of television.
2. Find out the meaning of the following terms-
625 lines per minute, PAL, SECAM, NTSC, LCD TV SET, HDTV
Section D
FURTHER RESEARCH
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Chapter 3
Evolution of PRINT MEDIA
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Journalism as a craft, a profession and even as a cultural industry and a business, is over three centuries old. It was
made possible by the coming together of a number of technologies as well as of several social, political and
economic developments. The main technologies that facilitated the development of large-scale printing and
distribution of print material were the printing press, the telegraph and the railways. The industrial revolution and
the growth of capitalism, democracy and the public sphere provided the impetus and the support for rapid
developments in the press. Technological determinists like Harold Innis and Marshall McLuhan, two Canadian
media sociologists, credited the printing press with the evolution of democracy and the nation state overlooking
the vital role of capitalism and socio-political movements in Europe and its colonies worldwide. Going beyond
technological determinism, Benedict Anderson later spelt out the role of print media, vernacular languages and
capitalism in the emergence of nationalism and nation-states ('imagined communities') in Europe, Latin America
and Asia without however establishing a clear 'causal link' between print capitalism and national consciousness.
By the end of the 15th century letter press moveable type printing was widespread in the major centres of trade
and learning all across Europe. This was the time of the Reformation and the printing press came to be widely used
by both Catholic and Protestant churches to propagate their beliefs in the vernacular languages. Vernacular
translations of the Bible by William Tyndale, Martin Luther and others were perhaps the first books to be published.
Pamphlets, newsbooks, newssheets and newsletters were popular formats for participating in debates on the
religious and political issues of the day. But rulers were wary of the influence of the printing press owners and
imposed licenses and even censorship on their publishing activities. And discussion of domestic events was
prohibited. In such instances, publishers in France and England would have their pamphlets and newsbooks
printed in Amsterdam.
The Fugger family, which had major mining interests in Germany, employed newsletters in the mid-16th century. The
publication of periodicals was introduced in Cologne by the end of that century.
The first corantos were published in 1621 and these were quickly followed by the publication of newsbooks in
England and other countries of Europe. In 1641 the star chamber courts in England were abolished, leading to a
conflict between royalty and parliament. This resulted in a furious publication of polemical pamphlets by both
sides. Pamphlet-debates and newsbooks were the earliest attempts to educate the public about current affairs. It
was in this context that the poet John Milton wrote a pamphlet entitled 'Areopagitica', where he set out his
arguments for the need of a free press in a democracy. Press censorship remained in force in Britain from 1662 to
1695 under the Licensing Act. Periods of censorship were followed by the rise in the number of newsletters, and of
coffee-houses too. Coffee-houses played the role of the new 'public sphere where the poets, writers and
intellectuals gathered together to get the news, and to debate freely political and cultural issues of the day. By
1739 there were as many as 559 coffee-houses in London. In France 'salons' played a similar role. According to one
estimate, there were 40 publishers of newspapers in Europe between 1609 and 1650; almost 40,000 copies of
these newspapers have been preserved.
Journalism in the 17th and 18th Centuries
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Activity-
Activity-
Visit books.google.com to access a digital copy of John Milton's pamphlet. What are Milton's arguments on
why a free press is fundamental to the working of a democracy.
Leipzig in Germany was the centre for a number of newspaper developments. Perhaps the first ever regular weekly
newspaper, the Avso, Relation oder Zeitung, and the first ever daily newspaper Einkommende Zeitungen, was
published from this city. Certainly, the first doctoral thesis on News Reporting was 'defended' on 5 March 1690 at
the University of Leipzig. It was written in Latin by a certain Tobias Peucer. America's first newspaper, Public
Occurrences both Foreign and Domestic, published in Boston by Benjamin Harris, made its appearance during the
same year. It was however immediately closed down by the colonial rulers. America had to wait until 1704 to get its
first successful newspaper, the Boston Newsletter. Soon, New York and other cities got their own newspapers.
But the distribution of printed literature beyond neighbourhoods, churches and cities required an efficient and
cheap postal system, and even more importantly a fast transport system. This is where the Industrial Revolution
played a key role. The telegraph facilitated the growth of news agencies such as Reuters, Associated Press, United
Press International, and Agence France Presse.
The first daily news sheets made their appearance at the dawn of the 18th century. Limitations of the handpress
restricted the number of copies to about two thousand; hence a large number of small papers. Writers like Daniel
Defoe, Joseph Addison, Richard Steele, Jonathan Swift and Samuel Johnson had their own news sheets or wrote
for the London papers.
Find out more about Defoe, Swift and Johnson. What were their contribution to journalism and literature?
By the end of the 18th century, news related publications in the United States and Britain managed to attract
advertising support. This was a significant development since the costs of paper, printing and postal rates kept
cover prices high; the stamp tax in Britain raised prices further. The first advertisements included those related to
books or products of the press, quack medicines, tea and chocolate.
India got its first newspaper, Bengal Gazette (also called Hicky's Gazette or Calcutta Advertiser), in 1780; it carried
advertisements right from its very first issue. Political and social corruption was rife among the British sent to rule the
country when Hicky, a printer by profession, launched his Gazette 'in order to purchase freedom for my mind and
soul'. He described the Bengal Gazette (later called Hicky's Gazette) as a 'weekly political and commercial paper
open to all parties but influenced by none'. His venom was aimed at individuals like Mrs. Warren Hastings and their
private affairs. He published announcements of marriages and engagements, and of 'likely' engagements. The
Gazette was, in essence, no better than a scandal sheet. Barely a year later, Sir Warren Hastings denied all postal
facilities to Hicky who hit back with these ringing words:
Role of the Industrial Revolution in the spread of print media
The Press in India
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'Mr. Hicky considers the Liberty of the Press to be essential to the very existence of an Englishman and a free
Government. The subject should have full liberty to declare his principles and opinions, and every act which tends
to coerce that liberty is tyrannical and injurious to the community'.
In June the following year (1781), Hicky was arrested and thrust into jail, from where he continued writing for the
Gazette. He was stopped from 'bringing out his weekly only when the types used for printing were seized'. (For
further details of the dramatic growth of the Anglo-Indian and the vernacular press in India, see the section on
'Journalism' in my book 'Mass Communication in India' (Bombay: Jaico Books, 2010).
Newspaper publishing is a huge business today. In India there are over five thousand daily newspapers. Family-
owned newspaper chains such as the Times of India, the Indian Express, the Hindu, the Hindustan Times, Eenadu,
Malayala, Manorama, Dainik Jagran, Dainik Bhaskar and a host of others rule supreme. Besides their flagship
newspapers they publish local editions in several cities, some even publish multiple editions in the same cities.
Further, they publish newspapers and magazines in several languages.
List the daily newspapers in your city. How many editions ran, does each of them have? (Check below the
masthead/title of the papers)
Who are the owners/publishers of these papers? Are these part of a larger chain of newspapers?
Name at atleast three newspaper chains in India.
Newspapers are a dying breed in the United States and Europe, unlike the steady annual growth of the print media
in India, China and other Asian countries. According to data from the World Association of Newspapers (WAN),
based in Paris, the top ten papers of the world in terms of circulation are all Asian newspapers, the top three being
from Japan. A major reason for the decline of circulation of American and British newspapers is the remarkable
growth in home access to the Internet. Young people get their news today from online editions of newspapers,
and also from social networks and news blogs. As a consequence, advertisers have moved their support from hard
copies of newspapers and magazines to online editions and social networks like Facebook. Recent data on
advertising expenditure in the United States suggests that adspend on the online newspaper on Internet has
outpaced adspend in the printed newspapers.
However, the growth in the number of 'free newspapers' has been remarkable. The best known free newspaper is
the METRO. Free newspapers get their main support from local advertisers since their primary readership is the
local neighbourhood. Free newspapers are not considered to be serious rivals of what is termed as the serious or
'quality' press or even the tabloids. American international dailies like the International Herald Tribune and the Wall
Street Journal (Europe and Asian editions) and London's Financial Times and The Guardian are available globally.
Facsimile editions of some of these can be subscribed to in India.
Local Newspapers, Newspaper Chains
Some features of Journalism in the UK and USA
Activity
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Activity
Find out on the internet which are the Indian and Foreign Newspapers available and compare their front pages.
Perhaps the most remarkable trend in Indian Journalism at the dawn of the 21st century was the rapid growth in
Online Journalism. Almost every English and Indian language publication has its own online-version on the World
Wide Web. The online versions are taken verbatim from the hard print editions. They are all offered free on the
Internet, and advertising and some e-commerce are the only sources of revenue. Hardly any publication has made
a profit from its online version. Except for the Wall Street Journal which has developed a subscription-based model
for its net edition, few American publications have reaped a harvest from their net editions. Print journalists who
moved into electronic journalism from 1998 to 2000 are now back to traditional newswork where they believe all
the 'excitement' lies! Virtual Journalism holds no charms any more. Attempts of course are being desperately made
to attract advertisers to virtual advertising.
The introduction of new information technologies should have brought about a sea-change in the approach to
Journalism. But this has not occurred. Only the delivery systems seem to have increased in number. For instance, the
current news values of Indian journalists are no different from the news values of traditional Journalism. These are
timeliness, immediacy, proximity, oddity, conflict, mystery, suspense, curiosity, and novelty. We have to turn to the
new development journalists (termed variously as 'civic journalists', 'public journalists', or 'advocacy journalists') to
challenge these elite- and immediacy-oriented values, and the man-bites-dog approach to news. They believe
that the voice of the silent, suffering majority should be heard through the press. Not politics, business, finance,
sports should be the staple of news but rather what is of value in terms of equality, social justice and peace.
Even though almost all major newspapers and news magazines have their Internet versions, few Indians read news
on the Internet unless of course they live or travel overseas. They have easy and cheap access to newspapers in
their own languages across the country. Daily newspapers cost much less than a cup of tea. Access to the Internet is
fairly widespread in the cities, though mainly via CyberCafes, schools, colleges and offices, though the cost of
access at home is still unaffordable for most Indians. Home access to the net is limited to a small minority of the
upper middle class in Tier 1 and Tier 2 cities. The situation in rural areas is far worse. Except for around five thousand
e-choupals (Internet Kiosks), rural India is ill-served. The largest segment of around the 42 million users are in the
18-35 age group; they comprise half of all users. But only 66% of these are 'active users', that is those who use the
net at least once a month. Most are 'ever' users', those who access the net once in a while.
Indian websites that are at the forefront of online journalism are timesofindia.com, hindustantimes.com,
Indianexpress.com and newindpress.com. The two Indian news agencies, Press Trust of India (PTI) and the United
News of India (UNI) also have their own websites, though they appear to be reluctant to make all their news stories
and features available free. According to Sunil Saxena, author of 'Breaking News', most of these news sites 'are still a
prisoner of non-resident or NRI traffic which accounts for
50-75% of all traffic. The traffic was a great bonus in the initial years of the Internet in India, when very few Indians
Online Editions of Newspapers
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had access to the net, and the sites could tout these figures to show their popularity. Today, however, the sites want
the traffic to flow from within India. But this is not happening, at least not in the numbers that the advertisers want.
The result is that media sites are still not a favoured property as far as Indian advertisers are concerned. Their
reluctance to include New Media in their campaign plans means less revenue for media sites and continued
dependence on parent companies. Where content is concerned, Saxena observes that 'three quarters of content
of any newspaper site is content generated for newspapers. The remaining quarter is content that has been source
from news agencies. There is virtually no content that is generated by the media sites.
But this situation is changing rapidly. Certain types of advertising are certainly moving over to the new media for
instance classified advertising for matrimonials and recruitments. Take www.simplymarry.com of the Times of India
Group, or www.shaadi.com, where matrimonial sites are concerned and where job sites are concerned
www.naukri.com and www.jobstreet.com. They attract millions of registered users from India and also from Indians
across the world. Advertising revenues from travel and holiday/leisure/hospitality industries is gradually shifting to
the net, thus depriving traditional media of much advertising support.
What are the advantages of reading the daily newspaper on the Internet?
Visit www.samachar.com and news.google.com and www.wikinews.com. What is their approach to designing
the news for their readers?
How do Facebook, Twitter and newsblogs like www.indy.org provide the news?
Visit English.aljazeera.net to get the Arab perspective on the daily news. Write a paragraph on how its
approach to news reporting on the Jasmine Revolution differs from that of the BBC and CNN.
A few telecom service providers have begun offering 'news alerts' as a value addition service (VAS) on mobile
phones. These are in the form of SMS messages. School exam results, cricket scores, results of contests, emergency
messages, scotching rumours by authorities are other kinds of 'news alerts' which are offered by mobile operators.
Several newspapers, news channels and telecom operators offer 'news alerts' via email. BBC, CNN, IBN and NDTV
were the first to offer these services free. Further, the majority of daily newspapers and news channels pose
questions for audiences to respond to via email or SMS. Polls are conducted on a daily basis by the news media on
questions and issues of the day. However, while the results of the polls are widely publicized and discussed by
anchors and experts, the total sample of respondents and their representative nature is rarely revealed. A number
of Indian newspapers and individual journalists run their own news blogs but these have not made much of a mark.
Activity
News Alerts on Mobiles
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Exercises
Discussion and Writing
Section A
Section B
Answer the questions in short.
1. Name the scientists whose contributions lead to the development of wireless technology.
2. Which was the first radio service in India?
Answer the questions (in 20-30 words)
3. What is the objective of establishing international radio broadcasting services?
4. What is the primary content of programmes aired on FM radio stations in India?
5. What kind of programmes do you think are lacking on FM radio channels?
Answer the questions (in 30-50 words)
6. What were the scientific and political developments that gave rise to radio broadcasting?
7. What kind of programmes do regional radio stations broadcast?
8. Write a brief description of the variety of programmes aired on Vividh Bharati Service.
9. Why hasn't India's external radio service been able to create the desired impact?
Answer the questions (in 80-120 words)
10. Explain the difference between the radio broadcasting stations in Britain and France from those in the
United States of America during the 1920s?
11. Discuss the advantages of radio broadcasting over the internet.
Write about the different radio stations for news and music that are available on the web and how they are
different from AIR and FM.
Discuss in groups how different is the experience of listening to radio on the web from listening to the radio on
a radio set?
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Section C
Section D
PORTFOLIO
FURTHER RESEARCH
Listen to the news broadcast on Voice of America, British Broadcasting Service and All India Radio. How do
they compare in terms of content coverage, viewpoint, variety of news, presentation etc. Write your analysis in
the form of an article and add it to your portfolio.
Find about Jagdish Chandra Bose's contribution to the development of wireless telegraphy.
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Chapter 4
The Evolution of RADIO
THE EVOLUTION OF RADIO
Technically, the evolution of radio as a medium of mass communication depended on a number of developments in
wireless and telegraph technology. The scientists who made the most valuable contributions to these
developments in wired and wireless transmission included Graham Bell (in the United States), Marconi (in Italy),
Maxwell and Lodge (in England), Popov (in Russia), and Jagdish Chandra Bose (in India). As one writer puts it: The
array of scientists and technicians who shared in the early development of the wireless reads like a UNESCO
committee.'
The first regular telegraph service was introduced in 1907 between Ireland and Canada; later it was extended to
Europe, United States and Australia. Five years later, when the Titanic sank, the world saw the vital role of wireless
telegraphy for rescue operations on the high seas. Marconi helped build the British Empire's radio network, just
prior to World War I
Thus a combination of a number of discoveries of electro-magnetic waves, radio waves, the wireless telegraph and
the triode amplifier valve by technicians and scientists from different countries gave rise to the development of
wireless telegraphy and later to radio broadcasting. 'It took ten years for wireless telegraphy, whose sole use was
point-to-point telecommunication, from ship to ship and ship to shore, to become a broadcasting system that was
one of the main media for mass culture. This shift from one type of technological and social usage to another took
place in relation to two developments: First, the World War prompted the industrialization of wireless telegraphy;
secondly, in the United States the radio created a communication environment in which amateurs could operate
freely'. 'Hams' (wireless telegraphy hobbyists) were used extensively during World War I.
Radio broadcasting needed the mass production of receivers and marketing for it to be commercially viable. This
came about during World War I largely because of military requirements. After the War, radio found its commercial
base and was given a social form 'through a combination of several traditions - those of telecommunications, mass
industry and the press' . The earliest radio transmissions in 1915 were by universities to disseminate news. The first
radio stations were set up in Pittsburg, New York and Chicago in the 1920s to broadcast election news, sporting
events and opera performances. By mid-1923 as many as 450 stations sprouted across the United States - all run by
a pool of amateurs. (These stations were later connected by AT & T to form the National Broadcasting Company
(NBC) in 1926; the following year, a number of independent stations clubbed together to form a second national
network, the Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS)). The public service radio network, National Public Radio (NPR),
was established much later.
In Britain and in Europe, however, radio broadcasting was felt to be much too important to a mass medium be left
to private profit-oriented companies. Public service broadcasting supported by taxes or license fees rather than
advertising - oriented commercial broadcasting found widespread favour. Thus it was that while the NBC and CBS
were established as private commercial stations in the United States, the British Government took the initiative to
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set up the BBC in 1920 as an autonomous public service corporation. Other European countries established
national public service networks, some directly under government control, others as autonomous establishments.
Colonial powers like Britain and France opened broadcasting stations (BBC World Service and Radio France) in Asia
and Africa to extend their governance over the local populations and to propagate their interests in politics and
trade. The United States Government established the Voice of America, though primarily for overseas listeners.
You have perhaps heard of the 'Bose speakers'. Who was Jagdish Chandra Bose after whom these speakers are
named? What contribution did he make to the developments in wireless telegraphy?
By the 1940s radio had become a universal and round-the-clock mass medium. Its potential for propaganda and
public relations was exploited by both Allied and Axis powers. The arrival of the transistor radio in the 1950s
transformed the medium in remarkable ways, making it cheap, light-weight, personal and portable. You could now
listen to ball-by-ball cricket commentaries while on the go. The car-radio was an extension of the technology.
In the United States, radio from the beginning was a private, commercial and local medium. Anyone could set up a
station. Much of the support came from advertising revenue. In Britain, however, the BBC was established as a
national service and was controlled in the public interest. Regional services would be introduced later, though. In
India, amateur radio operators pioneered radio services, but since they did not succeed in turning it into a
profitable business, the colonial government took over. This resulted in the establishment of what came to be
called All India Radio. It was largely based on the BBC model: a non-commercial station, and like the BBC had only a
national service to begin with. Regional stations in the different local languages of India would be gradually
introduced after Independence.
Only the broadcasts to the nation on special occasions by the President, the Vice-President and the Prime Minister
have to be compulsorily relayed by regional stations, as also the news bulletins in the languages of the region and
English and Hindi news bulletins. The origin of the centrally-planned National Service goes back to the World War II
when news bulletins were broadcast from Delhi.
The News Services Divisions plans and presents the news, newsreels, spotlight, current affairs. The National
Programmes of music, plays, features and talks are planned by the Director General but produced at regional
centres.
The Regional Services cater to major linguistic and cultural groups. Each State and Union territory serves the groups
living in the areas covered by it. Except for news and national programmes of talks and music which are relayed
from Delhi, the other programmes of each regional station directed at different groups such as farmers, workers,
National and Regional Networks
The National Service
The Regional Services
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children, women, youth, are produced at the regional stations/centres. The National Service Programmes are
broadcast over short-wave transmitters which makes it possible for regional centres to relay them.
The Vividh Bharati was started on 2nd October 1957, as a service of 'light entertainment' to compete with Radio
Ceylon, which had begun directing a commercial service to India on powerful short-wave transmitters. Earlier, AIR
had banned film music on its prgrammes, for it was felt that film music was too cheap and vulgar to be broadcast on
AIR and its regional services. Sponsored programmes were introduced in May 1970.
Initially, 60% of the time was devoted to film music. The rest of the time was given to devotional music, short plays,
short stories and poetry recitals.
