Hindu Temples of South India

Version 1.1 by David Raezer and Jennifer Raezer 2012 by Approach Guides (text, images, & illustrations, except those to which specific attribution is given) All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means, without permission in writing from the publisher. Further, this book is licensed for your personal enjoyment only. This book may not be resold or given away to other people. If you would like to share this book with another person, please purchase an additional copy for each recipient. Approach Guides and the Approach Guides logo are the property of Approach Guides LLC. Other marks are the property of their respective owners. Although every effort was made to ensure that the information was as accurate as possible, we accept no responsibility for any loss, damage, injury, or inconvenience sustained by anyone using this guidebook.

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Contents
Introduction History of Hindu Architecture Basics of Hindu Architecture North and South India Temples Compared STYLE GUIDE Chalukya Empire Style Pallava Empire Style Pandyan Empire Style Chola Empire Style Rashtrakuta Empire Style Hoysala Empire Style Vijayanagar Empire Style Nayak Empire Style SITE PROFILES Map of Temple Sites in South India Aihole (near Goa) : Durga Temple Aihole (near Goa) : Ladh Khan Temple Belur (near Bangalore) : Chennakeshvara Temple Ellora (near Mumbai) : Kailasa Temple (Cave 16) Halebid (near Bangalore) : Hoysaleshvara Temple Hampi (near Goa) : Overview Hampi (near Goa) : Hemakuta Hill Hampi (near Goa) : Virupaksha Temple Hampi (near Goa) : Vitthala Temple Kanchipuram (near Chennai) : Kailasanatha Temple Kanchipuram (near Chennai) : Vaikunthaperumal Temple

Kanchipuram : Varadaraja Temple Madurai : Meenakshi Temple Madurai : Kudal Alagar Perumal Temple Mahabalipuram (near Chennai) : Rathas Mahabalipuram (near Chennai) : Shore Temple Pattadakal (near Goa) : Galaganatha Temple Pattadakal (near Goa) : Jambulinga Temple Pattadakal (near Goa) : Virupaksha Temple Somnathpur (near Bangalore) : Keshava Temple Thanjavur : Brihadeshevara Temple Free Updates More from Approach Guides Praise for Approach Guides About Approach Guides

Introduction
Previewing this book? Please check out our enhanced preview, which offers a deeper look at this guidebook. South India is the premier area in which to experience the architectural tradition of the Hindu temple. Given that the Hindu empires of the South were able to hold off the imperial expansion of Islamic forces, Hindu architecture in South India did not suffer the same destruction as that in the North. As a result, the Souths religious complexes remain largely intact, offering an abundance of temples from all time periods and empires. This Approach Guide explores South Indias architecture by looking at temples built by eight of the most powerful Hindu empires in Tamil Nadu (Pallava, Pandyan, Chola, and Nayak) and Karnataka (Chalukya, Rashtrakuta, Hoysala, and Vijayanagar). This guide begins by reviewing the defining features of each empires architectural style, with a focus on innovations and trademark elements. The goal is to provide travelers with an appreciation of both what makes each empires architecture unique, as well as what connects it to that of those empires that came before and those that would come after. With this stylistic foundation in place, this Approach Guide takes travelers on a tour of twentyfour of the most iconic Hindu temples in South India. Each temples detailed profile includes high-resolution images and floorplans that reveal salient features with color highlights to ease identification. This tour includes the following locations: Aihole (near Goa). Visit the site of the earliest temples in South India, the Chalukya-built Ladh Khan and Durga Temples, that bridge the gap from early Buddhist to Hindu forms. Belur (near Mysore and Bangalore). Explore the Hoysalas Chennakeshvara Temple, a decorative masterpiece. Ellora (near Mumbai). The stunning, rock-cut Kailasa Temple is the best example of the Rashtrakuta Empire style. Halebid (near Mysore and Bangalore). Yet another Hoysala site, the Hoysaleshvara Temple demonstrates a major step forward in the layout of the Hoysala floorplan. Hampi (near Goa). This Vijayanagar architectural site with its Virupaksha, Vitthala, and Hemakuta Hill Temples makes for a really cool stop, combining a wealth of cultural sites with a laid back vibe. Kanchipuram (near Chennai). Visit this Pallava architectural sites three impressive temples that went on to influence all future ones in South India: Kailasanatha, Vaikunthaperumal, and Varadaraja Temples. Mahabalipuram (near Chennai). This Pallava site offers some of the earliest architecture in South India, the Rathas Temples, and one of the most picturesque, the Shore Temple. Madurai. Madurai is a very religious city and offers you a great opportunity to experience an active Hindu community, best witnessed at the enormous Meenakshi Temple, constructed in the Nayak style; however, the decoration of the little-known Kudal Alagar Perumal Temple makes it a highlight stop as well. Pattadakal (near Goa). At this site of the mature Chalukya temple style, visit the Virupaksha, Jambulinga, and Galaganatha Temples.

