Heat For IIT JEE

PHYSICS:HEATandTHERMOYNAMICS
HEAT HEAT
In summer, we instal fans, air-conditioners in our homes to keep ourselves comfortable. Our bodies are
highly sensitive to our surrounding climate. So, we wear clothes depending upon seasons. Why ? Just think
about these ::
1. What is energy ? Where does it come from ?
2. Why do we need this thing we call energy ?
3. What happens to energy after it is used ?
4. What is heat ? Where does it come from ?
5. What is hot and cold ?
6. How does heating and cooling work ?
7. How do we measure heat and energy ?
To answer these questions let us first understand what the matter is and what it is made up of.
VYAHRUTI EDUCATIONALINSTITUTIONS:
2
nd
Floor, Samsung Plaza, Eluru Rd, Near Benz Circle, VIJAYAWADA
1

At the atomic level, let us understand what an atom is made up of :

What is energy ? Where does it come from ?
A quark is an elementary particle and a fundamental constituent of matter. As far as we know,
quarks are indivisible; i.e., quarks are the smallest unit matter in the nucleus. Our current understanding
is that the quark is a point-like particle with no spatial extent! Quarks have various intrinsic properties,
including electric charge, color charge, spin, and mass. Quarks are the only elementary particles in the
Standard Model of particle physics to experience all four fundamental interactions, also known as
fundamental forces (electromagnetism, gravitation, strong interaction, and weak interaction), as well as
the only known particles whose electric charges are not integer multiples of the elementary charge.
Quarks combine to form composite particles called hadrons, the most stable of which are
protons and neutrons, the components of atomic nuclei. There are six types of quarks, known as flavors:
up, down, charm, strange, top, and bottom. Up and down quarks have the lowest masses of all quarks.
The heavier quarks rapidly change into up and down quarks through a process of particle decay: the
transformation from a higher mass state to a lower mass state. Because of this, up and down quarks are
generally stable and the most common in the universe, whereas charm, strange, top, and bottom quarks
can only be produced in high energy collisions (such as those involving cosmic rays and in particle
accelerators).

2
nd
2

Hence these quarks are the carriers of an intrinsic mechanical property known as ENERGY
As quarks are the constituents of the nucleons, nucleons do possess this. So, an atom has an inherent
energy stored in it. Molecules are made up of atoms and substances are made from molecules. Hence all
substances in the universe have this inherent Internal Energy. This is called Potential Energy.
Now atoms do contain electrons moving around the nucleus in some specified paths called Orbits.
Hence the energy possessed by these electrons in motion is called Kinetic Energy. There are three types of
kinetic energy.
(i) If the KE is associated with the movement of a particle from one location to another location,
this is translational KE.
(ii) If the KE possessed by a particle that oscillates or vibrates about a fixed point, it is called
vibrational KE.
(iii) If the KE possessed by a particle that rotates about an imaginary axis of rotation, it is called
rotaional KE.
Thermal energy is the total energy of the translational, vibrational and rotational energies of all the
individual molecules of which the object is made up of.
2
nd
3

What is heat ? Where does it come from ?
As studied in the earlier topic, every substance has a certain internal energy. If some of that
internal energy is transferred to the random motions of the particles in another object, then you can say
that a transfer has heat has occured.
Heat is a measure of how many atoms there are in a substance multiplied by how much energy
each atom possess. When we say that a body is heated, then its
(i) thermal energy increases
(ii) molecules begin to move violently, hence, thermal vibrational energy increases
(iii) rate of collision between neighbouring molecules increases
(iv) inter-atomic seperation increases, thus thermal expansion takes place.
Hence this measurable manifestation of the thermal energy due to the average K.E of all the
particles within a sample of matter is called TEMPERATURE. It is related to how fast the atoms within
a substance are moving. It is the degree of hotness ( atoms moving faster ) and coldness (atoms moving slower )
of a body.

Definition of Heat : Heat is energy in transit which is transferred from one body to the other, due to
difference in temperature, without any mechanical work involved.
2
nd
4
HEAT TEMPERATURE
It is a form of thermal energy and measures the
total energy of all the molecules in an object.
It is a measure of average KE of molecules in
an object. It is the degree of hotness or
coldness.
SI Unit : joule CGS Unit : calorie Unit : degree Centigrade / Fahrenheit / Kelvin
Flow of heat doesnot depend

1. 1. T THERMAL HERMAL E EXPANSION XPANSION OF OF S SOLID OLID : :
Expansion due to increase in temperature is called Thermal Expansion.
At any temperature the atoms of solid are vibrating . Figure represents potential energy for two adjecent atoms
in a solid as a function of their internuclear separation r. When temperature is increased vibrational energy of
atoms increases. Because the curve is asymmetric, the average separation (r
1
, r
2
) increases.
r
1
r
2
r
0
T
1
T > T
1 2
r
U
Hence thermal expansion is direct consequence of deviation from symmetry of the characteristic potential
energy curve of solid.
2.( 2.(A A) ) T TYPE YPE OF OF T THERMAL HERMAL EXPANSION EXPANSION: :
Coefficient of expansion For temperature change T (T is small)
(1) Linear
T 0
0
1
lim
T
l
l

_

,
change in length
0 0
T l l l l
(where
0
l is initial length of the rod,
is
Co-efficient of linear expansion)
(2) Superficial
T 0
0
1
lim
T
A
A

_

,
change in Area
0 0
T A A A A
(where
0
A
is initial area of the rod,
is
Co-efficient of superficial expansion)
(3) Volume
T 0
0
1
lim
T
V
V

_

,
change in volume
0 0
T V V V V
(where
0
V is initial volume of the rod,
is
Co-efficient of volume expansion)
(B) For isotropic solid,
1 2 3

(say). So
2 and 3
(C) For anisotropic solids,
1 2 1 2 3
and + + +
Here
1 2
,
and
3
are coefficient of linear expansion in X, Y and Z directions respectively.

(D) For Variable
:
(i) variation of
with distance
Let ax b +
Total expansion =
0
(expansion of length dx) ( ) T
l
ax b dx +

d x
x
(ii) variation of
with temperature
Let
( ) f T

2
1
0
( )
T
T
l l f T dT
Caution : If
is in C then put
1
T
and
2
T
in C
Similarly if
is in K, put
1
T
and
2
T
in K.
3. 3. V VARIATION ARIATION OF OF T TIME IME P PERIOD ERIOD OF OF P PENDULUM ENDULUM C CLOCKS LOCKS: :
0
0
2
l
T
g

If temperature is increased by
, t
2
nd
5

0
(1 )
2
l t
T
g
+

0
2 (1 )
2
l
T t
g

+
(by using Binomial expension)
T
0
(1 )
2
T t
+
0 0
2
T T T t

0
1
( )
2

T
t T
T
increase in time period
4. 4. V VARIATION ARIATION IN IN D DENSITY ENSITY: :
With increase in temperature, volume increases, so density decreases and vice-versa.
0
(1 T)
+
d
d
For solid, values of
are generally small so we can write

0
(1 T) d d (using binomial expansion)
5. 5. T THERMAL HERMAL S STRESS TRESS: :
A rod of length
0
l
clamped between two fixed walls
For T change in temperature
stress (area assumed to be constant)
F
A
,
0
strain
l
l
;
0
T l l
so,
0
0
/
/ T

F A Fl F
Y
l l A l A
or,
| T| F YA
F F
l
o
or, | T|
F
Y
A
Energy stored in rod E
1
2
stress strain volume
For increase in temperature stress will be compressive and for decrease in temperatue stress will be tensile
1. Illustration : When the temperature of a body increases from T to T + T, its moment of inertia increases
from I to I + I. The coefficient of linear expansion of the body is . Find the ratio of
I
I

