5008X 04a

CHAPTER 4
The role of matric suction as one of the stress state variables for an unsaturated soil was illustrated in Chapter 3. The theory and components of soil suction will be presented first in this chapter, followed by a discussion of the capillary phenomena. Various devices and techniques for measuring soil suction and its components a~ described in detail in this chapter. Each device or technique is introduced with a history of its development, followed by its working principle, calibration technique, and performance.
4.1 THEORY OF SOIL SUCTION
The theoretical concept of soil suction was developed in soil physics in the early 1900s (Buckingham, 1907; Gadner and Widtsoe, 1921; Richards, 1928; Schofield, 1935; Edlefsen and Anderson, 1943; Childs and Collis-George, 1948; Bolt and Miller, 1958; Corey and Kemper, 1961; Corey et al., 1967). The soil suction theory was mainly developed in relation to the soil-water-plant system. The importance of soil suction in explaining the mechanical behavior of unsaturated soils relative to engineering problems was introduced at the Road Research Laboratory in England (Croney and Coleman, 1948; Croney et al., 1950). In 1965, the review panel for the soil mechanics symposium, Moisture Equilibria and Moisture Changes in Soils (Aitchison, 1965a), provided quantitative definitions of soil suction and its components from a thermodynamic context. These definitions have become accepted concepts in geotechnical engineering (Krahn and Fredlund, 1972; Wray, 1984; Fredlund and Rahardjo, 1988). Soil suction is commonly referred to as the free energy state of soil water (Edlefsen and Anderson, 1943). The free energy of the soil water can be measured in terms of the partial vapor pressure of the soil water (Richards, 1965). The thermodynamic relationship between soil suction (or the free energy of the soil water) and the partial pressure of the pore-water vapor can be written as follows:
J.=
64
Co py rig hte dM ate ria l

-- RT
VWO@lJ
Measurements o f Soil Suction
where J. = soil suction or total suction (kPa) R = universal (molar) gas constant [Le., 8.31432 J/(mol K)1 T = absolute temperature [Le., T = (273.16 + t o ) (K)1 O = temperature (C) vw0 = specific volume of water or the inverse of the density of water [Le., l/pw) (m3/kg)] p w = density of water (Le., 998 kg/m3 at t o = 20C) o, = molecular mass of water vapor (Le., 18.016 - kg/kmol) u, = partial pressure of pore-water vapor (Ha) uu0 = saturation pressure of water vapor over a flat surface of pure water at the same temperature (kPa). Equation (4.1) shows that the reference state for quantifying the components of suction is the vapor pressure above a flat surface of pure water (i.e., water with no salts is called relative humidity, or impurities). The term iiv/iivo RH (96). If we select a reference temperature of 20C, the constants in Eq. (4.1) give a value of 135 022 kPa. Equation (4.1) can now be written to give a fixed relationship between total suction in kilopascals and relative vapor pressure: J. = -135 022 In (iZv/iivo). (4.2) Figure 4.1 shows a plot of Eq. (4.1) for three different temperatures. The soil suction, $, is equal to 0.0 when the is equal to 100% [E@ relative humidity, RH (Le., iiv/iivo), (4.1)]. A relative humidity value less than 100% in a soil would indicate the presence of suction in the soil. Figure 4.1 also shows that suction can be extremely high. For example, a relative humidity of 94.24% at a temperature of 20C corresponds to a s o i l suction of 8000 kPa. The range of suctions of interest in geotechnical engineering will correspond to high relative humidities.
In
( s )
4 0
4.1.1 Components of Soil Suction The soil suction as quantified in terms of the relative humidity [Eq.(4.1)] is commonly called total suction. It
Copyright 1993 John Wiley & Sons
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4.1
THEORY OF SOIL SUCTION
65
100
80
Bo
40
has two components, namely, matric and osmotic suction. The total, matric, and osmotic suctions can be defined as follows (Aitchison, 1965a):
Matric or capillary component of free energy-In suction terms, it is the equivalent suction derived f r o m the measumment of the partial pressure of the water vapor in equilibrium with the soil water, relative to the partial pressure of the water vapor in equilibrium with a solution identical in composition with the soil water. Osmotic (or solute) component of free energy-In suction terms, it is the equivalent suction derived from the measumment of the partial pressure of the water vapor in equilibrium with a solution identical in composition with the soil water, relative to the partial pressure of water vapor in equilibrium with free pure water. Total suction or free energy of the soil water-In suction terms, it is the equivalent suction derived from the measurement of the partial pressure of the water vapor in equilibrium with a solution identical in composition with the soil water, relative to the partial pmssure of water vapor in equilibrium with free pure water.

20
0 1 o2
10 3
ta4
IO?
10 0
10 7
Total suction,b ,t (kPe)
Figure 4.1 Relative humidity Venus total suction relationship.
Figure 4.2 illustrates the concept of total suction and its component as dated to the free energy of the soil water. The matric suction component is commonly associated with the capillary phenomenon arising from the surface tension of water. Surface tension has been described in Chapter 2, and is the result o f the intermolecular forces acting on molecules in the contractile skin. The capillary phenomenon is usually illustrated by the rise of a water surface in a capillary tube (Fig. 4.2). In soils, the pores with small radii act as capillary tubes that cause the soil water to rise above the water table (Fig. 4.3). The capillary water has a negative pressure with reMeasured system Reference medium
Suction
(U.
Metric, uw)
The above definitions clearly state that the total suction corresponds to the free energy of the soil water, while the matric and osmotic suctions are the components of the free energy. In an equation form, this can be written as follows:
$ = (u,
UJ
+a
(4.3)
E Ea
Ovl< ovo
osmotic,
7r
Soil water
lpure water1
(u,
- u,)
7r
= matric suction
u, = pore-air pressure u, = pore-water pressure
= osmotic suction.
The spelling of the term matric is in accordance with the recommendation of the Committee on Terminology of the Society of Soil Science of America. The definition is f r o m their Glossary of Soil Science Terminology (1963, 1970. and 1979).
Figure 4.2 T o t a l suction and its components: matric and osmotic suction.
66
4 MEASUREMENTS OF SOIL SUCTION

Maonified soil particles
0.0002 cm ---------------.
Radius of meniscus
J
: . '.
. ... :.. , : :: ...... .. ,..,.. ,':'. ...,... .'.. . .. ,......., . . .. : . ... , , .

, '
, , ,
Flgure 4.3 Capillary tubes showing the air-water interfaces at different radii of cuwatuve (from Janssen and Dempsey, 1980).
spect to the air pressure, which is generally atmospheric (i.e., u, = 0) in the field. At low degms of saturation, the pore-water pressures can be highly negative, with values as low as minus 7000 kPa (Olson and Langfelder, 1965). In this case,the adsorptive forces between soil particles are believed to play an important role in sustaining the highly negative pore-water pressures in soils. Consider a capillary tube filled with a soil water. The surface of the water in the capillary tube is curved and is called a meniscus. On the other hand, the same soil water will have a flat surface when placed in a large container. The partial pressure of the water vapor above the curved surface of soil water, U,, is less than the partial pressure of the water vapor above a$& surface of the same soil water, u,,, (i.e., E, < E,, in Fig. 4.2). In other words, the rela-