 Somnathpur (near Mysore and Bangalore). This sites Keshava Temple represents the high point of the Hoysala style; its star-shaped, triple-shrine arrangement was a breakthrough. Thanjavur. The Brihadeshvara Temple, with its massive tower, represents the Chola architectural style par excellence. Intuitively organized and loaded with over 100 photos, this guidebook serves as an ideal reference, both for pre-travel research and on location touring.

Contact us anytime Our readers are our greatest inspiration. Email us at founders@approachguides.com to let us know about your experience with Approach Guides many of our recent updates have been inspired by customers like you. We personally respond to every email. We hope you enjoy what we believe is a totally unique guide to the Hindu temples of South India. Have a great trip!

David and Jennifer Raezer Founders, Approach Guides

Temple Layout and Chief Structural Components

Temple layout The Hindu temple is laid out on an east-west alignment; the temple entrance is on the eastern side and the sanctuary is on the western side. The entire temple complex is placed on a high plinth or platform to symbolize its significance.

Primary structures The chief temple structures (moving from east to west) include: Ardha-mandapa. This is a largely open entrance vestibule, entered by passing under a gopuram (arched gateway), symbolic of the passage from the world of the profane to the sacred. Temple-goers ascend stairs, pass under the gopuram to the level of the ardha-mandapa, and then proceed into the mandapa. See green highlights on Fig. 1. Mandapa. The mandapa is positioned directly between the entrance vestibule and the garbha griha; it is a columned or hypostyle hall, in which devotees assemble (to view the deity in the garbha griha) and ritual dances are performed. Some more advanced temples will have a second mandapa called the maha mandapa that is located in between the external mandapa and the garbha griha. See blue (mandapa) and yellow (maha mandapa) highlights on Fig. 1. Garbha griha. The square-shaped garbha griha holds the core sanctuary, cella, or Holy of Holies where the resident deity resides. The vimana, the main tower of the temple, sits directly above the garbha griha. See red highlights on Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. Floorplan, Northern Temple style. Highlights added.

The square and circle The square sanctuary (garbha griha) is the core of the temple complex, positioned directly under the mountain tower (vimana); it houses the resident deity. The overall plan of the temple is dictated by this central square, as its form is mirrored by surrounding structures. To return briefly to cosmology: The square form is associated in Hinduism with divinity (hence the square sanctuary), whereas the circle is associated with humanity. The transition from profane (circle) to sacred (square) is most profoundly indicated by the half-circle stones positioned at the base of the entrance stairways to temples ardha-mandapas. It is interesting to note that the apsidal form used as the floorplan for Buddhist sanctuaries (chaitya) fuses the circular with the square; this was likely the inspiration for the use of these basic, symbolic architectural forms.

Gods mount at the temple entrance The approach to the temple entrance (ardha-mandapa) is indicated by the presence of the resident divinitys mount or transport: Temples venerating Shiva (and his consort, Parvati) display stone images of his mount, Nandi (a seated bull), facing the main shrine. See Fig. 2. Temples dedicated to Vishnu (and his consort, Lakshmi) display stone images of his mount, Garuda (a mythical bird), facing the main shrine.

Fig. 9. The Southern temple style. Dharmaraja ratha, Mahabalipuram. Highlights added.

The temple floorplan There are often three entrances to the South India temple, on the east, north, and south sides of the external ardha-mandapa (see green highlights in Fig. 10). This compares versus the Northern temples single eastern entrance. The progression of rooms follows the same pattern as in the North: In Fig. 10, the internal mandapa is shown in yellow highlights and the garbha griha sanctuary is shown in red highlights. Vast hypostyle halls. Later in the Southern styles development, the internal mandapa was replaced by vast hypostyle halls, with as many as one thousand pillars. Later, even the external ardha-mandapa was expanded, becoming a small hypostyle hall that fed an even larger one.

Walled temple enclosure accessed through large gopurams

This is a unique feature of the South India temple style. Temples are usually encircled by protective, concentric enclosure walls (see blue highlights on Fig. 10), with entrances through large gateways (called gopurams; see Fig. 11) that sometimes even dwarf the enclosed temples. This walled design was perhaps precipitated by the increased fragility of Hindu empires in the wake of ongoing Islamic invasions that jeopardized the sacred structures of their civilization. As a result, the temple complex came to include not only the temple, but also the surrounding city itself. Accordingly, the temple-cities now even more accurately symbolized the divine city (the temple proper) surrounded by its mountain ranges (city walls).