Today, the service is on the air for twelve hours and forty five minutes every day, with an extra hour and a quarter on
Sundays and holidays. Most of the programmes are produced in Mumbai, except for a few local request
programmes, which are produced at regional stations. The proportion of film music on Vividh Bharati remains 60%,
while classical and light classical music, folk and regional music constitute around 20% of transmission time. The
Channel also carries two news bulletins and some "spoken-word" programmes. Music constitutes 40% of the total
programmes broadcast over AIR comprising classical, light, folk, film and music in the regional languages
Broadcasting today is regarded as 'part of the normal apparatus of diplomacy'. Short wave and long wave
broadcasting have made it possible to beam programmes across frontiers to different parts of the world. We in
India, for example, are bombarded almost throughout the day with programmes from Radio Moscow, Radio
Peking, the BBC, the VOA, Radio Deutsche Welle, Kuwait, SLBC, the Netherlands, the Vatican, South Africa, Australia,
and from many other countries besides.
From 1939, when we inaugurated our External Services, with a broadcast in Pushtu, we too have joined in the game
of diplomacy on the air. Today the external Services Division of AIR broadcasts programmes to 155 countries in 25
languages, 17 of them foreign, the rest Indian. News bulletins are beamed round the clock to sensitive areas where
we believe our point of view will be heeded, and where people of Indian origin have made their homes.
The primary objective of the broadcasts is 'to project the Indian point of view on world affairs and acquaint
overseas listeners with developments in India, along with information on various facets of Indian life, thought and
culture.'
A UNESCO report on international broadcasting takes a similar stand, stating that ideally the purposes of
international broadcasts are (a) to present the best culture and ideas of the broadcasting country, (b) to present
world news objectively, (c) to explain the broadcasting country's viewpoint on important world problems and to
promote international understanding. The boom began in 1975 in Japan and a few years later in Europe and the
United States.
The Vividh Bharati Service
The External Service
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With more than 80 countries around the world clamouring for the overseas listener's attention in 148 languages on
4,450 short-wave frequencies, the voice of India has slight chances of being heard. The only feedback AIR receives
is by way of listeners' letters. The main target areas are Pakistan, Bangladesh, Afghanistan, the Arab States and
Western Europe.
If the External Service and the general overseas service has not made any impact, the fault is not with the listener
who does have an abiding interest in India, but with the quality of programmes put out as well as with the poor
transmission. As the Verghese Committee's Report expressed it: 'AIR's External Service Broadcasts are only dimly
heard in significant areas and we have the picture of an ill-planned service, a wasteful use of resources, a frustrated
staff and dissatisfied listeners, whether overseas, Indians or foreigners at whom these broadcasts are directed'.
Compare the BBC, the VOA and AIR in terms of their credibility where news is concerned.
By the close of 2007, the FM radio industry was worth over Rs. 310 crores and was expected to grow to a thousand
crore rupees by the end of the decade. BIG FM, Survan, Radio Mirchi, Radio City and of course AIR's FM stations
(Rainbow FM and FM Gold) were the main players, the scene was expected to explode with the auction of the
Third Phase. Music, chat and utilities (traffic updates, public announcements) are the main drivers, since news and
current affairs and live sports commentaries are yet to be allowed by the government; user-generated content is
yet another aim of the broadcasters. However, several companies that have won licenses for radio stations appear
to be reluctant to launch them in the small cities and towns primarily because of the uncertainty of revenues from
advertising. Further, there has not been a remarkable uptake in the purchase of FM-enabled radio sets. In January
2007, the Working Group of Eleventh Five Year Plan found that out of the total number of 132 million radio sets ,
barely 78 million were FM receivers. By the end of that year 281 FM stations had been operationalised, with as
many as 121 of these private stations; another 130 remained to be operationalised. The primary content of both
AIR's FM and private FM stations is Hindi film music,
The FM industry has got together to form the FICCI-Radio Forum. Initiated by FICCI, the Radio Forum would be
required to face new challenges such as satellite radio, community radio, mobile radio, campus radio and internet
radio, as well as attempts to regulate the industry through the new content code spelt out in the Broadcasting Bill
(2007). The Forum would provide a platform for discussion with the government so that there would be mobility
and flexibility in the government's radio policy. That policy does not allow private FM radio stations to carry news
and current affairs programmes, or live cricket/sports commentaries. The FM radio industry had committed over
half a billion dollars in licence fees and rollout costs in 18 months, according to the Forum's chairman. The Forum's
core group has representatives from a host of companies including MBPL, Red FM, BAG Films, Adlabs/ADAG, Radio
Midday, India Today, Malayala Manorama, Win Radio and TAM Media. The trade body of the industry is the
Association of Radio Operators of India (AROI).
FM Broadcasts
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Activity
List the FM stations available in your city. Who are the owners of these stations?
Why do you think that news broadcasts are not allowed on private FM stations? (Only the relay of All India radio
news bulletins are allowed.).
Most radio stations, particularly those targeted at overseas listeners, can now 'stream' their broadcasts over the
Internet. The great advantage of the presence on the web is the international access that the Internet provides.
Another major advantage is the interactivity of this digital medium. The feedback can be obtained almost instantly.
The 'visits' or 'clicks' on radio websites can be measured fairly accurately. Further, on a broadband network, radio
broadcasts take on a clarity that is often not available on terrestrial radio. Several amateur web radio stations do
not have an offline presence. It is possible now to launch one's own radio station and be a radio jockey for that
station.
Draw up a list of radio stations for news and for music that are available on the web.
How is the experience of listening to radio on the web different from that of listening to radio on radio set?
Radio on the Web
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Exercises
Discussion and Writing
PORTFOLIO
Section A
Section B
Section C
Answer the questions in short.
1. Which was the first book to be published in the world?
2. What was the name of India's first newspaper? What kind of news did it carry?
Answer the questions (in 20-30 words)
3. What purpose did pamphlets and news books serve in the early days of printing?
4. What was the theme of John Milton's "Areopagitica"?
5. What role did coffee houses and salons play during the period of Press Censorship in Britain?
6. How did the Industrial Revolution contribute to the spread of the print media?
7. Give reasons why newspapers are considered a dying breed in the United States and Britain?
8. What are 'free newspapers'?
9. Write the names of some foreign news agencies and the Indian news agencies.
Answer the questions (in 30-50 words)
10. What were the technological factors that facilitated the growth and development of press?
11. How is the mobile being used as a medium for news alerts?

Discuss the popularity of online version of Indian Newspapers. How do you access the level of success
achieved by these? In what ways online versions of Indian Newspaper benefitted the people as well as the
companies.
1. Visit www.samachar.com and news.google.com and www.wikinews.com. What is their approach to
designing the news for their readers?
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2. How do Facebook, Twitter and news blogs like www.indy.org provide the news?
3. Make short notes on your observations. Write an essay on the advantages of reading the daily newspaper
on the internet. Add it to your portfolio.
Visit english.aljazeera.net to get the Arab perspective on the daily news. Write a paragraph on how its
approach to news reporting on the Jasmine Revolution differs from that of the BBC and CNN.
1. Find out about the lives and literary genius of writers like Daniel Defoe, Jonathan Swift and Samuel
Johnson. What were their contributions to journalism and literature?
2. Make a list of the daily newspapers in your city. How many editions does each of them have?(You may
check below the masthead/title of the papers.) Find out who are the owners/publishers of these papers?
Are these a part of a larger chain of newspapers?
Find the names of at least three newspaper chains in India.
3. Visit www.wan.org to check out the latest data on the top ten newspapers of the world. Find out where
do the top Indian newspapers like Dainik Jagran and Dainik Bhasakar figure on the list of the world's 100
largest newspapers?
4. Search for the New York Times, the London Times and the Guardian on the Internet.
Compare their front pages with that of the Indian newspapers.
Section D
FURTHER RESEARCH
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Chapter 5
Evolution of the INTERNET
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Origins of the Internet
There are many theories and in fact, controversies about the origin of the Internet. The most popular notion that
exists believes the ARPANET project of Pentagon way back in the 1970s was the beginning of the process of the
Internet.
However, this view has been challenged by many and the initiator of this programme has also stated that the
purpose of that programme was not to develop the Internet as we came to understand it: in fact, what they seem
to have worked on was on developing 'a network'.
Concurrently some other developments had been taking place in the other areas in the 1970s and 1980s like the
developing a PC, developing a concept of an e mail, having the possibility to connect PC in LAN, getting various
networks to talk to each other, developing more efficient systems of data sharing through telecommunication,
evolution of the devices like modem so on and so forth.
So it is clear that multiple agencies have worked on their needs and evolved independent streams. Academic and
scientific communities were also looking for a mechanism to efficiently store and share data. Finally the
development of the World Wide Web [WWW] created the possibility of bringing various streams together and most
importantly made it possible to send audio-visual data along with email communication.
It has also been stated that although a lot of work in the development of Internet has taken place in USA, the others
have also made their contribution and it is not absolutely right to say that it is an American invention. There is
evidence that some significant work done in Holland and UK has also helped in the process.
So, ultimately many agencies like the research institutes, academia, telecom companies, computer industry and the
regulatory authorities had to come to one or more meeting points, so that the Internet could be developed and
improved upon.
The Internet has come on by leaps and bounds in its already short existence. It is becoming a platform for
convergence of many technologies and modes of communication.
1. Based upon your knowledge of the capabilities of the Internet today, do the research to find out what
future directions it is likely to take.
2. Meet a professional, who has been in his/her field for quite few years. He/she could be a doctor, lawyer,
engineer, artist, accountant, management professional, travel agent or any otherInterview this person
and find out in details as to how the Internet has changed his professional life. Gather the data from
various sources and compare the details to see for yourself the range of usage on the Internet.
Activity
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Exercises
Discuss and Writing
PORTFOLIO
FURTHER RESEARCH
Section A
Section B
Section C
Section D
Answer the questions in short.
1. What was the earliest view about the source of the origin of the internet?
2. Give the names of the countries that have helped in the process of evolution of the internet.
Answer the questions (in 20-30 words)
3. Which were the agencies that contributed to the evolution of the internet?
Answer the questions (in 80-120 words)
4. Explain the various stages in the development of the Internet.
Discuss about the various newspaper available on the Internet. Write a detailed note on the difference
between the newspaper and the net and in print.
Discuss the role of internet in education. Write a detailed note on how internet should be helpful to a student.
Meet a professional, who has been in his/her field for quite a few years. He/she could be a doctor, lawyer,
engineer, artist, accountant, management professional, travel agent or any other. Interview this person and
find out how the Internet has changed his/her professional life. Gather data from various other sources and
write an article on the topic: "Internet a necessary intrusion in the workplace".
Based upon your knowledge of the capabilities of the Internet today, do a research to find out in what
direction is the internet going to progress in the future.
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END OF UNIT QUESTIONS
Answer the following questions in short
1. Give the websites of some popular online newspapers in India.
2. As compared to films can television be described as a settling medium? Give reasons for your answer.
3. What are the advantages of the presence of radio on the internet.
4. Does television encourage mass culture? How is television different from films?
5. Do you think the internet revolution has resulted in newspapers becoming a dying breed in the developed
countries of the world? Is it true for India too? Support your answer with reasons.
6. Are online versions of newspapers a profitable enterprise in India? Why do you think so? Support your answer
with facts and data.
7. How far does the programme content on radio reflect its dependence on Indian films? Support your answer
with suitable examples from the various radio channels available in India.
Section B
Discussions & Writing
1. How does the print media compare with radio and television as a means of educating the public about
current affairs?
2. Give reasons for television being called the 'Tube of Plenty'? How effective is this in relation to the internet as
the site of convergence of media? (LA)
1. Watch a live event on television such as a sports or news programme. Compare it with the experience of
watching a film or soap opera. Write your experience in about 300 words.
2. Try to watch a movie that has been made on television as well as films for example 'Pride and Prejudice". This
movie has old and new versions too. In present times it has also been made in science fiction and horror
genre. Make notes on the actors and actresses, production house, directors etc. and the changes that you
observe in the film and television version as well as in the different genres. Write an article on the kind of
evolution /changes that you've observed and share it with your friends by uploading it on a social networking
site.
Writing for your Portfolio
End of UNIT QUESTIONS
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FURTHER RESEARCH
Prepare a questionnaire based on the following points (which is to be given to young boys and girls /men and
women between the age groups 15-25):
The kind of films the present day youth like to watch
Favourite television programmes
Favourite radio channel/programme on radio
Hours of internet use; reasons for internet surfing
Record your data and present your analysis as a bar graph. What conclusions can you draw about the likes and
dislikes of present day youth in terms of entertainment; desire for knowledge acquisition and preferred choice of
media.
?
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?
End of UNIT QUESTIONS
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Unit - 3
Convergence of The Media
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Chapter 1
Independence and INTER-CONVERTIBILITY OF THE MEDIA
All media are combinations of natural human abilities and technologies developed by humankind. Media can be
broadly classified into two major types viz. the art media and the communication media on the basis of major
functions performed by it. Media exist independently and they also sometimes converge in many ways.
Convergence has the following meanings- coming together, coinciding, joining, merging, uniting etc. The
Convergence in context of Media can be studied at two levels i.e. Artistic and; Technological.
We hear the word convergence being used increasingly in the context of technological developments since the last
decade of the twentieth century. However, in the realm of arts and the traditional communication media,
convergence can be seen happening over along a period of a few centuries. It is infact a process of evolution of
human thought, knowledge and the power of imagination that seeks many channels of expression. The whole
process can be codified in the following three stages:
i. Different art forms evolve independently in different periods of time.
ii. On reaching maturity these forms come together to interact with each other
iii. Different forms begin to converge to evolve fusion versions having elements of all the forms
converging
The development of various means of expression and complexity of content expressed through them is an
important evidence of the evolution of human mind and sensibilities. Humankind's expanding consciousness of the
self, of the universe, of life in general is reflected in the process of this cultural evolution.
While understanding the Evolution of the forms of Mass Communication, we have familiarized ourselves with the
following formulation of the eminent Indian historian Itihasacharya V. K. Rajwade which codifies an evolutionary
process that has taken place over the centuries.
Artistic Media
Evolution and convergence of artistic media
Natural ability
Functional use Evocative use
Functionalplus Evocative
External Means
Sound
Drawing
Gesture
Solid figure
Language
Alphabet
Acting
Pottery
Singing
Painting
Dance
Sculpture
Verse
Illustrated books
Theatre
Architecture
Instrumental music
Photography
Puppetry
Landscape,Town-planning
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The following two important perceptions are fairly obvious from our brief introduction to this formulation:
1. All evolving arts are possibilities of human communication.
2. They have evolved independently and have also come to combine with each other.
Let us elaborate on the four basic natural abilities viz. -sound, gesture, drawing figures and making solid forms
mentioned in the table. We can trace the genealogy of each of these to discover as to how far reaching they have
been.
From Sound came language and music. All languages were in the spoken form only for centuries together before
standardization and the development of grammars and the codification in the form of script began to happen.
Alphabets [scripts] have a much shorter history than the history of the languages that they represent. Language
developed from vocal sounds could be used for functional purposes like asking and answering simple everyday
questions to each other, communicating information, orders, feelings etc. however, mankind soon discovered that
they had the ability to express themselves in an evocative manner to express intense, passionate feelings and ideas
for which the prosaic language was not enough. Thus dramatic expression in the form of poetry, folk tales, short
stories and drama were born.
One can map the contours of this process. When mankind was in the hunter-gatherer stage, they must have sat
around the fireside in the night discussing daily happenings and while exchanging information, they must have
discovered narration. It should not have taken too long for human imagination to enter the fray and stories that
were not necessarily factual.
To our ancestors, some experiences like the discovery of gigantic beasts, great forests, seas, rivers, natural
phenomena like the thunder, lightening, earthquake, great floods, heavy rains, famine etc., must have been the
experiences that were not entirely comprehensible, although real; hence, myths, legends, folk tales must have
been born to explain them or rather come to terms with them is some form. The concept of celestial powers- both
good and evil- must have entered the human imagination at some point these were personified with names like
Varun, the rain god; Agnidev- the god of Fire. We find such references in all cultures of the world right from the
ancient times. These characters became heroes of various stories that must have developed based their abilities
and idiosyncrasies. Wrath of various Gods representied the natural calamities and their benevolence representied
prosperity and well being. These narratives became the collective memories of the societies and this pool of
knowledge was transmitted from generation to generation.
Sound
Language
Independence and INTER-CONVERTIBILITY OF THE MEDIA
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Birth and Growth of Narrative
Naming of things gave them identity in human imagination and memory. Description of actions brought better
meaning to the acts and established relationship between subjects, objects and actions. Adjectives and adverbs
strengthened the narration by qualifying the actors [human beings, beasts] and actions. Thus a sense of narration
among other things evolved. While describing the actions real or imaginary- an articulation of time and space
came into being. That was the process of developing narrative thinking. It was a very crucial phase on human
evolution and significance of it has been realized only in the twentieth century.
"Narrative is an irreducible form of human comprehension, an article in the constitution of the
common sense." - Louis Mink, 1978
This is an often quoted statement. For, the ability to form, recognize and respond to Narrative was an important
stage in human development. Here we are talking of Narrative not as a mere story, but on a larger and wider scale.
All narratives deal with characters, situations, events, their causality, time and space. This could be our basic
understanding of narrative.
Jerome Bruner [B. 1915- USA] is an eminent psychologist, who has made landmark contribution to cognitive
psychology, the study of human thinking and intelligence. In 1991, he published an article in the academic journal
'Critical Inquiry' entitled "The Narrative Construction of Reality." He outlines ten important characteristics of
Narrative and they can be stated in a simplified manner as follows-
1. Time - Narratives take place over a period of time.
2. Particularity: Narratives deal with particular events.
3. Characters with qualities: The characters within Narratives have "beliefs, desires, theories, values, and so
on".
4. Story: Narratives are composed as a selected series of events that constitute a "story."
5. Canonicity and breach: Stories are about some unusual happenings that "breaches" the canonical (i.e.
normal) state.
6. Referentiality: The principle that a story in some way is always related to reality, although not in a direct and
provable way.
7. Genericness: The story can be classified as a genre.
8. Normativeness: The observation that narrative in some way supposes a claim about how one ought to act.
It may render moral suggestion perhaps. This follows from canonicity and breach.
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Independence and INTER-CONVERTIBILITY OF THE MEDIA
9. Context sensitivity and negotiability: Narrative requires a negotiated role- meaning an active participation-
between author or text and reader. The readers/receivers have to understand the context of the narrative,
and ideas like suspension of disbelief.
10. Narrative accrual: Finally, the idea that stories are cumulative, that is, that new stories usually are born from
older ones.
Bruner observes that these ten characteristics at once describe narrative and the reality constructed and posited
by narrative, which in turn teaches us about the nature of reality as constructed by the human mind via narrative.
Activity
Narrate an experience of yours in oral form to your classmates. Narrate it with as many details as you can.
Then refer to Bruner's ten points about The Narrative Construction of Reality. Ask your classmates whether all
the references that he refers to can be discerned from your account.
Human cognition is the process of perceiving and conceiving facts, phenomena, ideas, people through which we
gain the knowledge of the world. Bruner says that there are two natural forms of cognition: the logico-scientific
thinking and the narrative thinking. According to him, both are equally important i.e. neither of them is superior to
the other. They organize experience and represent reality differently. Logico-scientific thinking deals with abstract
ideas, follows procedures of formal logic, and strives to seek a scientific cause and effect understanding of the
world and also seeks universal truth conditions. Narrative thinking is built upon concern for the human condition. It
is directly related to and seeks to find plausible or lifelike connections between two events. It does not seek to
establish the universal truth in the manner of logic-scientific thinking, but makes the world and human life tangible
to us through truthful appearance of things and persons and coherence i.e. an intelligent, articulate, structured
view of the world. Thus, narrative is a particular mode of experiencing the world. It constructs the psychological
and cultural reality, in which the characters- past and present, real and unreal actually exist. Studying how people
tell and understand stories, including stories of the history enlightens how they create a reality of their own and
reveals psychological meaning of this reality.
, a distinguished scholar, who has written a book on the Origin of Stories: Evolution, Cognition, and
Fiction[2010], explains why we tell stories, how our minds are shaped to understand them, and what difference
an evolutionary understanding of human nature makes to love stories.