.
Table 4.1 Typical Suction Values for Compacted Soils
Matric Suction, Water Content
(u,
tive humidity in a soil will decrease due to the presence of curved water surfaces produced by the capillary phenomenon. The water vapor pressure or the relative humidity decreases as the radius of curvature of the water surface decreases. At the same time, the radius of curvature is inversely proportional to the difference between the air and water pressures across the surface [Le., (u, - u,)] and is called matric suction. This means that one component of the total suction is matric suction, and it contributes to a reduction in the relative humidity. The pore-water in a soil generally contains dissolved salts. The water vapor pressure over a flat surface of solvent, is,,, is less than the water vapor pressure over a flat surface of pure water, Zuo. In other words, the relative humidity decreases with increasing dissolved salts in the porewater of the soil. The decrease in relative humidity due to the presence of dissolved salts in the pore-water is referred to as the osmotic suction, a.
4.1.2 Typical Suction Values and Their Measuring Devices
Table 4.1 shows typical matric, osmotic, and total suction values for two soils which often form the subgrade for mads built in the province of Saskatchewan, Canada (Kmhn and Fredlund, 1972). The Regina Clay is a highly plastic, inorganic clay with a liquid limit of 78% and a plastic limit of 31%. The glacial till has a liquid limit of 34% and a plastic limit of 17 96. Suction values are given in Table 4.1 for soils compacted to standard AASHTO conditions, with the water contents at optimum and 2% dry of optimum. Figure 4.4 shows experimental data illustrating hat the matric plus the osmotic components of suction are equal to the total suction of the soil. The presented data are for glacial till specimens compacted under modified AASHTO conditions at various initial water contents. Each component of soil suction, and the total suction, were measured independently. Several devices commonly used for measuring total, matric, and osmotic suctions are listed in Table 4.2. The ex-
- u,)
Soil Type
("/.I
(Wa)
Osmotic Suction, T (Pa)
Total Suction, J. (kPa)
Regina clay:
Y~~~ = 13.81 kN/m3
30.6 (optimum) 28.6 15.6 (optimum) 13.6
273 354 310 556
187 202 290 293
460 556
Glacial till:
yman = 19.24 N / m 3
600
849
4.2 CAPILLARITY
67
Total suction (psychrometer) Matric suction (pressure plate) Osmotic suction (squeezing technique) Osmotic plus
the water content versus matric suction relationship in soils (Le., the soil-water characteristic curve). This relationship is differentfor the wetting and drying portions of the curve, and these differences can also be explained in terms of the capillary model.
0'
Figure 4.4 Total, matric, and osmotic suctions for glacial till (from Krahn and Fredlund, 1972).
planation of each device is given later. The measurement range and comments related to each device are shown in Table 4.2.

! 9
'
11 13 15 17 Water content, w (%)
'
'
'
'
' '
'
19
4.2.1 Capillary Height Consider a small glass tube that is inserted into water under atmospheric conditions (Fig. 4.5). The water rises up in the tube as a result of the surface tension in the contractile skin and the tendency of water to wet the surface of the glass tube (i.e., hygroscopic properties). This capillary behavior can be analyzed by considering the surface tension, T,,acting around the circumference of the meniscus. The surface tension, T,,acts at an angle, a,from the vertical. The angle is known as the contact angle, and its magnitude depends on the adhesion between the molecules in the contractile skin and the material comprising the tube (i.e., glass). Let us consider the vertical force equilibrium of the capillary water in the tube shown in Fig. 4.5. The vertical resultant of the surface tension (i.e., 2.rr r T,cos a) is responsible for holding the weight of the water column, which has a height of h, (i.e., r r2 h, pw g):
2 r r T,cos a = .rrr2h,p,g
(4.4)
where
4.2 CAPILLARITY
t = radius of the capillary tube
T, = surface tension of water

a = contact angle
The capillary phenomenon is associated with the matric suction component of total suction. The height of water rise and the radius of curvature have direct implications on
h, = capillary height
g = gravitational acceleration.
Table 4.2 Devices for Measuring Soil Suction and Its Components
Suction Component Measured Range ( P a )
Name of Device Psychrometers Filter paper Tensiometers
Comments
Total
100"-
- 8OOO
Total
(Entire range)
Null-type pressure plate (axis translation) Thermal conductivity sensors Pore fluid squeezer
Negative pore-water pressures or matric suction when pore-air pressure is atmospheric Matric
0 9 0
Constant temperature environment required May measure matric suction when in good contact with moist soil Difficulties with cavitation and air diffusion through ceramic cup
0-1500
Matric
0--400+
Osmotic
(Entire range)
Range of measurement is a function of the air entry value of the ceramic disk Indirect measurement using a variable pore size ceramic sensor U s e d in conjuction with a psychrometer or electrical conductivity measurement
"Controlled temperature environment to f 0.001 "C.
68

Capillary tube Pressure distribution Atmospheric air pressure
( u . = 0)
uw = -Pw h cQ
c
- Zone of negative water pressures
Equation (4.4) can be rearranged to give the maximum height of water in the capillary tube, h,: 2TS h, = P w gRs
where
0).
R, = radius of curvature of the meniscus (Le., r/cos
The contact angle between the contractile skin for pure water and clean glass is zero (Le., a = 0). When the CY angle is zero, the radius of curvature, Rs,is equal to the radius of the tube, r (Fig. 4.5). Therefote, the capillary height of pure water in a clean glass is
2TS h, = (4.6) Pwgr' The radius of the tube is analogous to the pore radius in soils. Equation (4.6) shows that the smaller the pore radius in the soil, the higher will be the capillary height. The capillary height can be plotted against the pore radius using J3q. (4.6) where the contact angle is assumed to be zero (Fig. 4.6).

Datum
V i .
'
Water
'0
- 2r
r = Radius of
-of-
Water pressures
Figure 4.5 Physical model and phenomenon related to capillarity.
(4.5)
which is equal to 0.0). The elevation of points A and B on the water surface is considered as the datum for the system (i.e., zero elevation). As a result, the hydraulic heads (Le., elevation head plus pressure head) at points A and B are equal to zero. Point C is located at a height of h, from the datum (i.e., elevation head is equal to h,). The hydrostatic equilibrium among points C, B, and A requies that the hydraulic heads at all three points be equal. In other words, the hydraulic head at point C is also equal to zero. This means that the
Surface tension. T. = 72.76 mN/m
10'
E "
loo
1 0 1 = n
5 r .P r
s
B
Capillary Pressure Points A, B, and C in the capillary system shown in Fig. 4.5 in hydrostatic equilibrium. The water pressures at points A and B are atmospheric (Le., uw at A = u, at B,
4.2.2
1 0 3
10-2
1 0 1
1 0 2 lo0
Pore radius, r (mm)
Figure 4.6 Relationship among p o ~ e radius, matric suction, and capillary height.
4.2 CAPILwRlTY
69
pressure head at point C is equal to the negative value of the elevation head at point C. The water pressure at point C can be calculated as
uw
= -Pwgh,
(4.7)
where
u, = water pressure.
the tube. In other words, the weight of the water column is transferred to the tube thmugh the contractile skin. In the case of a soil having a capillary zone, the contractile skin results in an increased compmssion of the soil structure. As a result, the presence of matric suction in an unsaturated soil increases the shear strength of the soil.
Substituting Eq. (4.5) into Eq. (4.8) gives rise to matric suction being written in terms of surface tension:
(u,
Equation (4.9) is the same as the equation for the pressure difference across a contractile skin as presented in Chapter 2 . The radius of curvature, R,, can be considered analogous to the pore radius, r, in a soil by assuming a zero contact angle (Le., a = 0). As a result, the smaller the pore radius of a soil, the higher the soil matric suction can be, as shown in Fig. 4.6. The above explanation has demonstrated the ability of the surface tension to support a column of water, h,, in a capillary tube. The surface tension associated with the contractile skin results in a reaction force on the wall of the capillary tube (Fig. 4.7). The vertical component of this reaction force produces compressive stresses on the wall of
Fagure 4.7 Foxces acting on a capillary tube..

