Linearized Longitudinal Equations of Motion

Robert Stengel, Aircraft Flight Dynamics MAE 331, 2008

Separate solutions for nominal and perturbation ight paths Assume that nominal path is steady and in the vertical plane Therefore, perturbation model is linear and time-invariant (LTI)

Longitudinal Equations of Motion Symmetric aircraft

Motions in the vertical plane Flat earth

Nonlinear Dynamic Equations = X / m " g sin # " qw u = Z / m + g cos# + qu w I = (cos # ) u + (sin # ) w x

I = (" sin # ) u + (cos # ) w z = M / Iyy q =q #

State Vector, 6 components

" x1 % " u % " Axial Velocity % $ ' $ ' $ ' x 2 $ ' $w' $Vertical Velocity' $x3 ' $x' $ ' Range $ ' = x Lon 6 = $ ' = $ ' x z Altitude () $ 4' $ ' $ ' $x5 ' $ q ' $ Pitch Rate ' $ ' $ ' $ ' #x6 & #( & # Pitch Angle &

N ( t ) = 0 = f [ x N ( t ), uN ( t ), wN ( t ), t ] x Lon ( t ) = FLon "x Lon ( t ) + G Lon "uLon ( t ) + L Lon "wLon ( t ) "x ! !

Copyright 2008 by Robert Stengel. All rights reserved. For educational use only. http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/MAE331.html http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/FlightDynamics.html

Nonlinear Dynamic Equations, neglecting range and altitude

State Vector, 4 components

" x1 % " u % " Axial Velocity % $ ' $ ' $ ' x 2 $ '= x $w' = $Vertical Velocity' Lon 4 = $x3 ' $ q ' $ Pitch Rate ' $ ' $ ' $ ' #x 4 & #( & # Pitch Angle &

= f1 = X / m " g sin # " qw u = f 2 = Z / m + g cos # + qu w q = f 3 = M / Iyy = f =q #

4

Alternative Expressions for the Velocity Vector

Velocity restricted to the vertical plane

Hybrid Longitudinal Equations of Motion

Replace Cartesian body components of velocity by polar inertial components Replace X and Z by T, D, and L Replace pitch angle by angle of attack

" = # $%

" =# $%

!
Velocity vector can be expressed in
Cartesian components
Inertial frame Body frame Referenced to inertial axes Referenced to body ! axes

(v x , v z )
(u, w)

"v x % " V cos ( % $ '=$ ' #v z & #)V sin ( &

#V & # v x 2 + v z 2 & ( % ( = % )1 $" ' % $sin ()v z /V )( '

#V & # u 2 + w 2 & ( % ( = % )1 $" ' % $sin ( w /V )( '

= f1 = 1 [T cos(" + i) # D # mg sin $ ] = f1 = X / m " g sin # " qw V u m = f 2 = Z / m + g cos # + qu w 1 = f2 = $ [T sin(" + i) + L # mg cos $ ] = f 3 = M / Iyy q mV = f 3 = M / Iyy q = f =q # 4 = f =q %
4

= f1 = 1 [T cos(" + i) # D # mg sin $ ] V m 1 = f2 = $ (" + i) + L # mg cos $ ] [T sin ! mV = f 3 = M / Iyy q #$ = f4 = % =q# " 1 [T sin(" + i) + L # mg cos $ ] mV

Polar coordinates

(V , " ) (V , # )

" u % "V cos (% $ '=$ ' #w& #V sin ( & !

" x1 % " u % " Axial Velocity % $ ' $ ' $ ' Velocity' $ x 2 ' = $w' = $Vertical ! $ x 3 ' $ q ' $ Pitch Rate ' $ ' $ ' $ ' #x 4 & #( & # Pitch Angle &

" x1 % "V % " % Velocity $ ' $ ' $ ' $ x 2 ' = $ ( ' = $Flight Path Angle' ! $x3 ' $q ' $ Pitch Rate ' $ ' $ ' $ ' #x 4 & #) & # Pitch Angle &
i = Incidence angle of the thrust vector with respect to the centerline

" x1 % "V % " % Velocity $ ' $ ' $ ' $ x 2 ' = $ ( ' = $Flight Path Angle' $x3 ' $q ' $ Pitch Rate ' $ ' $ ' $ ' #x 4 & #) & # Angle of Attack &

!
!

Why Transform Equations and State Vector?