Solution : I = mr
2
I + I = m[r(1 + T)]
2
or I + I = [mr
2
(1 + 2 T)] = I(1 + 2 T)
or I/I = 2 T.
2. Illustration : A pendulum clock with a pendulum made of Invar
6
( 0.7 10 / ) C
has a period of
0.5 s and is accurate at 25 C. If the clock is used in a country where the temperature averages
35 C, what correction is necessary at the end of a month (30 days) to the time given by the
clock?
Solution: In time interval t , the clock will become slow (or will lose time) by
1
2
t t
So,
7
1
(7 10 ) (30 86400) (35 25) 9.1
2
t s
.
3.Illustration: Two metal rods of the same length and area of cross-section, are fixed end to end between
rigid supports. The materials of the rods have Young modulii Y
1
and Y
2
, and coefficients of
2
nd
6

linear expansion
1
and
2
. For what condition the junction between the rods does not shift if
the rods are cooled.
Solution : Tension must be the same in both the rod for their junction to be in equilibrium.
Y
1
A
1
T = Y
2
A
2
T
4. Illustration : A copper and a tungsten plate having a thickness
2 mm
each are riveted together
so that at 0C they form a flat bimetallic plate. Find the average radius of curvature of
this plate at T = 200C. The coefficients of linear expansion for copper and tungsten
are
5 1
1.7 10
c
K

and
5 1
0.4 10
t
K

.
Solution : L
0
(1 +
1
T) = (R + /2) .. (1)
L
0
(1 +
2
T) = (R /2) .. (2)
From (1) and (2), we get
RT (
1

2
) = +
2
T (
1
+
2
)

small very are and
2 1

R
L

( )
~
2 1
RT

1 2
0.769
( )

R m
T
.

6.( 6.(A A) ) T THERMAL HERMAL E EXPANSION XPANSION OF OF L LIQUID IQUID : :
Liquids do not have fixed shape and take the shape of container in which it is kept. Therefore, liquids undergo
volume expansion only.
For liquid two types of co-efficient of volume expansion is defined
( (I I) ) Co-efficient of apparent expansion (
a
) :
a
a
0
( V) Apparent change in volume
Initial volume rise in temp V T

In apparent expansion change in volume of container is not considered .
( (II II) ) Co-efficient of real exparsion (
r
) :
r
r
0
( V) Real change in volume
Initial volume rise in temp V T

For the determination of real change in volume of liquid expansion of container is also taken into account.
V V
0
Suppose at temp T
1
volume of liquid is V
0
(Initial volume)
At temp T
2
volume of liquid w.r.t. container = V
2 1
T T T
0 a
V V [1 T] (i) +
If V
r
is real volume of liquid at temp T
2
2
nd
7

r 0 r
r c
V V [1 T] (ii)
V V[1 T] (iii)
+
+
Where
c
is co-efficient of volume expansion of container.
(i) & (iii) in (iii)
0 r 0 a c
V [1 T] V [1 T][1 T] + + +
r a c
[1 V T] 1 V T r T + + +
neglecting
2
a c
T
r a c
+

6.( 6.(B B) ) EXPANSION EXPANSION I IN N E ENCLOSED NCLOSED V VOLUME OLUME: :
Increase in height of liquid level in tube when bulb was initially completely filled :
apparent change in volume of liquid
area of tube
h
0
0
( ) T
;
(1 2 T)

+
L g
g
V
h
A
apparent

L g

Initially Finally
Note:
(i)

for liquids are in order of
3
10
.
(ii) For water, density increases from 0 to 4C so
is ve (0 to 4C) and for 4C to higher temperature
is +ve. At
4C density is maximum.
7. 7. V VOLUME OLUME C COEFFICIENT OEFFICIENT AND AND P PRESSURE RESSURE COEFFICIENT COEFFICIENT OF OF G GASES ASES: :
Volume Coefficient : Volume Coefficient :
Consider a given mass of a gas is heated through 1 C at constant pressure. Now the ratio of the increase in
volume to the original volume at 0 C is defined as volume coefficient. If
T
V
and
0
V
be the volumes of a given
mass of gas
T C
and 0 C respectively, then
0
0
T
V
V V
V T
where
v
is known as volume coefficient.

Pressure coefficient : Pressure coefficient :
Consider a given mass of a gas is heated through 1 C at constant volume Now the ratio of the increase in
pressure to the original pressure at 0 C is defined as the pressure coefficient. If
T
P
and
0
P
be the pressures of a
given mass of a gas at T C and
0C
respectively, then
0
0
T
p
P P
P T
. where p
is known as pressure
coefficient.
5. Illustration : A sphere of diameter 7cm and mass 266.5 gm floats in a bath of liquid. As the
temperature is raised, the sphere just begins to sink at a temperature of 35C. If the
density of the liquid at 0C is
3
1.527 / gm cm , find the co-efficient of cubical expansion
of the liquid. Neglect the expansion of the sphere.
Solution : The sphere will sink in the liquid at 35C, when its density becomes equal to the
density of liquid at 35C.
2
nd
8

The density of sphere,
s
=
35 3
266.5
4 22 7
3 7 2

_ _

, ,
( density of sphere is constant)
3
35
1.483 / gm cm
Now,
0 35
[1 ] T +
1.527 1.483[1 35] +
1.029 1 35 +
1.029 1
0.00083/
35
C
.
6. Illustration : A one litre glass flask contains some mercury. It is found that at different temperature
the volume of air inside the flask remains the same. What is the volume of mercury in this
flask if coefficient of linear expansion of glass is
6
9 10 / C
while volume expansion of

mercury is
4
1.8 10 / C
?
Solution: If V is the volume of flask,
L
V
of mercury and
A
V
of air in it,
L A
V V V +
Now as with change in temperature volume of air remains constant, the expansion of
mercury will be equal to that of the whole flask i.e.,
L
V V
or
G L L
V V
[as
V V
]
Here V 1 litre = 1000 cc and
6
3 27 10 /
G G
C

So
6 4
(1000 27 10 /1.8 10 ) 150
L
V

cc.
8.(A) 8.(A) Calorie: Calorie:
The amount of heat needed to increase the temperature of 1 gm of water from 14.5C to 15.5C at STP is
known as 1 calorie
8.(B) 8.(B) Specific Heat: Specific Heat:
It is heat required to raise temperature by 1 C or 1 K for unit mass of the body.
dQ mc dT
2
1
T
T
Q m cdT
(be careful about unit of temperature, use units according to the given units of c)
8.(C) 8.(C) Molar Heat Capacity: Molar Heat Capacity:
If instead of unit mass we consider one mole of a substance, the heat required to change the temperature of one
mole of a substance through 1 C (or K) is called molar heat capacity or molar specific heat and is represented
by C. If the molecular weight of a substance is M :
n
Q
C Mc
T

as and n
Q m
c
m T M
1

1
]
Its SI units are (J/mol K)
8.(D) 8.(D) Thermal-capacity : Thermal-capacity :
If instead of unit mass we consider the whole body, (of mass m), the heat required to raise the temperature of a
given body by 1 C is called its thermal capacity , i.e.,
Thermal capacity
n ( / ) mc C Q T
Thermal capacity of a body depends on the mass and nature of body. It has units (J/K) or cal/ C and dimensions
2 2 1
[ ]