- u,)
=
The water pressures above point A in the capillary tube are negative, as shown in Fig. 4.5. The water in the capillary tube is said to be under tension, On the other hand, the water pressures below point A (Le., water table) are positive due to hydrostatic pressure conditions. At point C, the air pressure is atmospheric (Le., u, = 0) and the water pressure is negative (i.e., u, = -p,gh,). The matric suction, (u, - u,), at point C can then be expressed as follows:
4.2.3 Height of the Capillary Rise and Radius E f f e c t s The effects of the height of capillary rise and the radius of curvature on capillarity are illustrated in Fig. 4.8, as presented by Taylor (1948). A clean capillary tube of radius, r, allows pure water to rise to a maximum capillary height, h,, as shown in Fig. 4.8(a). However, the water rise in a
2TS -. R S
(4.9)
capillary tube may be restricted by the limited length of the tube [Fig. 4,8(b)]. A decrease in the capillary height results in an increase in the radius of curvature, R,, as indicated by Eq. (4.5) (Le., h, = 2Ts/(p,gRs)). For a constant radius of the tube, the increase in R, causes an increase in the contact angle since R, is equal to (rlcos a). The radius or opening of the tube is a significant factor in the development of capillary rise, as illustrated in Fig. 4.8(c) and (d). In both caws, the tube has a bulb with a radius of rI, which is larger than the radius of the tube, r. The presence of the bulb at the midheight of the capillary height, h,, prevents the water from rising up beyond the base of the bulb [Fig. 4.8(c)J. In other words, the nonuniform opening along the capillary tube can prevent the full development of capillary height. On the other hand, the capillary height, h,, can be fully developed if the bulb is filled by submerging it below the water surface and then raising it above the surface [Fig. 4.8(d)]. The developmentof capillary rise in a soil is also affected by the pore size distribution in the soil, as shown in Fig. 4.8(e). The water surface in the soil can rise to the capillary height, h,, through continuous soil pores with radii that am smaller than or equal to r. Capillary heights greater than h, may also develop if the height of the soil 'column is extended. The higher capillary rise corresponds to the pore radii that are smaller than r. However, the water surface cannot rise within the large openings at the center of the soil column [Fig. 4.8(e)]. o soil conThe above capillary tube analogy also applies t ditions in nature. The nonuniform pore size distribution in a soil can result in hysteresis in the soil-water characteristics curve. At a given matric suction, the soil water content during the wetting and drying pmesses am different, as illustrated by the examples shown in Fig. 4.8(c) and (d), respectively. In addition, the contact angle at an advancing interface during the wetting process is diffemnt from that at a d i n g interface during the drying prucess (Bear, 1979). The above factors, as well as the presence of entrapped air in the soil, are considered to be the main causes for hysteresis in the soil-water characteristic curve. In spite of its simplicity, the capillary model has some o describing the mechanical limitations in its application t
70
behavior of unsaturated soils. An apparent anomaly will occur when the capillary model is incorporated into the formulation of pore fluid compressibility, as later, explained in Chapter 8. The use of pore radius in the capillary equation [Le., Eq. (4.9)] causes the model to be impractical for engineering practice. In addition, there are other factors that contribute to being able to sustain highly negative porewater pressures in soils, such as the adsorptive forces between clay particles.
4.3 MEASUREMENTS OF TOTAL SUCTION
Environmental changes and changes in applied loads produce a change in the water content of the soil. The initial water content of compacted soils appears to have a direct relationship with the matric suction component (Fig. 4.4). On the other hand, the osmotic suction does not seem to be sensitive to the changes in the soil water content. As a result, a change in the total suction is quite representative of a change in the matric suction. Therefore, total suction measurements are of importance, particularly in the high suction ranges where the matric suction measurements are difficult to obtain. The following sections discuss the direct and indirect measurements of total suction. The free energy of the soil water (Le., total suction) can be determined by measuring the vapor pressure of the soil water or the relative humidity in the soil. The direct measurement of relative humidity in a soil can be conducted using a device called a psychrometer. The relative humidity in a soil can be indirectly measured using a filter paper as a measuring sensor. The filter paper is equilibrated with the suction in the soil.
4.3.1 Psychrometers
Thermocouple psychrometers can be used to measure the total suction of a soil by measuring the relative humidity in the air phase of the soil pores or the region near the soil. The relative humidity is related to the total suction in accordance with Eq. (4.1) where &&,) is equal to the relative humidity, RH. There are two basic types of thermocouple psychrome-

Figure 4.8 Height and radius effects on capillarity ( f r o mTaylor, 1948).
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ters, namely, the wet-loop type (Richards and Ogata, 1958) and the Peltier type (Spanner, 1951). Both types of psychrometers operate on the basis of temperature difference measurements between a nonevapomting surface (Le., dIy bulb) and an evaporating surface (Le., wet bulb). The difference in the temperatures between these surfaces is related to the relative humidity. The wet-loop and the Peltier-type psychrometers differ in the manner by which the evaporating junction is wetted in order to induce evaporation. In the wet-loop psychrometer, the evaporating junction is wetted by placing a drop of water into a small silver ring. In the Peltier psychrometer, evaporation is induced by passing a Peltier current through the evaporatingjunction. The Peltier current causes the junction to cool below the dewpoint, resulting in the condensation of a minute quantity of water vapor on the junction. The Peltier psychrometer is most commonly used in geotechnical engineering and is described in the following sections. The Seebeck and the Peltier effects are the main principles behind the operation of the Peltier psychrometer.
Seebeck Wects Seebeck (1821) discovered that an electromotive force (i.e., emf) was generated in a closed circuit of two dissimilar metals when the two junctions of the circuit have different temperatures [Le., T and (T+ AT)], as illustrated in Fig. 4.9. This phenomenon is referred to as the Seebeck effect, which allows the use of two dissimilar wires (Le., a thermocouple) to measure temperature. One junction of the circuit is maintained at a constant temperature for a reference, while the other junction is used for sensing a difference in temperature. A microvoltmeter can be installed in the circuit to measure the Seebeck electromotive force, which is a function of the temperature difference between the two junctions.
Peliier Effects Peltier (1834) discovered that when a current is passed through a circuit of two dissimilar metals, one of the junctions becomes warmer, while the other junction becomes
Metal A
,r:Micrwoltmeter T Metal B T+AT pV= microvoltage T = temperature
71
Metal
of maximum cooling. The maximum cooling results in a minimum dewpoint temperature that can be reached by the thermocouple. This, in turn, imposes a restriction on the lowest relative humidity (or the highest soil suction) that can be measured using a thermocouple psychrometer. The lower the relative humidity, the lower is the dewpoint temperature associated with its water vapor pressure.
Peuier Psychmmeter
A typical Peltier psychrometer, often called a Spanner psychrometer, is shown in Fig. 4.11. The thermocouple consists of 0.025 mm diameter wires of constantan (i.e., copper-nickel) and chrome1 (Le., chromium-nickel). The wires are welded together to form an evaporating or a measuring junction. The other ends of the wires am connected to 26 American Wire Gauge (AWG) copper lead wires to form a reference junction. The highly conductive copper wires have a large diameter (Le., large thennal mass) in order to serve as heat sinks that can maintain a constant temperature at the reference junction. The heat sinks are required to adsorb the Joule heat generated near the reference junction as the measuring junction is being cooled. The maximum degree of cooling generated by the chromel-constantan thermocouple is about 0.6"C below the ambient temperature (Brown and Ba~tos, 1982). This maximum cooling represents the lowest relative humidity (Le., 94%) or the upper limit of the total suction (Le., 8ooo kPa) which can be measured using the thermocouple psychrometer. The lowest suction which can be measured using a thermocouple psychrometer is approximately 100 kPa under a controlled temperature environment of f0.001"C (Krahn and Fredlund, 1972). This lower limit corresponds to a relative humidity approaching 10096. A slight lowering of the temperature as the 10096 relative humidity is approached will immediately produce condensation on the thermocouple.
Figure 4.9 Electrical circuit to illustrate the Seebeck effect.
cooler, as illustrated in Fig. 4.10. Passing the current in the opposite direction, as shown in Fig. 4.10, will produce a reverse thermal condition at the two junctions. This phenomenon is referred t o as the Peltier effect, and it allows the use of thermocouples for the measurement of relative humidity. The Peltier effect can be used to cool a thermocouple junction to reach the dewpoint temperature comsponding to the surrounding atmosphere. As a result, water vapor condenses on the junction. Upon termination of passing the current, the condensed water tends to evaporate to the surrounding atmosphere, causing a further reduction in the temperature at the junction. The temperature reduction is a function of the evaporation rate, which is in turn affected by the water vapor pressure in the atmosphere. If the ambient temperature and the temperature reduction due to evaporation are measured using the Seebeck effects, the relative humidity of the atmosphere can be computed. There is a maximum degree of junction cooling that can be achieved using the Peltier current (Spanner, 1951). The electrical current that produces the Peltier cooling also produces the Joule heating effect. The Joule heating effect is the heat produced by the work done against friction along the thermocouple wires. Spanner (1951) showed that the net cooling effect is a quadratic function of the current, and that there is a maximum value beyond which the Joule heating will dominate. Different types of thennocouples have different degrees
Metal

Mylar shield Color-coded insulation
W C Insulated cable Meltable shrink tubing liner
Polypropyleneshrink tubing liner White Epoxy resin
,Til
Metal B
Metal
Copper-constantan junction (soldered) (Reference junction) Constantan (0.026 mm)
Teflon plug
Chrome1 (0.026 mm) Welded junction
400 Mesh inner liner 4