Phugoid (long-period) mode is primarily described by velocity and ight path angle

Nominal Equations of Motion

N ( t ) = 0 = f [ x N ( t ), uN ( t ), wN ( t ), t ] x
Short-period mode is primarily described by pitch rate and angle of attack

dim(x ) = 4 " 1 dim(u) = 3 " 1 dim(w) = 2 " 1

!
Hybrid linearized equations allow the two modes to be studied separately
Effects of phugoid perturbations on phugoid motion Effects of short-period perturbations on phugoid motion

N = 0 = f1 = 1 [T cos(" N + i) # D # mg sin $ N ] V m 1 N = 0 = f 2 = $ [T sin(" N + i) + L # mg cos $ N ] mV N = 0 = f 3 = M Iyy q N = 0 = f4 = q # "

" x1 % "V % " % Velocity $ ' $ ' $ ' $ x 2 ' = $ ( ' = $Flight Path Angle' $x3 ' $q ' $ Pitch Rate ' $ ' $ ' $ ' #x 4 & #) & # Angle of Attack &
!

"F FLon = $ Ph SP #FPh

Effects of phugoid perturbations on short-period motion

Ph % " FPh small% "FPh FSP '=$ '($ FSP & #small FSP & # 0

0% ' FSP &

!

1 [T sin(" N + i) + L # mg cos $ N ] mV
#"E & #Elevator Setting& % ( % ( u = %"T ( = % Thrust Setting ( %"F ' ( $ % Flap Setting ( $ '

#V & # Parallel Wind & w = % wind ( = % ( $" wind ' $Perpendicular Wind'

Effects of short-period perturbations on short-period motion

Perturbation Equations of Motion

Non-Dimensional Stability Derivative Notation

CTV "

Lon ( t ) = FLon "x Lon ( t ) + G Lon "uLon ( t ) + L Lon "wLon ( t ) "x

, .% +f .' 1 +V ( t )( .' %"V +f ' * .' 2 . " # ( t ) ' * = -'+V ' "q ( t ) * .'+f 3 ' * ' ( t )) .'+V &"$ . +f 4 .' & +V . /

dim("x ) = 4 # 1 dim("u) = 3 # 1 dim("w) = 2 # 1

+f1 +# +f 2 +# +f 3 +# +f 4 +#

+f1 +q +f 2 +q +f 3 +q +f 4 +q

0 , . . +f1 ( . .% +f1 ' +$ * * %"V ( t )(. .'+3E +f 2 * ' *. .' +f 2 . . " # ( t ) +$ * ' *1 + -'+3E +f 3 * ' "q( t ) *. .' +f 3 ' * +$ * &"$ ( t )). .'+3E * . .' +f 4 +f 4 * . .' &+3E +$ ) x =x ( t ) N . . u=uN ( t ) 2 / w =w ( t )
N

+f1 +3T +f 2 +3T +f 3 +3T +f 4 +3T

0 , f1 . .% + ! +f1 ( . .'+Vwind . +3F * ' . +f 2 * %"3E ( t )(. .' +f 2 * ' *. .'+Vwind +3F * " 3 T ( t ) ' *1 + -' +f 3 +f 3 * . . ' &"3F ( t )* ). .'+V +3F * ' wind +f 4 * . .' +f 4 . .'+V ) x =x ( t ) +3F * & wind N u=uN ( t ) . 2 . w =w N ( t ) /

0 . +f1 ( . +$ wind * . * +f 2 * . % ( " V +$ wind * wind . ' *1 +f 3 * &"$ wind ). +$ wind * . * . +f 4 * . +$ wind * ) x =x ( t ) . N u=uN ( t ) 2 w =w N ( t )

CDV CLV CmV

#CT #V #C " D #V #C " L #V #C " m #V

!

#C D #q #C CL q " L #q #C Cm q " m #q
CDq "

CD" # CL" Cm"

$C D $" $C # L $" $C # m $"

Velocity Dynamics
Nonlinear equation
2 2 & ) = f1 = 1 [T cos" # D # mg sin $ ] = 1 (CT cos " %V S # CD %V S # mg sin $ + V m m' 2 2 *

Flight Path Angle Dynamics

Nonlinear equation
= f2 = " ) 1 1 & %V 2 %V 2 S + CL S $ mg cos " + [T sin # + L $ mg cos " ] = (CT sin # mV mV ' 2 2 *
Thrust incidence angle neglected

First rows of sensitivity matrices (F, G, and L)