Art is a specifically human adaptation, Boyd argues. The concept of 'play' that developed among intelligent animals
Brian Boyd
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was a precursor to the beginning of social communication and bonding. Arts seem to be an evolved form of
personal expression and social reception both being mutually supportive. Particularly, our fondness for storytelling
has sharpened social cognition, encouraged cooperation, and fostered creativity. It has also helped human
imagination to grow in all directions.
Narratives have grown in a widely. We see this process within a single art as well in combinations of art form.
In literature we began with stories around the fire, then came the stage of folk tales, fables and myths. After this the
short story in its modern form emerged. Finally, Novel emerged as the major literature form capable of
encompassing all others and it is still growing. In poetry, small simple songs and lyrics metamorphosed into
ballads, sagas, epics. These processes have taken place over centuries in all cultures.
The spell of the story has always exercised a special potency in the oral based Indian Tradition and
Indians have characteristically sought expression of central and collective meanings through narrative
design remarks Sudhir Kakar in his book Intimate Relations. Scholars have often pointed out as to how the story
rather than an essay has been used in India by wise men to spread their messages and principles.
Imagination has always been the source of human fantasy. Fantasy has played a large part in shaping literature and
also in creating and sustaining ideas in social life.
Itihasacharya V. K. Rajwade has explained this complex relationship in another brilliant essay of his The Novel -
published in 1902. The following passages from this essay elucidate the point.
For millions of years man has been trying to understand his natural surroundings. As his understanding
grew, he realised that all natural phenomena were firmly bound in a chain of cause and effect. At the
same time, he also realized that his own knowledge was confined to a couple of links in the chain; of the
rest he was largely ignorant When man realised that he was powerless in the world of reality, he began
to seek and wield power in the world of his own imagination the world of fantasy.
Man, a slave in the real world, is a lord in the world of imagination
Whatever is incomplete in nature becomes whole in the imagination. The imperfect is transformed into
the perfect.
Evolution of Literature
Imagination, Fantasy, Literature and Social Life
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The world of imagination touches the institutions, attitudes and literatures of all countries. It pervades
religion, morality, philosophy, history, mathematics, drama, the novel, painting, sculpture, poetry, the
law and all other spheres of human thought and creation
That is why the fantastic is present to greater or lesser degree in every form of literature from the great
epics and philosophical treatises of old to the most impoverished present day products.
[For a full version of the essay -The Novel- translated by Shanta Gokhale, see Journal of Art and Ideas, - No. 8-
July-September 1984.]
Activity
Narrate a fantasy of yours to your class mate. Ask him, whether he/she can see the potential of a story there.
If so, ask him to develop an outline of it. Now repeat the process by changing the roles. Your friend
becomes the story teller and you are the narrator.
Folk literature essentially comprises of all the legends, myths, fables, and fairy tales that are preserved in memory,
communicated live and passed down by word of mouth through the generations. This phenomenon is universal
and has taken place over the few centuries. The authors of these stories are usually unknown or unidentifiable.
These stories have endured because they are entertaining, they embody the culture's belief system, and they
contain fundamental human truths by which people have lived for centuries. Knowing the characters and situations
of folk literature is part of being culturally literate.
Folk literature, regardless of its place of origin, seems to have arisen to meet a variety of human needs, such as:
1. The need to explain the mysteries of the natural world
2. The need to articulate our fears and dreams
3. The need to seek order in the apparent random, even chaotic, nature of life
4. The need to entertain ourselves and each other
Most folktale settings free the tale from the details of the real world, and create an ambience of their own, wherein,
animals talk, witches fly off sitting on a broom, the characters have extraordinary properties such as long hair that
can reach the ground from top of the manor and magic spells that change the visible world in a flash.
Folk literature
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Types of Folk Literature
Myths
Legends and Tall Tales
Myths Legends- Fables- Folktales- Literary
Fairytales- Epics
Myths are stories that narrate and seek to
explain the origins of the world and the
phenomena of nature, which were mysteries
to our ancestors. Therefore, the characters in a
myth are mainly gods and goddesses along
with the other celestial entities like Yakshas,
Apsaras, Gandharvas etc. Setting of the
stories is typically extra-terrestrial with
abodes of Gods in various forms. Myths have
the occasional human presence and
essentially reflect human tendencies. Some
folklorists believe them to be the very
primitive stories that laid the foundation of all
other ancient stories. Indian mythology has a
great repertoire of stories just as the Greek,
Roman ones.
Legends are stories based on either real or
supposedly real individuals and their excellent
deeds. King Shivaji, Bhagat Singh, Akbar,
Birbal were historical figures, who have gone
on to become legends. King Arthur and his
knights of the round table , Robin Hood are
also legends, wherein facts and fantasy mix in
a charming way.
Usually the folk tales have the following prominent features
according to Dr. Satyendra, who is an eminent scholar of folklore
1) Motifs : All the stories contain some motifs, many of which are
universal e.g. three sisters but one of them neglected, conversion of
people into animals and vice versa, etc.
2) Conventions: Folktales repeatedly use certain conventions. The hero
is capable of truly extra-ordinary feats beyond the capabilities of
most men, the hero and heroin will never die in the story, but in fact
live together happily ever after, the villain, howsoever mighty and
demonic is always destined to meet his end at the hands of the
hero, the story will never have a tragic ending etc.
3) Rasavishkar : Although laconic in style, the folk tales always evoke
different feelings (Bhavavasthas) such as Shringar, Veer, Hasya,
Raudra. But Adbhut-bhav[wonder] has been considered as the soul
of folk lore.
4) Depiction of Tendencies : (Swabhavdarshan) Folk tales do not
depict individual traits of characters. They depict human tendencies
by typifying characters such as wise old people, wicked mother-in
law, lustful official, tyrant etc. The characters need not necessarily be
human. They are quite often stereotypes.
5) Environment : Folk tales have a long history and are universal in their
origins. So it is no wonder that they reflect details of various regions
in terms of nature as well as the local customs and traditions. This
makes up the rich and varied environment of folk tales.
6) Positive Ending : Folk tales will not approve of the final victory of evil
(villain) over good (hero) . Hence, hero must triumph over all the evil
forces in the end. after all, all folk tales are meant for the spread of
moral messages, so they have to uphold the right morality.
7) Entertainment: All these messages must be given through
entertainment. So didacticism and entertainment are seen to be
complementary to each other
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Writing Activity
John Kenneth Galbraith, the eminent American thinker and economist has said- Legend is reality
enlarged by imagination, so that ultimately the image comes to have its own existence.
Choose a personality that is considered a legend. He/she can be from any field. Illustrate the above
statement with focus on this personality. Word limit 300 words.
Tall tales which are highly exaggerated accounts of the exploits of persons, both real and imagined, sometimes
considered a subcategory of legends. Tall tales usually defy logic and are generally devoid of moral lessons.
Fables are simple stories that follow a definite narrative form. Animals are quite often the principal characters and
they are ascribed human qualities. The fables end with moral lesson or universal truth explicitly stated. Fables
although entertaining by nature are not necessarily meant for children. Panchtantra is really about the statecraft
and the ways of the world. It was created to teach basic and meaningful lessons to the off-springs of the king, who
were taking life to be very easy and taking many things for granted. Aesop's fables is a famous example from the
West.
Folktales are stories that are distinguished by imaginative characters and their supernatural actions. They always
seek to correct the wrongs and always have happy endings. They quite often state the fundamental wisdom. Fairy
tales are actually unreal but not untrue. They reflect the living conditions of society in various ways.

Literary fairy tales are original tales written by specific modern authors. Their genius lies in adapting the techniques
of the folk/fairy tales to the modern context version or an interpretation of the world. Hans Christian Andersen
was the most important creator of literary fairy tales and his fairy tales published in the Nineteenth century have
proved as of the most enduring. His tales like 'The Emperor's New Clothes' offer insights into human social
behaviour in different circumstances.
James Thurber, Roald Dahl, Karel Chapek were the modern twentieth century writers, who created satire.
Satire is often sharp, pithy and incisive in its observation or exposition of human follies, inadequacies and injustice.
Harishankar Parsai and Sharad Joshi were two brilliant satirists in post-Independence India, who wrote in Hindi.
Fables
Folktales (or Fairy Tales)
Literary Fairy Tales and Satires
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Epics
Short story
Epic poetry is one of the oldest forms of poetry known in literature. An epic is extended narrative poem in
elevated or dignified language, celebrating the feats of a legendary or traditional hero. In India Ramayan and
Mahabharat are the best known ancient epics [Mahakavyas]. Sometimes they are distinguished from the works of
poets in Sanskrit and other Indian languages as Arsha [from the Rishis and hence, ancient] Mahakavyas. Epics have
been written in Sanskrit, Hindi Kannada, Tamil and other Indian languages too. In ancient times, in India the epics
were also called as Itihas [history], as they describe the popular histories of the heroes of the epics in legendary
form. They were handed down from generation to generation through oral recitation. Through a process of
identification with the hero by cultural values were imbibed people. Although epics become part of folklore, they
are not anonymously composed, but usually are the work of a genius like Valmiki, Vyas, Kalidas and Homer etc..
However, due to the oral recitation and a very long existence they are subject to some extrapolation.
Although long epics similar to the earlier eras are not written nowadays, epic as a form continues to influence
poetry and modern writing today. In Salman Rashdie's Midnight's Children and J.K. Rowling's Harry Potter, the
influence of epic tradition can be discerned.
Classroom Activity
Choose a story from James Thurber/Karel Chapek/Harishankar Parasai that has the structure of the
old tales, but is contemporary in setting. Discuss as to why does it appeal today? Is the appeal universal?
Short story as a form grew out of the oral tradition. It came into its modern form in the beginning of Nineteenth
century. It grew out of episodic story telling that had a limited range in terms of characters, setting, events and
action. Authors like Pushkin, Gogol, Maupassant, Dickens, Balzac, Chekhov developed it into a mature form
that was well crafted, stylized and could be categorized into various genres. In the hands of these masters, this
form embraced realism without losing the charm of the fantastic. Both the streams converged very nicely in the
short story depending upon the genre. It also developed 'a personal style' in story telling.
In scale, short story is much reduced than the novel. Brevity, sketchiness of the characters, viewpoint from which a
story is told, limited settings and range of the characters, short time span can be counted as among the major
features of a short story. If a novel is like a Raga or a Khayal to be rendered elaborately, then the short story is like a
song.
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The Novel
Development of the Novel
While narrative skills and forms grew from simple poems to epics and from simple folk tales to the long episodic
sagas and modern short story, the novel was an exciting form as it was originally a product of an intellectually and
socially fertile age. Novel grew mainly in the post-Renaissance Europe and especially in the age of industrial
revolution. Growth in travel, cross national trade, educational and social institutions, new philosophies, and new
socio-political movements informed the writers and readers of this new and exciting form. Growth of printing
technology, journalism, the facility of being able to serialize the novel made the distribution possible to its hungry
readers.
Novel did what the older narrative forms did i.e. it told a story, accommodated the romanticism and fantasy, myth
and history and added realism as a new and powerful dimension to the narrative, making it a whole new
experience.
The factors that distinguish the novel from 'the medieval romances' is its realistic treatment of life and manners. Its
heroes are men and women like us, and its chief interest lies in unfolding the complexities of human characters and
through them the society.
Between the folk tales and novels, there was an intermediate stage occupied by Romances and novelle, in Europe.
These short tales in prose are considered to be the predecessors of the novel and so are considered as Picaresque
narratives. 'Picaro' is Spanish for "rogue," and the typical picaresque story is of the escapades of a rascal or a
wayward man, who lives by his wits. Cervantes' Don Quixote (1605-15), is a brilliant example of a picaresque
narrative. This story of a chivalrous, fanciful madman who tries to live in his own ideal world, wherein, he forever
mixes up illusion was an important precursor of the modern novel.
Novel in most European languages is known as 'roman', which can be related to its closeness to the medieval
romance. The English name is derived from the Italian novella, meaning "a little new thing."
The novel thus evolved into a new form that distinguished itself from those narrative predecessors that used
timeless stories by depicting the social and individual realities of their age. It was a product of an intellectual milieu,
but immensely entertaining at the same time.
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Romanticism and Realism
Reasons for the Novel's Popularity
All social phenomena are combinations, in varied
proportions, of the Romantic and the Realistic. There
is no such thing as pure realism.
The essence of the novel lies in selecting that which is
significant out of the social detail available to the
novelist to draw upon, then exaggerating it. The
difference between Romanticism and Realism lies in
the degree to which the emotions are exaggerated and
the boldness of the colours in which they
are painted. -V. K. Rajwade -The Novel
Since the eighteenth century, the novel had become the most popular of literary forms--perhaps because it was
most closely related to the lives of majority of people. The novel became increasingly popular as its content began
to include characters and stories about the middle and working classes. Consequently its readership too grew.
Because of its readership, which included a large percentage of women and servants, the novel became the form,
which mostly addressed the domestic and social concerns of these groups.
Novelists began to observe and write in minute details about the reality surrounding them and their readers. The
historical time of the story, feeling of specific places, focus on individual characters with the details of their
personal and social backgrounds began to be depicted by the master writers in the manner of great painters. The
following passage from the Maxim Gorky's novel 'Mother' is illustrative of this.
MOTHER
by Maxim Gorky
PART I
CHAPTER I
Every day the factory whistle bellowed forth its shrill, roaring, trembling noises into the smoke-begrimed and
greasy atmosphere of the workingmen's suburb; and obedient to the summons of the power of steam, people
poured out of little gray houses into the street. With sombre faces they hastened forward like frightened
roaches, their muscles stiff from insufficient sleep. In the chill morning twilight they walked through the narrow,
unpaved street to the tall stone cage that waited for them with cold assurance, illumining their muddy road with
Meenakshi Mukherjee- the eminent academician and
scholar points out the distinction between pre-novel
narratives -- such as fables, legends and all other traditional
narratives-- and the novel as follows.
The narrative structure of these narratives is often circular,
whereas the structure of the novel is unified and organic. In a
novel events grow out of each other.
Secondly, the pre-novel tales have a once-upon-a-time
ambience, whereas, the novel is located in historical and
geographical time and space.
Thirdly, the characterisation is stylised in the pre-novel
narratives, as compared to the 'life like' quality of the
novel.[Realism and Reality :The Novel
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scores of greasy, yellow, square eyes. The mud plashed under theirfeet as if in mocking commiseration. Hoarse
exclamations of sleepy voices were heard; irritated, peevish, abusive language rent the air with malice; and, to
welcome the people, deafening sounds floated about--the heavy whir of machinery, the dissatisfied snort of
steam. Stern and somber, the black chimneys stretched their huge, thick sticks high above the village.
In the evening, when the sun was setting, and red rays languidly glimmered upon the windows of the houses,
the factory ejected its people like burned-out ashes, and again they walked through the streets, with black,
smoke-covered faces, radiating the sticky odour of machine oil, and showing the gleam of hungry teeth. But
now there was animation in their voices, and even gladness. The servitude of hard toil was over for the day.
Supper awaited them at home, and respite.
The day was swallowed up by the factory; the machine sucked out of men's muscles as much vigour as it
needed. The day was blotted out from life, not a trace of it left. Man made another imperceptible step
toward his grave; but he saw close before him the delights of rest, the joys of the odorous tavern, and he was
satisfied.
On holidays the workers slept until about ten o'clock. Then the staid and married people dressed themselves in
their best clothes and, after duly scolding the young folks for their indifference to church, went to hear mass.
When they returned from church, they ate pirogs, the Russian national pastry, and again lay down to sleep until
the evening. The accumulated exhaustion of years had robbed them of their appetites, and to be able to eat
they drank, long and deep, goading on their feeble stomachs with the biting, burning lash of vodka.
In the evening they amused themselves idly on the street; and those who had overshoes put them on, even if it
was dry, and those who had umbrellas carried them, even if the sun was shining. Not everybody has overshoes
and an umbrella, but everybody desires in some way, however small, to appear more important than his
neighbour.

Meeting one another they spoke about the factory and the machines, had their fling against their foreman,
conversed and thought only of matters closely and manifestly connected with their work. Only rarely, and then
but faintly, did solitary sparks of impotent thought glimmering the wearisome monotony of their talk. Returning
home they quarrelled with their wives, and often beat them, unsparing of their fists. The young people sat in
the taverns, or enjoyed evening parties at one another's houses, played the accordion, sang vulgar songs
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devoid of beauty, danced, talked ribaldry, and drank.
Exhausted with toil, men drank swiftly, and in every heart there awoke and grew an incomprehensible, sickly
irritation. It demanded an outlet. Clutching tenaciously at every pretext for unloading themselves of this
disquieting sensation, they fell on one another for mere trifles, with the spiteful ferocity of beasts, breaking into
bloody quarrels, which sometimes ended in serious injury and on rare occasions even in murder.
This lurking malice steadily increased, inveterate as the incurable weariness in their muscles. They were born
with this disease of the soul inherited from their fathers. Like a black shadow it accompanied them to their
graves, spurring on their lives to crime, hideous in its aimless cruelty and brutality.
On holidays the young people came home late at night, dirty and dusty, their clothes torn, their faces bruised,
boasting maliciously of the blows they had struck their companions, or the insults they had inflicted upon them;
enraged or in tears over the indignities they
themselves had suffered; drunken and piteous, unfortunate and repulsive. Sometimes the boys would be
brought home by the mother or the father, who had picked them up in the street or in a tavern, drunk to
insensibility. The parents scolded and swore at them peevishly, and beat their sponge like bodies, soaked with
liquor; then more or less systematically put them to bed, in order to rouse them to work early next morning,
when the bellow of the whistle should sullenly course through the air.
They scolded and beat the children soundly, notwithstanding the fact that drunkenness and brawls among
young folk appeared perfectly legitimate to the old people. When they were young they, too, had drunk and
fought; they, too, had been beaten by their mothers and fathers. Life had always been like that. It flowed on
monotonously and slowly somewhere down the muddy, turbid stream, year after year; and it was all bound up
in strong ancient customs and habits that led them to do one and the same thing day in and day out. None of
them, it seemed, had either the time or the desire to attempt to change this state of life.
Gorky is describing the plight of the workers towards the end of the Nineteenth century in Russia. Here, we get the
description of a group, who form a community by virtue if their jobs in an industrial establishment called factory.
The description gives us a clear idea of their daily and long term monotonous routine with all their habits in realistic
details. It has been minutely observed by an author with a sympathetic viewpoint. This is the very opening of the
novel and evokes a certain ambience very realistically before we are even introduced to the main characters.
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Crime and Punishment
Fyodor Dostoevsky
Raskolnikov went out in complete confusion. This confusion became more and more intense. As he went down
the stairs, he even stopped short, two or three times, as though suddenly struck by some thought. When he
was in the street he cried out, "Oh, God, how loathsome it all is! and can I, can I possibly.... No, it's nonsense, it's
rubbish!" he added resolutely. "And how could such an atrocious thing come into my head? What filthy things
my heart is capable of. Yes, filthy above all, disgusting, loathsome, loathsome!and for a whole month I've
been...." But no words, no exclamations, could express his agitation. The feeling of intense repulsion, which
had begun to oppress and torture his heart while he was on his way to the old woman, had by now reached
such a pitch and had taken such a definite form that he did not know what to do with himself to escape from
his wretchedness. He walked along the pavement like a drunken man, regardless of the passers-by, and
jostling against them, and only came to his senses when he was in the next street. Looking round, he noticed
that he was standing close to a tavern which was entered by steps leading from the pavement to the
basement. At that instant two drunken men came out at the door, and abusing and supporting one another,
they mounted the steps. Without stopping to think, Raskolnikov went down the steps at once. Till that moment
he had never been into a tavern, but now he felt giddy and was tormented by a burning thirst. He longed for a
drink of cold beer, and attributed his sudden weakness to the want of food. He sat down at a sticky little table
in a dark and dirty corner; ordered some beer, and eagerly drank off the first glassful. At once he felt easier;
and his thoughts became clear.
