Professional Documents
Culture Documents
scrap being charged into the BOF vessel. A ladle full of hot metal is
seen to the right.
THE BASIC OXYGEN STEELMAKING (BOS) PROCESS
I INTRODUCTION
Accounting for 60% of the world's total output of crude steel, the Basic
Oxygen Steelmaking (BOS) process is the dominant steelmaking
technology. In the U.S., that figure is 54% and slowly declining due
primarily to the advent of the "Greenfield" electric arc furnace (EAF)
flat-rolled mills. However, elsewhere its use is growing.
There exist several variations on the BOS process: top blowing, bottom
blowing, and a combination of the two. This study will focus only on the
top blowing variation.
The Basic Oxygen Steelmaking process differs from the EAF in that it is
autogenous, or self-sufficient in energy. The primary raw materials for
the BOP are 70-80% liquid hot metal from the blast furnace and the
balance is steel scrap. These are charged into the Basic Oxygen
Furnace (BOF) vessel. Oxygen (>99.5% pure) is "blown" into the BOF at
supersonic velocities. It oxidizes the carbon and silicon contained in the
hot metal liberating great quantities of heat which melts the scrap.
There are lesser energy contributions from the oxidation of iron,
manganese, and phosphorus. The post combustion of carbon monoxide
as it exits the vessel also transmits heat back to the bath.
BOF heat sizes in the U.S. are typically around 250 tons, and tap-to-tap
times are about 40 minutes, of which 50% is "blowing time". This rate
of production made the process compatible with the continuous casting
of slabs, which in turn had an enormous beneficial impact on yields
from crude steel to shipped product, and on downstream flat-rolled
quality.
II BASIC OPERATION
Some dimensions of a typical 250 ton BOF vessel in the U.S. are:
height 34 feet, outside diameter 26 feet, barrel lining thickness 3 feet,
and working volume 8000 cubic feet. A control pulpit is usually located
between the vessels. Unlike the open hearth, the BOF operation is
conducted almost "in the dark" using mimics and screens to determine
vessel inclination, additions, lance height, oxygen flow etc.
Once the hot metal temperature and chemical analaysis of the blast
furnace hot metal are known, a computer charge models determine
the optimum proportions of scrap and hot metal, flux additions, lance
height and oxygen blowing time.
Figure 2: BOF Vessel in Its Operating Positions. (Ref: Making, Shaping,
and Treating of Steel, 11th Edition, Steelmaking And Refining Volume.
AISE Steel Foundation, 1998, Pittsburgh PA)
as silicon from the hot metal is oxidized forming silica, SiO2, which
reacts with the basic fluxes to form a gassy molten slag that envelops
the lance. The gas is primarily carbon monoxide (CO) from the carbon
in the hot metal. The rate of gas evolution is many times the volume of
the vessel and it is common to see slag slopping over the lip of the
vessel, especially if the slag is too viscous. Blowing continues for a
predetermined time based on the metallic charge chemistry and the
melt specification. This is typically 15 to 20 minutes, and the lance is
generally preprogrammed to move to different heights during the
blowing period. The lance is then raised so that the vessel can be
turned down towards the charging aisle for sampling and temperature
tests. Static charge models however do not ensure consistent
turndown at the specified carbon and temperature because the hot
metal analysis and metallic charge weights are not known precisely.
Furthermore, below 0.2% C, the highly exothermic oxidation of iron
takes place to a variable degree along with decarburization. The "drop"
in the flame at the mouth of the vessel signals low carbon, but
temperature at turndown can be off by +/- 100°F.
In the past, this meant delays for reblowing or adding coolants. Today,
with more operating experience, better computer models, more
attention to metallic input quality, and the availability of ladle furnaces
Figure 4:
A ladle of
molten
steel
leaving for
the ladle
metallurgi
cal facility
or the
caster.
