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1. PREFACE
This advanced Project guidelines have been developed to assist designers, program
energy saving measures.. There are two basic types of gas absorption chillers:
absorption systems and gas engine driven chiller systems. This project report deals
specifically with gas absorption systems. These guidelines are intended to be a step
implemented, how cost effective it is, and how its energy savings are describied.
These guidelines describe effeciency measures that are more advanced than standard
practise, yet still cost effective in all, or select markets. Design guidelines are used by
It should be remebered that this project document deals primarily with the
comparision of a single effeciency measure and its baseline. This means that the
analysis assumes that all other features of the building are fixed. This is done
primarily for clarity of the analysis, and allows one to focus on the advantages and
2. DESCRIPTION
1.1 The two basic principles on which all air conditioning and refrigeration plants
operate are:
a. When a liquid evaporates, it absorbs heat and when it condenses it gives up that
heat. This heat is called the latent heat of evaporation and latent heat of
condensation respectively.
The absorption cooling works on the affinity of some pairs of chemical to dissolve in
one another. For example, lithium bromide solution has affinity towards water, water
hasaffinity towards ammonia etc. this affinity depends on two factors – temperature
evaporator. At this pressure the refrigerant boils at very low temperature. This boiling causes
the refrigerant to absorb the heat from the medium being cooled, thus lowering the
temperature. On absorbing the heat the refrigerant gets vaporized. The refrigerant vapours
thus formed tend to increase the pressure in the vessel. This will in turn increase the boiling
temperature and the desired cooling effect will not be obtained. So, it is necessary to remove
the refrigerant vapours from the vessel. A liquid having affinity towards the refrigerant
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vapour is sprayed in the absorber which absorbs the vapour and maintains the low pressure
in the shell. As the absorbent absorbs the refrigerant vapor, it becomes dilute & losses its
that the absorbent is enriched to its original level of concentration and the refrigerant
vapours are condensed to the liquid. This is achieved by pumping the dilute solution
continuously from absorber to the generator. In the generator the addition of heat boils off
the refrigerant from the absorbent and the absorbent regains its original level of
concentration. The re-concentrated absorbent returns to the absorber to resume the absorption
process.The refrigerant vapour released in the generator flows to the condenser. In the
condenser cooling water is circulated through the coils, which picks up the heat carried by
the refrigerant vapour and vapour condenses back to the liquid phase. The condensed liquid
2.2.1 The basic Principle of an absorption cooling machine may be illustrated with
Figure 2.1. In its simplest design the absorption machine consists of the
following components:
Evaporator
Condenser
Absorber
Generator
Solution pump
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In an absorption cycle chiller, the absorber, the solution pump and the generator in
vapour. Vapour generated in the evaporator is absorbed into a liquid absorbent in the
absorber. The absorbent that has taken up refrigerant, spent or weak absorbent, is pumped to
the generator where the refrigerant is released as vapour. Which vapour is to be condensed in
the condenser. The regenerated or strong absorbent is then led back to the absorber to pick up
temperature and rejected from the absorber at a comparatively low level, analogously to a
heat engine. The words “ thermo chemical compressor” have actually been used in
specialised literature to describe the function of the generator and absorber half of the
absorption cycle.
Refrigerant and absorbent in an absorption cycle form what is called a working pair,
many pairs have been proposed through the years but only two of them have widely used:
ammonia together with water as absorbent and water together with a solution of lithium
bromide as absorbent. The ammonia water pair is mostly found in refrigeration applications,
with low evaporation temperatures, below 0 Deg C. the water – lithium bromide pair is
widely used for air conditioning applications, where it is not necessary to cool below 0 Deg .
the pressure levels in ammonia – water are usually above the atmospheric pressure and while
One is to utilise all possible opportunities fro heat recovery within the cycle in
order to improve the heat economy within the cycle. For example, it is customary
to heat exchange the streams of weak absorbent leaving the absorber with the
regenerated or strong absorbent that is led back into the absorber. When all heat
recovery opportunities that can reasonably be used have been incorporated into
approximately 0.7 for the water – lithium bromide system and approximately 0.6.