II
Raskolnikov recognised Katerina Ivanovna at once. She was a rather tall, slim and graceful woman, terribly
emaciated, with magnificent dark brown hair and with a hectic flush in her cheeks. She was pacing up and
down in her little room, pressing her hands against her chest; her lips were parched and her breathing came in
nervous broken gasps. Her eyes glittered as in fever and looked about with a harsh immovable stare. And that
consumptive and excited face with the last flickering light of the candle-end playing upon it made a sickening
impression. She seemed to Raskolnikov about thirty years old and was certainly a strange wife for
Marmeladov.... She had not heard them and did not notice them coming in. She seemed to be lost in thought,
hearing and seeing nothing. The room was close, but she had not opened the window; a stench rose from the
staircase, but the door on to the stairs was not closed. From the inner rooms clouds of tobacco smoke floated
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in, she kept coughing, but did not close the door. The youngest child, a girl of six, was asleep, sitting curled up
on the floor with her head on the sofa. A boy a year older stood crying and shaking in the corner, probably he
had just had a beating. Beside him stood a girl of nine years old, tall and thin, wearing a thin and ragged
chemise with an ancient cashmere pelisse flung over her bare shoulders, long outgrown and barely reaching
her knees. Her arm, as thin as a stick, was round her brother's neck. She was trying to comfort him, whispering
something to him, and doing all she could to keep him from whimpering again. At the same time her large dark
eyes, which looked larger still from the thinness of her frightened face, were watching her mother with alarm.
Marmeladov did not enter the door, but dropped on his knees in the very doorway, pushing Raskolnikov in
front of him. The woman seeing a stranger stopped indifferently facing him, coming to herself for a moment
and apparently wondering what he had come for. But evidently she decided that he was going into the next
room, as he had to pass through hers to get there. Taking no further notice of him, she walked towards the
outer door to close it and uttered a sudden scream on seeing her husband on his knees in the doorway.
These passages from Gorky and Dostoevsky belong to a time that is remote past for us. The descriptions of the
people, places, homes, city, streets is likewise far removed from our times and immediate experience. Yet, it is
engrossing and appealing.
What do you think are the reasons for this? Answer the question on the basis of these passages only.
One of the strengths of Dostoevsky was to portray the inner turmoil of his characters very vividly. The intense
drama taking place within an individual get full fledged dramatic expression in his work. While Gorky describes a
large span within their repetitive and unchanging life cycle of his characters, Dostoevsky expands on an agitation
that lasts in a person's mind for a few minutes. Thus in a novel the complexities of a character can be observed from
outside- i.e. in a larger social context as well as from inside- i.e. through describing the turmoil going on within
his/her mind. This is far removed from the earlier forms of narrative like various stories. Almost a scientifically
accurate description of places and people with all the details of their costumes, environment, seasons, places of
abode and work etc. are carefully composed. This betrays an objective knowledge of the writer as well as his
subjective viewpoint in presenting them as a narrative. Also while describing Katerina Ivanovna, Dostoevsky
describes her in detail, but through the eyes of Raskolnikov. This is his first impression of her and through him of the
reader. This individuation is the forte of novel.
In India, we have had our authors writing mostly on the basis of a strong oral tradition. So such vivid descriptions
are not very common. However, a few modern writers like Vikram Seth and Amitav Ghosh have produced
remarkable novels that have been based on a lot of historical and other research and those details have been
woven into the narrative effectively to make them as lively as any other.
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When great novelists appeared in Europe in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth centuries, the novelist was seen as a
thinker and equal of any other luminary. Dickens brought into literature the factories and the bleak face of
industrialization. Tolstoy presented the great upheaval caused by war between nations. Pushkin and Gogol
brought out the oppressive , hierarchical structure of the Czarist Russia. Victor Hugo and Emile Zola took up the
cudgels on behalf of the oppressed and downtrodden. Reading Dostoevsky's works deepens the knowledge of
human psychology.
Many brilliant writers writing in all major languages of the world have enriched this form in many ways in the past
two centuries and continue to do so. Therefore, the form is still evolving and therefore, is considered to be hard to
come to a 'definitive' definition even today.
The novel has assimilated essays, letters, memories, histories, religious tracts and manifestos. There is no such
thing as ' the novel'
George Bluestone [' Novels into Films', 1968]
Thus the novel rose to become the major narrative form by the Nineteenth century replacing epics and plays.
Earlier in ancient times plays were more evolved dramatic forms of the verse tradition. It was so in India as it was in
Greece. The earliest plays were typically about larger than life figures like the great heroes, celestial figures etc. The
Greeks elevated tragedy to a great art form, while in India tragedy was practically absent and in fact excluded from
the Indian dramatic tradition. Indian dramatic tradition is a very unique one. It has always been inclusive of music. In
fact, till the twentieth century a purely prose theatre was unknown to Indians. So plays grew along the tradition of
verse. In Europe with the advent of Shakespeare and Moliere the content of the plays came closer to life and the
characters became more and more human as opposed to the celestial ones. Their conflicts also became more
social, metaphysical and political. It is interesting to note that as theatre began to get more realistic, the extent of
verse and its form changed. The amount of verse in plays got shorter, like from a song to a couplet and the nature of
prose too changed. The age of rationalism and the spread of scientific spirit, progressive ideas had its influence in
all fields, and theatre absorbed it through realistic plays of Ibsen and Chekhov in the Nineteenth century. The
poetry of theatre was sought to be expressed through excellence of prose in the realistic setting of characters and
events. Thus ultimately prose has come to stay and dominate in theatre. Musicals have become as one of the
genres. In India though, the situation has been different. The tradition of musical theatre was strongly revived in
Plays
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Marathi, Bengali and other languages in the Nineteenth century. Mythological and historical themes dominated
this theatre till 1930s, when the progressive social agenda found the way to stage plays. We see this interplay of
prose and verse in theatre over its long history.
Simple natural gestures that are expressive of various emotions, signals are the most functional gestures that
humankind has been using. Compared to the evolution of language or image making or architectural skills this
channel of communication has had a limited growth. The huge progress in the other streams has not necessitated
much dependence on this mode of expression. Although, gestures have become of secondary importance in
lingual communication; they have become an integral part of the repertoire of the elements in acting and dance.
Dance Nartan as it is called in Indian tradition, consists of bodily expression made visual in a performance space
in a certain quantum of time. Although dance does form a visual, it is different than the other visual arts. The other
visual arts tend to concentrate on the outward aspect of things; dance can generate an empathetic response in the
receiver. Dance actually seeks to express our very strongly our inner urges and when we participate in the act in
response to a performance, it is because it touches our inner feelings.
Rohini Bhate was an eminent exponent of Kathak and in her book Laheja [ Marathi, 2006 ], she gives the
following definition of dance -
A dynamic sculpture formed by a rhythmically moving human body in a given space- is dance.
Actually, Indian tradition categorises dance into two categories- Nritta and Nritya. When dance lays emphasis on
aesthetic physical compositions, mobility and pleasing gestures and demonstrates the various effects of tempo
and rhythm it is Nritta. When this dynamic sculpture expresses narrative literary meaning, concepts, a scene or a
thought or any subtle emotion, then it is performing Nritya.
Nritta is more or less pure or absolute dance for which an external narrative in the form of verse or musical
composition is not needed. Nritya is supported by story or can illustrate episodes from epics and sagas and is
quite often performed to a composed musical composition or accompaniment.
Dance as a form has a history of its own and has grown in various ways across the world. In India too we have many
genres in folk as well as classical styles. Dance is one art form that has found a great usage outside its own domain.
It has been an important part of rituals in many cultures and continues to be so. It is a part of social life and can find
spontaneous expression in social situations like a celebration. It has merged beautifully in to theatre and cinema,
becoming an integral part of these arts. It performs a dual function in these arts- that of expressing itself and being
Gesture
Dance
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an agreeable part of the narrative.
All dramatic acting, be it on stage, or in film or in television- involves physique, voice and properties and costumes.
Mime is one category that can be called as the purest form of physical expression. It excludes voice and other
sounds. A story is told on stage by actors purely through gestures and movement. It is a refined form in its own way.
Animation can be thought of as another area where gestures and dance is brought to play. Animation can be with
two dimensional pictures or three dimensional objects. All animated characters move in a special way. Laws of
gravity and friction do not seem to apply to them. Gestures along with the voice personality given to the animated
characters become the essence of 'acting' in these films.
Activity
There are two games that people play in social situations. 1. Dumb Charade and 2 Pictionary. They are riddles.
Find out about them if you already do not know about them. Explain as to how they are related to
communication through gestures and drawing.
Verbal language has always been the main instrument of communication, but sometimes it is not enough and
human beings want to express things in a different form. It is believed that expressing thoughts by means of
drawing began simultaneously with the articulation of verbal language. Initially people expressed themselves by
drawing lines and figures on ground, mud, leaves and any such means that were immediately available to them.
People would use their fingers and even external means like a stick. In course of time they sought durability to these
images and began drawing them with colours on the rocks and the interior of the caves. Such cave paintings
discovered in Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh and in France and Spain have been dated to be 30,000 years old.
These are the oldest works of visual art that are traceable.
While verbal communication till the invention of recording technology- remained a medium of essentially live
communication, pictures served the need to communicate to people not in one's immediate vicinity and also
created a record for posterity. Once, this quality of visual art was realized by humankind, it became an incentive to
develop the art further.
Initially the pictures were as if 'in totality'. Our ancestors observed scenes as they were unfolding in nature say like
a tiger chasing and capturing its prey. The first reaction to such events was their presentation in a composite view.
Drawing
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Everything was depicted in one frame as it were. Analysing the situation and individualising the elements out of the
totality-of the scene- came much later and took a lot of time in the course of evolution.
Initially humans were depicting entities by their pictures, which were based on verisimilitude or likeness to the
object. Thus a picture of the horse represented the actual horse. During the process of evolution, they realized that
just as they could ascribe a picture sign to an object, they could also ascribe a sound to the same object. Later, as
the ability to analyze developed further, they thought that instead of drawing the picture of the horse every time,
they could; may be just drawing his face and that was sufficient. They also learnt every time they referred to the
object, it was associated to a certain sound, thus this short hand language of pictures associated with certain
sounds formed the basis of alphabet. Individual letters of our alphabets are nothing, but the evolved forms of
original simple drawings. Thus a serpentine line drawn to depict river, became ultimately the letter 'S' in Roman
script. Similarly the initial picture diagram to depict eyes had a circular form and the letter 'O' has evolved from it.
This convergence of two developed faculties can be briefly described as
Composite picture > Individual picture > Part of the picture representing the whole > Straight line > Curved line
> Lines denoting words > Alphabet.
Once human beings understood this convergence as well as the individual potential of pictorial forms, new and
exciting possibilities began to emerge.
The art of drawing graduated to individual paintings with colour work expressing complex content. The village
story tellers began to embellish their art by using pictures. They are called 'chitrakathis' in India. Rigved has
mention of the word 'chitra', it was interpreted then as 'looking with surprise'. Today the word has come to mean a
picture.
The ability to comprehend individual elements and compose them in one's work, led to the development of
genres in paintings such as portraits, landscape, still life, domestic life, street scenes.
Portraits -The 'best pictures'
" The rise of the portrait corresponds fairly exactly with the rise of the novel. . . . And just as at first the
portrait in painting was a flat profile, so the character in the early Italian novel somewhat restricted in
depth." Herbert Read -The Meaning of Art, UK.
Origin of Alphabet
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This is a very interesting detail telling us that a certain
viewpoint of looking at human beings was developing at
that period i.e. in the Fourteenth century, but its
manifestations in different arts were different.
A few centuries later, detailed description of characters in
the form of word-pictures appeared in novel as we have
seen. But the art of painting surged ahead with brilliant
achievement. The art of portrait reached heights
unsurpassed till this day.
John Ruskin [1819-1900, UK] has said ... " the best
pictures that exist of the great schools are all
portraits, often of very simple and in nowise noble
persons".
One painter who can perhaps be one of the best illustration
of this statement is Vermeer [1632-1675].
" A good painter has two chief objects to paint, man and
the intention of his soul; the former is easy, the latter
hard. . . the movement of each figure expresses its
mental state, such as desire, scorn,anger,pity, and the
like. . ." [Leonardo da Vinci 1442 ~1519 in his
Notebooks.
This calls for a deep understanding of human behaviour and
uncommon skill developed through practice. Leonardo
recommends - among other things - that the knowledge of
these should be acquired by observing the dumb, because
their movement are more natural than the others. His
guidelines are of value for actors and directors of theatre
and cinema even today. It also shows that how the art of
painting was becoming more and more secular by
undertaking the in depth study of man in an earthly way.
Johannes Vermeer van Delft. (1632-75)
Vermeer as he is popularly known was Dutch painter whose
work shows everyday life in the city of Delft in the Netherlands.
Many of his famous paintings have themes that can be termed '
indoors' and the characters in them seem to be in the midst of
their daily chores. The atmosphere of his paintings is serene.
Their costume and ambience express subtly the historical
period during which that lived. The open windows are an
acknowledgement of the wide world beyond the frame. This is
naturalism par excellence and least surprising from a man
associated with camera obscura. Vermeer's images suggest
narratives in the past as well as future tenses beyond the two-
dimensional pictures.
The Girl with a water-pitcher by Jan or Johannes
Vermeer van Delft.
He has used the open window as a source of light in very many
of his paintings. The light comes in through the window and
diffuses through the room. The girl's crisp, white cloth is lit up,
fragile, and still. The pitcher in her hand gleams in the light. The
glass of the window reflects the sky. You can sense the texture
of the smooth, dense tapestry on the table. The wall in the
background is bright and the map on it adds further life to it,
but without distracting from the character. The bright white is
centrally composed and lends a certain brightness to the
woman's personality. Her face is serene and she is looking
outside in an interested manner. It subtly suggests a world
outside the frame. It is not merely a picture frame, but a
moment of a story captured in all its realistic, dramatic and
spiritual essence. It is the whole picture as they say in every
sense of the word.
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Till early renaissance in Europe, poets were respected and painters were not quite given their dues as artists. A
glimpse of Leonardo's Notebooks brings forth a lively controversy that had been raging those days. Since painters
work with hands theirs was thought of to be the 'mechanical art', a member of French Academy even called
painting as dumb poetry. A poet describes a figure- beautiful or ugly- consecutively, bit by bit, while the painter will
display it all at once argued Leonardo. If you call painting dumb poetry, the painter may call poetry blind
painting." retorts he. "Is the name of the man nearer to him or his image is? " he asks rhetorically. He likens
music too to the art of poetry and says that music fades away as soon as it is born.
What Leonardo's submissions in Comparison of the Arts shows is that there is a concept alive of an ideal art; an art
that is comprehensive in its depiction of human beings, nature and objects. The artists are searching for it at that
point.
In Indian novels, we almost do not have this excellence of word-pictures to match the European, American and
Latin American masters. In poetry though it is a different story. Sanskrit poetry is full of celestial, moon-faced, lotus
eyed beauties with long, lustrous hair and swan- like gaits. They again are no commoners and mostly are of the royal
or celestial stock. The medieval saint poets writing in post-Sanskrit era, humanised gods by ascribing to them
humanly qualities.
The artistic tradition of prehistoric times survives in the tribal art of Warli paintings. The representation of life is as a
Whole. There is no individualism. The daily routine exists side by side with the ritualistic and cyclical events. There is
always a sense of the collective and simplicity the drawing of figures and in the organisation of space.
Till medieval times painting, sculpture exist as a collective enterprise. There is no concept of an individual artist with
a signature. Many great works of sculpture and architecture have evolved over a period of time, generations of
artists working on them.
The imperial Mughal studios brought some more organisations to the craft. The process of painting the miniatures in
it was particularly interesting. There was a clear division of labour involved there. The picture was realised through
three stages. The first one was called as Tarh - which was the initial sketch for composition. The second stage was
Chiharanami - the portraits of faces and the third was called Rangamizi - the colouring in. There were different
specialists for different areas. The interesting fall out of it was that sometimes paintings have been composed here
and completed in terms of faces in Persia by the artists there to give them Persian look.[ Ref - J.M.Rogers - Mughal
Miniatures]
An Indian Perspective
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The perception of an individual is not as if in an instant and from a single viewpoint. Thus in the same painting Akbar
can be seen at the royal hunt, in his court etc. in different segments of the painting. The composition of these
painting shows an organisation of space that is to be viewed differently than a single point illusionist perspective
bound painting. ..." The Mughal miniature liberates the viewer from his seat to wander off with the images;
the mural makes him physically move in confluence with the emanation of pictorial space." Gulam
Mohammed Sheikh [Viewer's View: Looking at Pictures - Journal Of Arts and Ideas April June 1983].
Murals were another interesting development that brought a sense of narrative to painting among other things. The
space unfolded and the figures expressed themselves through the language of gestures.
th
Dated around the 6 Century AD, this treatise, an appended part of the Vishnudharmottara Puran, deals with
paintings. It is perhaps the world's oldest known treatise on art. It was written around the time the paintings at
Ajanta were coming into being. It is not written by one individual. However, the one among those who compiled it
calls it - the legacy of the collective wisdom of the finest minds.
It also says Of all arts, the best is chitra. It is conducive to dharma and has the virtue to liberate
(emancipate) an individual from his limited confines.
Chitrasutra mentions four types of pictures: satya- realistic pictures in oblong frames; vainika-lyrical or
imaginative pictures in square frames; naagara-pictures of citizens in round frames; and misra mixed types.
The masters praise the rekhas lines (delineation and articulation of form); the connoisseurs praise the
display of light and shade; women like the display of ornaments; and, the richness of colours appeals to
common folks. The artists, therefore, should take great care to ensure that the painting is appreciated by
every one".
Activity
Choose a painting each from the following categories and compare them to each other. 1.Portraits by
Vermeer/Rembarndat/Degas
2.Mughal Miniatures
3.Warli paintings
Chitrasutra
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Solid Figures
Architecture as narratives in and of space and time
As in case of drawing and painting, the gradual evolution of skills has taken the long route from functional to the
creative. Working with natural shapes like sticks, solid stones must have sharpened the sense of forms and their
combinations. Shelter in the form of caves, natural objects as instruments of defence, offence and work. Once
humankind understood its own ability to make solid forms and their use in cooking, hunting, and agriculture a new
vista opened up. The next stage was to create artefacts for decoration for memory, for illustration etc. The idea of
deity to be worshipped also played an important part as it led to making the icons in various forms.
It is important to understand that among animals the knowledge and sense of food and shelter is inborn and
therefore limited. They are unable to create tools or modify their environment. The ability to imagine things and
bring into the world hitherto no-existing forms is given only to human beings. Karl Marx summed this up nicely,
when he wrote -
A spider conducts operations that resemble those of a weaver, and a bee puts to shame many an architect
in the construction of her cells. But what distinguishes the worst of architects from the best of bees is
this, that the architect raises his structure in imagination before he erects it in reality. Karl Marx Das
Kapital - Vol. I, Ch. 7.
Architecture as narratives in and of space and time Architecture has a long history. In contemporary architecture, an
individual's vision needs collective effort and enterprise for realisation of the work. Architecture is the image of
itself, and the reality itself. Evolution of architecture can be looked at as a history of human endeavour to come to
terms with as well as conquer space and time. Architecture has a lasting monumental quality. Time periods are
reflected in architecture in different ways.
All great civilizations living as well as extinct are known by the cities that they have created and nurtured. In India a
very advanced urban town planning and architecture existed in 3000 BC as can be seen from the findings of the
excavated cities of Harappa and Mohenjodaro.
In the industrial age, we get cities on a much evolved scale. From small towns to megapolises, each city acquires a
distinct character. A rich diversity of individual and social habitats can be seen within these. City becomes as if a
womb containing hopes and despair, aspirations and frustration, glamour, crime, routine existence, luxury and
deprivation making up much of its ambient beauty.
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The city is a fact in nature, like a cave, a run of mackerel or an ant-heap. But it is also a conscious work of
art, and it holds within its communal framework many simpler and more personal forms of art.
Cities have often been likened to symphonies and poems, and the comparison seems to me a perfectly
natural one. They are in fact objects of the same kind. The city may even be rated higher since it stands at
the point where nature and artifice meet.