Once the heat is ready for tapping and the preheated ladle is
positioned in the ladle car under the furnace, the vessel is tilted
towards the tapping aisle, and steel emerges from the taphole in the
upper "cone" section of the vessel. The taphole is generally plugged
with material that prevents slag entering the ladle as the vessel turns
down. Steel burns through the plug immediately. To minimize slag
carryover into the ladle at the end of tapping, various "slag stoppers"
have been designed. These work in conjunction with melter's eyeballs,
which remain the dominant control device. Slag in the ladle results in
phosphorus reversion, retarded desulfurization, and possibly "dirty
steel". Ladle additives are available to reduce the iron oxide level in
the slag but nothing can be done to alter the phosphorus.
After tapping steel into the ladle, and turning the vessel upside down
and tapping the remaining slag into the "slag pot", the vessel is
returned to the upright position. In many shops residual slag is blown
with nitrogen to coat the barrel and trunion areas of the vessel. This
process is known as "slag splashing". Near the end of a campaign,
gunning with refractory materials in high wear areas may also be
necessary. Once vessel maintenance is complete the vessel is ready to
receive the next charge.
A heat size of 250 tons is used as the basis for the following
calculations. This is close to the average heat size for the 50 BOFs
which were operable in the U.S. in 1999. The following charge
chemistry is assumed:
%C %Si %Mn %S %P %Al Residuals
Hot metal 4.5 .75 1.0 .01 .05 0 0
Scrap .05 .05 .4 .015 .01 .03 0.1
Table 1 illustrates the heat balance PER TON OF HOT METAL. It
assumes a 75% hot metal in a total charge of 275 tons which yields
250 tons of liquid steel (without alloys). If the oxygen were supplied as
air, the heat required to take N2 from room temperature to 2900°F
would be about 500,000 Btu per NTHM, which illustrates that the BOS
is a Bessemer process with cold scrap substituted for cold nitrogen.
(NTHM one short ton or 2000 pounds of hot metal).
The oxygen required per heat is shown in Table II, as #/NTHM and as a
percentage for the various reactions. 181#/NTHM corresponds to about
18.6 tons/per heat or 1800 scf/tapped ton. Oxygen consumption
increases if end-point control is poor and reblows are necessary.
TABLE II. OXYGEN REQUIREMENTS PER NTHM
REACTION #/NTHM % OF TOTAL
C —>CO 120 66
Si—>SiO2 17 9
Fe—>FeO (SLAG) 16 9
CO—>CO2 12 7
Fe—>FeO (FUME) 8 4
Mn,P—>MnO,P2O5 7 4
DISSOLVED OXYGEN 1 1
181 100
The final calculation for yield losses is shown in TABLE III. The
metalloids and Mn are oxidized out of the hot metal, the scrap is often
coated with Zn which volatilizes, and iron units are lost to the slag,
fume, and slopping. To tap 250 tons of liquid steel, 250/0.91 or 275
charge tons are required, of which 206 will be hot metal, and the
balance scrap.
i) HOT METAL
Hot metal is liquid iron from the blast furnace saturated with up to
4.3% carbon and containing 1% or less silicon, Si. It is transported to
the BOF shop either in torpedo cars or ladles. The hot metal chemistry
depends on how the blast furnace is operated and what burden (iron-
bearing) materials are charged to it. The trend today is to run at high
productivity with low slag volumes and fuel rates, leading to lower
silicon and higher sulfur levels in the hot metal. If BOF slag is recycled,
P and Mn levels rise sharply since they report almost 100% to the hot
metal. U.S. iron ores are low in both elements.
The sulfur level from the blast furnace can be 0.05% but an efficient
hot metal desulfurizing facility ahead of the BOF will reduce this to
below .01%. The most common desulfurizing reagents, lime, calcium
carbide and magnesium - used alone or in combination - are injected
into the hot metal through a lance. The sulfur containing compounds
report to the slag; however, unless the sulfur-rich slag is skimmed
before the hot metal is poured into the BOF, the sulfur actually charged
will be well above the level expected from the metal analysis.
ii) SCRAP
Steel scrap is available in many forms. The major categories are "home
scrap", generated within the plant. With the advent of continuous
casting, the quantity of home scrap has diminished and it is now
necessary for integrated mills to buy scrap on the market. Flat rolled
scrap is generally of good quality and it's impact on the chemistry of
BOF operations can almost be ignored. There is a yield loss of about
2% due to the zinc coating on galvanized scrap. "Prompt scrap" is
generated during the manufacturing of steel products. It finds its way
into the recycling stream very quickly. Many steel mills have
agreements with manufacturers to buy their prompt scrap. "Obsolete"
or "post consumer" scrap returns to the market after a product has
ended its useful life. Cans return to the market very quickly but autos
have an average life of 12 years.
iii) FLUXES
Fluxes serve two important purposes. First they combine with SiO2
which is oxidized from the hot metal to form a "basic" slag that is fluid
at steelmaking temperatures. This slag absorbs and retains sulfur and
phosphorus from the hot metal.