Further improvements may be obtained if one cascades more efficiently the high
temperature heat available to power the generator. The so called double- effect
systems incorporate two generators- absorber blocks that are staged, see figure
2.2, in order to utilise the heat supplied more or less twice. Heat is supplied at 170
Deg C to the first generator and heat rejected by the corresponding condenser is
used to power the second generator at a lower level, the temperature 100 Deg C
1.2, which is significantly better than the C.O.P of 0.7 of the single-effect
In direct –fired units, the heat sources can be gas or some other fuel that is burned in
the unit. Indirect – fired units use steam or some other transfer fluid that brings in
heat from a separate source, such as boiler or heat recovered from an industrial
process. Hybrid systems, which are relatively common with absorption chillers,
combine gas systems and electric systems for load optimisation and flexibility.
The single-effect “cycle” refers to the transfer of fluids through the four major
hot water as the heat source. The water is able to evaporate and extract heat in
the evaporator because the system is under a partial vacuum. The thermal
is sound, the low efficiency has inhibited the cost competitiveness of single –
where waste heat is readily available. Single –effect chillers can be used to
produce chilled water for air-conditioning and for cooling process water, and
The desire for higher efficiencies in absorption chillers led to the development
of double-effect LiBr/H2O systems. The double effect chiller differs from the
single-effect , in that there are two condensers and two generators to allow for
more refrigerant boil –off from the absorbent solution. Figure 2.4 shows the
higher temperature generator uses the externally supplied steam to boil the
refrigerant from the weak absorbent. The refrigerant vapour from the high
These systems use gas fired combustors or high pressure steam as the heat
The triple-effect cycles are the next logical improvement over the double-
effect. Triple-effect absorption chillers are under development, as the next step
from the high and medium temperature generators is condensed and the heat is
used to provide heat to the next lower temperature generator. The refrigerant
from all three condensers flows to an evaporator where it absorbs more heat.
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two condensers and two absorbers to achieve the triple effct. A second, the
2.4 Efficiencies
performance(COP), which is defined as the net refrigeration effect by the net heat
input . Single – effect absorption chillers have COPs of approximately 0.6-0.8 out of
an ideal Since the COPs are less than one, the single-effect chillers are normally used
in applications that recover waste heat such as waste steam from power plants or
boilers. Double- effect absorption chillers have COPs of approximately 1.0 out of an
ideal while not yet commercially available, protype triple effect absorption chillers
The COP metric is also applied to electric chillers. However, since COP is based on
site energy, it is not good for comparing gas and electric chiller efficiencies.
A better metric is the resource COP, which accounts for the source to site efficiency
of the fuel, accounting for electricity generation and transmission losses. Fig 2.6
shows typical values for both electric chillers and absorption chillers
Source –to-
Chiller Site COP Resource COP
site factor
Electric 2.0 – 6.1 0.27 0.54 – 1.65
Absorption 0.65 – 1.2 0.91 0.59 – 1.1
operating costs by avoiding peak electric demand charges and time of day rates. The
use of gas absorption chillers eliminates the high incremental cost of electric cooling.
Natural gas cooling systems have greater resource efficiency than similar to electric
65% - 75% loss in the initial energy resource of fuel. In contrast, only about 5% to
10% of the fuel resource is lost with a gas system. Additionally, electricity costs per
Kwh are typically three to four times the cost per Kwh for electricity, so the cost of a
Utilising waste heat that would otherwise be unused greatly increases the cost
2.5.1 Absorption systems have several non- energy benefits over conventional
electric systems
Since the 1960’s, several improvements have been made to absorption chiller,
which include:
Automatic purge systems eliminating the need for manual purging and
lowering the potential for corrosion.
Faster system response due to the use of electronic controls and solution
concentration sensing
Electronic controls and sensors that make crystallisation of the chiller far less
likely than in the past.
2.5.3 Limitations :
readily available free waste heat. Even double effect systems are non cost
economical in the right situation, their exact economics must be worked out on
a project-by-project basis.
Absorption systems also require greater pump energy than electric chillers. The
size of condenser water pumps are generally a function of the flow rate per unit
The primary disadvantage of the absorption system are their size and weight
and they are larger and heavier than the electric chillers of the same capacity.