-Aldo Rossi - The
Architecture and The CityItaly
While the ideas of convergence may seem very modern,
one is pleasantly surprised to refer to Chitrasutra to
appreciate the genius of our ancestors, who had
recognized the relationship between different arts as
harmonious and mutually supportive and converging.
Chitrasutra is a text, written in the question and answers
form. King Vajra is the pupil here and he seeks knowledge
about image-making from the sage Markandeya. The sage
explains that to obtain the skill required and to express
emotions in a visible form, the painter should take the aid of
Natya, because an understanding of natya is essential for a
good painter. The sage then instructs that, without the
knowledge of music one cannot understand natya. And,
without the knowledge of natya one can scarcely
understand the technique of painting. And finally
He who does not know properly the rules of chitra
(painting) declares the sage can scarcely discern the
essentials of the images (shilpa).
In this text, we see a heightened awareness of various arts
and their meeting points. Leonardo da Vinci has also
Earliest statement on Relationship and
Convergence in Indian Aesthetics Chitrasutra
Film Form
The cinema would seem to be the highest stage of
embodiment for the potentialities ands aspirations of
each of the arts.
Moreover, the cinema is that genuine and ultimate
synthesis of all artistic manifestations that fell to pieces
after the peak of Greek culture, which Diderot sought
vainly in opera, Wagner in music-drama, Scriabin in his
colour-concerti, and so on and on.
For sculpture- cinema is a chain of changing plastic forms,
bursting at long last, ages of immobility.
For painting - cinema is not only a solution for the problem
of movement in pictorial images, but is also the
achievement of a new and unprecedented form of graphic
art, an art that is a free stream of changing, transforming,
commingling forms, pictures, and compositions, hitherto
possible only in music.
Music has always possessed this possibility, but with the
advent of cinema , the melodious and rhythmic flow of
music acquired new potentialities of imagery -visual,
palpable, concrete . . .
For literature- cinema is an expansion of the strict diction
achieved by poetry and prose in to a new realm where the
desired image is directly materialised in audio-visual
perceptions.
And finally, it is only in cinema that are fused into a real unity
all those separate elements of the spectacle once
inseparable in the dawn of culture, and which the theatre
for centuries has vainly striven to amalgamate a new.
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spoken about these cognate qualities many centuries later. Having understood the complexity of each art and their
strengths, the next stage of search would have been for an art that comprehensively includes the elements of all
other major arts. The artists had to wait till the 20th Century, when cinema emerged in the words of Sergei
Eisenstein as the synthesis of all arts. The great Soviet filmmaker and theorist summed up the achievement of
film medium in the following words-
When cinema was establishing itself in the early part of the twentieth century, there were interesting
reactions from authors.
Gorky had said while watching a film he was 'kingdom of shadows'. He felt that when there is snow-fall on the
screen, one tends to react and lean back in the chair as you almost expect the snow flakes to hit you.
Tolstoy said that 'this clickety contraption' [camera] was a frontal attack on the craft of the writer. Given the
rapidity of scene changes and its dynamic flow, he pondered that cinema will render the old long drawn style of
narration of the novel as obsolete. And he welcomed it with the following words -The Cinema has divined the
mystery of motion. And that is greatness. Lev Tolstoy, 1908.
Being a recording medium film is able to incorporate language, music, natural and other sounds, lighting, shapes,
colours, buildings, cities, human beings to create its own narrative structure in space and time. Thus, film became
the converging point of all other arts.
Although cinema did emerge at 'the liveliest art' and premier story telling medium, the art of novel continues to
flourish. Interestingly of all the fiction film productions made in the world, nearly 50% are adaptations from novels.
In the matters of adaptation from literature to cinema, the debate usually is limited to the 'faithfulness' of the film to
the original. Actually, what has to be understood is that an adaptation is not like a direct translation. It is a whole
new narrative being created in a different medium. So there is a major transformation that is taking place in the
process with writers/director making major changes in the content. Filmmakers take the liberty of changing the
historical and cultural context of the original work.
th
Let us take the example of Shakespeare to understand this point clearly. Shakespeare wrote his plays in the 16
century, in England to be performed for English audiences. However, till date filmmakers in different countries
continue to adapt his works. Akira Kurosawa made an adaptation of Macbeth in 1957 in Japan. He made some
remarkable changes in the original. He chose not to use the poetic soliloquies and ornamental language of
Shakespeare, but used prose instead. The three witches in Shakespeare are garrulous and aggressive. Kurosawa
Adaptation
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used only one old woman sitting quietly in the jungle and spinning a wheel and singing quietly to herself. She tells
the warriors, when they confront her that she finds humans mystifying as they want something and behave as if they
don't. In the final battle Macbeth and his adversary takes place off stage in Shakespeare and he enters the stage
with Macbeth's head. Kurosawa has created a spectacular scene of the jungle moving and the final battle and the
death of Macbeth is depicted in a tandav like death dance.
Similarly, Bob Luzrmann has adapted Romeo and Juliet for the screen. He has set it in modern times with gang
warfare as its context. Vishal Bhardwaj in India has adapted Macbeth and Othello in contemporary India in Hindi.
These two adaptations can also be studied to note the significant changes that have been made to the original.
Devdas, the novel, was written by Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay in 1917. There have been many versions of it in
the films in many Indian languages. In Hindi cinema alone, there have been four versions of Devdas, made between
1936 and 2009- each significantly different from another.
What is to be noted is that when a literary work is adapted to cinema, it is not simple telling the same story in
another form. Film is director's medium, therefore, the authorship of the work changes. Director, who is the new
author, begins to recompose he story from his viewpoint. He /she does not merely edit the content and the
plotline, but a good director goes far beyond that. He/she takes the original work as a starting point and then
interprets it in his own medium. That is the best approach to adaptation. Trying to be faithful to the original can lead
to being a poor copy of the original in another medium. Summing up we can say the following about the process of
adaptation
During the process of Adaptation
i. A new narrative is formed.
ii. The new narrative in formed another medium.
iii. Script-writer and Director is the new authors of this narrative.
iv. Historical and cultural context of the original may change.
v. The new narrative is an interpretation of the original.
vi. Cinema is able to add new things as it can borrow liberally from other arts.
vii. Cinema is able to do so, as it is a recording medium.
The last two points need an elaboration.
Cinema is a recording medium. It has the facility to record images and sounds of various kinds. These images and
sounds become part of the whole. When a writer writes a scene, he does describe in all details as we have seen in
case of great novelists like Gorky and Dostoevsky. But that entire experience is received in verbal form by the
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reader. A reader reads the words assimilates them and then visualizes. This visualization is personal and
everybody's images are subjective. The opposite of it happens, while watching a film. The Harry Potter that each
reader imagines, while reading the book is different for each of the readers. The Harry Potter that they will see on
screen will be the same for all them. In cinema, a scene is realized on the screen by various means. A scene will have
a setting- like an interior/exterior of the house, building, park, pasture, highway, airport, village, desert, river, sea
etc. Thus architecture comes into play. The scene will be shot at a certain time of the day/night, in a certain season,
will have appropriate lighting, objects, colours, forms, textures; so, elements of painting and sculpture are in
operation. The scene will have the presence of actors in their costumes, speech and interrelationships; hence the
most vital element of theatre is present. Music and atmospheric sounds form an important part of the film
language. Language is present in spoken form as well written form. Thus we are always dealing with a composite
language, when we are dealing with cinema.
Cinema is able to become a composite and complex language because its own language is formed by a
convergence of many languages such as the literary, visual, musical, architectural and theatrical languages.
Thus adaptation can also be looked at a part of the process of convergence.
PART II
As in the case of the artistic media, a similar process of growth and convergence is seen in case of the
communication media, which include cinema too. But, in the case of mass media the process of convergence has
many dimensions and it can be seen at two levels technical and conceptual or social.
Firstly, we will consider the technical possibilities
Nature of media-
Convergence of Communication Media
This medium has text as its material. The text can be in the form of hard copy or a soft
copy. Text contains the various expressive possibilities of language- spoken and written.
Print
Radio
The essence of radio is wireless communication, that happens over a great distance
and it is instant.
Film is essentially an optical image formed by a chemical process. It is an analogous image
of the world that is in front of the camera. It is audio visual.
Cinema
Television
It is an electronic image therefore by nature virtual- be it analogous, be it digital. It is
audio visual.
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The process of merging and assimilation of various properties of these media into each other has been going on
over the last century and is continuing.
It can be summed up in a nutshell as follows-
Accommodation of text, sound, image into Film
Accommodation of Film into Television
Internet as the meeting point of all the mass media
Initially film was silent till the year 1927, but language did play part in it in the form of explanatory and dramatic
inter-titles between the scenes. Often live music would accompany a silent film show and usually there was a live
commentator and providers of live sound effects in the hall.
The possibility of recorded sound being merged with film removed all these external and imperfect means. It also
enhanced the expressive power of the medium. Addition of colour subsequently, made film almost completely life
like. It became a complete world audio-visually very analogous to the world that we live in.
While film remains a highly developed language, television remains a recording medium without any aesthetic
definition of its own. It is a platform a medium for various forms to express themselves. Television has a great
disseminating ability.
Once it was possible to transfer optical signals into electronic ones, films began to be shown on Television. On the
positive side, it meant that a film could have an unprecedented, huge audience that could watch it simultaneously
in different countries in different time zones. Films could also be made in electronic/digital format.
But, on the flip side it becomes a qualitatively different experience than watching film in a theatre. Firstly the size of
the image and the volume were affected. They were incomparably limited as compared to the cinema theatre.
Secondly, the film was not watched in a social environment, but a personal one and singly or in a small group. The
audience was not cut off from the real world as it can be in the theatre. These factors do reduce the intensity of the
experience somewhat.
Assimilation of film in Television
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Internet as the meeting point of all the mass media
Nature of audio-visual signals and messages
Optical/Electronic
Live / Recorded
Internet in its present form has emerged as the latest platform with multiple possibilities of the convergence of the
media. Like television Internet is amorphous. Websites like YouTube have made streaming possible. All kinds of
audio-visual data can be exhibited on Internet now and moreover Internet offers the possibility of interactive
menus. The possibilities of new modes of communication through the Internet are increasing all the time.
Till now, we have been thinking about the elements of various arts and what bearing they have on the making of art
works and their combinations. Communication systems have undergone a quantum change in the Twentieth
Century. New forms of technology have emerged and we have to be familiar with them.
Images recorded by photographic camera are obtained by a chemical process. These images are real and are
called optical. They can be black and white or colour. The original image formed is called a negative and from it the
finally finished positive image is obtained.
Whereas, the images that are formed in electronic/digital form are virtual. They are stored as an electronic data and
can be seen only with the help of a machine. They can be easily duplicated without the fear of any loss of quality.
These images can be easily attached to an e mail and transmitted and they can be easily stored on a variety of
locations such as the hard disk, The USB drive, CD, DVD, or in cyberspace etc. An optical image can be easily
converted to an electronic one and stored suitably.
Moving images be they electronic, be they optical- can be presented live or as recorded and edited.In 1877,
Edison invented phonograph which modified our experience of sound as never before. By the Nineteenth century
humankind has learnt to make exquisite images of its surroundings, people, objects, so that they are part and
parcel of our collective memory. But, no one has been able to make any record of sound. Thus till as late as the end
of Nineteenth century music was essentially live communication limited to the few, who happened to be in the
same space as the performer/s. it was an ephemeral experience that stayed in one's memory only. We hear the
account of Tansen's singing, but a hundred years later, Pt. Bhimsen Joshi and M.S Subbalakshmi's performances
will be preserved without any loss of quality for the future generations. They would not only hear of these great
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singers, but will actually hear them. Recording technology has made this big difference.
Another major difference that recording technology has made is to later the nature of our listening experience.
Most music that we hear nowadays is recorded one. Moreover we can carry it with us, wherever we may go.
An analogue system is the one in which numbers are related to physical variables such as voltage, speed etc.
A digital system is a data technology.
Walter Benjamin was an important German thinker and critic. He produced a seminal essay in 1935 AD called -
The Walter Benjamin was an important German thinker and critic. He produced a seminal essay in 1935 AD called -
The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction.
For our purpose some of his thoughts can be summarized as -
Analogue/Digital
From Mechanical Reproduction to Digital Proliferation
Analogue Digital
1. An analogue signal is any continuous signal.
2. Varying quality of a signal represents changes in
the process.
3. Analogue is usually thought of in an electrical
context; however, mechanical, pneumatic,
hydraulic, and other systems may also convey
analogue signals.
4. Real-world values are measured or dealt within
real-world parameters
A digital system uses discrete (discontinuous) values.
The information represented can be either discrete,
such as numbers, letters or icons, or continuous, such
as sounds, images, and other measurements of
continuous systems.
Digital is most commonly used in computing and
electronics.
Real-world information is converted to a digital
format as in digital audio and digital photography.
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Independence and INTER-CONVERTIBILITY OF THE MEDIA
In principle a work of art has always been reproducible. Earlier pupils made copies of masters' work and there
could be imitations of the originals. But, mechanical reproduction by means of technology is a new concept.
Reproductions are on a mass scale. Reproductions look exactly alike the original, but they lack the presence of the
original in time and space. So far, all works of art were rooted in specific traditions. Reproductions destroy the
uniqueness and aura of the original and thereby, cause a break in tradition. Works of art were originally part of some
cult or ritual. Those cult values and associations are gone e.g. a certain dance performance or a musical
composition may be a part of a ritual originally, but it becomes just a dance performance when seen on television
and we see it without the original associations. Due to mass distribution and replication exhibition value becomes
superior to the ritual value.
Ubiquity is defined as 1-the quality of being present everywhere and simultaneously; 2-it also means something
that is encountered regularly in everyday life.
In 1928, French poet and cultural critic Paul Valery published an essay entitled "The Conquest of Ubiquity". This
essay has unfortunately remained neglected, but was an inspiration to Walter Benjamin. Paul Valery makes a
startling prediction as follows-
"Just as water, gas and electricity are brought into our houses from far off to satisfy our needs in response
to a minimal effort, so we shall be supplied with visual or auditory images, which will appear and
disappear at a simple movement of the hand, hardly more than a sign".
It is fascinating to see the vision of a poet, who was far seeing being realized in large measure today.
ITU (International Telecommunications Union) held a conference in 2005 and published a report - The Internet of
Things. It is significant to note that it talks about a "new era of ubiquity". Since computers are ubiquitous globally
now, human-to-human(H2H) connectivity is available anywhere anytime through the Internet. Differences of time
zone and distances do not matter in the instant mode of communication. The second prominent mode of
communication is between humans and things (H2T) and the third mode of communication is between things
themselvesThing to thing (T2T). In this communication 'things' talk to each other directly circumventing the
communicative networks between humans. The Internet is emerging as not only a network between anyone but
between anything.
Closely aligned to this development in the realm of Internet, is the growth in Cloud computing. Cloud computing
is the delivery of computing as a service rather than a product, whereby shared resources, software and
The Conquest of Ubiquity
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Independence and INTER-CONVERTIBILITY OF THE MEDIA
information are provided to computers and other devices as a utility (like the electricity grid) over a network
(typically the Internet).
Cloud computing provides facilities that do not require end-user knowledge of the physical location and
configuration of the system that delivers the services. It can be likened to the electricity grid, wherein end-users
consume power without needing to understand the infrastructure required to provide the service.
The term "cloud" is used as a metaphor for the Internet, based on the cloud drawing used in the past to represent
the telephone network.
This convergence of technology is creating new and more efficient possibilities of communication. A lot of it
depends upon using cell phones, or portable devices like the lap top and other miniature gadgets being carried by
people from place to place.
Imagine a person sitting in wilderness in India, where he has access to Internet. He/she can through 'Skype' talk to a
friend in South Africa, watch the impact of hurricane on USA, follow a Test match in Australia, can access
information about the weather anywhere in the world, keep track of news about India. This is life in cyberspace.
This cyberspace itself is virtual, elastic and amorphous. Unlike the real space it does not have a continuous
existence. It is ephemeral in the sense that it has to be 'switched on' by the user and lasts during the active process
only. This cyberspace with its expanding possibilities has been created as a result of growth in three technologies
mainly -Computing, Internet and Telecommunications converging to serve the consumer.
1. What conclusion can be drawn from V.K. Rajwade's formulation of the process of convergence in the arts
and media?
2. Differentiate in negative, positive and virtual images?
3. What are the advantages of assimilation of films in television?
4. Describe how an optical image gets converted into an electronic one.
5. Explain the historical significance of Edison's phonograph?
Exercises
Section A
Answer these questions in brief
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Independence and INTER-CONVERTIBILITY OF THE MEDIA
6. Discuss the disadvantages of assimilation of films into television.
7. Explain the difference between analogue and digital signals.
Describe in groups how different is the experience of reading a novel from watching a film. Analyse the impact of
Sound, Colour and advanced technologies in recording sound and light and other computer based techniques in
Indian Film Industry.
Collect evidences of convergences of various art forms in any specific era of Indian history .You may cover folk
literature in its various forms, Plays including Ramleelas, Krishnaleelas, various Dance Forms, Short Stories and
Novels. Critically reflect on the growth of various art media during the period chosen by you. You may use different
sources for collecting pictures, documents and other material resources.
Working in groups, compare the story of some books/novels with the story of films which are based on these
books. Describe the instances of convergences you notice in the films. Elaborate on different literary, visual,
musical, architectural and theatrical languages combined to produce the film
Section B
Discussion and Writing
Section C
Writing for your Portfolio
Section D Further Research
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Chapter 2
Convergence and The new POSSIBILITIES OF COMMUNICATION
ICE AGE
Information
Today's age can be redefined as another ICE age.
ICE = Information Communication Entertainment
The age of information was brought in, in a major way by the image making technologies of the Nineteenth century
viz. the camera and phonograph.
Earlier one could talk about a place or a person only after a first hand experience. But, by looking at a photograph
one was able to get an analogous idea of the place or the appearance of the person. This was not a direct
experience, but a new experience of information.
Similarly through recorded sounds one could get an idea of a person's voice or could listen to a description of
anything, which was limited to the written reports or letters before this invention. In a way, this was the extension of
human sight and hearing.
Information has been a privilege denied to the masses till the early part of the Twentieth century. To know about the
society in general and the world at a large, one had to have the privilege of being highly educated and with means
and opportunities at one's disposal for travel. This was given to the very few, be it in the rich European nations or in
the colonized world. Walter Lipmann was an American intellectual and a media philosopher. He wrote a fairly
influential book called Public Opinion in 1922, which was a critical analysis of the functioning of the government
and media in the democratic societies. Lipmann argued that for a successful functioning of democracy, the
average man [voter] be well informed to make good choices. He had expressed concern that there was no
adequate system available at that time. We must remember that we call mass media did not exist then. Radio was in
its infancy and newspapers reached only to a few in society.
Today the spread of mass media has largely removed the cause of complaint as far as the availability of channels for
spread of information are concerned. But, the question remains about the quality and efficacy of the information.
But, there is no doubt that media and their capacity of creating and sharing information in many ways has important
political and humanist dimensions.
We can benefit from understanding the views of the two major contemporary thinkers and social scientists viz.
Majid Tehranian [Iran] and Amartya Sen in this context.
Majid Tehranian says that Three megatrends characterize our own era and perhaps the rest of the 21st century -
Globalization, Regionalization, and Democratization.
He says that globalization and regionalization are proceeding rapidly aided by technical progress and global and
national institutions. However, democratization is lagging somewhat behind. In the post 1991[collapse of Soviet
Union] world he sees democratization to have become an unmistakable force throughout the world.
Amartya Sen considers the development of democracy as a distinguished contribution of the 20th century and
adds that the challenge of 21st century is the completion of democracy. He believes that
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1. democracy and associated political freedom are significant parts of human freedom
2. democracy enhances political attention that weaker people get
3. in democracy, formation of values and priorities takes place through open public discussion and
representative participation
Democracy in essence is the process of setting up just institutions of the state with the checks and other
mechanisms, enhancing the idea of a civil society, ensure social justice. Mass media therefore, have become more
important than ever before. For, they offer the public space for the on going and widespread debate.