Lime (95+% CaO) and dolomite (58%CaO, 39% MgO) are the two
primary fluxes. They are obtained by calcining the carbonate minerals,
generally offsite in rotary kilns. Calcining CaCO3 and MgCO3 liberates
CO2 leaving CaO or MgO. Two types, "soft" and "hard" burned lime, are
available. A lump of soft burned lime dissolves quickly in a cup of water
liberating heat. Hard burned material just sits there. Soft burned fluxes
form slag more quickly than hard-burned, and in the short blowing
cycle, this is critical for effective sulfur and phosphorus removal. The
amount of lime charged depends on the Si content of the hot metal.
iv) COOLANTS
Limestone, scrap, and sponge iron are all potential coolants that can
be added to a heat that has been overblown and is excessively hot.
The economics and handling facilities dictate the selection at each
shop.
v) ALLOYS
Bulk alloys are charged from overhead bins into the ladle. The common
alloys are ferromanganese (80%Mn, 6%C, balance Fe),
silicomanganese (66%Mn, 16%Si, 2%C, balance Fe), and ferrosilicon
(75% Si, balance Fe). Aluminum can be added as shapes and/or
injected as rod. Sulfur, carbon, calcium, and special elements like
boron and titanium are fed at the ladle furnace as powders sheathed in
a mild steel casing about 1/2 inch in diameter.
V REFRACTORIES
The basis for most refractory bricks for oxygen steelmaking vessels in
the U.S. today is magnesia, MgO, which can be obtained from minerals
or seawater. Only one dolomite (MgO + CaO) deposit is worked in the
U.S (near Reading, PA). For magnesia, the lower the boron oxide
content, and the lower the impurity levels (but with a CaO/SiO2 ratio
above 2 to avoid low melting point intergranular phases), the greater
the hot strength of the brick. Carbon is added as pitch (tar) or graphite.
The original bricks were tar bonded, where the MgO grains were coated
with tar and pressed warm represented a great step forward for the
BOS process. Tempering removed volatiles. In service, the tar was
coked and the residual intergranular carbon resisted slag wetting and
attack by FeO. In addition, as the tar softened during vessel heat-up,
the lining was relieved of expansive stresses. Hot strength was
increased by sintering bricks made from pure MgO grains at a high
temperature and then impregnating them with tar under a vacuum.
However, for environmental reasons these types of bricks are no longer
used in oxygen steelmaking.
i) Critical wear zones (impact and tap pads, turndown slag lines, and
trunion areas) in furnaces have been zoned with bricks of the highest
quality.
ii) "Slag splashing" whereby residual liquid slag remaining after the tap
is splashed onto the lining with high pressure nitrogen blown through
the oxygen lance. This seemingly simple practice has increased lining
life beyond all expectations, from a few thousand to over 20,000 heats
per campaign.
VI ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
Environmental challenges at BOS shops include: (1) the capture and
removal of contaminants in the hot and dirty primary off-gas from the
converter; (2) secondary emissions associated with charging and
tapping the furnaces; (3) control of emissions from ancillary operations
such as hot metal transfer, desulfurization, or ladle metallurgy
operations; (4) the recycling and/or disposal of collected oxide dusts or
sludges; and (5) the disposition of slag.
In the U.S., most BOF primary gas handling systems are designed to
generate plant steam from the water-cooled hood serving the primary
system. About half of the systems are open combustion designs where
excess air is induced at the mouth of the hood to completely burn the
carbon monoxide. The gases are then cooled and cleaned either in a
wet scrubber or a dry electrostatic precipitator. The remainder of U.S.
systems are suppressed combustion systems where gases are handled
in an uncombusted state and cleaned in a wet scrubber before being
ignited prior to discharge. In both cases, the cleaned gases must meet
EPA-mandated levels for particulate matter.