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3.1 History
Absorption systems have been used in air – conditioning applications for over
50 years. Ammonia – water absorption equipment was found to be well suited for large
capacity industrial applications that required low temperature for process cooling. In
the late 1950’s the first working double-effect lithium bromide – water absorption
chiller was built. Lithium bromide –water absorption equipment is currently used to
produce chilled water for space cooling and can also be used to produce hot water for
In the 1960’s the natural gas industry was very effective in promoting this
alternative to electric – driven cooling. Absorption cooling and gas absorption chillers
were successfully marketed on the basis of lower operating costs, and better system
controls increased the performance and decreased the cost of electric cooling systems.
Additionally, and perhaps more importantly, the gas crunch of the seventies curtailed
gas cooling promotion and forced prospective buyers to remain with conventional
electric systems. Since 1987 when the Montreal Protocol first came into existence
many issues surrounding electric cooling including the use of CFC refrigerants and
electric utility rates, have become increasingly complicated. Coincident with these
electric cooling issues, gas costs have remained relatively stable while the technology
The total chiller market in India is estimated at 7,000 units and valued
at Rs.1800 crores
As a result of rising electric rates and the increased efficiency, reliability and
accessibility of gas equipment Figure 3.1 shows the Absorption cooling market
390
334
287 140
121
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cooling systems. However, there are several metrics that are used to define
• COP
• IPLV
• APLV
the energy input, in BTU. This same metric is applied to electric chillers, but
since it is based on site energy, it is not good for comparing gas and electric
chiller efficiencies. Gas absorption chillers, as well as electric chillers, are rated to Air
below:
IPLV. It is an industry standard for calculating an annual COP based on a typical load
profile and the part load characteristics of chillers. It was originally conceived as part
of ANSI/ASHRAE standard 90.1 (standard for energy Efficient design of New Non
comparing manufacturers part load data. The method assumes that the chiller operates
at a specific part load for a specific number of hours during the year. According to the
following equation:
IPLV = 1
____________________________________
0.17 + 0.39 + 0.33 + 0.11
_____ ____ ____ _____
A B C D
Chiller Load Chilled water Mfgr Rated COP Part Load Hours(%)
(%) Return Temp (F)
100 85 A 17
75 78.75 B 39
50 72.5 C 33
25 66.25 D 11
COP ratings A,B,C, and D at each part load condition are obtained from the chiller
manufacturer and should be derived from actual chiller tests. Note that the calculation
allows for a 2.5 Deg C reduction in the entering cooling water temperature for every
10% drop in cooling load. A lower entering cooling water temperature corresponds to
part load (reduced) cooling demand, that results from a drop in ambient temperature.
when cooling load is dominated by internal gains) this estimate of part load
modeled to actual building load profiles tailored to site- specific ambient conditions
The applied Part Load value, APLV is calculated using the same IPLV
formula, except that actual chilled and condenser water temperatures and flow rates
are used. The advantage of using the APLV over the IPLV, is that this rating more
They are driven by the additional investment cost and several factors influencing
operating cost, including:
• Relative costs of the electricity and gas, and their billing structures,
• Operating characteristics
The first three factors are discussed in the following sections and combined to
It is essential that the complete utility rates and rate structures are used for an accurate
economic analysis. Utility rate structures may include one or more of the following:
Block rates : - The electric block rates may be in terms of kWh, with different rates
for various levels of energy consumption. It may also be stated in kWh per kw of
demand. In this case kWh rate is function of demand. A lower demand typically
results in a large allowed amount of kWh at a lower rate. A high demand results in a
smaller amount of kWh before the higher rate kicks in. typically, although not always,
Time of use rates – The electric rate may vary depending on the time of day. The
time of use rate is typically described in terms of on-peak and off peak and sometimes
partial peak.
Ratchets – The electric rate may include a demand which allows for a variation on
Taxes – applicable taxes and franchise fees, which can be over 10% in many ares.