200 Mesh outer liner
Y
&Teflon
disk
Stainless steel screen cap cooler
warmer
Figure 4.10 Electrical circuit to illustrate the Peltier effect.
Figure 4.11 Scmn-caged single-junction Peltier thermocouple psychrometer (from Brown and Collins, 1980).
72
14
B 0 12 E,
8
6
4
3 10
Figure 4.12 Equilibration times for a thermocouple psychrometer with various protective coverings, placed over a 0.3 molal KC1 solution at 25C ( f r o m Brown, 1970).
A protective housing is usually provided around the thermocouple wires. Protective covers take the form of a ceramic cup, a stainless steel screen, or a solid (stainless steel or teflon) tubing with a screen end window. The selection of the type of the protective cover depends on the application of the psychrometer. The time required for the water vapor equilibration is affected by the type of the protective cover, as demonstrated in Fig. 4.12. The ceramic cup appears to have a long equilibration time, which may not be practical in many situations. The psychrometer device is connected to a control unit for applying the Peltier cooling current. The psychrometer is also connected to a microvoltmeter for measuring the generated electromotive force during the evaporation process. Measurements of total suction are conducted by suspending a psychrometer in a closed system containing a
Read : null emf Cool
Cool

20 40 60 8 0 1 0 0 1 2 0 1 4 0 1 6 0 1 8 0 2 0 0 Time (min )
Read Read
I 1
soil specimen. The relative humidity is measured after equilibrium is attained between the air near the thermocouple and the pore-air in the soil specimen. Isothermal conditions among the temperature of the soil, the air, and the psychrometer must be achieved prior to conducting the measurements. A controlled temperature environment of f 0.001"C is required in order to measure total suctions to an accuracy of f10 kPa (Krahn and Fredlund, 1972). Thermal equilibrium within the psychrometer is assured by obtaining a zero reading on the microvoltmeter. The processes associated with the relative humidity measurement when using a Peltier psychrometer are best illustrated using Fig. 4.13 and the following explanation: a) Isothermal equilibrium between the psychrometer and the surrounding atmosphere must be achieved prior to a measurement being taken. This is indicated by a zero voltage reading. b) At an elapsed time of 15 s, a small electrical current (Le., 5 mA) is passed through the psychrometer circuit from the constantan wire to the chrome1 wire for a period of 15 s. The passage of an electrical current in this direction causes the measuring junction to cool due to the Peltier effect. As the temperature at the measuring junction drops below the dewpoint corresponding to the surrounding atmosphere, water vapor condenses on the measuring junction. During the condensation process, the temperature at the measuring junction remains at the corresponding dewpoint temperature. c) At the end of the 15 s period of cooling, the Peltier current is then terminated. d) As soon as the cooling process is stopped, the condensed water on the measuring junction starts to
Read : null emf
Figure 4.13 The operational principle of the Peltier thermocouple psychrometer suspended in a sealed chamber over a soil specimen (from Van Havered and Brown, 1972).
73
Psychrometer Calibmtjon The calibration of a psychrometer consists of determining the relationship between microvolt outputs from the thermocouple and a known total suction value. The calibration is conducted by suspending the psychrometer over a salt solution with a known osmotic suction under isothermal conditions. The calibration is performed by mounting the psychrometer in a sealed chamber. Filter papers are placed at the base of the chamber and generally saturated with a solution of NaCl or KCl. The

Table 4.3 Osmotic Suctions of NaCI solutions (fmm Lange, 1967)
Temperature
15C
evaporate to the surrounding atmosphere. The temperature at the measuring junction starts to drop below the dewpoint temperature as evaporation begins. As a result, the microvoltmeter m o d s the electromotive force on a strip chart recorder. The generated electromotive force is a function of the temperature difference between the measuring junction and the reference junction (Le., the Seebeck effect). The microvolt reading increases rapidly to a maximum value which is a function of the relative humidity in the surrounding atmosphere. The drier the atmosphere, the higher will be the microvolt output during the evaporation process. e) Having reached the maximum output corresponding to the maximum evaporative cooling, the microvolt output decreases rapidly to a zero reading. The decreasing output indicates that the temperature at the measuringjunction is increasing towards the ambient or the reference junction temperature. f ) The microvoltmeter gives a zero reading when the temperature at the measuring junction becomes equal to that of the reference junction.
osmotic suctions for NaCl and KC1 solutions at different molalities and temperatures are summarized in Tables 4.3 and 4.4, respectively. Under isothermal equilibrium conditions, the water vapor pressure or the relative humidity in the calibration chamber corresponds to the osmotic suction of the salt solution. Therefore, the psychrometer can be calibrated at various suction values by using different molalities (or osmotic suctions) for the salt solution. Isothermal conditions are maintained by placing the chamber in a constant temperature bath, as illustrated in Fig. 4.14. The calibration process results in a set of calibration curves corresponding to various temperatures (Fig. 4.15). Each curve relates the psychrometer reading to a corresponding total suction. The maximum output from the microvoltmeter is taken as the psychrometer reading. The psychrometer can then be used to measure the total suction in a soil specimen by using the established calibration curves. The calibration curves shown in Fig. 4.15 appear to increase from zero to a maximum microvolt value, and then decrease sharply to lower values. The maximum microvolt value indicates the maximum total suction that can be measured using psychrometers. Psychrometer readings beyond this point are highly variable, with the largest variability occumng at high temperatures. This characteristic occurs because there is a maximum degnx of cooling that can be achieved. The curves in Fig. 4.15 indicate a range for the maximum measurable total suction from 7000 to 8000 kPa, comsponding to a temperature range between 0 and 35"C, respectively. The response time of a psychrometer depends on its protective cover (Fig. 4.12) and the magnitude of total suction being measured (Fig. 4.16). The response time varies from
NaCl Molality
0C
7.5"C
25 "C
35 "C
Osmotic Suction (kPa)

0.0 860 2136 2998 4318 6606 7550 8035 8530 9025 0.0 884 2200 3091 4459 6837 7820 8330 8840 9360
0 0.2 0.5 0.7 1.o 1.5 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0
0.0 836 2070 2901 4169 6359 7260 7730 8190 8670
0.0 915 2281 32 10 4640 7134 8170 8700 9240 9780
0.0
946
2362 3328 4815 7411 8490
9040 9600
10 160
74
Table 4.4 Osmotic Suctions for KCl Solutions (&om Campbell and Gardner, 1971)
Molality
0C
0.0
10C
0.0
15C
0.0
20C
0.0
25C
0.0
30C
0.0
35C
0.0
a few hours at several thousands kilopascals suction to 9 7 4 ) . It about two weeks at 100 kPa suction (Richards, 1 appears that the psychrometer requires a considerably long time for equalization when used to measure low suction values. Hamilton et al. (1981)repoxted serious problems associated with corrosion on the thermocouples. The response characteristicsof a failing or dirty psychrometer is difficult to interpret, as illustrated in Fig. 4.17.The corrosion problem can be attributed to the acidic environment in the soil. It is important to clean the psychrometer thoroughly after each calibration or usage, in accordance with the instructions given by the manufacturer.
Psychrometer Pe@imnance Psychrometers are useful far measuring high suctions in soils. In situ measurements of total suctions using psychrometers are generally not mommended because significant temperature fluctuations occur in the field. However, laboratory measurements can be conducted in a controlled

Thermoregulator To relay Stirrer Psychrometer
0 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1 .oo
421 827 1229 1628 2025 2420 2814 3208 3601 3993
436 859 1277 1693 2108 2523 2938 3353 3769 4185
444 874 1300 1724 2148 2572 2996 3421 3846 4272
452 890 1324 1757 2190 2623 3057 3492 3928 4366
459 905 1347 1788 2230 2672 31 1 6 3561 4007 4455
467 920 1370 1819 2268 2719 3171 3625 4080 4538
474 935 1392 1849 2306 2765 3226 3688 4153 4620
temperature environmentusing undisturbed soil specimens from the field. A small soil specimen is placed into a stainless steel or Lucite chamber, together with the thermocouple psychrometer, as illustrated in Fig. 4.18. The entire assembly is then placed in a constant temperature bath, as shown in Fig. 4.14.The temperature of the bath should be maintained at a constant temperature, within fO.OO1 "C (Krahn and Fredlund, 1 9 7 2 ) . In other words, the thermoregulator must be able to respond to a fluctuation in temperature of f0.001"C.The soil temperature is expected to be maintained within the same degree of accuracy or greater due to the buffering effect of the glass beaker. Figures 4.19 and 4.20 present the relationships between total suction and initial water content for comDacted glacial till and compacted Regina clay, respectively. h e total suction measurements were conducted using thermocouple psychrometers. It should be noted that these relationships are different from the soil-water characteristic curves for the soils since the results were obtained from various soil
I
-19 mm Styrofoam
- 6 mm Lucite
Figure 4.14 Schematic diagram of a constant temperature bath (fmm Krahn and Fredlund, 1972).
4.3 MBASUREMENTS OF TOTAL SUCTION
n-
75
Psychrometer cable
Reducer orifice
Figure 4 . 1 5 Psychrometer calibretion curves at various temperatures (from Brown and Caztos, 1982).
12 10
k Total suction = 2820 kPa f 15 hrsl+

4 2
0
Figure 4 . 1 6 Response times for laboratory psychrometers (from Richards, 1974).