BOF slag typically contains about 5% MnO and 1% P2O5 and are often
can be recycled through the blast furnace. Because lime in steel slag
absorbs moisture and expands on weathering, its use as an aggregate
material is limited, but other commercial uses are being developed to
minimize the amount that must be disposed.
VII CONCLUSION
The BOS has been a pivotal process in the transformation of the U.S.
steel industry since World War II. Although it was not recognized at the
time, the process made it possible to couple melting with continuous
casting. The result has been that melt shop process and finishing mill
quality and yields improved several percent, such that the quantity of
raw steel required per ton of product decreased significantly.
The future of the BOS depends on the availability of hot metal, which in
turn depends on the cost and availability of coke. Although it is
possible to operate BOFs with reduced hot metal charges, i.e. < 70%,
there are productivity penalties and costs associated with the supply of
auxiliary fuels. Processes to replace the blast furnace are being
constantly being unveiled, and the concept of a hybrid BOF-EAF is
already a reality at the Saldahna Works in South Africa. However, it
appears that the blast furnace and the BOS will be with us for many
decades into the future.
The American Iron and Steel Institute acknowledges, with thanks, the
contributions of Teresa M. Speiran, Senior Research Engineer,
Refractories and Bruce A. Steiner, Senior Environmental Advisor, Collier
Shannon Scott PLLC.
ADDENDUM
William Kelly was awarded the original U.S. patent for pneumatic
steelmaking over Bessemer in 1857. However, it is clear that Kelly's
"air boiling" process was conducted at such low blowing rates that the
heat generation barely offset the heat losses. He never developed a
commercial process for making steel consistently.
Most European iron ores and therefore hot metal was high in sulfur and
phosphorus and no processes to remove these from steel had been
developed in the 1860s. As a result, Bessemer's steel suffered from
both "hot shortness" (due to sulfur) and "cold shortness" (due to
phosphorus) that rendered it unrollable. For his first commercial plant
in Sheffield, 1866, Bessemer remelted cold pig iron imported from
Sweden as the raw material for his hot metal. This charcoal derived pig
iron was low in phosphorus and sulfur, and (fortuitously) high in
manganese which acted as a deoxidant. In contrast the U.S. pig iron
was produced using low sulfur charcoal and low phosphorus domestic
ore. Therefore, thanks to the engineering genius of Alexander Holley,
two Bessemer plants were in operation by 1866. However, the daily
output of remotely located charcoal blast furnaces was very low.
Therefore, hot metal was produced by remelting pig iron in cupolas and
gravity feeding it to the 5 ton Bessemer vessels.
The real breakthrough for Bessemer occurred in 1879 when Sidney
Thomas, a young clerk from a London police court, shocked the
metallurgical establishment by presenting data on a process to remove
phosphorus (and also sulfur) from Bessemer's steel. He developed
basic linings produced from tar-bonded dolomite bricks. These were
eroded to form a basic slag that absorbed phosphorus and sulfur,
although the amounts remained high by modern standards. The
Europeans quickly took to the "Thomas Process" because of their very
high-phosphorus hot metal, and as a bonus, granulated the
phosphorus-rich molten slag in water to create a fertilizer. In the U.S.,
Andrew Carnegie, who was present when Thomas presented his paper
in London, befriended the young man and cleverly acquired the U.S.
license, which squelched any steelmaking developments in the South
where high phosphorus ores are located.
The new process was officially dubbed the "LD Process" and because of
its high productivity was seen globally as a viable, low capital process
by which the war torn countries of Europe could rebuild their steel
industries. Japan switched from a rebuilding plan based on open
hearths to evaluate the LD, and installed their first unit at Yawata in
1957.
There were also acrimonious legal actions over patent rights to the
process and the supersonic lance design, which was now multihole
rather than single hole. Kaiser Industries held the U.S. patent rights but
in the end, the U.S. Supreme Court supported lower court decisions
that considered the patent to be invalid.