Special rates – For gas cooling equipment or special load-management electric rates
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are sometimes available. Using average electric and gas cost is rarely adequate to
capture the cost of operating cooling equipment, especially when the rate structure
includes demand charges or declining blocks. The marginal electric price for cooling
has a larger demand component relative to usage, which drives up the unit price. The
details of the actual electric rates must be considered in the total analysis of chiller
for office buildings generally are operated approximately 10-12 hours per day,
five days per week. Equipment in hospitals will operate near full load for
much of the day and at reduced, but still significant load for the remainder of
the day. Annual energy savings need to be large enough to overcome higher
initial costs fro gas- engine driven chillers to be cost effective. Annual energy
that has a significant number of hours where the equipment runs at part load,
performance.
load for relatively few hours and not at all for most hours will result in too
little annual energy savings to realize an acceptable payback for most business
requirements.
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employ” equivalent full load hour” methodology. Equivalent full load Hours
(EFLH)Are defined as the total cooling load supplied over the cooling load
While this method does not reflect the efficiency of part load operation, it
such as DOE-2, HAP or TRACE, which predicts when, where and how much
Refrigeration
150 TR to 2500 TR (525 kW to 8,775kW)
Capacity
Refrigeration
95 TR to 1460 TR (333 kW to 5,125 kW)
Capacity
Refrigeration
45 TR to 360 TR (158 kW to 1,264 kW)
Capacity
Refrigeration
150 TR to 1200 TR* (525 kW to 4,210 kW)
Capacity
The list is certainly not exhaustive. Daikin(Japan) withdrew from the absorption
cycle field in the 1980’s, but it seems from recent reports that some activities have
been taken up again. In addition to these in the list, there are manufacturers that
working pair is designed for air cooling applications. For historic reasons capacities
are given in US RT(refrigeration tons), one US ton of ice per hour, in literature from
• Hotels
• Commercial buildings
• Education centers
• Hospitals
• Super markets
• Pharmaceutical companies
• Chemicals
• Electronics
• Engineering Industries
3
> 500TR
200 - 500 TR
< 200 TR 16
7
2
11 9 5 8
1 4
5 2 14
5
4
3 8
5 6 6 4 2
4 1 3
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4. DESIGN ANALYSIS
4.1 Overview
Absorption chillers were compared to the following chiller options:
efficiency code bodies. The results of a detailed energy and rates analysis for seven
The cities and buildings are representative of the range of climates and building
occupancies where gas cooling options would be used. The list of cities, sorted by
cooling degree day(CDD) is provided in Figure 4.1. information on building type and
size are provided in Figure 4.2. The economic analysis is of course dependent upon gas
and electric rates. Building description and city specific utility rates are provided the
appendix.
The results are graphed for various gas rates and various electric rates. Due to
The complexities of the interactions between fuel type usage and utility rates. It was
not possible to develop “typical” gas to electric cost results. These graphs can be
comparing a gas chiller to an electric chiller. The results of separate fuel type analysis
CITY CDD 50
San Francisco 2.833
Chicago 2.941
Washington DC 3.473
Los Angeles 4.77
Atlanta 5.083
San Diegeo 5.223
New Delhi 3.221
River side 5.295
Miami 9.474
Figure 4.2 shows the building types included in the analysis, along with the
building size in square feet, and the cooling equipment sizes represents the variation in
cooling load for the cities analysed. The sizing of the cooling plant follows ASHRAE
centrifugal, used as a comparison, was dependent on size. Figure 4.4 shows the
standard and high efficiencies assumed for the various types of chillers.
> 800
Centrifugal
results of any hybrid systems analysis cannot be generalized. They were therefore
intentionally not included in this analysis. However, if the results indicate that a gas
absorption chiller is cost effective, or even marginally not cost effective, a hybrid
models. The models provide comprehensive data on energy use and savings. The
The graphs in the figure 4.5 present the energy savings for watch of the cities for a
range of marginal gas and electrical prices. The graphs present the annual energy cost
savings, in rupees per year, versus the marginal cost of gas, in rupees per therm, or the
marginal cost of electricity in rupees per kWh. The marginal energy cost, gas or
therms or kWh. The marginal cost accounts for varying rates that may apply based on
total usage.
ratio(SIR), SIR is defined as the Life Cycle Cost (LCC) savings, in dollars, divided by
the incremental measure cost per unit capacity, in rupees per ton capacity, as shown in
Incremental Cost
The SIR uses an investment model over the life of the equipment rather than the
The LCC savings describe the present worth of the energy cost savings over the
life of the investment. If the LCC savings are greater than the incremental cost, then
the SIR will be greater than one and the measure is assumed to be cost effective.