Notwithstanding the shallowness in the media many a time, we still see many positive aspects of a free media.
Model of mass communication had following features -
It was a process of Broadcasting
Messages created and transmitted by a few to a vast number of receivers
Gigantic organization/ corporations
Huge technical infra-structure
Large-scale investment and revenue model
Empowering an individual to post data on the Internet
Information, message in one medium triggering off activity in the others
Many sources of the same information
Distribution of the information between individuals on an unprecedented global scale
Rapidity of opinion generation on a local, national and global scale
The socio-political implications of the new information order
The strengthening of democracy
Before the Internet
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The changed paradigm due to the Internet-
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Activity
Find out the role that mass media have played in the pro-democracy movements in the world in the year 2011.
"Just as we are accustomed, if not enslaved, to the various forms of energy that pour into our homes, we
shall find it perfectly natural to receive the ultra rapid variations or oscillations that our sense organs
gather in and integrate to form all we know. I do not know whether a philosopher has ever dreamed of a
company engaged in the home delivery of Sensory Reality" Paul Valry in "The Conquest of Ubiquity",
1928
Convergence and The new POSSIBILITIES OF COMMUNICATION
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Convergence and The new POSSIBILITIES OF COMMUNICATION
Exercises
Section A
Section B
Discussion and Writing
Section C
Writing for your Portfolio
Section D Further Research
Answer these questions in brief
1. Analyse the role of various technologies in the development of the age of information?
2. According to Majid Tehranian, what are the three megatrends that characterize our own era?
3. Describe the relationship between information and democracy according to Walter Lipmann?
4. Discuss Amartya Sen's views on the challenge that democracy faces in the 21st century?
Describe the functioning of a virtual classroom and discuss the role of internet in disseminating Education especially
through open and distance mode of learning.
Write down the impact of Information Technology on the lives of poor people of India in terms of Economic
Development (where they get assistance in finding jobs and marketing their produce by auctioning on e- bays etc),
Social development (free flow of information and democratization of knowledge, increased transparency of
Government functioning and disaster management and logistics support for natural calamities etc.) and the
Personal Development( Universalisation of education through life-long learning, reducing gender bias,
Telemedicine, Access to information about hygiene and safe water, helping to reduce infant mortality etc.)
Multimedia convergence could be leading towards turning the home in metropolitan cities into a much
more direct centre of consumption of goods and services than before - through e-commerce, tele-
banking, interactive television, the internet, and so on. Interview few people in your locality to find out
whether the reduction in the human contacts fosters a sense of insecurity among the people?
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Unit End Exercises
Section A
Answer these questions in brief
Section B
Discussion and Writing
Section C
Writing for your Portfolio
Section D
Further Research
1. Which technologies contributed towards developing the age of information?
2. Explain the process of assimilation of the media.
3. How does the internet prove to be a medium of assimilation?
4. Discuss the positive aspects of a free media.
5. Which are the various forms of media that have been successfully assimilated into films?

There have been evidences that the Internet can be an extremely low cost delivery system and can destroy many
businesses like newspapers and music .The internet can become a potential threat to intellectual property rights.
However since lately, it has been seen that the entertainment industry seems to be on a path of coping with,
perhaps in the future to benefit from Internet. Discuss the role of internet in this context and write your views on it.
Students should get together in groups and decide to cover an event that's happening in school. For example an
assembly programme/guest lecture/ annual day function /sports event: football match/ inter school events etc.
Group members should assign themselves in the various media form they would like to be a part of viz. news
writing/ video recording/ photography/sound/internet. The event should be covered as per the media choice and
thereafter a complete coverage of the event should be presented before the school/class. The presentation
should also include a discussion on their experience of assimilating the various forms of media. This presentation
should be included in the portfolio.
Find out about the significance of the phonograph in the entertainment industry.
Convergence and The new POSSIBILITIES OF COMMUNICATION
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Unit - 4
Convergence of The Media
Through Advertising
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Chapter 1
Profile of A PRODUCT
Product specifications
Targeted buyers
Automotive
Beverages
When a product is to be launched, a lot of work goes in to its definition. It is a long term and an ongoing process.
The Research and Development [R & D] section of an organization creates a product. The section defines its form,
specifications, conditions, look, appearance, packaging- in case of a physical product. They would also give the
USP - the unique selling point. Sometimes market testing of products is done. At times different colour schemes
and appearances are chosen and the name of the product is blanked out. It is then shown to different groups and
their responses are gathered. Sometimes the responses are analyzed by psychologists and sociologists to come to
conclusions about the most likely to be successful choice of the look and packaging of the product. This is the first
stage in defining the identity of the product.
What is described above mostly applies to the consumer products, but sometimes a service may also be marketed
and advertised like a product by manufacturing industries. Such a product or service may be of use to industrial
clients and not to the general public. Advertising play an important roll there too. In case of industrial clients it
becomes a case of one manufacturer serving some specific needs of another. In this case, the process begins with
identifying the need of the customer. This is done through extensive research at his work place. The data compiled
is analyzed and the precise nature of the problem/s is identified. Then a practical solution is evolved based on
expertise. The solution then is presented to the client in a systematized way as a product or a service.
Sometimes some gadgetry may be an industrial product. In that case, the technical specifications of the gadget,
the range of its functions, how is it an improvement on the existing system and what are the tangible benefits, are
that the buyer will get due to its usage, would be presented in as attractive manner.
Market research would give a projection to the targeted buyer and audience in terms of its socio-economic
profile, how the product is to be positioned so as to appeal the targeted buyers, what the selling should be
strategy etc. An advertising campaign is an extension of this process. Advertising is a process of giving a product a
personality/identity through audio-visual language. It is a comprehensively planned and launched effort.
Every product belongs to a sector of business. And the buyers are distributed as per their needs and income levels.
The main categories of various products and services are as follows-
In this sector we find a whole range of offerings with an economy brand like Nano priced at 1.25 lakhs to the other
hatch backs, priced between 2.50 lakhs to 7 lakhs, sedan cars in the range from 5 lakhs to a few millions and the
top premium brands cost even higher. Two wheeler segment in India is a large one with many scooters and
motorcycles.
Beverages are of two types, alcoholic and non-alcoholic. In India, advertising of alcoholic products is not
permissible. So only aerate drinks or drink extracts are advertised. In this, we have global brands, national brands
and regional brands.
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Cellular Products
Clothing
Computers
Electronics
Entertainment
Financial
Food and snacks
Health Related
Home appliances
This sector has seen a phenomenal growth in India in the last few years. An extensive range of products from the
most functional to the multi utility one in the price range of Rs. 1,200 to Rs. 35,000 are available.
This is again a sector with an ample variety for the buyers. We have the global brands, national brands and many
regional brands. They all coexist in the vast marketplace. The price range is also large. At the low end would be the
local brands with regional reach. At the high end of this segment would be the high profile fashion industry
products.
From the assembled desktops to the laptops and the recently available i-pads, this is a well defined and a range
bound market. The products and prices are standardized.
This would include audio and video gadgets like the tape recorder, the walkman, CD player, DVD player, the radio,
the transistor and the various combinations of these. The landline telephone can also be included. These are again
very standard and range bound products.
Films, music concerts, plays, live events would form a part of this segment. Television with its vast reach and the
ability to accommodate variety of programmes is another territory by itself.
Banking, investments, insurance and the related activities are included in this sector. Being a rather competitive
sector with many players, innovation is of paramount importance.
This segment would cover simple products like aata, rice to luxurious products like chocolates. Instant cooking
products and snacks like sweets, cookies, biscuits, chips etc. populate this segment. Housewives and children are
important targets.
Basic medicines to be consumed at home would form the backbone of this sector, however, of late we see a
profusion of health related products. Some are medicines, some are nutritional supplements, some gadgets for
exercise of different body parts.
Refrigerators, washing machines, vacuum cleaners, various cooking appliances like the pressure cooker, the
microwave oven, food processors and the like would be included in this segment.
Profile of A PRODUCT
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ISP and Search
Magazines
Personal care
Fast Food
Retailers
Travel Related
Defining The Market -
Internet Service Providers and Search engines are areas with tremendous growth potential. Given the scale of
operations and infrastructure required, there shall always be a handful of players in this segment. ISP are local, but
the search engines have already set their bench mark on global. Scale Therefore, the potential for Net advertising is
also huge in case of search engines. Media like YouTube and social media like Facebook offer attractive channels for
advertising. These services can be looked at products in themselves, yet are vehicles for advertising.
Among the magazines there is a whole range from general purpose magazines to the specialized ones catering to
selected groups. Also the publications are of international, national and local reach. It has more or less a
predictable readership.
Necessary hygiene products like tooth paste, soaps, shaving kit, women's health care products would form the
bulk of the products in this segment. Cosmetics would form the high end of this market.
Chains of fast food restaurants in big cities and on major highways comprise this segment. It is a typical kind of
service a niche product a product that is produced & marketed for use in a localised and specialised but profitable
market among the regular food business. Chains of Coffee shops can also be included in this sector. We see the
presence of global as well as national brands in this.
Since the big business houses have entered this segment, retailing has become a business territory and
constituency.
Tourism is an expanding sector in these days of globalization. The increase in business travel also contributes.
Regular travel bookings and arrangements as well as specialized products are available to the consumers now.
When we talk about the buyers, there is a huge marketplace within which there are several markets and each
product and sector taps its own.
Defining one's own market is an elaborate activity. It is based on a lot of research and pre-testing of prototypes.
Before you zoom in on the buyers you have to understand them as individuals. Their economic, sociological and
psychological profile is defined.
The entire process can be outlined as follows-
Profile of A PRODUCT
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Identifying The Customer Need
Segmenting Your Overall Market
Geographic.
Demographic.
The very first step would be to identify as to what are the features and benefits of the product/service that one is
offering. A feature is a characteristic of a product/service that automatically comes with it. For example, if one is
introducing a new cleansing liquid that acts as stain remover for clothes, then that is the main feature. The benefit to
the customer, however, is that the they do not depend on professional laundry services and it can be conveniently
done at home without any extra effort or money. That could be a good motivation for the consumer to buy it.
By knowing what your product/service has to offer and what will make customers buy, you can begin to identify
common characteristics of your potential market.
It is a very tempting idea to target as many people and groups as possible for marketing your product. But, there
are two major risks involved in this strategy. One is that the message might be spread out or in such a way so as NOT
to reach the target group at all or may reach in a diluted form. Secondly, in order to reach out wider, more content
and forms may be included to take precise feedback making the promotional budget less cost effective. Thus one
may end up short of creating a highly focused campaign.
Market segmentation is the process of breaking down a larger target market into smaller segments with specific
characteristics. It helps to customize a product/service and also evolve the advertising strategy to reach the target
group.
Another example of market segmentation is the athletic shoe industry. Major manufactures of athletic shoes have
several segmented markets. One segment is based on gender and the other segment is based on the type of sport
or activity. They have different promotional campaigns for each market segment.
How to break large markets into smaller ones?
Larger markets are most typically divided into smaller target market segments on the basis of geographic,
demographic, psychographic and behaviouristic characteristics.
The socio-economic structure of rural & urban population different and affects the purchasing preferences &
power. If you are in retail stores business, then your locations within the cities matter. If you are selling a product
that is climate sensitive like air conditioning or heating, then certain areas would be your priority areas and your
market is not a uniform one. For instance room heaters would have larger market in areas of the country which has
severe winter, but not much of a market in Maharashtra or Goa. Accordingly, one will have to decide, whether the
scale of one's business will be local regional or national or international.
Customers are individuals and there are many factors that go into the making of an individual personality such as
age, race, religion, gender, income level, family size, occupation, education level and marital status.
Profile of A PRODUCT
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Behaviouristic.
Psychographic.
Consumers' reasons for purchasing products and services can be varied and complex. It could be a fascination or
identification with the brand or a loyalty with an existing one or it could be the cost or a belief induced by peer
pressure. It is necessary to understand the buying habits and patterns of the customers. Consumers do take their
own time in deciding what to buy, whether it is a kitchen product or a vehicle or a home.
There are certain products that have different considerations to some people than the feeling of necessity. The
desire for a feeling of elevated status, enhanced appearance and feeling rich are some considerations that go into
the purchase examples of. These factors are the psychographic variables that influence buying decision. This
applies especially to luxury items. Owning a particular brand of a car, or gadget or wearing a costume of a
particular brand and style may be a status symbol for some.
Since all products do not have uniform and extensive range, most businesses use a combination of the above to
segment their markets. Demographic and geographic criteria will usually identify and define the target markets. This
will give you a clear idea of the purchasing power of the potential customers and will also establish the product is
easily accessible to them in their location. Then mostly the psychographic and behaviouristic factors are brought
into play to launch a promotional campaign that will appeal to the individuals within the target market.
Exercises
Section A
Answer these questions in brief
1. Enlist the products which are advertised under the entertainment category.
2. Discuss the factors that decide a customer's need for a product or service.
3. Write about the features which go into determining the identity of a gadget that will be advertised in the
industrial market.
4. What are the broad categories of various products and services that are advertised?
5. Describe the way for determining the unique selling point of a physical product.
6. Explain the meaning of market segmentation? Why is it important?
Profile of A PRODUCT
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Section B
Discussion and Writing
Section C
Writing for your Portfolio
Section D
Further Research
Discuss in groups the plausible reasons for a consumer's preference for purchasing a particular product or service.
How the individual preferences could be affected extrinsically? Analyse the various psychographic factors
involved in it.
You have been assigned to design a model Workbook for Science subjects for Class X students. Define the primary
buyers for this Workbook. Define your market in geographic, demographic, psychographic and behaviouristic
terms. This product has to sell nationally. Identify what is important to your customers. Make a note of all the
specifications in your portfolio journal.
Find out the top ten advertising companies in India and compare their work with any international advertising
house. Substantiate the reason for any major deviation found
Profile of A PRODUCT
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Chapter 2
THE TASK OF ADVERTISING
A strong market research and analysis programme forms the support of an advertisement campaign. The marketing
strategy defines the profile of the product, the market segmentation, the target audience in all possible details.
This detailed brief would be given to an ad agency and thoroughly discussed with them. This prepares the
launching pad for an advertising campaign to be launched. Professionals of the advertising industry take over the
process from this point onwards.
Let us briefly recall the various functions that advertising serves
It introduces a new product in to the market.
It helps distinguish a product from its competitors.
Through persistent messages and associations, it creates a brand identity.
It sustains interest in an existing brand.
It creates brand loyalty.
It expands sales.
It creates new demand.
It creates a buzz and keeps the idea of the product going.
These then, are the challenges before the advertisers.
When the advertisement agency receives its brief, it begins to work on the concept of an ad/ ad campaign.
Depending upon the reach of the product and resources of the manufacturer, the range of the campaign varies
from regional, national and also it varies in terms of the media used. So once the scale is decided upon, the agency
begins to make prototypes of ads in various forms such as the newspaper ad, billboard ad, ad on the Net, TV
commercial etc.
The following factors would be considered in planning the creative work.
Firstly, a comprehensive view would be taken about the various media to be used and the scale would be defined.
The reach of the product, size of the market and the budget required and sanctioned would be the deciding
factors in this.
Before the actual ads area made, their prototypes are made in various forms and are tested. Before scripting or the
copywriting work begins, the following important points would be considered as guidelines.
Who is the "target group"? How has it been defined in terms of its geographic, demographic, psychographic and
behaviouristic profiles?
Advertising serves the following purposes-
Forming a prototype of an advertisement.
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This would help in identifying the needs and aspirations of the target group.
About the product-
In what way is it distinct and unique?
What's its "position" in relation to other similar products?
What are the basic features of the product that will have to be highlighted to appeal instantly to the public?
Initial impact of an ad has to be instant. It literally has to catch the viewer's attention. Since the viewer is always in a
sea of messages in every form, a good ad must have a stand out quality to grab his/her attention.
Secondly, even though the target group is identified, the communication between the advertisement and the
consumer will happen at an individual level. So the bottom line is that an advertisement should appeal individually
first. The introduction to the new product or to the new features of an existing one will form associations at
individual level.
These are the ground rules of communication that must be kept in sight at all times while planning and scripting the
prototypes.
These prototypes are made as various presentations in PowerPoint and other forms. If it is a major campaign to be
launched on TV, Radio, Print, Film, as well as billboards and Internet etc., then various prototypes would be
prepared. A newspaper copy with visual plus words could be designed. The radio advertisement could be in the
form of a short dialogue or a skit or a monologue or an announcement and could end with a jingle. A commercial to
be shown in cinema halls as well as on TV with a few versions could emerge in the form of a storyboard. Depending
upon the ideas generated in the brainstorming, more than one concept may be created within each medium like
the print or film. In a print copy, two different sets of visuals and catch-words may be used indicating two
approaches. In case a film commercial, two approaches may be tried out e.g. the first one will have a celebrity in
the film endorsing the product, the second one will be an approach without a celebrity. Synergy is sought in
different media, as the jingle composed will be used in all audio-visual forms be it radio, or TV or film. If there is
punch-line planned at the end, then it will appear on billboards, newspaper copies, as well as TV and film
commercials.
These designs are then put to test in lab conditions.
During CLT, different groups from within the target audience/ consumers are exposed to the prototypes of the
different concepts. Their feedback is taken and analyzed and then accordingly the final decision is taken about the
approach to be taken. The conclusion reached have to be very objectively and open mindedly accepted, even if
they are not tender with original objective with which one began. This is very crucial, for these results could be real
pointers to how the audience/ potential buyers would react to the messages.
Central Location Test [ CLT]
The Task of ADVERTISING
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Based upon these findings, it is decided to go ahead with the existing design with modification. Also if multiple
approaches are tried out, then the feedback will indicate as to which is working better and accordingly the
decision is taken. This decision has to be taken in a completely objective way. Pre-suppositions and prejudices
have no place in this process.
Then the creative process is given the go ahead and the ads are actually executed and pre-tested with audiences
and finally approved by the client/manufacturer.
A product is launched through publicity. There are important factor like budget's marketing which decides the way
in which publicity Campaign is carried out. If the product has an all India market and appeal, then making the ads in
local languages is a priority. India is multi-lingual country, so for a major campaign the multi-lingual editions are a
must. Thus the same actors or models are selling the same product but in different languages on TV as per the
channels on which the ads are appearing. The same goes for the newspapers and billboards. A new product
launched during a major television event like the IPL, will have a great visibility nationally and internationally and may
establish itself quickly, but will also cost a lot more to advertise. Products are also launched through regional events
with a lot of local and regional publicity to create the buzz locally. Sometimes an association is sought to be
formed with a product, through an interactive process of involving the members of the target group through
competitions, innovative prize schemes etc. posters, banners, brochures, merchandise in various forms like caps,
T-shirts with brand logos and catchy slogans.
For a long term impact of any advertisement, the frequency of its exhibition also matters along with its quality. In a
marketplace everyone is trying to grab the attention of the customers, hence a plethora of audio-visual messages
are created and they all are always floating around. The manufacturer must ensure that his messages about his own
product do not get lost: hence, the importance of repetition and frequency.
A new brand has to compete in existing market with the existing brands. And the existing brands have to maintain
and improve their position in the face of increasing competition. Both the categories depend upon advertising.
No manufacturer can afford to be complacent in a marketplace. Competition keeps everyone on their toes. So,
how do the established manufacturers react to the appearance of the new product and ads?
They can and often do sponsor a survey of the ads and the product of their competitor by a method called Quota
Sampling.
Quota Sampling
Definition
Exhibition of the advertisement
Repercussions of new product and ads on the existing ones
The Task of ADVERTISING
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The Task of ADVERTISING
" Quota sampling is a method for selecting survey participants. In quota sampling, a population is first segmented
into mutually exclusive sub-groups. Then judgment is used to select the subjects or units from each segment based
on a specified proportion. For example, an interviewer may be told to sample 200 females and 300 males
between the age of 45 and 60. This means that individuals can put a demand on who they want to sample
(targeting)"
Source-
In quota sampling both quantitative as well as qualitative surveys are undertaken of one's competitor's product
and ad. One's own target group is selected for this exercise.In quantitative surveys, a structured questionnaire
with limited options can be given to the participants and their responses are gathered. This is a standardized and a
fairly objective procedure in approach. In qualitative surveys, individual free flowing interviews can be conducted:
sometimes a group discussion within a small group is conducted and the significant points are noted down.