) "f1 1 & %V 2 = ((CTV cos# N $ CDV ) N S + (CTN cos# N $ CDN ) %VN S+ "V m ' 2 * "f1 $1 = [ mg cos , N ] = $g cos , N ", m "f1 $1 & %VN 2 ) = (CD S+ "q m ' q 2 * ! "f1 $1 & %V 2 ) = ((CT sin # N + CD# ) N S+ "# m ' N 2 *

"f1 $1 & %VN 2 ) = (CD S+ "#E m ' #E 2 * "f1 1& %VN 2 ) = (CT cos , N S+ "#T m ' #T 2 * "f1 $1 & %VN 2 ) = (CD S+ "#F m ' #F 2 *
"f1 "f = 1 "Vwind "V "f1 "f = 1 "# wind "#

Second rows of sensitivity matrices (F, G, and L)

"f 2 "V
( 1 % $V 2 = '(CT sin # N + CLV ) N S + (CTN sin # N + CLN ) $VN S* mVN & V 2 ) ( 1 % $VN 2 + S + mg cos , N * 2 '(CT sin # N + C L N ) 2 mVN & N ) 1 = mg sin , = g sin , V [ N] N N mVN 1 % $VN 2 ( = S* 'CL mVN & q 2 ) ! 1 % $V 2 ( = '(CT cos# N + CL# ) N S* mVN & N 2 )

"f 2 1 % $VN 2 ( = S* 'CL "#E mVN & #E 2 ) "f 2 1 % $VN 2 ( = S* 'CT#T sin + N "#T mVN & 2 ) "f 2 1 % $VN 2 ( = S* 'CL#F "#F mVN & 2 )
"f 2 "f = 2 "Vwind "V "f 2 "f = 2 "# wind "#

"f 2 ", "f 2 "q "f 2 "#

Pitch Rate Dynamics

Nonlinear equation
= f3 = q
2 M Cm ( "V 2) Sc = Iyy Iyy

Angle of Attack Dynamics

Nonlinear equation
Cm may include thrust as well as aerodynamic effects

1 $% = f4 = # =q$ " [T sin " + L $ mg cos % ] mV

Third rows of sensitivity matrices (F, G, and L)

!
' "f 3 1 $ #VN 2 = &Cm Sc + Cm N #VN Sc ) "V Iyy % V 2 ( "f 3 =0 "* "f 3 1 $ #VN 2 ' = &Cm Sc ) "q Iyy % q 2 ( 2 ' "f 3 1 $ #VN = &Cm Sc ) "+ Iyy % + 2 (

"f 3 1% $VN 2 ( = 'Cm Sc * "#E Iyy & #E 2 ) "f 3 1% $VN 2 ( = 'Cm Sc * "#T Iyy & #T 2 ) 2 ( "f 3 1% $VN = 'Cm Sc * "#F Iyy & #F 2 )
"f 3 "f = 3 "Vwind "V "f 3 "f = 3 "# wind "#

Fourth rows of sensitivity matrices (F,! G, and L) "f 4 "f 2

=# "V "V "f 4 "f =# 2 "$ "$ "f 4 "f = 1# 2 "q "q "f 4 "f 2 =# "% "% !
"f 4 "f =$ 2 "#E "#E "f 4 "f =$ 2 "#T "#T "f 4 "f =$ 2 "#F "#F
!

"f 4 "f =# 2 "Vwind "V "f 3 "f =# 2 "$ wind "$

Lockheed YF-12A

Velocity-Dependent Derivative Denitions

a = Speed of Sound M = Mach number

Pitch-Moment Coefcient Sensitivity to Angle of Attack

Mach number effects are a principal source of velocity dependence

CD M "

#C D #C D #C = =a D #M # (V / a) #V

For small angle of attack and no control deection

M B = Cm q Sc " Cm o + Cm q q + Cm# # q Sc

CDV CLV CmV

$1' #C " D = & )CD M #V % a ( #C $ 1 ' " L = & )CL M #V % a ( $1' #C " m = & )Cm M #V % a (

!
CD M " 0
!