ML T K .
8.(E) 8.(E) Water-Equivalent : Water-Equivalent :
2
nd
9

If thermal capacity of a body is expressed in terms of mass of water it is called water-equivalent of the body,
i.e., water-equivalent of a body is the mass of water which when given same amount of heat as to the body,
changes the temperature of water through same range as that of the body, i.e.,
( ) W m c gram
[where : W = mass of water ; m = mass of substance ]
The unit of water equivalent W is g while its dimension [M].
9. 9. Latent Heat: Latent Heat:
The amount of heat required to change the phase of 1 gm of a substance to another phase at melting or
boiling point.
Q mL
L = latent heat of substance in cal/gm or in Kcal/kg.
ice
80 / L cal gm Specific latent heat of fusion of ice
steam
540 cal/gm L Specific latent heat of vaporization of water
10.(A) 10.(A) Principle of Calorimetry : Principle of Calorimetry :
When two bodies (one being solid and other liquid or both being liquid) at different temperature are mixed,
heat will be transferred from body at higher temperature to a body at lower temperature till both acquire
same temperature. The body at higher temperature releases heat while body at lower temperature absorbs it,
so that :
Heat lost = Heat gained,
i.e. principle of calorimetry represents the law of conservation of heat energy.
10.(B) 10.(B) D DETERMINATION ETERMINATION OF OF SPECIFIC SPECIFIC HEAT HEAT OF OF LIQUID LIQUID USING USING A A
CALORIMETER CALORIMETER: :
The principle of calorimetry states that the total heat given by the hot objects equals the total heat received by
the cold objects. Objects at different temperatures are made to come in contact with each other in the
calorimeter. As a result heat is exchanged between the objects as well as with the calorimeter. Neglecting any
heat exchange with the surroundings,
The method is similar to that for determining the specific heat of the solid. In this case, the calorimeter is half
filled with a liquid of unknown specific heat and a solid of known specific heat, which is insoluble in the liquid
is steam heated and then put inside the calorimeter.
Let the mass of the solid = M
Mass of the calorimeter and stirrer = m
1
Mass of the liquid = m
2
Specific heat capacity of the solid = s
1
Specific heat capacity of the material of calorimeter and stirrer = s
2
Specific heat capacity of water = s
Initial temperature of the solid =
1
Initial temperature of the calorimeter, stirrer and water =
2
Final temperature of the mixture =
From the principle of calorimetry
( ) ( ) ( ) +
1 1 1 2 2 2 2
Ms m s m s
Heat gained = Heat lost
( )
( )

1 1 1
2
2 2 2
Ms m
s s
m m
7. Illuatration : The temperature of equal massesof three different liquids A, B and C are 12C, 19 C and 28
C respectively. The temperature when A and B are mixed is 16 C and when B and C are
mixed is 23 C. What would be the temperature when A and C are mixed?
Solution: In accordance with principle of calorimetry :
When A and B are mixed
(16 12) (19 16)
A B
mc mc
(3/ 4)
A B
c c
2
nd
10

and when B and C are mixed
(23 19) (28 23)
B C
mc mc
(4/ 5)
C B
c c
Now when A and C are mixed if T is the common temperature of mixture:
( 12) (28 )
A C
mc T mc T
Substituting
A
c and
C
c from above,
(3/ 4)( 12) (4/ 5)(28 ) T T
which on solving gives,
20.25 T C .
8. Illustration : A solid material is supplied heat at a constant rate. The temperature of the material is
changing with the heat input as shown in figure. Study the graph carefully and answer the
following questions :
Solution : (i) The horizontal portions AB and CD of the graph represent the change of phase.
The portion ABrepresents the change of phase from solid to liquid at constant
temperature and the portion CD represents the change of phase from liquid to vapour at
constant temperature or the portion CD represents the latent heat of vaporization.
(ii) 2 CD AB ,
i.e., latent heat of vaporization is twice the latent heat of fusion.
(iii) The slope DE is equal to
/ dT dQ
for vapour, i.e., this gives the rate of increase of
temperature of vapour with heat input.
Slope of
1
Specific heat of the vapour
DE
or, Specific heat of vapour
1
Slope of DE
(iv) Slope OA > slope BC

The slope OA is related with specific heat as
Specific heat of solid
1
Slopeof OA
Now slope OA > slope BC , represents that specific heat of the liquid is more than that of the
solid.
11. 11. H HEAT EATT TRANSFER RANSFER: :
(A) (A) Conduction: Conduction:
Heat energy is transferred (usually through solids) from one part of the material medium to other without
transferring the material particles.
(i) Steady State : In this state heat absorption stops and temperature gradient throughout the rod becomes
constant i.e.
dT
dx
constant
(ii) Before steady State : Temparture of rod at any point changes
11.(B) 11.(B) L LAW AW F FOR OR T THERMAL HERMAL C CONDUCTION ONDUCTION IN IN S STEADY TEADY S STATE TATE: :
2
nd
11
(i) What do the horizontal regions AB and CD represent?
(ii) If
2 CD BA
, what do you infer?
(iii) What does slope DE represent?
(iv) The slope of OA > the slope of BC . What does this
indicate?
A
B
C
D
E
O
Y
X
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
H e a t i n p u t

In steady state heat passing through a bar of length L and cross-section
A in time t when its ends are at temperatures
1
T and
2 1
( ) T T < is given
by:
1 2
( ) T T
Q KA t
L
(i)
So rate of flow of heat will be
dQ dT
KA
dt dx
(ii)
A Q
L
x = 0 x = L
T
1
T
2
The quantity
( / ) dT dx
is called temperature gradient (minus sign indicates that with increase in
x
,
temperature decreases) and the constant K depends on the nature of metal and is called coefficient
of thermal conductivity or simply thermal conductivity and is a measure of the ability of a substance to
conduct heat through it. The dimensions of coefficient of thermal conductivity are
3 1
[ ]

MLT K while
its SI units are W/mK.
Let the two ends of rod of length l is maintained at temperature
1
T

and
2
T
Thermal current
1 2
Th
T T dQ
dt R
Where thermal resistance

Th
R
KA
l
l
T
1
T
2
(a) Two rods joined
1 2
1 2
T T dQ
dt R R
+
A B
R
1
R
2
T
T
1
T
2
( T > T )
1 2
(b) Three rods joined to a common point
1 2 3
1 2 3
100 20 5
0
T T T
K A K A K A

+ +
l l l
1 0 0 C
T
l
1
l
2
l
3
K
1
K
2
K
3
2 0 C
5 C
11.(C) 11.(C) S SERIES ERIES AND AND P PARALLEL ARALLEL C CONNECTION ONNECTION OF OF R RODS ODS IN IN S STEADY TEADY
S STATE TATE: :
Series Connection Series Connection
1
K
= thermal conductivity of A
2
K
= thermal conductivity of B
1 2
T T >
length l and cross section area A of both rods are same
1
1
R
K A
l
2
2
R
K A
l
Thermal current
1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2

+
T T T T T T Q
i
t R R R R
R l
1
,
R l
2
,
T
1
T
2
K
1
K
2
T
B A
2 1 1 2
( ) ( ) T T R T T R
1 2 1 1 2 2
TR T R T R TR
1 2 1 2 2 1
( ) T R R T R T R + +
1 2 2 1
1 2
T R T R
T
R R
+
+
2
nd
12

1 2 1 2
1 2
T T T T
R R R

1 2
R R R +
Two rods together is equivalent to a single rod of thermal resistance
1 2
R R +
Parallel Connection Parallel Connection
1 1 2
1
1
Q T T
i
t R

;
2 1 2
2
2

Q T T
i
t R
1 2
i i i +
;
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 1
( )
T T
T T
R R R
_
+