Fig. 10. Southern Style Temple, Floorplan. Highlights added.

Pyramidal shaped towers for temples The Southern styles tower exhibits sharp vertical sides that proceed to the summit in a series of diminishing storeys to form a pyramidal outline (rather than a curved, corn cob like shape). This is perhaps the most easily identifiable feature of the Southern style temple. Further, the clearly visible horizontal lines indicative of the storeys contrast with the Northern styles strong vertical lines. See Fig. 9. The tower shape was originally inspired by Buddhist vihara monastery antecedents specifically, the parapets (discussed below) represent the cells around a square-shaped room in which Buddhist monks were allowed to sleep. This core cell-surrounded square form is merely superimposed in ever-smaller layers until the desired temple height is achieved.

Pallava Empire Style

History

Regional context The Tamil Nadu-based Pallava Empire spanned the 3rd-9th centuries, reaching its apex in the 6th-7th centuries. Potentially descended from a group of Pahlavas from Iran (Persia) who migrated southward into the Indian peninsula in prehistory, the Pallavas comprised the first major Hindu dynasty in South India, displacing the Early Cholas (100-200 CE). For part of its existence, the Pallava Empire shared control of Tamil Nadu with the Pandyan Empire (6th-9th centuries, discussed in later section); the Pallavas controlled the lands to the North of the Kaveri River, while the Pandyans controlled the lands to its south. Both Empires were displaced by the rising Medieval Cholas (836-1267), who assumed control of the entire region.

Linkage with Karnatakas Chalukya Empire There was great exchange with the other leading Hindu empire of the time, the Badami-based Chalukya Empire, located in Indias Karnataka region. In fact, although there are arguments supporting the fact that both the Chalukya and Pallava architectural styles arose independently, it is quite possible that the Pallavas gained inspiration from the Chalukya temples in Aihole (discussed in detail in a later section). The historical foundation for this assertion: the Pallavas sacked and occupied Chalukya lands in 642; this occupation lasted for thirteen years and could have been the point of transfer of Chalukya architectural forms to the Pallavas. This argument is worth considering, particularly since no Pallava temples currently extant pre-date this occupation.

Architecture Overview

Pallavas give form to the Southern temple style Some of the oldest architecture in South India is attributable to the Pallavas, dating from the 7th century; the only older (extant) architecture was built by the Chalukya Empire, from whom they might have borrowed the core framework for the Southern temple form. The Pallavas are known for their rock-hewn temples and were one of the first to build structural stone-built temples. The Pallavas 7th century monolithic (rock-hewn) temples were named rathas (literally chariots). Likely influenced by the Early Chalukya temples in Aihole, they incorporate many elements of what would become the South Indian temple style, even at this early date (for more detail on these forms, see the earlier section entitled North and South Indian Temples Compared). These ele-

ments include: Towers rising in a series of receding stories to form a perfect pyramid shape. Bell-shaped, octagonal dome forms resembling small domed kiosks topping key temple structures, especially the primary tower. A molded plinth supporting the temple. Temple walls dividing into alternating protruding and receding elements, the transition between being demarcated by pairs of shallow pilasters. Sculptures of deities confined to niches. Eaves positioned on each successively higher storey of the temples tower. Parapets a low wall along the edge of each successive story created by a series of miniature curved roof forms. Building supports in which a multi-faceted pillar is transformed into a sculptural element (especially a lion) at its base.

Pallavas and Chalukyas Compared

Although we asked readers to consider that the Pallavas might have borrowed their core Southern temple form from the Chalukyas, there are clear differences, mostly taking the form of a more developed style under the Pallavas: Towers are topped with octagonal dome forms, as compared to the Chalukyas predominantly square dome forms. Further, this octagonal dome form is more elevated (compared to its Chalukya predecessors) above the surrounding cells comprising the parapet, thereby better emphasizing its distinct form. The Pallava shrines employ exclusively solid walls, with none of the pierced stone windows of the Chalukyas. The Pallavas abandoned the projecting gable (that was adjoined to the front of the tower) utilized by the Chalukyas. Under the Pallavas, the pillared hall (or mandapa), which had heretofore remained a separate structure, was made to join the square sanctuary. This is a major step forward in the maturation of the South Indian temple style.

Where to See It
Mahabalipuram. This Pallava site offers some of the earliest architecture in South India. It is a highlight stop, remarkable for both its impressive structures and their high state of preservation. Kanchipuram. After Mahabalipuram, seemingly a architectural prototyping zone, Kanchipuram (the Pallava capital city) was the next site of architectural development for the Pallavas.