CD M > 0

CD M < 0

% x $ x cp net ( Cm" # $CN" net ( hcm $ hcp net ) # $CL" net ( hcm $ hcp net ) = $CL" net ' cm * c & ) ! % x cm $ x cp wing ( % x cm $ x cp ht ( % lwing ( % lht ( = $CL" wing ' * $ CL" ht ' * = $CL" wing ' * $ CL" ht ' * &c ) c c & c ) & ) & ) = Cm" wing + Cm" ht
referenced to wing area, S

Horizontal Tail Lift Sensitivity to Angle of Attack

Pitch-Rate Derivative Denitions

Pitch rate derivatives are usually expressed in terms of a normalized pitch rate
qc 2VN

(C )
L" ht

aircraft

# Vtail & 2 # *+ & # Sht & =% ( %1 ) (,elas% ( CL" ht $ S' $ VN ' $ *" '

ht

= q

M B = Cm q Sc " Cm o + Cm q q + Cm# # q Sc

VTail = Airspeed at vertical tail; scrubbing lowers VTail, propeller slipstream increases VTail

! = Wing downwash angle at the tail "elas = Aeroelastic correction factor

Cm q =

!
!

# 2V & "C m "C m = = % N (C & $ c ' mq "# qc "q ! % 2V ( $ N'

often tabulated

Cm q =

"C m # c & =% (Cm "q $ 2VN ' q

used in pitch-rate equation

$ c '$ #VN 2 ' $ #V Sc 2 ' "M 2 = Cm q #VN 2 Sc = Cm q & ) Sc = Cm q & N )& ) "q % 4 ( % 2VN (% 2 (

Angle of Attack Distribution Due to Pitch Rate

Horizontal Tail Lift Due to Pitch Rate

Incremental tail lift due to pitch rate, referenced to tail area, Sht

"Lht = ("CLht )
Aircraft pitching at a constant rate, q rad/s, produces a normal velocity distribution along x

ht

1 #VN 2 Sht 2

"w = #q"x
Corresponding angle of attack distribution

Incremental tail lift coefcient due to pitch rate, referenced to aircraft reference (wing) area, S

("C )

L ht aircraft

"# =

"w $q"x = VN VN
!
lht = horizontal tail distance from c.m.

. # )C & # qlht & # S & +# )C & = ("CLht ) % ht ( = -% Lht ( "* 0 = % Lht ( % ( ht $ S ' )* )* ' aircraft 0 ' aircraft $ VN ' ,$ / $

Lift coefcient sensitivity to pitch rate referenced to wing area

Angle of attack perturbation at tail center of pressure

ql "# ht = ht VN
!

CLqht "

# ($CLht ) #q

aircraft

& lht ) & #C ) = ( Lht + ( + ' #% * aircraft ' VN *

Moment Coefcient Sensitivity to Pitch Rate of the Horizontal Tail

Differential pitch moment due to pitch rate
& l )1 "#M ht 1 = Cm qht $VN 2 Sc = %CLqht ( ht + $VN 2 Sc "q 2 ' VN * 2 -& "C ) & lht )0& lht ) 1 2 = %/( Lht + ( +2( + $VN Sc / .' ", * aircraft ' VN *2 1' c * 2

Wing Lift and Moment Coefcient Sensitivity to Pitch Rate

Straight-wing incompressible ow estimate (Etkin)
CLq
wing

= "2CL# wing ( hcm " 0.75) = "2CL#

wing

Cm q

wing

(hcm " 0.5)

Straight-wing supersonic ow estimate (Etkin)

!

CLq

wing

= "2CL# wing ( hcm " 0.5) =" 2 3 M 2 "1 " 2CL# wing ( hcm " 0.5)
2

Coefcient derivative with respect to pitch rate

!

Cm q

wing

Cm qht = "

#CLht #$

% lht (% lht ( #CLht % lht ( 2 % c ( ' *' * ' *' * = " #$ & c ) & VN ) & VN )& c )

Triangular-wing estimate (Bryson, Nielsen)

!

Coefcient derivative with respect to normalized pitch rate is insensitive to velocity "Cm ht "Cm ht "CLht # lht & 2 C = = = ) 2 qc % ( ! m q = ht q # & "q "* $ c ' 2VN "%qc 2V ( $ N'
!