Total suction, J/ (kPa)
Screen cage psychrometer
4%
1 Soil chamber
Figure 4.18 S t a i n l e s s steel sample chamber w i t h a seal psychrometer in place (from Brown and Collins, 1980).
10
15 20 25 Time (days)
30
35
specimens compacted to different densities and at different water contents. A soil-water characteristic curve describes the water content versus suction relationship for a single soil specimen. Figures 4.19 and 4.20 clearly indicate a unique relationship Between s o i l suction and initial water content for a particular compacted s o i l , regardless its dry densities. The in situ suction of the same compacted soil in the field can then be inferred from this type of relationship (Figs. 4.19 and 4.20) by measuring its water content. This applies only when the soil has just been compacted in the field. Comparisons between suction measurements using ther3200 2800 2400
Normal
400
Time
Figure 4 . 1 7 Comparison of responses from a nonnal and a dirty or failing psychrometer, as obtained from the same suction (from Hamilton, 1979).
10 12 14 16 Initial water Content, wo (%)
18
Figure 4 . 1 9 T o t a l suction versus initial water content relationship for glacial till (from Krahn and Fredlund, 1972).
76

2800 ,
1
' i ' i
1 1
Figure 4.20 Total suction versus initial water content relationship for Regina clay (from Krahn and Fredlund, 1972).
mocouple psychrometers and suction measurements using the filter paper technique are shown in Figs. 4.21 and 4.22. Figure 4.21 illustrates laboratory measurements of total suctions on soil samples from various depths at a location near Regina, Sask., Canada. The results indicate reasonably close agreement between both methods of total suction measurement as long as the filter paper is not in contact with the soil.
Suction (kPa) 100 lo00
Figure 4.21 Suction profile versus depth obtained using thermocouple psychrometers and the filter paper method (from van
der Raadt et al., 1987).

' L O '
!2 ' ! 4 ' ! 6 ' 28 30 Initial water content, wo (%)
5 10 15 2 0 25 30 Compaction water content (%)
1,
Figure 4.22 Comparison of independent measurements of total suction on a compacted silty sand (from Daniel et al., 1981).
10
loo00
The basic Peltier psychrometer (Fig. 4.11) with a single measuring junction has been found to be extremely sensitive to slight temperature gradients. In addition, the singlejunction psychrometer cannot be used to measure the ambient temperature around the measuring junction. Therefore, a double-junction Peltier psychrometer (Fig. 4.23) has been developed in order to eliminate the drawbacks associated with a single-junction psychrometer. The double-junction psychrometer has two chromelconstantan thermocouples. The two constantan wires are attached to a constantan lead, while the two chrome1 wires are attached to different copper leads. The Peltier current is applied to the circuit TN (Fig. 4.23), causing a cooling at the left measuring junction. The psychrometer output is measured between the two copper leads, N and P, as a difference between the two junctions. The psychrometer output is relatively free from any extraneous electrical outputs associated with temperature fluctuations within the Psychrometerchamber. Any electromotive force generated at one measuringjunction due to a thermal gradient is compensated by an opposing electromotive force at the other
rt j.;
Silt Till
Teflon rod
Copper (26 AWG)
Constantan (26 AWG)
Reference junction
Chromel (0.025 mm)
Measuring junction
w
Constantan (0.025 mm)
Copper (26 AWG) Reference junction Chromel (0.025 mm)
Measuring junction
Figwe 4.23 Double-junction temperature-mmpensated Peltier thermocouple psychrometer (fmm Van Haveren and Brown, 1972 and Meeuwig, 1972).
77
measuring junction. Therefore, the double-junction psychrometer is called a temperature-compensated psychrometer. In addition, the output measured between the constantan lead wire, T,and the copper lead wire, P,gives the ambient temperature within the psychrometer chamber.
. .
Two filter
4.3.2 Filter Paper
. . . .( . .
Principle of Measumment ( m r Paper Method) From a theoretical standpoint, it is possible to use the filter paper method to measure either the total or the matric suction of a soil. The filter paper is used as a sensor. The filter paper method is classified as an indirect method of measuring soil suction. The filter paper method is based on the assumption that a filter paper will come to equilibrium (Le., with respect to moisture flow) with a soil having a specific suction. Equilibrium can be reached by either liquid or vapor moisture exchange between the soil and the filter paper. When a dry filter paper is placed in direct contact with a soil specimen, it is assumed that water flows from the soil to the paper until equilibrium is achieved (Fig. 4.24).When a dry filter paper is suspended above a soil specimen (Le., no direct contact with the soil), vapor flow of water will occur from the soil to the filter paper until equilibrium is achieved (Fig. 4.24). Having established equilibrium conditions, the water content of the filter paper is measured. The water content of the tilter paper corresponds to a suction value, as illustrated by the filter paper calibration curve shown in Fig. 4.25.Theoretically, the equilibrium water content of the filter paper corresponds to the matric suction of the soil when the paper is placed in contact with the water in the soil. On the other hand, the equilibrium water content of the filter paper corresponds to the total suction of the soil if the paper is not in contact with the soil. Therefore, the same calibration curve is used for both the matric and total suction measurements. The tilter paper method can be used to measure soil suc-