Map of Temple Sites in South India

Aihole (near Goa) : Ladh Khan Temple

Location: Aihole (near Goa), Karnataka. The original core square portion of the temple (green highlights in Fig. 20) housing the core sanctuary (red highlights) was likely built in 540; the porch extension (yellow highlights) and superstructure were added in 600-650. Style: Chalukya Empire

Fig. 20. Floorplan, Ladh Khan Temple, Aihole. Highlights added.

Profile
Built of sandstone, this is the earliest stone-built temple in India. The design of the core structure was borrowed from 5th century Buddhist rockhewn monasteries (viharas) at Ajanta, as it employs a similar square floorplan and hypostyle interior. Cave 2 at Ajanta is a perfect example of such a vihara prototype; for purposes of comparison, in Fig. 21 depicting Cave 2s floorplan, we have applied color highlights

to the same elements marked in Ladh Khans floorplan.

Fig. 21. Floorplan, Cave 2, Ajanta. Highlights added.

The First Vimana Tower

In the mid-7th century, architects began initial experimentation with a simple form of vimana or tower superstructure (red highlights in Fig. 22); this is the earliest such form in India. This rudimentary tower will reach its greatest expression in the Western Group temples of Khajuraho, India (built 1025-1050; see Fig. 23).

Fig. 22. The first vimana tower, Ladh Khan Temple, Aihole.

Fig. 23. The vimana towers highest expression, Kandariya Mahadeva Temple, Khajuraho.

Decoration
The roof consists of huge stone slabs laid flat. Further, there are clear references to timberbased architectural forms, particularly in the log-shaped forms that sit atop the roof and project slightly outward. See yellow highlights in Fig. 22. A Nandi bull, Shivas transport, sits in the center of the internal hall, facing the shrine. In later temples, the Nandi will migrate from the inside to the outside of the temple structure. Again attesting to its Buddhist antecedents, forms highly reminiscent of Buddhist wheels are borrowed and incorporated into the temple as monolithic window screens. Notice the lotus flowers (symbols of purity) that sit at their hubs and the fish (symbols of rebirth) which cover the spokes; taken together, these symbols can indicate the many-routed path over multiple rebirths (the fish spokes) to eventual salvation (the lotus at the center) with the recognition of the at-one-ment of all things. See Fig. 24.

Fig. 24. Ladh Khan Temple, Aihole.

Belur (near Bangalore) : Chennakeshvara Temple

Location: Belur (near Bangalore and Mysore), Karnataka. Built in 1117, this is a predecessor to the Keshava Temple in Somnathpur. Style: Hoysala Empire

Fig. 25. Floorplan, Chennakeshvara Temple, Belur.

Fig. 27. Exterior decoration, Shrine, Chennakeshvara Temple, Belur. Highlights added.

Decoration
Decoration was the focus and is therefore the highlight of the temple. As at Somnathpur and Halebid, the Hoysalas built in the local soapstone in Belur. This allowed them to carve ornate details on the walls and columns of their temples. Trademark friezes. The multiple friezes depicting animals and figures in processional movement (yellow highlights in Fig. 27) that become a hallmark of the Hoysala style get their start on this temple. The three levels of friezes on this temple (in some places only one) increases to six levels in subsequent temples (Hoysaleshvara in Halebid and Keshava in Somnathpur). Dynamic, in-the-round features. The figures sculpted onto the Chennakeshvara Temples walls are in very high relief, another characteristic element of the Hoysala style. In fact, in some cases, as in Fig. 28 (look at the chaitya arch over the dancing figure), the sculpture is completely detached from the wall behind it.

Thanjavur : Brihadeshevara Temple

Location: Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu. This magnificent temple, dedicated to Shiva, was built in 1000 by Rajaraja Chola I, the greatest of the Chola king-builders. Style: Chola Empire

Fig. 102. Floorplan, temple compound, Brihadeshevara Temple. Highlights added.

Layout
Visitors to the temple enter through a large gopuram (orange highlights in Fig. 102). A 16th century Nayak Period Nandi pavilion (pink highlights in Fig. 102) stands to the east of the primary temple. The temple itself has an open entrance hall (ardha-mandapa; blue highlights in Fig. 102 and Fig. 103 for location; and Fig. 104), also dating from the Nayak Period (1559-1736), that affords access to the original, enclosed hypostyle hall (mandapa; green highlights in Fig. 102 and Fig. 103). The hypostyle hall, in turn, leads to the square garbha-griha sanctuary (red highlights Fig. 102 and Fig. 103), which is surrounded by an ambulatory (yellow highlights Fig. 102 and Fig. 103). The entrances to the core sanctuary are flanked by enormous guardian figures wielding clubs.

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