CLq

wing

="

Cm q

wing

2# CL 3 $ wing # =" 3 AR

Dimensional Stability-Derivative Notation

Dimensional stability derivatives portray acceleration sensitivities to state perturbations Redene force and moment symbols for simplicity

Dimensional Stability-Derivative Notation

Stability derivatives portray acceleration sensitivities to state perturbations
"f1 # $DV ; "V "f1 = $g cos % N ; "% "f1 # $ Dq ; "q "f1 # $D& "&

D L M " D; " L; "M m m Iyy

) "f1 1 & %V 2 = ((CTV cos# N $ CDV ) N S + (CTN cos# N $ CDN ) %VN S+ , $ DV "V ! m' 2 *
"f 2 1 % $V 2 ( L = '(CT cos# N + CL# ) N S* + # V N "# mVN & N 2 )
Thrust and lift effects are combined and represented by one symbol Thrust and drag effects are combined and represented by one symbol

"f 2
! "V

LV

VN ;

"f 2 g = sin $ N ; "$ VN

"f 2 L q # V ; N "q

"f 2 L% # V N "%

"f 3 # MV ; "V
"f 4 # $ LV V ; ! "V N

"f 3 = 0; "$

"f 3 # Mq; "q

"f 3 # M% "%
"f 4 # $ L& V N "&

!
!

"f 3 1 % $VN 2 ( = 'Cm Sc * + M# "# Iyy & # 2 )

"f 4 g = $ sin % N ; "% VN

"f 4 L # 1$ q V ; N "q

Linear, Time Invariant Stability Matrix

Effects of phugoid perturbations on phugoid motion Effects of short-period perturbations on phugoid motion

Control- and DisturbanceEffect Matrices

Control-effect derivatives portray acceleration sensitivities to control input perturbations
$ " D#E & L#E /VN =& & M#E & %" L#E /VN T#T L#T /VN M#T " L#T /VN " D#F ' ) L#F /VN ) M#F ) ) " L#F /VN (

FLon

"F = $ Ph SP #FPh

" (DV $L V Ph % $ FSP $ VN '= FSP & $ MV $ L $( V V N #

(g cos ) N g sin ) N VN 0 g ( sin ) N VN

(Dq ( D* % ' Lq L* VN VN ' ' Mq M* ' ' + Lq . L -1 ( V 0 ( * V ' , N/ N&

Effects of short-period perturbations on shortperiod motion

G Lon

Disturbance-effect derivatives portray acceleration sensitivities to disturbance input perturbations !

$ " DVwind & LV /VN = & wind & MVwind & %" LVwind /VN " D# wind ' ) L# wind /VN ) M# wind ) ) " L# wind /VN (

Effects of phugoid perturbations on short-period motion

L Lon

Second-Order Models of Longitudinal Motion

Assume off-diagonal blocks are negligible

Initial-Condition Responses of Business Jet at Two Time Scales

Same four 4th-order responses viewed over different periods of time 0 - 100 sec Reveals Phugoid Mode 0 - 6 sec Reveals Short-Period Mode

FLon

"F ~ 0% = $ Ph ' #~ 0 FSP &

Approximate LTI Phugoid Equation

' $ +DV $"V Ph = & ) * &LV "x ( & VN % "# %

+g cos # N '$ ' $ T,T ' $ + DV ' ) "V + &L )",T + &LV )"Vwind g ) ,T sin # N )& ! & % "# ( & % VN ) ( % VN ) ( VN (

Approximate LTI Short-Period Equation

$ Mq M# ' $ M2E ' $ M# ' $ "q ' )$ "q ' + & SP = & ) * &, Lq / "x +L2E )"2E + &+ L# )"# wind L & ) # ( &.1 + V 1 + V )%"#( & & %"# VN ) VN ) % ( % ( N0 N( %-

Comparison of Fourth- and Second-Order Model Responses

Comparison of Fourthand Second-Order Models and Eigenvalues

Fourth-Order Model F= -0.0185 0.0019 0 -0.0019 -9.8067 0 0 0 0 1.2709 0 -1.2794 -7.9856 0 1 -1.2709 G= 0 0 -9.069 0 G= 4.6645 0 G= -9.069 0 4.6645 0 0 0 Eigenvalue -8.43e-03 + 1.24e-01j -8.43e-03 - 1.24e-01j -1.28e+00 + 2.83e+00j -1.28e+00 - 2.83e+00j Eigenvalue -9.25e-03 + 1.36e-01j -9.25e-03 - 1.36e-01j Eigenvalue -1.28e+00 + 2.83e+00j -1.28e+00 - 2.83e+00j Damping 6.78E-02 6.78E-02 4.11E-01 4.11E-01 Damping 6.78E-02 6.78E-02 Damping 4.11E-01 4.11E-01 Freq. (rad/s) 1.24E-01 1.24E-01 3.10E+00 3.10E+00 Freq. (rad/s) 1.37E-01 1.37E-01 Freq. (rad/s) 3.10E+00 3.10E+00