,
R
1
R
2
T
1
T
2
K
1
K
2
C
B
The system of the two rods is equivalent to a single rod of thermal resistance R is given by
1 2
1 1 1
R R R
+
11.(D) 11.(D) C CONDUCTION ONDUCTION B BEFORE EFORE S STEADY TEADY S STATE TATE: :
Differential form :
dQ dT
KA
dt dx
dT
dx
temperature gradient
d x
T T - d T
C CONDUCTION ONDUCTION IN IN A A S SECTION ECTION OF OF M MEDIUM EDIUM B BEFORE EFORE S STEADY TEADY S STATE TATE: :
d Q
1
d Q
2
T
1
T
2
1 2
( ) T T >
1 2
dQ dQ dQ (In steady state
0 dQ
, i.e.
1 2
dQ dQ )
1 2
dT dT
mS dT KA dt KA dt
dx dx

1 2
dT dT dT KA
dt mS dx dx
_

,
dT increase in temperature of the section in time dt.
11.(E) 11.(E) Growth Of Ice: Growth Of Ice:
Consider a layer of ice of thickness x. The air temperature is
C and water temperature below the ice is 0 C.
Considering unit cross-section area of ice, if a layer of thickness dx
grows in time dt .
Then heat given by this layer
= mass latent heat
1 dx L

density of ice L latent heat of fusion of ice.
Temperature of air C
x
d x
T e m p e r a t u r e o f w a t e r 0 C
If this quantity of heat is conducted upwards through the ice layer of area A in time dt .
{ } 0 ( )
Adx L K dt A
x

time taken
2
1
2 2
2 1
( )
2
x
x
L L
t x dx x x
K K

Rate of increase of thickness of the ice layer

dx K
dt Lx
_
,
.
2
nd
13

9. Illustration : Three cylindrical rods
, A B
and C of equal lengths and equal diameters are joined in series
as shown in figure. Their thermal conductivities are
2 , K K
and 0.5K respectively. In steady
state, if the free ends of rods A and C are at 100 C and 0 C respectively, calculate the
temperature at the two junction points. Assume negligible loss through the curved surface.
What will be the equivalent thermal conductivity?
L
K
A
1 0 0 C
2 K 0 . 5 K
0 C
B C
A B
B C
Solution: As the rods are in series, eq A C
R R R R + +
B with
( / ) R L KA
i.e.,
7
2 0.5 2
eq
L L L L
R
KA KA KA KA
+ + (i)
And hence,
(100 0) 200
(7 / 2 ) 7
dQ KA
H
dt R L KA L

Now in series, rate of flow of heat remains same, i.e.,
A B C
H H H H
.
So for rod A,
A
dQ dQ
dt dt
1 1
1 1
] ]
i.e.,
(100 )2 200
7

AB
KA KA
L L
or, 100 (100/ 7) (600/ 7) 85.7
AB
C
And for rod C ,
C
dQ dQ
dt dt
1 1
1 1
] ]

i.e.,
( 0) 0.5 200
7

BC
KA KA
L L
or, (400/ 7) 57.1
BC
C
Furthermore if eq
K
is equivalent thermal conducitivity,
7
2
eq
eq
L L L L
R
K A KA
+ +

[from equation (i)]
i.e.,
(6/ 7)
eq
K K
.
10. Illustration : A 2m long wire of resistance 4 ohm and
diameter 0.64 mm is coated with plastic insulation of
thickness 0.06 mm. When a current of 5 ampere flows
through the wire, find the temperature difference
across the insulation in steady state if
[
2
0.16 10 / s] K cal cm C

d r
r
a

1
2
b
Solution : Considering a concentric cylindrical shell of radius r and thickness dr as shown in figure. The
radial rate of flow of heat through this shell in steady state will be
dQ d
H KA
dt dr
Negative sign is used as with increase in r, decreases

Now as for cylindrical shell A = 2 r L
2

d
H rLK
dr
or
2
1
2
b
a
dr LK
d
r H

which on integration and simplification gives
( )
1 2
2 ( )
ln

LK dQ
H
b dt
a
(i)
Here,
2 2
(5) 4 cal
24
4.2 4.2 s
I R
H

2 200 L m cm

1
(0.64/ 2) r mm= 0.032 cm and
2 1
0.032 0.006 0.038 R r d + + cm
So
( )
o
1 2
2
38
24 ln
32
( ) 2 C
2 3.14 200 .16 10

%

10 10
24 2.3026[log 38 log 32]
3.14 0.64

2
nd
14

or
1 2
55 [1.57 1.50]
( ) 2
2

C.
11. Illustration : Consider a lake that is getting frozen at an
atmospheric temperature of -10 C. Assuming that most of the
heat that is lost comes from the latent heat of fusion released when
the water freezes. Find the rate at which the thickness of ice
increases as a function of time. Take the conductivity of ice as K
and the density of ice
~
density of water

Solution: The water just beneath the ice is almost at 0C. Assume that the thickness of ice at time t
is ( ) x t , that the area of the lake is A
0
and that the density of ice is
.
If the latent heat of ice is L, then
( )
0 0 0
10
0 10
LA dx KA KA dQ
dt dt x x
1
]
or,
10 dx K
dt xL
or,
10K
xdx dt
L

or
2
10
2
x K
t
L
+
constant
At 0 t , we assume that 0 x : i.e. initially the lake is not frozen.
Therefore,
2
20K
x t
L
or ( )
20
,
K
x t t C t
L

where
20K
C
L
is a constant.
12. 12. Convection: Convection:
Heat energy is transferred (usually through liquids and gases) by mass movement of molecules from one point
to another. (Due to gravity & buoyant force).
13. 13. Radiation: Radiation:
Heat energy is transferred by electromagnetic waves even in absence of medium.
Absorptive Power a
Absorptive power of a body is defined as the fraction of the incident radiation that is absorbed by the body.
Absorptive power
Energyabsorbed
Energyincident
a
Emissive Power e
The emissive power denotes the energy radiated per unit area per unit time per unit solid angle along the normal
to the area.
Emissivity
Emissivity of a surface is the ratio of the emissive power of the surface to the emissive power of black body at
the same temperature.
2
nd
15

Emissivity,
E
e
re) temperatu same at the body black of power (Emissive
surface) the of power (Emissive

Black body
A perfectly black body is one which absorbs completely all the radiation, of whatever wave-length, incident on
it. (a = 1)
K KIRCHHOFF IRCHHOFF S S L LAW AW
It states that the ratio of the emissive power to the absorptive power for radiation of a given wave length is the
same for all bodies at the same temperature, and is equal to the emissive power of a perfectly black body at that
temperature. E
a
e
14. STEFANS LAW OF RADIATION :

The total radiant energy emitted E per unit time by a black body of surface area A is proportional to the fourth
power of its absolute temperature and surface area A of the black body
4
E AT
or,
4
E AT (

Stefans constant = 5.67 10
8
kg sec
2
k
4
)
For a body which is not a black body
4
E AT where is emissivity of the body
Using Krichoffs law
( )
( )
body
black body
E
a
E

or,
4
4
AT
a
AT
or,
a
Emissivity and absorptive power have the same value. So, good absorbers are good radiators and bad absorbers
are bad radiators.
Net Loss Of Thermal Energy:
If a body of surface area A is kept at absolute temperature T in a surrounding of temperature
0
T
0
( ) T T < .
Then energy emitted by the body per unit time
4
E AT
And energy absorbed per unit time by the body
4
0 0
E AT
Net, loss of thermal energy per unit time.
4 4
0 0
( ) E E E A T T .
15. NEWTONS LAW OF COOLING:
For a small temperature difference between a body and its surrounding, the rate of cooling of the body is
directly proportional to the temperature difference.
If a body of surface area A is kept at absolute temperature T in a surrounding of temperature
0 0
( ) T T T <
. Then
net loss of thermal energy per unit time.
4 4
0
( )
dQ
A T T
dt