• Building type,
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• Equipment,
• Climate,
• Scalar ratio.
Specific equipment cost information is provided in the Appendix. Additional first costs
Another element of the first cost for gas absorption chillers is the potential
savings from interactions with other building elements. For example, installing a gas
absorption chiller may reduce the building’s electric service drop and load center.
These savings could be significant, but are not included due to the variability between
installations.
analysis. The scalar ratio is a single term that combines discount rate, period of
analysis, fuel escalation and other factors. The first year savings are multiplied by the
scalar to arrive at the life cycle savings. In technical terms, the scalar ratio represents
4.4 Effective Utilisation of waste heat from Diesel Genset to Run Air
conditioning Plant:
stations. Industries depending heavily on electrical energy are the most affected ones.
Industries are encouraged to have their own captive power stations. Diesel generating
sets are the most common captive power stations. The exhaust gases of these gensets
have a very large amount of heat(about 700 Degree Celsius at full load), which is
wasted, can be effectively exploited. Waste heat of coolant (about 120 Degree
Celsius)from diesel gensets, equipped with evaporative cooling system can also be
exploited. The waste heat of exhaust gas & coolant so exploited can run a central
chiller based central air conditioning plant can be run by tapping waste heat of the
Kaltimex, etc are reported. Such system with combined heating & power (CHPC) is
Key words :
Waste heat Utilisation, vapour absorption chiller , Gensets, Air
Nomenclature:
Operating Conditions : for a water- lithium bromide chiller water plant for
Condenser temperature = 45 ° C
Absorber temperature = 45 ° C
Thermodynamic Calculations :
P K = 71.9 mm Hg( At 45 ° C)
P o = 6.54 mm Hg( At 5 ° C)
P = 71.9 mm of Hg & t = 91 ° C
h1 = -50 kj/kg
h1 = -22 kj/kg
State 4 :
t = 45 ° C ξ Li Br2 = 0.63
h 4 = -140 kj/kg
h3 = h2 - [ f ( h1 – h4) / ( f – 1) ]
h = (250 + 1.88t) kj / kg
State 7 :
h7 = h6 = 188.4 kj / kg
State 8 :
qb = h5 – h2 + f (h2 – h1)
= 3189 kj / kg of vapour.
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Coefficient of Performance :
= 0.728
= 70 kW
= 105.56 kW
= 30 TR
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Figure 4.5 - Layout of Vapour Absorption Chiller with Wasste heat of Diesel genset
With increased natural gas availability and ever widening demand supply
gap for power, commercial / industrial users are shifting towards self-
generation to meet their ever increasing power needs. Industries are utilizing
the tri-generation systems which utilizes the waste heat from the engine
Exhaust directly along with the jacket water to generate chilled/Hot water to
Figure 4.6 – Sankey Diagram for IC engine with & without heat recovery
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The following graphs that describe the performance of gas absorption chillers in a
variety of cities and building types. As described earlier, these graphs were developed
from DOE-2.1E runs done for representative prototype buildings using the actual
Two sets of energy cost savings are calculated for each building type. One is for a
range of marginal gas costs and a fixed marginal electric cost. The other is for a range
The top graph in figure 4.7 is typical of the annual energy cost savings Vs marginal
cost graphs. The bottom graph is same for the same conditions showing the energy cost
savings Vs marginal costs. These particulars are for the medium office building type
The vertical y-axis shows the annual energy cost savings, between the base equipment
and the gas Absorption Chiller. As shown on the top graph, as gas prices increase, the
prices increase, savings from the Absorption Chiller increases, as shown in the bottom
graph.
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Figure 4.7 – Energy Cost Savings for Absorption Chillers vs. Standard Efficiency
Electric chiller for Medium Office
xlix
Figure 4.8 – Energy Cost Savings for Absorption Chillers vs. Standard Efficiency
Electric chiller for Large Office
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