Full and approximate linear models

Short-Period Time Scale

Phugoid Time Scale

Fourth Order

Phugoid Approximation F= -0.0185 0.0019 -9.8067 0

Short-Period Approximation F= -1.2794 1 -7.9856 -1.2709

Second Order

Approximations are very close to 4th-order values because natural frequencies are widely separated

Approximate Phugoid Roots

Approximate Phugoid Equation (#N = 0)
' $ +DV $"V Ph = & ) * &LV "x ( & % "# % V + g'$"V ' $ T,T ' ) ) + &L,T )",T 0 )& (% "# ( & % VN ) (

Effect of Airspeed and L/D on Approximate Phugoid Natural Frequency and Damping Ratio
" n # 2 g V # 13.87 /VN ( m / s); T = 2$ /" n # 0.45VN sec N 1 %# 2 ( L / D) N
Neglecting compressibility effects

Characteristic polynomial
2 sI !" FPh = det ( sI " FPh ) # $ ( s) = s + DV s + gLV /VN

= s2 + 2%& n s + & n 2
Natural frequency and damping ratio Neglecting compressibility effects
" n # 2 g V # 13.87 /VN ( m / s); T = 2$ /" n # 0.45VN sec N 1 %# 2 ( L / D) N

" n = gLV /VN # = DV

2 gLV /VN

Velocity m/s 50 100 200 400

Natural Frequency rad/s 0.28 0.14 0.07 0.035

Period sec 23 45 90 180

Damping L/D Ratio 5 10 20 40 0.14 0.07 0.035 0.018

Approximate Phugoid Response to a 10% Thrust Increase

Approximate ShortPeriod Roots

Approximate Short-Period Equation (Lq = 0)
$ "q ' $M q SP = & ) * & "x ( & 1 %"# % M# '$ "q ' $ M,E ' ) L ) + &+ L,E )",E + # V )& %"# ( & VN ) % ( N(

Characteristic polynomial
!

%L ( % L ( " ( s) = s2 + ' # $ M q * s $ ' M# + M q # * VN ) & VN ) & = s2 + 2+, n s + , n

2

Natural frequency and damping ratio

!
What is the steady-state response?

% L ( " n = #' M$ + M q $ * ; + = VN ) &

% L$ ( ' # Mq * & VN ) % L ( 2 #' M$ + M q $ * V & N )

Effects of Airspeed, Altitude, Mass, and Moment of Inertia on Approximate Natural Frequency and Damping Ratio of a Fighter Aircraft
Airspeed variation at constant altitude
Airspeed m/s 91 152 213 274 Dynamic Pressure P 2540 7040 13790 22790 Angle of Attack deg 14.6 5.8 3.2 2.2 Natural Frequency rad/s 1.34 2.3 3.21 3.84 Period sec 4.7 2.74 1.96 1.64 Damping Ratio 0.3 0.31 0.3 0.3

Approximate Short-Period Response to a 0.1-Rad Pitch Control Step Input

Pitch Rate, rad/s
Damping Ratio 0.44 0.31 0.26

Mass variation at constant altitude

Mass Variation % -50 0 50 Natural Frequency rad/s 2.4 2.3 2.26 Period sec 2.62 2.74 2.78

Angle of Attack, rad

Altitude variation with constant dynamic pressure

Airspeed m/s 122 152 213 274 Altitude m 2235 6095 11915 16260 Natural Frequency rad/s 2.36 2.3 2.24 2.18 Period sec 2.67 2.74 2.8 2.88 Damping Ratio 0.39 0.31 0.23 0.18

Moment of inertia variation at constant altitude

Moment of Inertia Variation % -50 0 50 Natural Frequency rad/s 3.25 2.3 1.87 Damping Ratio 0.33 0.31 0.31

Period sec 1.94 2.74 3.35

Approximate Short-Period Response to a 0.1-Rad Pitch Control Step Input

Normal load factor at the center of mass

nz =

) VN V &L L $ "q) = N ( # "# + %E "%E + ("# g g ' VN VN *

Normal Load Factor, g!s at c.m. Forward Pitch Control

Normal Load Factor, g!s at c.m. Aft Pitch Control

Next Time: Lateral-Directional Dynamics

What are the similarities and differences?