If the temperature difference is small
0
T T T +
4 4
0 0
{( ) } A T T T +
4
4 4
0 0
0
1
T
A T T
T

_
+
' ;
,

2
nd
16

4
0
0 0
1 4 higher powers of 1

+ +
' ;

T T
AT
T T

3
0
4 AT T (i)
Now, rate of loss of heat at temperature T
dQ dT
ms
dt dt
(ii)
From equation (1) and (2), we get
3
0 0
4 ( )
dT
ms AT T T
dt
;
3
0
0
4
( )
AT dT
T T
dt ms

0
( )
dT
k T T
dt
... (iii) where
3
0
4 k AT
i.e.,
0
( )
dT
T T
dt
.
From equation (iii),
Kdt
T T
dT
0

By integrating this equation

t
0
T
T
0
Kdt
T T
dT
1
;
( )
Kt
0 1 0
Kt
0 1
0
e T T T T e
T T
T T

+
16. Wiens black body radiation :

At every temperature (>0K) a body radiates energy in the form of electromagnetic wave of all wavelengths.
According to Wiens displacement law if the wavelength corresponding
to maximum energy is
m
Then
m
T b where b is a constant (Wiens constant)
T = temperature of body
Intensity at a specific temp. T
5
m
I T
This is wiens fifth power law.
T
1
T
2
T
3
T T < T
1 2 3
<
m
3

m
2

m
1
I
12. Illustration:One end of a rod of length 20 cm is inserted in a furnace at 800 K. the sides of the rod are
covered with an insulating material and the other end emits radiation like a blackbody. The
temperature of this end is 750 K in the steady state. The temperature of the surrounding air is
300 K. Assuming radiation to be the only important mode of energy transfer between the
surrounding and the open end of the rod, find the thermal conductivity of the rod. Stefan
constant
8 2 4
6.0 10 / W m K

Solution : Quantity of heat flowing through the rod in steady state

. . dQ K Ad
dt x

(i)
Quantity of heat radiated from the end of the rod in steady state

( )
4 4
0
dQ
A T T
dt
(ii)
From (i) and (ii)
( )
4 4
0
. K d
T T
x

8 4 4 8
50
6.0 10 [(7.5) (3) ] 10
0.2
K

Or K = 74 W/m K.
F u r n a c e
8 0 0 K
7 5 0 K
2 0 c m
A i r t e m p .
3 0 0 K
2
nd
17

13. Illustration: A body initially at 80C cools to
64C in 5 minutes and to 52C in 10 minutes. What will
be the temperature of the body after 15 minutes and
what is the temperature of the surroundings ?
Solution : If T
0
is the temperature of the surroundings, then
We have
K 5
T 64
T 80
0
0
e

,
_
log
.. (1)
and
K 5
T 52
T 64
0
0
e

,
_
log
.. (2)
Equating Equations (1) and (2), we get
0
0
0
0
T 52
T 64
T 64
T 80
which gives
T
0
= 16C
If T temperature after 15 minutes, then
K 5
16 T
16 52
or K 5
T T
T 52
e
0
0
e

,
_
,
_
log log
.. (3)
From equations (1) and (3), we get
16 T
16 52
16 64
16 80
which gives
C 43 T
14. Illustration : The intensity of solar radiation, just outside the earths atmosphere, is measured
to be 1.4
2
kW/m . If the radius of the sun
8
7 10 m, while the earth-sun distance is
6
150 10 km , then find
(i) the intensity of solar radiation at the surface of the sun,
(ii) the temperature at the surface of the sun assuming it to be a black body,
(iii) the most probable wavelength in solar radiation,
Solution: (i) The radiation emitted from the solar surface per unit time is spread over the surface
of a sphere having a radius equal to earth-sun distance where it is received on the
earth (just outside the atmosphere)
2 2
0
4 4
S Se
W R I D
where
Se
D is the distance between the sun and the earth, and
0
I is the intensity outside
the earths atmosphere.
2
0
S
Se
R
I W
D
_

,
2
8
3 4
9
7 10 49
1.4 10 10
150 10 225
W W

_

,
or
7 2
6.4 10 W/m W
(ii) Assuming the sun to be a blackbody,
4
0
T W
( )
7 4 8 4
0 0
6.4 10 5.67 10 T T
4 15
0
6.4
10
5.67
T or
4
0
0.58 10 K 5800K T
2
nd
18

(iii) Using Wiens displacement law,
3
mp 0
0.29cm-K 2.9 10 m-K T

or
3
7
2.0 10
5 10 m 5000
5800
mp
A
[Note : mp
is also referred to as
max
]
17. 17. IDEAL GAS IDEAL GAS
Any gas which obey gas law is called ideal gas, where R = universal gas constant and its value is equal to
8.31 J/mol K. An ideal gas is a simple theoretical model of a gas. No real gas is truly ideal. Real gas
approaches the ideal gas behavior for low pressures and hight temperatures.
18. 18. KINETIC THEORY OF GASES KINETIC THEORY OF GASES
(A) Gases are made-up of tiny particles, consisting of molecules, atoms or even ions (sometimes) which
retain the chemical properties of the sample of which they are composed.
The kinetic theory of gases develops a model of the molecular behavior which should result in the
observed behavior of an ideal gas.
Assumptions
(i) Molecules (Whose size is extermely small in comparision to the separation between them) are moving
randomly in all direction.
(ii) Molecules exert no appreciable force on one another or on the walls of the container except during
collision.
(iii) All collisions between the molecules of with the wall of the container are perfectly elastic.
(iv) The duration of a collision is negligible in comparsion to the time spend by a molecue between collisions.
(v) The molecules obey Newtons Laws of motion.
The assumptions of kinetic theory are close to the situation at low densities.
(B) Pressure of an ideal gas
Consider an ideal gas enclosed in a cubical vessel of edge L.
Considering a molecule moving with velocity
Face 1
Face 1
X
Y
Z
Vy
Vx Vz
2 2 2
x y z x y z
V V V V ; | V| V V + + + +
r r r r r
The change in momentum of the molecule on collision with face 1
x x x
P ( mv ) (mv ) 2mv
Thus, momentum imparted to the wall = 2mv
x
Time between two successive collisions of face 1,
x
2L
t
v

Rate at which momentum is imparted to the wall ,
2
x
F P/ t mv / L
2
nd
19

Total force on the face 1 due to all the molecules
2 2
x x
F mv / L (m/ L) mv ...........(1)
As
2 2 2
x x x
v v v
( )
2 2 2 2 2
x x y z
1 1
V V V z V
3 3
+ + (2)
2
2
1 m 1 mN v
F V
3 L 3 L N
,
where N = tottal number of molecules in the sample.
Now, Pressure =
2
force 1 mN V
area 3 L N
2
1 V
P
3 N
, where
3
mN
L

2
2 2
1 V
P V , V is the mean square speed.
3 N
1

1
]
RMS Speed
It is defined as
1/ 2
1/ 2 2
2 2
1 2 2
rms
1 2
v dN
N1V N V .....
V
N N ......
dN
1
1 + +
1

1
+ + 1
]
]
Here, N
1
molecules have speed V
1
, N
2
molecules have speed V
2
, and so on.
Since
2
rms
1 m
P v
3 V
If we take n mole gas,