During the course of this process the absolute and relative preferences of the consumers get revealed. One
understands one's strong points as well as weak areas in relation to the competitors as viewed from the customer's
viewpoint. This data is referred to psychologists and sociologists to get their inputs about the relative positioning
of the brand, of the likely changes in the customers' tastes and profile, how do the customers identify with your and
the competitor's brand, are the loyalties still as strong as they were or are they shifting, is there a rise of new
expectations etc. etc. This is valuable business knowledge for future reference.
This is considered as fair business practice.
Activity
Students could find three examples of a specific advertising technique from magazines and then answer the
questions 1) what advertising technique is being used & how do you know? 2) what message is being
delivered by the advertisement & how do you know? 3) is the advertisement effective, why / why not?
[: http://www.answers.com/topic/quota-sampling]
Exercises
Section A
Answer these questions in brief
1. Mention two outstanding qualities of a good advertisement.
2. How does the publicity of a product determine the exhibition of its advertisement?
3. Describe various functions of advertising.
4. Explain the importance of Central Location Test in the context of making an advertisement.
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5. Do you agree that the Quota Sampling is more reflective of the entire group? Cite reason in favour of your
view.
6. Differentiate between quantitative and qualitative surveys.

Discuss in groups the factors that are considered important while forming the prototype of an advertisement. Write
down the procedure followed to test the effectiveness of an advertising campaign.
Find three examples of a specific advertising technique from magazines and then write a paragraph each on the
following questions for analysis:
1. Basis of the identification of the advertising technique
2. Analyse the message delivered by the advertisement
3. Evaluate the effectiveness of advertisement by citing proper reasons
Find out which products were widely advertised during the any major Twenty- Twenty or One Day Cricket Match.
Compare with the products topped the advertising charts during the Wimbledon/ the French Open Tennis
matches. Give your reason for any anomaly.
Section B
Discussion and Writing
Section C
Writing for your Portfolio
Section D
Further Research
The Task of ADVERTISING
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Chapter 3
The Available MEDIA
Having created an advertisement campaign the next interesting stage that follows logically is the use of the
available media to disseminate the messages. Although underlying main message is the same for the product or the
service that is being advertised. The following are the prominent media available.
Print -newspapers, magazines, brochures, fliers and posters.
OOH -billboards kiosks tradeshows events
Broadcast advertising -Radio TV Digital Internet + Mobile + Social Media
'In film' promos
Celebrity endorsements
Cross promotions
Merchandise
Games (Mobile and computer)
Covert advertising
Two factors will influence this decision. Budget and the possibility that the chosen medium offers to
comprehensively reach the highest percentage of one's target audience.
The old paradigm divided these media into two categories - Published media and Audio-visual media. Published
media would include all kinds of Newspapers, Magazines, Brochures, Fliers
Visual and aural media would include Television, Radio, Cinema, Billboards, Posters.
Internet combines the properties of both the streams.
While the traditional media continue to exist and be relevant in their own ways, the digital media offers exciting
new possibilities due to convergence and a rapidly growing audience.
The advertisement expenditure (adex) of the digital media, which includes internet and mobile mediums, has
increased by 74 per cent to Rs 680 crore in 2008-09, shows a survey by Group M.
According to the survey, the digital media will see a growth of 25 per cent this year as compared with just 7 per
cent for TV and a fall to -2 per cent and -4 per cent for newspapers and magazines, respectively.
http://www.business-standard.com/india/news/digital-media/s-ad-spend-rises-74-per-cent/358400/
Advertising Media - Strengths & Weaknesses
How To Select The Best Media?
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No medium is absolutely suitable for all kinds of products. All media are relevant due to their specific and
significant relation to the products that they are best suited to sell. If the target buyers of the product are young
collegians in the cities, then internet and social media may be the natural choices. But, if the product is mainly for
the rural buyers, then the other media like radio posters, newspapers and television will be better options.
All forms of media exist with their advantages and disadvantages.
In India the highest percentage of spending on advertisements was on newspapers for the year 2010. Newspaper
advertisement rank highest for credibility for all media. It offers high local coverage and immediate delivery of your
message. It is low cost. It has a preservation value. People have the habit of cutting out pieces and preserving them,
Special sections like the shopping guide inculcate the habit in the readers to regularly follow up that section.
Sunday supplements have a higher and special readership.
On the other hand it has the disadvantages of existing in a cluttered and competitive environment and also has low
production quality. Newspapers have a short life span too.
Magazines Advertisement have much better visual and overall production quality. They also have longer shelf life
and assured and loyal readership. Since the magazine readership is a known factor, publication houses already
have a selected readership.
Its disadvantages include inability to deliver messages immediately, comparatively high costs and low frequency.
Radio Advertisement have the following main advantages.
They deliver the messages immediately and with very high frequency even within a single day.
It has a captive audience and the one that will share information locally with each other.
It also has a low cost of production. It can reach traveling audience too due to transistors, car radios and mobile
phones.
The disadvantages are one can disseminate only audio messages. The messages are ephemeral (Short Lived)and
have no shelf life. Listening sessions are typically cluttered with all kinds of messages, hence your message exists in
very competitive environment.
Three key phrases will define the importance of television to advertisers -Immediate delivery of messages, High
frequency of message and very high impact. In addition to these there are some other major advantages too.
Depending upon the channels and other associations, television advertisement carry high prestige. Also the reach
Newspapers
Magazines
Radio
Television As An Advertising Medium
The Available MEDIA
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of television now days is phenomenally large as compared to any other medium. Moreover, the communication is
synchronous internationally. This factor reduces the cost per consumer substantially.
One of the major disadvantages of television is the very high cost of production and that of the airtime. Secondly,
the message makes it impact momentarily and then is replaced by another one. So no matter how powerful is the
message it exists in a torrent of many similar ones. Then remote control spoils the continuity further by offering an
easy facility of channel surfing, so there is no guarantee that the particular message will be seen uniformly as many
times as it is aired.
Consider this -
Mumbai: Driven by strong economic performances and rapidly improving consumer confidence levels in the first
quarter of 2010, main media (Television, Newspaper & Magazine) advertising activity in India surged by 32
percent, the highest growth amongst the 12 Asia Pacific markets covered in The Nielsen Company's survey on media
spends. Overall across the 12 markets, media spends grew by 18 percent.
Year on year (YOY) growth for a twelve month period to March 2010 saw an increase of 26 percent in main media
advertisement spends in India. Across the 12 markets main media spends grew by 15 percent. The main driver of
growth in India was the Newspaper, which experienced 30 percent YOY growth in advertisement spends; the
highest percentage growth for newspaper advertisement spends across all 12 markets covered in the Nielsen
survey. Overall newspaper advertisement spends grew by 14 percent YOY.
Source -Indiantelevision.com Team
Direct mail may not have any glamour or high profile quality to it, but it is certainly a very effective channel of
communication. Normally it has been found to elicit the highest response rate of all media. It also offers the highest
level of selectivity of all media. The control over what is communicated is much better than the other channels. The
responses of the consumers are easy to measure and quantify in this form. The results are easy to test. In this form,
there is no clutter or noise problem, as it reaches the consumer directly and personally. Durability or life span of the
message is long. Direct mail is a particularly attractive option for small business owners, as it can communicate a lot
of information about a product or service and reach almost any conceivable target group for a relatively low cost.
There are certain disadvantages of direct mail system. Per consumer cost is very high. Since everyone tries out this
form, there can be over saturation and the feeling of junk mail may be associated with it. Some people may have
the resistance to buy through mail.
Out door or out Of Home [OOH] will include billboards, kiosks, tradeshows, and events.
Billboards /hoardings are most prominent. If they are in the right place then have highest visibility round the clock.
Large size does make an impact.
http://www.indiantelevision.com/mam/headlines/y2k10/july/julymam10.php
Direct Mail
Outdoor As An Advertising Media
The Available MEDIA
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The Available MEDIA
On the negative side are the following considerations -high initial costs are involved in setting up, impact is hard to
measure, not too much of content can be put and the cost per consumer is on the higher side.
Kiosks can be set up in malls and similar public places. Tradeshows and events have the advantage of face to face
interaction and large volume if people coming in, but the effort required is expensive.
"Cross promotion is a specific marketing tactic wherein two or more businesses team up together to reach a
broader shared population."
"Cross promotion is a process in which two or more advertisers of a product or service associate themselves with
each other to increase their profile, reach more people etc."
We have one proven case study from USA from many years ago. One American coffee and beverage shop wanted
to increase their business. The owner approached another [Egyptian] restaurant in the same building with the offer
to serve each others products like sandwiches and pizzas etc in both shop . By doing that they hoped to attract the
lunch time customers to their place. While they made no profit from the each others products , they attracted the
clientele that would have gone somewhere else for the snacks people usually ordered beverages along with
sandwiches and pizza. For the Egyptian restaurant too it was a positive situation as their products sold outside their
own premises and their branding increased. It was a win win situation for both.
This strategy has caught on well in India and we see a lot of cross promotion happening. Manufacturers of clothes,
watches, travel goods etc. team up with the periodicals to offer incentives to the readers. Cross promotion
broadens your clientele base: saves time as more people are reached more quickly; saves money as costs are
shared. Cross promotions have a catchy quality about them. They at once seem attractive and get people
interested instantly. Another fall out of this activity is that since both the partners are mutually promoting each
other, their credibility goes up and working together breeds synergy and innovation as new ideas begin to emerge.
Celebrity endorsements can be very popular and build strong associations in the buyers, but they are quite
expensive to produce and air on prime time. Even state Governments are using celebrities as brand ambassadors.
Merchandise- good, clothes bearing the logo or names or designs of the products are another popular way to
advertise, but it will be limited to the class of buyers. It is also called Specialty Advertising. A company can have its
name put on a variety of items, such as caps, glassware, gym bags, jackets, key chains, and pens. Since these items
remain in use over a long period of time, most companies are successful in achieving their goals for increasing
public recognition and sales through these efforts.
Games (Mobile and computer) can be devised to promote the brand, but the reach is limited to mostly the young
or tech savvy consumers.
Covert advertising is presently a hot trend in promoting products and services. It embeds a product or brand in
entertainment and media. Like Aston Martin has promoted itself as the high profile car used by the legendary
character James Bond. The brand and car will have a very dramatic visual presence in the film. Once upon a time
Cross promotion
Some recent forms
ACDSE STUDY
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Advertisement made on celluloid film exhibited in theatres were important, they still are shown, but tlevision with
its phenomenal reach has assumed priority now.
In India, Newspapers get the highest share of the advertisement expenses, followed by Television and next come
the periodicals. Media spends on social issues has expanded in the past 12 months. Issues like health & hygiene,
women's and family welfare, primary education etc. are being sponsored by private sector too.
Like most areas of marketing, advertising is changing rapidly. New forms of media available are blurring the
distinction between different avenues. Convergence of different media is giving rise to an advertising
convergence. The convergence of television and internet opens many potential opportunities for marketers to
target customers in ways not available with traditional television advertising. Even the print is merging into web.
The Internet has become new hub for the ICE age[ information, Communication, Emtertainment]. Podcasting Audio
- Podcasting Video - RSS Feeds - Networked Gaming - may offer themselves as major outlets for advertising, in the
near future. The game of old plus new goes on and the marketers must stay informed of new developments and
understand how their customers are using these in ways that may offer advertising opportunities.
Advertising Trends: Digital Convergence
Exercises
Section A
Answer these questions in brief
1. Write down the criteria that decides the best media for an advertisement
2. Make a list of the prominent media available to disseminate advertisements.
3. Discuss the utility of radio as an advertising medium.
4. Discuss the scope of Direct Mailing in context of advertising.
5. Enumerate the disadvantages of advertising on billboards/hoardings.
6. Discuss the benefits of cross promotion.
7. Explain the term Specialty Advertising.
8. What limitations do mobiles and computers have as advertising media?
The Available MEDIA
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The Available MEDIA
Section B
Discussion and Writing
Section C
Writing for your Portfolio
Section D
Further Research
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of newspaper and magazine advertisements.
How important is television as a medium for advertisement?
You have been assigned to design a model Workbook for Science subjects for Class X students. Define the primary
buyers for this Workbook. Define your market in geographic, demographic, psychographic and behaviouristic
terms. This product has to sell nationally. Identify what is important to your customers.
You have already done the above-mentioned exercise in Chapter 1. Based on that formulation, design an Ad
Campaign for the Science Workbook along the following lines.
1. Define your target audience.
2. What are the media that you will use? Why?
3. What are the media that you will not use? Why?
4. Prepare a Prototype of the Advertisement at least in ONE FORM of media i.e. Newspaper/ TV/ Web. Add it
to your portfolio.
Remember that your product is being nationally sold. So you must define the kind of newspaper it will appear in,
the channel that you would prefer the most and the time of transmission, in case of web, you will indicate the
website/s that it should appear on.
Find out which are the latest cross promotion advertisement products in the Indian market. What are the
promotion strategies being adopted? For example: "bundled" offerings, joint media appearances and events,
unconventional cause-related marketing, resource booklets and videos, co-branding, coop advertising, and
shared space.
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Chapter 4
Forms of ADVERTISING
As there are many advetisers trying to advetise similar commodities and other factor like different audiences,
advertising has evolved into various forms. On the basis of various situations Advertising may be categorised in to
following classes.
Product advertising is the art of establishing a relationship between a product and its potential consumers. It
creates the need in the consumers, gets them interested in its features and directly or indirectly informs them as to
how the product is better than those of its competitors.
By its nature, this kind of advertisements concentrate on building up the personality or individuality of the products
through attractive associations with in the mind of the consumers.
It can use multiplicity of media and a repertoire of techniques to achieve this. It can use celebrities to form
glamorous and credible associations with the products. An eminent sportsperson advocating a sports gear or
sports wear or an energy drink will form an instant and appropriate equation. A mature person with high status
endorsing a product like suiting will lend dignity to it.
Every campaign 'pitches' itself at a level depending upon its purpose. If it is the introducing a new product in a
competitive market, then it will be an aggressive campaign, one that is aimed at catching everyone's attention by
creating a buzz in the market about the new product. If it is an already well established product then it may take
less aggressive tone and may be will seek to appeal in a familiar way to the consumer. It will seek to renew the
already established bond in an innovative way.
The audio-visual strategy or the nature of images and text will depend upon 'the pitch' that has been set.
Institutional Advertising Institutional advertising is substantially different than the 'hard sell' that is involved in
selling a product. The basic purpose here is to promote the image of the company. Often some progressive causes
like support to community based programmes, environment, gender issues are taken up as a part of the values of
the company. Sometimes it may promote a novel business idea hat would benefit many businesses Any alignment
with a positive cause helps create a good image of the company in the public's mind.
In case, any company has received some negative publicity for whatever reasons , this kind of image promotion
through advertising helps reduce the impact of it. It may also help in improving the image of the company once
again.
Public Service Advertising is also known as Public Awareness Advertising, Social Service Advertising and Social
Awareness Advertising.
Public Service Advertising typically involves generating and transmitting short and precise messages regarding a
cause or a problem. The messages have to be dramatic to seak immediate attention and for impact creation on the
viewer/ reader. It usually will have a strong appeal to discontinue wrong practices and/or inculcate new ones. The
stress is always on positive communication that believes in a better tomorrow. While planning the advertisement a
thorough understanding of the target group must be the starting point.
Public Service Advertising has become very popular and the trend is rising.
Public Service Advertising
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Activity
Alyque Padamsee was the first Indian to enter the 'CLIO Hall of Fame' for his public service film - India on
Handicapped Children: The story of Hope.
Find out about CLIO AWARDS. What are they? Why are they considered prestigious?
The term advocacy has become an important concept and practice on social activism. It has also been
institutionalized by NGOs, Government agencies as well as UN agencies.
Advocacy is an activity by an individual or by a group that seeks to influence public opinion on matters of public
importance such as electoral reforms. The idea is to raise a public debate through media within the Governmental
institutions. Sometimes advocacy may have a perspective to influence public-policy and political decisions.
Sometimes advocacy seeks to modify resource allocation within the socio-economic sector. Lobbying,
conducting public events, publishing research and articles is very much a part of the scenario and advertising can
become an important part of the process.
Advocacy advertising is normally thought of as any advertisement, message, or public communication regarding
economic, political, or social issues. The ultimate aim of all advocacy is to influence political and economic
decision making in the interest of society at large or certain groups within it.
Comparative advertising compares one brand directly or indirectly with one or more competing brands. This is
very common and is used by nearly every major industry. This type of advertising is particularly resorted to by
companies that are introducing a new product in a competitive market. The underlying idea to be told to the
consumers in comparative terms , could be how their new product is superior to all the existing ones.
Normally the competitor's product is never named directly, but implied. Also the manufacturers have to be careful
about not misinforming the public about their competitor's product as it may attract a lawsuit. Comparative
advertising is legal in Europe, United States, Canada, Australia and many other developed countries, but some
countries do not allow it. It is matter of attitude. The United States' Federal Trade Commission (FTC) asserts that
comparative advertising is "a source of important information to consumers and assists them in making rational
purchase decisions". It also "encourages product improvement and innovation, and can lead to lower prices in the
marketplace".
Everyone may not accept this uncritically as comparative advertising is known to have produced skepticism among
consumers. Secondly, there is no positive data regarding its success in changing the established choices of the
consumers. It can be tricky to resort to this technique, as if executed incompetently, it reinforces attention to the
competitor's product.
Cooperative Advertising Cooperative advertising is a system that allows two parties to share advertising costs.
Cooperative advertising is when two businesses-- usually one very large business and one small business split the
Advocacy Advertising
Comparative Advertising
Forms of ADVERTISING
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cost of advertising by advertising together. The most commonly seen example of this form of advertising is in case
of local grocery stores. A large manufacturer of cold drinks will book large and exclusive space under the control of
the grocery shop to advertise its product with some consideration to the shop owner. The advertisments would be
prepared by the big company in its standard format and placed by the local retailer, using the store's name. Its
benefit to the manufacturer is being able to advertise at the local rate for media, since all advertising is displayed
by the local retailer. This usually works out cheaper than the national rate.
The small business got a sign for cheap and the soft drink company got themselves a building to advertise on.
Cooperative advertising is found in print, radio, and television as well on the walls of buildings and on billboards.
Hence, it is symbiotic in nature.
We have seen the advantages and disadvantages of this form in the earlier chapter, but we must understand it
conceptually as the most direct and personal form of advertisement that uses mass media. This is its uniqueness.
A lot of our buying is impulsive. Something attracts our attention and we end up buying it as an on the spot
decision. Point of purchase advertising is precisely designed to induce us into such buying. Various window
displays, floor stands, banners are strategically placed like near the payment point in a shop- so that it catches your
eye and induces the impulse to buy. Window shopping may also induce this impulse. Banners anywhere can make
you curious.
It is estimated that a lot of specific decisions about buying are made inside the retail shops and to encourage the
trend further a lot of large stores have introduced Dynamic POP (Plarler of Paris) displays, small screen to 42"(or
larger) LCDs and projection displays, helping deliver targeted marketing content to shoppers at the point-of-
decision.
Informational advertising is mostly used when a new product is first being introduced. It has a comprehensive
approach to the information regarding the product. The emphasis is placed upon making the product name
registering sharply, on stressing upon the benefits, and the possible uses to the consumer. When sport utility
vehicles (SUVs) were first introduced, the car manufacturers used this strategy quite successfully.
Once the new product becomes familiar , then the campaign may change its pitch and go in for more persuasive
and brand building techniques.
When the aim of the advertising is to give people information about the availability, characteristics and prices of
goods, we call it "informational advertising." This sort of advertising increases the consumer's range of choice and
may improve the quality of the decisions consumers make. It can also contribute to the effectiveness of price
competition, so (in some markets) it may complement price competition and bring the market closer to the supply-
and-demand outcome than it otherwise would be.