0.11. 0
The filter paper method for measuring soil suction was developed in the soil science discipline, and has since been used primarily in soil science and agronomy (Gardner, 1937; Fawcett and Collis-George, 1967; McQueen and Miller, 1968;Al-Khafaf and Hanks, 1974). Attempts have also been made to use the filter paper method in geotechnical engineering (Ho, 1979;Tang, 1979;McKeen, 1981; Khan, 1981; Ching and Fredlund, 1984; Gallen, 1985; McKeen, 1985;Chandler and Gutierrez, 1986). Recent experience with the use of the filter paper method on the studies of airport pavement subgrades and swelling potential profile of expansive soils by McKeen (1985),has indicated that this method deserves further consideration. At present, the filter paper method has not gained general acceptance in geotechnicalengineering. There is a need for further research relative to the use of this technique in engineering.
Figure 4.24 Contact and noncontact filter paper methods for measuring matric and total suction, respectively (from AI-khafaf and Hanks,1974).
tion over a wide mnge of values. The measunements are generally performed in the laboratory by equilibratinga filter paper with an undistuhxi or disturbed soil specimen obtained from the field.
Measurement and Calibration Techniques ( m e r Paper Method) The following technique of measurement and calibration is written in accordance with a tentative ASTM standard on the filter paper method (ASTM Committee D18 on Soil and Rock). The filter paper sensor must be of the ash-free, quantitative Type II as specified by ASTM standard specification E832. Whatman No. 42 and Schleicher and Schuell No. 589 White Ribbon are two commonly used brands of filter paper. A typical filter paper has a disk size with a diameter of 55 mm. Filter papers from the same brand a= considered to be identical in the sense that all filter paper disks have the same calibration curve. The equipment associated with the filter paper method consists of large and small metal containers, an insulated box, a balance, and a drying oven. The large container must be able to contain a soil specimen of approximately 200 g. The container should be treated to prevent lusting. The
150 200 Water content o f filter paper, wt (%)
60
--
100
..
Flgure 4.25 A typical calibration curve showing measured filter f r o m McQueen and paper water contents for applied suctions ( Miller, 1%8).
78
MEASUREMENTS OF SOIL SUCTION
large container has an air-tight lid, and is used to equilibrate the soil specimen and the filter paper for a period of several days. The small container, with a volume of approximately 60 cm3, is used to contain the filter paper during oven drying for its water content measurement. The small container should be as light as possible, considering the small mass of the filter paper. An insulated box can be used to store the large containers with the soil specimens and filter papers during the equilibration period. The box should be maintained at a constant temperature within floc.An accurate balance with a minimum capacity of 20 g and a readability of O.OOO1 g should be used when weighing the filter paper during its water content measurement. Some researchers pretreat the filter papers prior to its use in order to prevent fungal and bacterial growth during the equilibration period (Fawcett and Collis-George, 1967; and McQueen and Miller, 1968). Solutions of 3 96 Pentachlorophenol, C6C150H, or 0.005% HgCl have been used to pretreat the filter papers. However, recent studies do not indicate any difference in the results obtained from the pretreated and untreated filter papers (Hamblin, 1984; Chandler and Gutierrez, 1986). The most common practice is to have the filter paper initially dry, and then allow it to adsorb water from the soil specimen during equilibration. All calibration curves appears to have been established using initially dry filter papers. Therefore, if initially wet filter papers are to be used in the suction measurements, it may be necessary to establish new calibration curves using initially wet filter papers. There appears to be some hysteresis in the water content versus suction relationship for filter paper upon wetting and drying (Lykov, 1961). The filter paper is initially oven dried for several hours. The dry filter paper is then cooled and stored in a desiccant container. Meanwhile, a soil specimen is placed in a large container. The soil specimen should almost fill the container (Fig. 4.24) in order to reduce the equilibration time. The noncontact procedure can be used by placing two dry filter papers on a perforated brass disk that is seated on top of the soil specimen, as shown in Fig. 4.24. The contact procedure can be used by placing three stacked filter papers in contact with the soil specimen, as illustrated in Fig. 4.24. For the contact procedure, the center filter paper is generally used for the suction measurement, while the outer filter papers are primarily used to protect the center paper from soil contamination. Once the filter paper and the soil specimen are in the large container, the container is sealed with plastic electrical tape. The sealed container is then stored in the insulated box for equilibration. It appears that the ambient temperature does not affect the filter paper results provided the temperature variations during equilibration are minimized (Al-Khafaf and Hanks, 1974). Suctions in the filter paper should be allowed to equilibrate for a minimum period of

0 2
4 6 8 1 0 1 2 1 4 Equilibrationtime (days)
Figure 4.26 Increasing water content of the initially dry filter paper during the equilibration period ( f r o m Tang, 1978).
seven days. Figure 4.26 illustrates the increasing water content of initially dry filter paper as equilibration occurs with the soil specimen. The results indicate that seven days is sufficient for the equilibration pupose. At the end of the equilibration period, the filter papers are removed from the large container using a pair of tweezers, and their water contents are determined using the small metal containers. The water contents of both filter papers used in the noncontact measurement can be measured independently. In the contact measurement, the water content of the center filter paper is of primary importance. The other filter papers are primarily for protective purposes. Extreme care must be exercised when measuring the small masses associated with the filter papers. The filter paper should be transferred from the large container to the small container within a short period of time (e.g., 3-5 s). This short period of transfemng time will minimize water loss or gain between the filter paper and the surrounding atmosphere. The small container containing the filter paper must be closed and weighed immediately in order to determine the mass of the filter paper and the adsorbed water. The container along with the filter paper is then placed in an oven at a temperatuxe of 110 f 5C. In the oven, the lid of the container should be removed to allow water to escape from the filter paper. Having removed all of the water from the filter paper, the container, along with the dry filter paper, m weighed with the lid in place in order to determine the dry mass of the filter paper. The difference between the dry mass and the wet mass of the filter paper is used to compute the equilibrium water content of the filter paper. The equilibrium suction is obtained from the calibration curve (Fig. 4.27) by using the measured equilibrium water content of the filter paper. The equilibrium suction is assumed to be equal to the suction in the soil specimen. Using the noncontact pmedure, the suction values deter-
79
mined from the two filter papers can be averaged when determining the soil suction, provided the two filter papers give similar water contents. The calibration curve for a specific filter paper can be established by measuring the water content of filter paper in equilibrium with a salt solution having a known osmotic suction. In principle, the filter paper calibration is similar to the calibration of a psychrometer. The filter paper should be suspended above at least 50 cm3 of a salt solution. The procedure for ensuring equilibration and measuring the water content is the same as those used during the measurements of soil suction. Various filter paper water contents can then be plotted against the differing osmotic suctions to give the calibration curve. The calibration curve for filter papers always exhibits bilinearity, as shown in Fig. 4.27. The lower part of the curve represents the high range of filter paper water contents where the water is believed to be held by the influence of capillary forces. On the other hand, the upper part of the calibration curve represents lower water contents where the water is believed to be held in an adsorbed water film within the filter paper (Miller and McQueen, 1978). It should be emphasized that the filter paper technique is highly user-dependent, and great cam must be taken when measuring the water content of the filter paper. The balance must be able to weigh to the nearest O.OOO1 g. Each dry filter paper has a mass of about 0.52 g, and at a water content of 3096, the mass of water in the filter paper is about 0.16 g.
The Use o f the Filter Paper Method iu h t k e A question of immediate concern to the practicing engineer is, What is the accuracy of the suction measurement when

0
10
20
30 40 SO 60 Filter paper water content, WI (%)
70
80
90
Figure 4.27 Calibration curves for two types of filter paper.
using the filter paper method? The question is still being answered, but the following typical results rnpresented in order to provide some indication of the accuracy of the filter paper method. A comparison between the results of suction measurements using the filter paper method and psychrometers is shown in Fig. 4.21. The results from the noncontact filter paper agree fairly closely with the psychrometer results, indicating that total suction was being measured. However, the contact filter papers did not exhibit as consistent results with respect to depth. This is believed to be due to poor contact between the filter paper and the soil specimen, which resulted in the total suction being measured in many instances, instead of the matric suction over the depth range of 0-5 m (Fig. 4.21). It appears to be difficult to ensure good contact between the soil specimen and the filter paper. For this reason, total suction will generally be measured when using the filter paper method. Figure 4.28 demonstmtes a close agreement between total suction measurements obtained when using the filter paper method and thermocouple psychrometers. Total suction profiles in a montmorillonite clay in Texas (Fig. 4.29) have been pdicted using the filter paper method (McKeen, 1981). The results appear to agree closely with the psychrometer measumments. Figure 4.30 shows the results of filter paper measurements of total suction on a highly plastic clay from Eston, Canada (Ching and Fredlund, 1984). While augering several boreholes, water content samples were taken at about 0.3 m intervals. Three filter papers were included with each water content samples. These were allowed to equilibrate for one weak. The measured suction on the highly swelling clay ranged from 2000 to 6OOO Wa. Although there is no
80

I
100
Total suction (kPa) 500 lo00 5000 loo00
0
1
2
A
E 4
g5
7
O 6
2
to
104 106 Total suction as measured by filter paper (kPa)

103
ioi
Figure 4.28 Comparisons of total suction measurements obtained using the filter paper method and psychrometers (from McKeen, 1981). direct Confirmation of these measurements, the results appear to be reasonable for this deposit. Another total suction profile (Fig. 4.31) was obtained from an excavation in shale using the filter paper method (McKeen, 1985). The drying effects near the surface of the excavation (Le., down to a depth of 0.6 m) result in high soil suctions [Fig. 4.31(a)]. Correspondingly, this portion of the profile also has a low water content [Fig. 4.31(b)] in the soil. The filter paper method has also been used to estimate the in situ stress state of London clay with reasonable success (Chandler and Gutierrez, 1986). It may also be possible to use the filter paper technique for in situ measurements of (total) suction (Fredlund, 1989). A proposed scheme for measuring suctions in subgrade soils is shown in Fig. 4.32. The filter papers
Suction (kPa)
ioi
5
6
I
Flgure 4.29 Total suction profiles as determined using the filter paper method and thermocouple psychrometers (From McKeen,
1981).