2
rms
1
PV n.Mv
3
2
rms
1
nRT n.Mv
3
, where R = universal gas constant = 8.314 J/mol-K
or
rms
3RT
v
M
Kinetic interpretation of temperature

Kinetic energy of radom motionis the intermal energy, given by
2
int rms
1 1 3RT
K.E. m.V n.M
2 2 2

int
K.E. T
This means temperature of a body depends on its internal KE. At absolute zero temperature, K.E.
int
becomes
zero.
(C) Degrees of Freedom
The degree of freedom of a particle is the number of independent motions which the particle can undergo.
Law of Equipartition of Energy
2
nd
20

For a system in equilibrium at absolute temperature T, the average energy per particle associated with each
degree of freedom is
1
2
kT, where k is Boltzmanns constant.
The internal energy of an ideal gas is entirely the kinetic energy of its molecules.
Thus, internal energy ofone mole of an ideal gas, having f degrees of freedom
1 1
U N f kT fRT
2 2
, N = Avogadros Number, R = kN
The specific heat of the gas at constant volume ,
V
dU fR
C
dT 2

P V
f f
C C R R R 1 R
2 2
_
+ + +

,
Thus, ratio of the two specific heats,
P
V
f
1 R
C 2
2
1
f
C f
R
2
_
+ +

,
+
A molecule of a monatomic gas has only 3 (translational) degrees of freedom, i.e. f = 3.
V
P
f 3
C R R
2 2
C (f / 2 1)R 5/ 2R; 1 2/ f 5/ 3 1.66

+ +
A molecule of a diatomic gas has 5 degrees of freedom (3-translational and 2-rotational) at ordinary
atmospheric temperatures (Because the vibrational modes are not excited). The moment of inertia about the line
joining the two atoms is negligibly small. Hence, the roational energy about that axis is zero.
F = 5
V
P
f 5
C R R
2 2
C (f / 2 1)R 7/ 2R
1 2/ f 7/ 5 1.40

+
+
Note : At very hight temperatures, if vibrational mode is also considered, then f = 7
A molecule of a triatomic or polyatomic gas has 6 degrees of freedom (3 translational and 3 rotational )
f = 6
v
p
f
C R 3R
2
f
C 1 R 4R
2
2 4
1 1.33
f 3

_
+

,
+
However, if the atoms of the molecule are arranged in one line (like the molecule of CO
2
), then the degrees of
freedom are only 5 and its C
v
, C
p
and
values will be similar to those of the diatomic gases.

18. Illustration : An air bubbles starts rising from the bottom of a lake. Its diameter is 3.6 mm at the
bottom and 4 mm at the surface. The dpeth of the lake is 250 cm and the temperature at the surface is
40C. What is the temperature at the bottom of the lake ? Given atmospheric pressure = 76 cm of Hg
and g = 980 cm/sec
2
. (Specific gravity of mercury = 13.6)
Solution: At the bottom of the lake, volume of the bubble
3 3 3
1 1
4 4
V r (0.18) cm
3 3

2
nd
21

Pressure on the bubble P
1
= Atmospheric pressure + Pressure due to a column of 250 cm of water.
= 76 13.6 980 + 250 1 980 = (76 13.6 + 250) 980 dyne / cm2
T
1
= Temperature at the bottom
At the surface of the lake, Volume of the bubble
3 3 3
2 2
4 4
V r (0.2) cm
3 3

Pressure on the bubble P
2
= atmospheric pressure
= 76 13.6 980 dyne/cm
2
T
2
= 273 + 40C = 313 K
Now,
1 1 2 2
1 2
PV P V
T T
or
3 3
1
(76 13.6 250)980 (4/ 3) (0.18) (76 13.6) 980(4/ 3) (0.2)
T 313
+
or
3 3
1
1283.6 (0.18) 1033.6(0.2)
T 313
3
1 3
1283.6 (0.18) 313
T 287.37K
1033.6(0.2)

T
1
= 283.37 273 = 10.37C
19. Illustration : Given : Avogardos Number N = 6.02 10
23
and Boltzmanns constant k = .38
10
23
J/K.
(i) Calculate the average kinetic energy of translation of the molecules of an ideal gas at 0C and at
100C.
(ii) Also calculate the crossesponding energies per mole of the gas.
Solution: (i) According to the kinetic theory, the average kinetic energyo f translationper molecule
of an ideal gas at Kelvin temperature T is (3/2) kT, where kis Boltzmanns constant.
At 0C (T = 273 K)
The kinetic energy of translation = 3/2 kT
= (3/2) (1.38 10
23
) 273 = 5.65 10
23
J/molecule
At 100C (T = 373 K),
(ii) 1 mole of gas contains N (=6.02 10
23
) molecules.
Therefore, at 0C, the kinetic energy of translation of 1 mole of the gas
= (5.65 10
21
) (6.02 10
23
)
3401 J/mole
And at 100C, the kinetic energy of translation of 1 mole of gas
= (7.72 10
21
) (6.0210
23
)
4647 J/mole.
20. Illustration : How many degrees of freedom does the gas molecule have if undr standard
conditions the gas density is 1.3 kg/m
3
and the velocity of sound in it is v = 330 m/s.
Solution: As
2
P v
v
P

If f be the number of degree of freedom, then

2
nd
22

2
2 2
f
1 v / P 1
1
]
P = 1.013 10
5
N/m
2
= 1.3 kg/m
3
, v = 330 m/s. f = 5
19.(A) 19.(A) INTERNAL ENERGY OF AN IDEAL GAS INTERNAL ENERGY OF AN IDEAL GAS
In case of an ideal gas, no internal force of interaction exists. Hence, the internal potential energy is zero. The
interrnal energy of an ideal gas comprises of molecular kinetic energy.
f
U nRT
2
19.(B) 19.(B) WORK DONE WORK DONE

Work done by the gas (or system) over the surroundings can be calculated as
A
B
V dV
P
p
dW = P dV
f
i
v
v
W P dV
Here, dW is elemental work done by pressure P, of the system during elemental change in voluem eV.
Work done in the process AB is equalt o the area under the curve AB and V-axis.
20. 20. Mechanical Equivalent of Heat: Mechanical Equivalent of Heat:
Whenever mechanical work is transformed into heat or heat into mechanical work, there is a constant ratio
between the work and the amount of heat. This ratio is called mechanical equivalent of heat and is denoted by
J . Thus, if W be the amount of work done and Q the amount of heat prouduced, we have
W
J
Q

, W J Q
If 1 Q unit then J W . Therefore, J is numerically equal to the mechanical work required to produce one
unit of heat.
21. 21. First law of Thermodynamics : First law of Thermodynamics :
It is the consequence of conservation of energy for gaseous system.
Heat supplied to the gas = Increase in internal energy + work done by the gas.
Q U W + Q
= +ve
heat is supplied to the gas

in differential form
dQ dU dW + Q
= ve
heat is taken out from the gas

and
dQ nCdT
C = molar specific heat
P
C C
(constant pressure);
V
C C
=(constant volume)
22. 22. Indicator Diagram: Indicator Diagram:
This is graph between pressure and volume of a system under going operation,
2
nd
23

P
V
(1) Every point of Indicator Diagram represents a unique state (P, V, T) of gases.
(2) Every curve on Indicator Diagram represents a unique process.