Direct-Mail
Point-of-Purchase Advertising
Informational Advertising
Forms of ADVERTISING
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Exercises
Section A
Section B
Discussion and Writing
Section C
Writing for your Portfolio
Section D
Further Research
Answer these questions in brief
1. Describe the purpose of Public Service Advertising.
2. Why do companies resort to comparative advertising?
3. In what way is the advertising campaign of new product different from that of a well-established one?
4. How does institutional advertising promote a positive image of the company?
5. Write about pros and cons of comparative advertising?
6. Examine various techniques of Point-of-Purchase advertising?
7. How does advertising reflect advocacy?
8. Discuss the benefits of cooperative advertising?
9. What kind of knowledge does informational advertising impart about a product? Give an example.
Discuss in groups the techniques that product advertising uses to establish the individuality of the product.
Find an example for each of the various forms of advertising and analyze them in 4 lines each, highlighting their main
features. Add the analysis to your portfolio.
1. Alyque Padamsee was the first Indian to enter the 'CLIO Hall of Fame' for his public service film - India on
Handicapped Children: The Story of Hope. Find out about CLIO AWARDS. What are they? Why are they
considered prestigious?
2. There was the Pepsi Challenge contest in 1975 sponsored by the Cola Company in direct competition to Coca
Cola its main rival brand. It is an on- going phenomenon. This is the most famous example of comparative
advertising. Find out the process and the controversies involved in it.
Forms of ADVERTISING
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End of the Unit Exercises
Section A
Section B
Discussion and Writing
Section C
Writing for your Portfolio
Section D
Further Research
Answer these questions in brief
1. Write down the advantages of advertising on radio.
2. Chalk out an exhibition campaign for a product having a pan-India appeal in order to make it successful
throughout the country.
3. Describe the various forms of prototypes in which an advertisement can be made?
4. Explain the latest trend of convergence in advertising with suitable examples.
5. On what basis does market segmentation occur? Discuss each characteristic briefly.
6. What is common to cooperative and point-of-purchase advertising?
7. Give a brief outline about the pre-work that is done by an organization before launching an advertisement
campaign.

'Information is essentially ethically neutral'. In context of this statement, discuss the ethical issues involved in
advertising with your peers. What should be the role of government agencies in checking the dissemination of
information that is exaggerated beyond facts?
Read up advertisements in newspapers, magazines, films, television etc. and do a survey of the most common and
popular forms of media being used by Indian advertising agencies for advertising Fast Moving Consumer Goods
Products/White goods under FMCG, targeted at the young collegians (e.g. Anti-acne creams, face washes,
cosmetics, beverages, funky mobiles etc.) and products specifically targeted at the old-aged consumers (e.g.
hearing aids, blood pressure and blood sugar monitoring machines, walking sticks, lumbar support equipment,
vitamin supplements etc.) Is there a difference in the media forms for advertising? Why? Write a report on the basis
of your observations.
Collect data from various sources and find out what the future of digital media in advertising, is.
Find out and prepare a list of the most famous products and services that have been promoted through covert
advertising.
Forms of ADVERTISING
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Unit - 5
Graphic Design Multimedia
Applications
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What is Multimedia?
(a) Central Processing Unit
(b) Monitor
Multimedia are the means to process and structure information into a well defined structure. Multimedia are called
so because it incorporates many other media such as text, graphics, animation, audio and video. Using Multimedia
one can make academic presentations, business presentations, devise games, operate information kiosks etc. In
fact, Multimedia has wide application in many fields , that can be served by information technology. Multimedia
systems require certain hardware and software specifications, that support the interactive uses of text, graphics,
animation, audio and video. Interactive Multimedia is a process by which the user can control the sequence and
timing of the media elements involved.
Computer Hardware requirements to create multimedia products are as mentioned below :
Central Processing Unit (CPU) or brain of the computer synchronises and processes all activities within. The
efficiency of a computer is dependent upon the speed of the CPU in processing of data. The CPU of a multimedia
computer should be at least 486 with math coprocessor. The Pentium processor is more efficient and is usually
preferred in Multimedia. The speed of the processor is measured in megahertz. It defines the number of
commands the computer can perform in a second. Faster the speed, greater will be the efficiency. RAM of 16 MBs
is minimally needed too, but a RAM of 32/64 MBs will make the process faster and more efficient.
A monitor is used to see the computer output. Generally, it displays 25 rows and 80 columns of text. The text or
graphics in a monitor is created as a result of an arrangement of tiny dots, called pixels. Resolution is the amount of
details the monitor can render. Resolution is defined in terms of horizontal and vertical pixel (picture elements)
displayed on the screen. Greater the number of pixels, better will be visualization of the image.
A monitor requires a source of input. The signals that a monitor receives from the processor are routed through a
graphic card. But there are computers available where this card is a part of the motherboard. This card is also
called the graphics adapter or display adapter. This card controls the individual pixels or tiny points on a screen
that make up image. There are several types of display adapters. The Super Virtual Graphics Arrays (SVGA) card is
widely used as the picture quality is better.
Computers with an on-board SVGA graphics card allow images of up to 1024 768 pixels to be displayed in up to
16 million colours. The memory capacity on the display adapters determines the maximum resolution and color
depth. The standard requirement is 2MB of display memory (or Video RAM).
The minimum amount of memory required for display adapter can be calculated by applying the formula below :
(Max. Horizontal Resolution x Max. Vertical Resolution Colour Depths. in Bits )/8192 = The minimum display
memory required (in KB).
For example, The memory requirement for a SVGA resolution of 800600 with 65,536 colours and a colour depth
of 16 will be : (800 x 600 x 16) / 8192 = 937.5 KB, i.e., approximately 1 MB of display memory.
MULTIMEDIA HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION TO MULTIMEDIA
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The refresh rate is equally important for better the image formation. Refresh rate is the number of times the images
is painted on the screen per second. A minimum of 70-72 Mhz is used to reduce eye fatigue. A higher resolution
requires a higher refresh rate to prevent screen flickers.
To convert the analog video signal (VCR or video camera) to a digital signal, the computer requires special
equipment called video grabbing card. This card is fitted into a free slot on the motherboard inside the computer
and gets connected to an outside source such as TV, VCR or a video camera with the help of a cable. This process of
conversion is known as sampling. The software available with it will capture this digital signal and store them in a
binary data format of 0's and 1's as a file. It also helps to compress the digitized video so that it occupies lesser disk
space. This file is then used for incorporation into multimedia. The digitized file can also be edited according to the
requirements using various editing software such as Adobe Premiere.
Various video grabbing cards are available. The Intel Smart Video Recorder III is good at capturing and compressing
video.
A computer can be used to compose music and for recognition of speech and synthesis. For this the computer
needs to convert the conventional sound signals to digital signals. This is done by adding special component to the
system called the sound card. This is installed into a free slot on the computer motherboard. On receiving various
sounds such as voice, pre-recorded sounds, natural sounds, Sound card will convert them into digital sound signal
of 0's and 1's. The recording software used along with the sound card will store this digitized sound stream in a file.
This file can later be used with multimedia software. One can even edit the digitized sound file and add special
sound effects into it.
Most popular sound cards are from Creative Systems such as Sound Blaster-16, AWE32, etc. AWE32 sound card
supports 16 channels, 32 voices, 128 instruments and 10 drums sound reproduction. It also has CD-ROM interface.
CD-ROM has become a massive storage capacity of data up to 680 Megabytes. To access CD-ROM a very special
drive known as CD-ROM drive is required.
As multimedia involves high resolution of graphics, high quality video and sound, it requires large amount of
storage space and at the same time require a media, which can support faster data transfer. CD-ROM solves this
problem by satisfying both requirements.
Similar to the hard disk drive, the CD-ROM drive has certain specifications which will help to decide which drive suit
best to your multimedia requirement.
Transfer rate is the amount of data the drive can transfer at a sustained rate from the CD to the CPU. This is measured
in KB per second. For example, 1x drive is capable of transferring 150KB of data from the CD to the CPU. All higher
rates are multiple of this number, x. Latest CD-ROM drive have a speed of 64x which means it can sustain a data
transfer rate of 64x150=9600 KB =9.38MB per second from the CD to the CPU.
(c) Video Grabbing Card
(d) Sound Card
(e) CD-ROM Drive
(i) Transfer Rate
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(ii) Average Seek time
(f) Scanner
PICT -
JPEG -
TIFF -
Windows BMP -
GIF -
(g) Touchscreen
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The amount of time lapse between a request and its delivery is known as average seek time. The lower the value,
better is the result. Time is measured in milliseconds. A good access time is 150ms.
Scanner is an external hardware equipment connected to the computer which converts photographs to digital
format attached to the computer. The scanner sends a beam of light across a picture or document and records it.
These pictures then can be displayed and edited on a computer. The captured or scanned pictures can be stored
in various formats like;
A widely used format compatible with most Macintosh
Joint Photographic Experts Group - a format that compresses files and lets you choose compression versus
quality
Tagged Image File Format - a widely used format compatible with both Macintosh and Windows systems
A format commonly used on MS-DOS and MS-Windows computers
Graphics Interchange Format - a format used on the Internet, GIF supports only 256 colours or grays
Scanners are available in various shapes and sizes like hand-held, feed-in, and flatbed types. There are some
scanners which scan only black and white images. Some of the reputed vendors of scanners are Epson, Hewlett-
Packard, Microtek and Relisys.
A touchscreen is used where the user is required to touch the surface of the screen or monitor. It is a monitor that
allows the user to interact with the computer by touching the display screen. This uses beams of infrared light that
are projected across the screen surface. Interrupting the beams generates an electronic signal identifying the
location of the screen. And the associated software interprets the signal and performs the required action. For
example, touching the screen twice in quick succession works as double clicking of the mouse. Touchscreen is
widely used for presenting a multimedia product in an arena like trade show, information kiosk, etc.
Following are the possible areas of application of multimedia:
Can be used as a great support in planning and executing any project.
Can be used to explain or propose a concept.
Using Multimedia while preparing a content for any topic makes the process more organized and precise.
The teaching and learning can be more interactive
In other words, Multimedia can be used to create projects that are self-explanatory as well as to illustrate topics
and themes to the extent required.
File Format Explanation
USES OF MULTIMEDIA:
INTRODUCTION TO MULTIMEDIA
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What is Text?
We all know what a written text is. The text in any form can be developed in to multimedia software. Text can be
edited using any standard text editor. However to give special effects, one needs graphics software. Text can be
varied in fonts, size, color and style to add value to the multimedia presentation.
HERE IS A TUTORIAL ON TRAETING TEXT USING ADOBE PAGEMAKER.
For the next 8 periods, the instructor will walk the students through the manual of the Adobe PageMaker
software. The manual normally accompanies the software. If, for some reason, the manual is not available, a
softcopy can be downloaded from www.adobe.com
The following is the recommended number of periods to be used for the following tutorials / exercises :
How to Create a New Documents 1 period
The Different Windows in PageMaker 1 period
How to Insert an Image into a PageMaker Document 1 period
How to Draw Graphics Elements 1 Period
How to Work with Text 1 period
How to Insert More Pages in the Report 1 period
How to Work with Columns 1 period
How to Wrap Text Around an Image 1 period
Adobe PageMaker
Chapter 2
TEXT
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Chapter 3
Still IMAGE
A Still Image
A still image is one of the components to be used in Multimedia. It could be a photographic image, a painting, a
drawing.
An image in Multimedia environment can be the starting point of a creative process. We take the original image in its
original form and then process it in many ways in Software like Photoshop.
HERE IS TUTORIAL ON HOW TO USE VARIOUS FUNCTIONS OF THE PHOTOSHOP.
For the next 10 periods, the Instructor will walk the students through the Manual of the Adobe Photoshop
software. The manual normally accompanies the software. If, for some reason, the manual is not available, a
softcopy can be downloaded from www.adobe.com
The following is the recommended number of periods to be used for the following tutorials / exercises :
Instruction to Interface 1 periods
Photoshop Tool Basics 4 periods
Practical and assignment 5 periods
Photoshop Basics
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Chapter 4
Video APPLICATIONS
What is Video?
VIDEO IS AN AUDIO-VISUAL DATA THAT CAN BE AVAILABLE IN ANALOGUE AS WELL AS DIGITAL FORMATS.
The video clips may be in various forms such as just visuals, visuals and sounds interlocked together, visuals, sounds
and graphics etc. the video can be originally created or taken from a pre-existing source like existing films or TV
programmes.
The video are to be made usable by computer, i.e, they have to be [converted] in to digial format. One can do it by
means of software.. The computer reads a video clip as a series of still pictures called frames. Generally there are
15 to 25 frames per second to achieve a smooth movement. If we take less frames than this, the movement of the
images will be smooth.
Latest video compression software makes it possible to compress the digitized video clips to its maximum. In the
process, it takes less storage space. One more advantage of using digital video is, the quality of video will not
deteriorate from copy to copy.
Great care has to be taken while digitizing the video from analog source to avoid frame droppings and distortion.
A good quality video source should be used for digitization.
Recent software like Flash provides interesting possibilities of embedding video clips in one;s presentations.
For the next 9 periods, the Instructor will walk the students through the Manual of the Adobe Flash software. The
manual is not available, a softcopy can be downloaded from www.adobe.com
The following is the recommended number for periods to be used for the following tutorials / exercises :
Introduction to flash 1 period
Timeline Motion Tween in Flash 1 period
Shape tween in Flash 1 period
Working with layers 1 period
Motion in Flash 1 period
Masking Guide in Flash 1 period
Fade in and Fade out effect in flash 1 period
Zoom in and Zoom out with Fade in effect 1 period
Photo slide show gallery in flash 1 period
Flash Animation
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Chapter 5
SOUND
Audio and Its Importance
The possibility of incorporating sounds adds a lively dimension to the possibilities of Multimedia. Human speech,
music- (vocal and instrumental), natural sounds, synthetic sounds, machine sounds, sounds that allude to various
environments like the bazzar, the railway station, the airport can be brought in to one;s presentations. They can be
used singly as well as in combinations.
These sounds can be incorporated into the computer either by direct recording by means of a microphone or by
transferring pre-recorded sound from the other media like the audio cassettes or CDs.
The sound thus transmitted would be of analog nature. It needs to be digitized so that the computer is able to
process this sound. After digitizing the sound, the error in sound can be reduced. These digitized sounds again
can be re-converted into analog form so that the user can hear them through the speakers.
Musical Instrument Digitization Interface or MIDI provides a protocol or a set of rules. This protocol enables to
record sound directly from an instrument to the computer. But MIDI data is not digitized sound. The quality of MIDI
data depends upon the quality of musical instrument and the sound system. A MIDI file is basically a list command
to produce a particular sound. For example, pressing of a piano key can be represented as a computer command.
When the MIDI device processes this command, the result will be the sound from the piano. MIDI files occupy less
space as compared to the digitized audio and they can be edited.
Being able to use the range of sounds that are available in the form of music, effects, varieties of human speech
opens up exciting creative possibilities.
HERE IS A TUTORIAL ON THE INCORPORATION OF AUDIO IN TO MULTIMEDIA.
For the next 5 periods, the instructor will walk the students through the Manual of the Sound Forge software. The
manual normally accompanies the software. If, for some reason, the manual is not available, a softcopy can be
downloaded from : http://www.sonycreativesoftware.com/soundforge
The following is the recommended number of periods to be used for the following tutorials / exercises :
Recording in sound forge 1 period
Recording from sound forge on to external sources 1 period
Importing Audio from CD, Minidisk or DAT into computer 1 period
Adjusting the volume of a File in sound Forge 1 period
Ripping Music from an Audio CD Using Sound Forge 1 period
Sound Free
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To achieve each outcome a student must demonstrate the ability by doing following projects:
Explore and use desk-top publishing and text editing software applications,
Design a range of page layouts using traditional methods (on paper)
Prepare digital layout grid with common page elements (using software)
Prepare image, graphic and text files for use in page layout
Format document and check for accuracy, and present in an appropriate format for print.
Explore and use creative typographic design applications
Study the potential of digital typography
Produce a range of work showing the creative use of typography
Combine typography with image in innovative ways.
(It can be poster Design, news paper or magazine ad etc.)
Digitize and manipulate objects or images
Digitize a range of objects and images in an appropriate file format for further development
Manipulate and present scanned images in a different way.
(Students can take any selected images scanned them and create different image using Photoshop or any other
image manipulation software)
Explore and use a range of painting and drawing software applications
Collect and present examples of the use of digital painting and drawing in contemporary sources
Use drawing and painting software applications creatively to present a range of work.
(Students can digitally create images by drawing and painting they can adobe Photoshop or any other drawing and
painting software)
(Students should prepare multimedia project based on following steps)
Project-1
Project-2
Project-3
Project-4
Project-5
Chapter 6
Creating A MULTIMEDIA PROJECT
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Step-1
Step-2
Step-3
Step-4
Step-5
Chapter -1
Research and define the objective of project through task analysis
Research and identify objective, context, environment, and possible constraints
Observe and note the target users engaged in existing methods or practices
Analyze tasks being carried out and define general areas of difficulty or confusion
Discuss results justifying reasons why a multimedia system would be better.
Create and plan a structure for interaction and interface design Concept of multimedia procedure.
Design a basic structure to build a multimedia project
Create, design or collect audio and visual components of a multimedia project
Research and check each component for contextual sensitivity and copyright licensing laws.
Assemble audio and visual components of multimedia project
Combine audio and visual components with the interactive structure
Assess visual screen design and adjust if necessary
Assess audio feedback and adjust if necessary
Assess interaction and adjust if necessary.
Evaluate and develop project
Evaluate multimedia project with a range of users
Observe and note results
Develop multimedia project
Discuss evaluation results.
Prepare and present project
Prepare files for presentation
Produce a written evaluation of working methods and the development cycle.
It is expected that most centers will use personal computers. The delivery of the unit does not
Require a particular platform. But a mix of platforms would be beneficial for providing the students with
experience of different systems. Centers should also offer library resources
List of resources-
Computer fundamentals-
Creating A MULTIMEDIA PROJECT
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Providing relevant and current information in relation to computing developments.
Because of the practical nature of this unit students will need access to the appropriate
Hardware and software.
At the time of study the following software would be suitable:
Adobe Pagemaker 7.0,
Adobe Photoshop CS2
adobe flash 8.0
sound forge 7.0
all above or other relevant software's
Information sources will include trade magazines eg:
Multimedia-Business Communication,
Creative Technology, CGI Magazine, Creative Review.
Suggested reading
General books on design methods and programming techniques will be useful.
Careers in Multimedia (Vivid Studios - Ziff-Davis Press) (ISBN-10; 1562763113. ISBN-13; 9781562763114)
Goldberg R - Multimedia Producers Bible (ISBN 0-7645-3002-X)
Kristof R and Satran A - Interactivity by Design (Adobe Press) (ISBN 1 56830 221 5)
Laurel B - Computers as Theater (Addison-Wesley) (ISBN-10: 0201550601 ISBN-13: 978-0201550603)
Loper L - Designing Multimedia - A Visual Guide to Multimedia and Online Graphic
Design (ISBN 0-201-88398-8)
Druckry T and Stone A R (eds) - Electronic culture: Technology and Visual Representation
Introduction to multimedia-
Chapter -2
Chapter -3
Chapter -4
Chapter -5
Chapter -6
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Image editing-
Video applications-
Sound-
Multimedia project-
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(Aperture, 1997) (ISBN: 0893816787)
Heller S and Drennan D - The Digital Designer: The Graphics Arts Guide to New Media
(Watson Gruptil Publications) ( ISBN-10: 0823013464 ISBN-13: 978-0823013463)
Popper F - Art of the Electronic Age (Thames and Hudson, 1997) (ISBN 0500203296)
All appropriate software manuals
Computer Arts Magazine
Creative Review
Adobe Magazine (http://www.adobemag.com)
Communication Arts (http://www.commarts.com)
Digital Video Magazine Online (http://www.zdent.com/-ziffnet/cis/)
Dynamic Graphics Magazine (http://199.224.160/DGEF/Dynamic)
Creative Review Magazine
Design Magazine
Other resources include:
Creating A MULTIMEDIA PROJECT