8
io*
10 1
I.ItL
n = Number of points R2 = Coefficient of determination o = Standard error
Atterberg limits of Eston clay Liquid limit 94% Plastic limit 31% Plasticity index 63%
Figure 4.30 Total suction profiles for Eston clay using the filter paper method.
would be left in place for about one week, and then removed for measurement of their water contents. New filter papers could then be installed and allowed to equalize for another week. Although this scheme has not been used to date, it appears to have possibilities as a low-cost, approximate technique to estimate total suction. The filter paper method appears to have a wide range of measuring capability corresponding to soil suctions from a few kilopascals t o several hundred thousand kilopascals (Fawcett and Collis-George, 1967; McQueen and Miller, 1968). However, the measurements must be performed with great care. In addition, only the noncontact filter paper procedure can be assured of measuring total suction. The contact filter paper procedure may measure either the total or the matric suction, depending on the degree of contact between the soil and the filter paper.
io2
io3
10
io6
4.4 MEASUREMENTS OF MATRIC SUCTION
Matric suction can be measured either in a direct or indirect manner. The negative pore-water pressure is measured using direct methods. The pore-air pressure, which is generally atmospheric in the field, minus the negative porewater pressure gives the matric suction. High air entry ceramic disks are used for direct measurements of negative pore-water pressures. Therefore, the properties of high air entry ceramic disks are presented prior to describing different ways to perform a direct measurement. Several types of porous sensors are used for performing indirect measurements of matric suction. The electrical and thermal properties of a standard ceramic are a function of
4.4 MEASUREMENTS OF MATRIC SUCTION
81
its water content, which in turn is a function of the matric suction. A measurement of the electrical or thermal properties of the sensor indicates the matric suction both in the sensor and in the surrounding soil. Indirect measurements of matric suction based on the thermal properties of the sensor are described in this chapter.
4.4.1 High Air Entry Disks
A high air entry disk has small pores of relatively uniform size. The disk acts as a membrane between air and water (Fig. 4.33). The disk is genemlly ceramic, being made of sintered kaolin. Once the disk is saturated with water, air cannot pass through the disk due t o the ability of the contractile skin to resist the flow of air. The ability of the ceramic disk to withstand the flow of air results from the surface tension, T,, developed by the contractile skin. The contractile skin acts like a thin membrane joining the small pores of radius, R,, on the surface of the ceramic disk. The difference between the air pressure
Manufactured by Soilmoisturc Equipment Corporation, Santa Barbara, CAI

Suction (kPa) Water content, w (%)
(43
Figure 4.31 Total suction and water content profiles in a shale excavation (from McKeen, 1985).
above the contractile skin and the water pressure below the contractile skin is defined as matric suction. The maximum matric suction that can be maintained across the surface of the disk is called its air entry value, (u, u,,,),,. The air entry value of the disk can be illustrated using Kelvins equation:
- Uwld = 2TS R S
(4.10)
where
(u,
- uJd
3 :
air entry value of the high air entry disk
Ts= surface tension of the contractile skin or the air-water interface (e.g., Ts = 72.75
mN/m at 20C) R, = radius of curvature of the contractile skin or the radius of the maximum pore size.
Surface tension, T,, changes slightly with temperature. The air entry value of a disk is largely controlled by the
\ Water, uw
Casing
Water compartment
To measuring system
Figure 4.32 Scheme for using filter papers to measurn total suction.
Figure 4.33 Opemting principle of a high air entry disk as described by Kelvins capillary model.
82
Table 4.5 High Air Entry Disks Used at Imperial College (From Blight, 1966)
Coefficient of Permeability with Respect to Water, kd (m/s) Air Entry Value,
(u,
Type of Disks Doulton Grade P6A Aerox "Celloton" Grade VI Kaolin-consolidated from a slurry and fired Kaolindust pressed and fired
Porosity, n (%I
- u,),,
(kPa)
radius of curvature, R,,of the largest pore in the disk. The size of the pores is controlled by the preparation and sintering process used to manufacture the cemmic disk. The smaller the pore size in a disk, the greater will be its air entry value [Eq. (4. l o ) ] . The properties of several types of high air entry disks used for unsaturated soils research at Imperial College, London, are listed in Table 4.5. The ability of the high air entry disk to withstand a difference between air and water pressures makes the disk suitable for the direct measurement of negative pore-water pressures in an unsaturated soil. The disk is used as an interface between the unsaturated soil and the pore-water pressure measuring system. Water in the disk acts as a fink between the pore-water in the soil and the water in the measuring system. At the same time, air cannot pass through the high air entry disk into the measuring system. The separation of the air and water across a high air entry disk can be achieved only as long as the matric suction of the soil does not exceed the air entry value of the disk. Once the air entry value of the disk is exceeded, air will pass through the disk and enter the measuring system. The presence of air in the measuring system causes emneous measurements of the pore-water pressure in a closed system, Figure 4.34shows the air passage characteristics of three disks mentioned in Table 4.5.The plots indicate the air entry value or the maximum matric suction sustainable across the disk. The properties of several high air entry disks manufactured by Soilmoisture Equipment Corporation are tabulated in Table 4.6.The disks are identified according to their air entry values, which are expressed in bars (Le., one bar is equal to 100 kPa). The water coefficient of permeability of a disk was measured by mounting the disk in a triaxial apparatus and placing water above the disk. An air pressure can then be applied to the water, producing a gradient across the high air entry disk. The volume of water flowing through the disk is measured using a water volume change indicator. Details on the equipment are presented in Chapter 1 0 .

3 9 4 . 5x 1 0 ' O
23 46 4 5
2 . 1 x 10-9 2 . 9X 6.2 X lo-"
152 21 4 317
524
The flow of water through a high air entry disk is plotted against elapsed time, as shown in Fig. 4.35. The plot shows a straight line indicating steady-state seepage through the disk. The volume of water divided by the cross-sectional area of the disk and the elapsed time gives the coefficient of permeability of the disk. In general, the coefficient of permeability of the disk decreases with an increasing air entry value. The air entry value and the permeability of a high entry disk should be measured prior to its use in unsaturated soil testings. Figure 4.36presents the air passage characteristics of high air entry disks from Soilmoisture Equipment Corporation. The measured air entry values appear to be higher than the nominal values specified by the manufacturer. The results of measurements of the air entry values and the coefficients of permeability for various high air entry disks are summarized in Table 4.7.
4.4.2 Direct Measurements There are two devices commonly used for the direct measurement of negative pore-water pressures. These are the tensiometer and the axis-translation apparatus. Tensiometers utilize a high air entry ceramic cup as an interface between the measuring system and the negative pore-water pressure in the soil. Tensiometers can be used in the lab-
5" 8
-0
Applied rnatric suction, (ua - ) , u
50
100
150
200
250
300 350 (kPa)
Figure 4.34 Air passage characteristics of three high air entry disks (from Bishop and Henkel, 1962).
4.4 MEASUREMENTS OF MATRlC SUCTION
83
Table 4.6 Properties of High Air Entry D i s k s Manufacturedby Soilmoisture Equipment Corporation (Manufacturer's Results)
Air Entry Value, (ua - U d d Wa)
Approximate Pore Diameter Type of Disks

(X
io-'
mm)
Coefficient of Permeability with Respect to Water, kd (4s)
oratory and in the field. On the other hand, the axis-translation apparatus can be used only in the laboratory. The use of the axis-translation concept was described in Chapter 3.
Tensiometers
A tensiometer measures the negative pore-water pressure in a soil. The tensiometer consists of a high air entry, porous ceramic cup connected to a pressure measuring device through a small bore tube. The tube is usually made from plastic due to its low heat conduction and noncorrosive nature. The tube and the cup are filled with deaired water. The cup can be inserted into a precored hole until there is good contact with the soil. Once equilibrium is achieved between the soil and the measuring system, the water in the tensiometer will have the same negative pressure as the pore-water in the soil.
"
Figure 4.35 Steady-state seepage of water through a high entry disk (from Fredlund, 1973).