Isochoric Process (V = constant)
0 0 dV dW
By First Law of Thermodynamic
V
dQ dU nC dT
2
1
2 1
( )
T
V V
T
Q nC dT nC T T
1
2
P
V
I s o c h o r i c
Isobaric Process (P = constant)
0 dP
By First Law of Thermodynamics
dQ dU dW +
2 1 2 1 2 1
( ) ( ) ( )
2
p
f
nC T T nR T T nR T T
_
+

,
where d
2 1
( ) W nR T T
1 2
P
V
I s o b a r i c
* Be careful if
0 V
then not necessarily an Isochoric Process.
* If
0 P
then not necessarily an Isobaric Process.
Isothermal Process (T = constant): Isothermal Process (T = constant):
0 dU ( 0) dT Q
PV K
By First Law of Thermodynamics
dQ dW

dQ PdV

2
1
( ) /
V
V
Q W nRT dV V
1
2
P
I s o t h e r m a l P r o c e s s
V
1
V
2
T > T
2 1
T
2
T
1
2 1
1 2
ln ln
V P
W nRT nRT
V P

.
Adiabatic Process Adiabatic Process : :
dQ = 0 but if
0 Q
, it is not necessarily adiabatic.
dW dU By First Law of Thermodynamics
2
1
1 2 1 1 2 2
( )
1 1 1
T
T
nR T T PV PV nRdT
W

How to get the process Equation for adiabatic

2
nd
24

(i) First Law of Thermodynamics with process condition
1
nRdT
dU dW

(i)
(ii) Differential form of gas law
( ) ( ) d PV d nRT
PdV VdP nRdT +
But
1
nRdT
dW PdV

So
( 1) PdV VdP PdV +
(ii)
( ) VdP PdV
dP dV
P V

ln ln ln P V C +
Const. PV
1
Const.
TV
1
Const. T P

For Adiabatic Process PV
constant
adiabatic isothermal
dP dP
dV dV

Slope of adiabatic curve is more in magnitude in comparison to the
slope of the isothermal curve.
P
V
A d i a b a t i c
I s o t h e r m a l
Bulk Modulus of Gases:
( )/
P P
V
V V V

Isothermal bulk modulus of Elasticity
Isothermal
/
_

,
T
dP P
E V
dV V V
Adiabatic bulk modulus of Elasticity
/
adia
adia
dP P
E V
dV V V
_

,
;
adia
T
E
E

.
CYCLIC PROCESS CYCLIC PROCESS : :
It is the combination of various processes such that initial and final state is same. Therefore initial and final
temperature is equal i.e., T = 0 U = 0
Q = W
Efficiency of a Cyclic Process
So 0 U

no rise in internal energy
Q W
Efficiency
work done by gas
heat input

out
in in
1
Q
Q W
Q

P
V
2
1
Q
i n
Q
o u t
23.(A) Molar Specific Heat For Polytropic Process
n
PV K
2
nd
25

molar heat capacity of polytropic process
1 1
R R
C
n
+

1 1
R R
n

So C is constant for polytropic process
23.(B) Work done on gas in some process :
0but d 0 V V
W can be zero For clockwise W + ve
work done = + ve but dW 0 For anticlockwise W ve
Work done is least for monoatomic gas in expansion :
P
V
1
V
2
V
I s o t h e r m a l
P o l y a t o m i c
D i a t o m i c
M o n a t o m i c
A d i a b a t i c
P r o c e s s
21. Illustration : Three moles of an ideal gas being initially at a temperature
0
273 T K
were
isothermally expanded
5.0
time its initial volume and then isochorically heated so that the
pressure in the final state became equal to that in the initial state. The total amount of heat
transferred to the gas during the process equals
80 Q
KJ. Find the ratio /
P V
C C for this
gas.
Solution : In isothermal process, the heat transferred to the gas is given by
1 0 2 1 0
ln( / ) ln Q nRT V V nRT (i)
2 1 1 2
[ ( / ) ( / )] V V P P
In isochroric process,
2
Q U (W = 0)
2
{ /( 1)}
V
Q nC T n R T (ii)
Now
0 2
1
T P
P T
or
1
0 0
2
P
T T T
P
_

,
0 0 0
( 1) T T T T
(iii)
substituting the value of T from equation (iii) in equation (ii), we get
2 0
( 1)
1
R
Q n T
_

,
0 0
ln ( 1)
1
R
Q nRT n T
_
+

,
or
0
1
ln
1
Q
nRT
_

,
or
0
1
1
ln
Q
nRT

2
nd
26

0
1
1
ln
Q
nRT
+

Substituting given values, we get
3
(5 1)
1
80 10
ln5
3 8.3 273

Solving we get
1.4

22. Illustration : If 2 moles of an ideal monoatomic gas at temperature T
0
is mixed with 4 moles of
another ideal monoatomic gas at temperature 2T
0
, then find the temperature of the
mixture ?
Solution : Let T be the temperature of the mixture.
Then U =U
1
+ U
2
or
1 2 1 0 2 0
f f f
(n n )RT (n )RT (n )(R)(2T )
2 2 2
+ +
or (2 + 4) T = 2T
0
+ 8T
0
(n
1
= 2, n
2
= 4)
or
0
5
T T
3
23. Illustration : In a given gas during a process one third of heat supplied is used to raise
internal energy of gas. Find molar specific heat of the gas and their process.
Solution: Heat supplied = nCdT C = molar specific heat
3 3
3 2 2 1 3
nCdT f fR R dQ
nRdT C dU
_

,
Q .
24. Illustration:An ideal gas is taken through a process in which the pressure and the volume are
changed according to the equation P = KV. Show that the molar heat capacity of the
gas for the process is given by C = C
V
+R/2.
Solution : PV = nRT . . . . . (i)
P = KV . . . . . (ii)
From (i) and (ii),
KV
2
= nRT
Differentiating
2 KVdV = nRdT PdV = nRdT/2
dQ = dU + PdV nCdT = nC
V
dT + nRdT/2
C = C
V
+ R/2
2
nd
27

25. Illustration : One mole of monoatomic ideal gas is taken
through the cycle shown in figure.
A
B Adiabatic expansion
B
C Cooling at constant volume

C
D Adiabatic compression
D
A Heating at constant volume

P
V
A
B
C D
The pressure and temperature at A, B etc., are denoted by
, ; ,
A A B B
P T P T
etc/ respectively.
Given
1000 , (2/ 3)
A B A
T K P P
and
(1/ 3)
C A
P P
. Calculate
(a) The work done by the gas in the process A
B
(b) The heat lost by the gas in the process B
C and
(c) Temperature
D
T
given
2/ 5
(2/ 3) 0.85 and 8.31 R J/mol K.
Solution : (a) As for adiabatic change
1
T
P
constant so
1
B B
A A
T P
T P

_ _

, ,
where
5
3

i.e.
1
1 2/ 5
2 2
1000 850
3 3
B A
T T K
_ _

, ,
so
[ ]
1 8.31[1000 850]
[ 1] [(5/ 3) 1]
i f
AB
R T T
W

i.e.
(3/ 2) 8.31 150 1869.75
AB
W
J
(b) For
, B C V
constant so 0 W
so from first law of thermodynamics
0
V
Q U W C T + +
or
3
1 ( 850)
2
C
Q R T
_

,
as
3
2
v
C R
Now along path BC, V = constant; P T
i.e.
(1/ 3) 850
, 425
(2/ 3) 2 2
C C A B
C B
B B A
P T P T
T T
P T P

K (ii)
So
3
1 8.31(425 850) 5297.625
2
Q J
[Negative heat means, heat is lost by the system]
(c) D A process is isochoric
,
D D
A A
P T
P T
i.e.
D
D A
A
T
P P
T
But C and D are on the same adiabatic

1 1
D D A D
C C C A
T P P T
T P P T

_ _ _

, , ,
or
( )
1
1
1/
,
A
D C
C A
P
T T
P T
1
]
i.e.
2/ 5
3/ 5
2 (1/ 3) 1000
B A
C
A
T P
T
P
1
_
1
,
]
i.e.
2/ 3 2/ 5
3/ 5
1 2 3
1000
2 3 1000
D
T
1
_ 1

1

1
, ]
1
]
i.e. 500
D
T K
2
nd
28

26. Illustration : An ideal gas is taken through a cyclic thermodynamical process through four steps.
The amount of heat involved in these steps are
1
5960 Q J ;
2
5585 Q J
3
2980 Q J ;
and
4
3645 Q J respectively. The corresponding works involved are
1 2 3
2200 ; 825 ; 1100 W J W J W J and
4
W respectively.
(a) Find the value of
4
W
(b) What is the efficiency of the cycle?
Solution : (a) According to the given problem
1 2 3 4
5960 5585 2980 3645 + + + + Q Q Q Q Q
9605 8565 1040 Q
J
1 2 3 4 4 4
2200 825 1100 275 + + + + + W W W W W W W
and as for cyclic process , 0
F I F I
U U U U U
So from first law of thermodynamics, i.e.,
, + Q U W
we have
4
1040 (275 ) 0, + + W
i.e.
4
765 W
J
(b) Efficiency of a cycle is defined as
1 4 1 4
Network
Input heat ( ) ( )

+ +
W Q
Q Q Q Q
1040
0.1082 10.82%
9605

KEY CONCEPTS : KEY CONCEPTS :
1. For small changes in temperature:
L = L
0
(1 + T); A = A
0
(A + T); V = V
0
(1 + T)
: : = 1 : 2 : 3 (for isotropic substances only)
2. For liquid:
a R c
g =g - g
R
g coefficient of real expansion of liquid
2
nd
29

a
g coefficient of apparent expansion of the liquid
c
g coefficient of cubical expansion of container
3. Variation of density with temperature,
0
1 T
r
r =
+gD
4. Thermal stress =
F
Y
A
=a Dq (where Dq is the increases in temperature)
5. Thermal capacity of a body is amount of heat required to raise its temperature though one degree,
Q mc. D =
6. If temperature of a body of mass m rises by T, then Q = mc T.
c = specific heat of the material.
7. When the sate of body of mass m changes, then Q = mL
L latent heat
8. According to principle of calorimetry
Heat lost = Heat gained
9.
C H
T T T
Where
C
T temperature of cold object,
T
temperature of equilibrium, and
H
T temperature of hot object
10. Thermal Conduction in steady state
1 2
KA(T T ) Q
t x
- D
=
D
Where K is the co-efficient of thermal conductivity of the material of the slab.
Also R = thermal resistance =
x
KA
In parallel connection,
eq 1 2 n
1 1 1 1
...
R R R R
= + +
In series connection, eq 1 2 n
R R R ... R = + + +
11. In steady state, temperature of each pint is constant w.r.t. time but different at different points. Actually, it
decreases along the direction of heat flow.
12. Absorptive power of a body is defined as the fraction of the incident radiation that is absorbed by the
body
Absorptive power,
Energy absorbed
a
Energy incident
=
13. The emissive power (E) denotes the energy radiated per unit time per unit area of the surface.
14. Emissivity () of a surface is the ratio of the emissive per of the surface to the emissive power of block
body at the same temperature.
15. A perfectly black body is one which absorbs completely all the radiation, of whatever wave length,
incident on it
16. Kirchoffs Law
2
nd
30

It states that the ratio of the emissive power to the absorptive power for radiation of a given wavelength is
the same for all bodies at the same temperature, and is equal to the emissive
e
E (cons tan t)
a
l
l
=
17. Stefans Law of Radiation
Energy emitted per unit time by a black body of surface area A is given by
4
d
AT
dt
q
=s [Stefans constant = 5.67 10
8
Wm
2
Kelvin
4
]
Energy emitted per unit time by a body other than a black body,
4
d
A T [ emissivity]
dt
q
=s e e=
18. Net loss of thermal energy,
4 4
0
E A(T T ) D =se -
19. Newtons Law of Cooling
For a small temperature difference between a body and its surrounding the rate of cooling of the body is
directly proportional to the temperature difference.
0
dT
k(T T )
dt
=- - (rate of fall of temperature)
T = temperature of the body;
T
0
= temperature of the surroundings.
20. Wiens displacement law: It states that the wavelength
m
( ) l corresponding to which energy emitted by a
perfectly black body is maximum is inversely proportional to the temperature (T) of the black body
21. Ideal gas equation:
PV = nRT
22. Pressure exerted by a gas: It is due to continuous. Collision of gas molecules with the wall of container.
2
2
1 MC 1
P C
3 V 3
= = r
C rms velocity of gas molecules
23. Average K.E. molecule of a gas
2
1 3
mc kT
2 2
= =
24. Internal energy of an ideal gas is wholly kinetic energy of molecules and is a function of temperature.
25. If
Q
is heat given to a system, and W is work done by the system, the U (the change in its
internal energy) can be written as
Q U W +
,where
v
U nC T
f
v
v
W PdV
= Area enclosed under P V

Q nC T
, where C = specific heat capacity of a gs, for the process.
Note: For a cylclic process, work done = area enclosed under P-V graph, and is positive if the cycle is
clockwise.
26. Important Cases of the First Law of Thermodynamics
(a) Isobric process (Pressure = Constant)
2
nd
31

p v
Q U W
nC T nC T nR T
+
+
C
p
C
v
= R (Mayers equation)
(b) Isochoric process ( W = 0 , volume = constant)
v
Q U nC T
(c) Isothermal process ( U = 0, temperature = constant)
2 2
1 1
v v
2 2
1 1 v v
V P nRT
Q W P dV dV nRT ln nRT ln
V V P
1 1

1 1
] ]

(d) Adiabatic process (
Q
= 0)
1
TV
= constant
(e) Cyclic process
U 0,
since process returns to the same initial state
U Q W 0
Q W
(f) Free expansion
If a gas expands in such a way that no heat enters or leaves the system (adiabatic process) and
also no work is done by or on the system, then the expansion is called the free expansion.
U
f
U
1
= Q W,
Now, Q = 0, W = 0
U
f
U
1
27. For an isothermal process,
isothermal
dp P
dV V
_

,
For an adiabatic process,
adiabatic
dp P
dV V
_

,
Efficiency of a process,
W
100
Q
2
nd
32

Heat For IIT JEE

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Heat For IIT JEE

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

PHYSICS:HEATandTHERMOYNAMICS

are coefficient of linear expansion in X, Y and Z directions respectively.

are generally small so we can write

is ve (0 to 4C) and for 4C to higher temperature

is known as volume coefficient.

while volume expansion of

(iv) Slope OA > slope BC

Where thermal resistance

Rate of increase of thickness of the ice layer

Negative sign is used as with increase in r, decreases

14. STEFANS LAW OF RADIATION :

By integrating this equation

16. Wiens black body radiation :

If we take n mole gas,

Kinetic interpretation of temperature

values will be similar to those of the diatomic gases.

If f be the number of degree of freedom, then

19.(B) 19.(B) WORK DONE WORK DONE

heat is supplied to the gas

heat is taken out from the gas

How to get the process Equation for adiabatic

For Adiabatic Process PV

C Cooling at constant volume

A Heating at constant volume

But C and D are on the same adiabatic

= Area enclosed under P V

You might also like