1 bar high flow
1 /2 bar high flow 1 bar
2 bar 3 bar 5 bar 15 bar
6 . 0 2 . 1 2.5 1.2 0.8 0 . 5 0.16
3.11 x 3.46 x 8.60 x 1.73x 1 . 7 3x 1.21 x 2.59 x
10-~ 10-~ lo-' 10-~
10-~
lo-''
48-62 138-207 131-193 241-310 317-483 >550 > 1520
4 bar high air entry diskPressure = 3q5 kPa

/
/
r'
/&
r1 /
2
15 ar high air entry disk Pre:sure = 55 kPa,
4 6 8 1 Elapsed time, t (rnin )
The pore-water pressure that can be measured in a tensiometer is limited to approximately negative 90 kPa due to the possibility of cavitation of the water in the tensiometer. The measured negative pore-water pressure is numerically equal to the matric suction when the pore-air pressure is atmospheric (Le., u, = zero gauge pressure). When the pore-air pressure is greater than atmospheric pressure (i.e., during axis translation), the tensiometer reading can be added to the ambient pore-air pressure reading to give the matric suction of the soil. The measured matric suction must not exceed the air entry value of the ceramic cup. The osmotic component of soil suction is not measured with tensiometers since soluble salts are free to move through the poms cup. There are several types of tensiometers available from Soilmoisture Equipment Corporation. Figure 4.37 shows a regular tensiometer with a Bourdon-vacuum gauge to measure the negative pore-water pressure. The negative porewater pressure in the tensiometer tube can also be measured using a water-mercury manometer or an electrical pressure transducer, as indicated in Fig. 4.38. Cassel and Mute (1986)discussed the sensitivity of various measuring devices on the response time of a tensiometer. In general, an increase in the gauge sensitivity will decrease the response time of the tensiometer. The increased gauge sensitivity also results in less water movement between the soil and the tensiometer, and subsequently a more accurate measurement of suction. A higher permeability of the ceramic cup will also result in a lower response time for the tensiometer. The tensiometer tube in Fig. 4.37 has a diameter of approximately 20 mm and various lengths up to 1.5 m. In other words, tensiometer cups can be installed in the field to a depth of 1.5 m below the ground surface. However, the negative water pressure recorded at the ground surface must be corrected for the elevation head corresponding to the water column in the tensiometer. The longer the ten-
84

4
l -3
u)
E
P
k
CI
siometer tube, the greater will be the correction. This correction results in a more negative water pressure being measured than that recorded by the measuring device. A length of 1 .5 m corresponds to a pressure correction of 15.2 kPa .
Servicing the Tensiometer Prior to Instauation The service cap at the top of the tensiometer tube (Fig. 4.37) is used to facilitate the filling of the tube with deaerated water, the sealing of the tube during measurements, and the servicing of the tensiometer. The tensiometer must
Table 4.7 Permeability and Air Entry Value Measurements on High Air Entry Disks from Sotlmoisture Equipment Corporation (from Fredlund, 1973; Rahardjo, 1990) Diameter of the Disk (mm ) 19.0 19.0 19.0 19.0 19.0 101.6 56.8 56.8 57.0 Thickness of the disk (mm) 6.4 6.4 6.4 6.4 6.4 10.0 6.2 3.1 3.1
Air Entry Value
Type of Disks
1 bar high f l o w
5 bar 15 bar

5 1 0 100
110 120 1 30 Matric suction, (ua
i2
UW)
140 (kPa)
150
160
Figure 4.36 Air passage characteristics of one bar, high air entry disks (from Rahardjo, 1990).
be serviced properly prior to its use in order to obtain reliable results. Details on the preparation, installation, and usage of a tensiometer are presented by Cassel and Klute (1986). During prepamtion for installation, the ceramic cup should be checked for signs of plugging; air bubbles should be removed from the tensiometer, and the response time of the tensiometer should be checked. The ceramic cup can be checked by placing the empty tensiometer upright in a pail of water and allowing the cup to soak in the water overnight. An unplugged cup will allow water to fill the tensiometer tube. The removal of air bubbles is performed by applying a
of the Disk,
(%
-Udd
Coefficient of Permeability of the Disk, kd (m/S) 5.12 3.92 3.98 5.09 5.60 4.20 1.30 8. 1 6: 2
X
115 130 110 130 150 > 200
x x x x x x
lo-' lo-' lo-' lo-' lo-' lo-' 10-9
x lo-''
Next Page
4.4 MEASUREMENTS OF MATRlC SUCTION
85
Service cap
"0" ring cap seal
Port, molded into

body tube
Mercury manometer
Po (1 1
Manual observation
Figure 4.38 Several measuring systems for a tensiometer (from Momson, 1983).

Heavy clear plastic Bourdon vacuum "0"ring stem seal
I
High air entry ceramic cup
- -I
Figure 4.37 Conventional tensiometer from Soilmoisture Equipment Corporation.
Bourdon vacuum
gauge
Pressure transducer
To chart recorder for continuous
F Manual i o
observation
Ground surface
IS cup
(2)
(3)
vacuum of approximately 80 Wa to the top of the tensiometer tube for a period of 30-60 s. The vacuum can be applied using a hand-held vacuum pump, as shown in Fig. 4.39. This process will remove air bubbles from the ceramic cup, the Bourdon gauge, and from the imperfections on the wall of the tube. Having released the applied vacuum, deaerated water is added to refill the tube and the service cap is tightened in place. The water in the tube is then subjected to a negative pressure of approximately 80 kPa by allowing water to evaporate from the ceramic cup. Under this negative pressure, air bubbles may reappear in the tube, and the above procedure should be repeated until the tube is essentially fme of air bubbles. It is important to have an air-free tensiometer tube in order to ensure correct readings and rapid responses. The response time of a tensiometer can be checked by developing a negative water pressure of approximately 80 kPa by evaporation from the ceramic cup and then immersing the ceramic cup into water. The negative water pressure in the tensiometer should increase towards atmo-

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CHAPTER 4

4.1 THEORY OF SOIL SUCTION

Co py rig hte dM ate ria l

Measurements o f Soil Suction

Copyright 1993 John Wiley & Sons

Retrieved from: www.knovel.com

THEORY OF SOIL SUCTION

Co py rig hte dM ate ria l

Total suction,b ,t (kPe)

Figure 4.1 Relative humidity Venus total suction relationship.

u, = pore-air pressure u, = pore-water pressure

Copyright 1993 John Wiley & Sons

Retrieved from: www.knovel.com

4 MEASUREMENTS OF SOIL SUCTION

. ... :.. , : :: ...... .. ,..,.. ,':'. ...,... .'.. . .. ,......., . . .. : . ... , , .

Co py rig hte dM ate ria l

4.1.2 Typical Suction Values and Their Measuring Devices

Osmotic Suction, T (Pa)

Total Suction, J. (kPa)

Y~~~ = 13.81 kN/m3

30.6 (optimum) 28.6 15.6 (optimum) 13.6

273 354 310 556

187 202 290 293

Copyright 1993 John Wiley & Sons

Retrieved from: www.knovel.com

Co py rig hte dM ate ria l

11 13 15 17 Water content, w (%)

t = radius of the capillary tube

T, = surface tension of water

Name of Device Psychrometers Filter paper Tensiometers

"Controlled temperature environment to f 0.001 "C.

Copyright 1993 John Wiley & Sons

Retrieved from: www.knovel.com

4 MEASUREMENTS OF SOIL SUCTION

- Zone of negative water pressures

R, = radius of curvature of the meniscus (Le., r/cos

Co py rig hte dM ate ria l

Figure 4.5 Physical model and phenomenon related to capillarity.

Pore radius, r (mm)

Copyright 1993 John Wiley & Sons

Retrieved from: www.knovel.com

Fagure 4.7 Foxces acting on a capillary tube..

Co py rig hte dM ate ria l

Copyright 1993 John Wiley & Sons

Retrieved from: www.knovel.com

4 MEASUREMENTS OF SOIL SUCTION

4.3 MEASUREMENTS OF TOTAL SUCTION

Co py rig hte dM ate ria l

,r:Micrwoltmeter T Metal B T+AT pV= microvoltage T = temperature

4.3 MEASUREMENTS OF TOTAL SUCTION

Figure 4.9 Electrical circuit to illustrate the Seebeck effect.

Co py rig hte dM ate ria l

W C Insulated cable Meltable shrink tubing liner

Polypropyleneshrink tubing liner White Epoxy resin

Copper-constantan junction (soldered) (Reference junction) Constantan (0.026 mm)

Chrome1 (0.026 mm) Welded junction

400 Mesh inner liner 4

Stainless steel screen cap cooler

Figure 4.10 Electrical circuit to illustrate the Peltier effect.

Copyright 1993 John Wiley & Sons

Retrieved from: www.knovel.com

4 MEASUREMENTS OF SOIL SUCTION

Co py rig hte dM ate ria l