Seth Andrew J.

Salih COMPANA NO1 Critical Thinking Questions

October 1, 2012 MS. Glorina P. Orozco

Chapter 1 1. Given your knowledge of human anatomy, what characteristics unique to chordates are present in humans? How have they been modified? Since humans are complex chordates, they must, at least during the embryonic stage, exhibit the four-chordate characteristics. They, at that point, must have a notochord, an endostyle, a dorsal hollow CNS and a postanal tail. After that, those characteristics have been modified. The postanal tail can be seen as the coccyx, or the tailbone. Some say that the coccyx is vestigial while some say that its curved shape is used by the females to assist the baby during birth. The notochord has been obliterated during development; but in its place, is the bony centrum supporting the vertebral column. The dorsal hollow central nervous system has been modified into a brain, with its many ventricles, and its downward extension, the spinal cord. In the pharynx, the pharyngeal slits formed and closed again. The pharynx is the site where the skeleton and musculature of the jaws, the thyroid and parathyroid glands, middle ear cavity, and the thymus gland arises. 2. The tissues and organs in the human body possess a recognizable size, shape and position relative to other structures. How would these features compare to other mammals, to other amniotes, and other vertebrates? Animal form and structure, and function are always related. Structure fits function. Functions of organisms are almost always related to their habitat and mode of life. An example would be the exoskeleton. Humans have skin, which perform numerous functions such as protecting

the viscera, lubricating and moisturizing the outer surface. Mammals mostly have a lot of hair, or fur to protect them. Reptiles have cornified exoskeletons, while fishes have scales. 3. What are the superior to inferior regions in the human body, and how would they compare to the anterior to posterior regions in a fish? The longitudinal axis divides the body into superior and inferior regions of the body. Parts that are superior are nearer the head or also called cephalad. Parts that are inferior are those toward the tail or also caudad. The superior regions of humans are anterior in terms of fishes. They are both cephalad and are towards the head. Similarly, the inferior regions of humans are inferior in terms of fishes. They are both caudad and are towards the feet, or tail. 4. In reviewing the various figures in this chapter, what developmental features in humans are similar to those of other craniates even if they are not preserved in the adult? Of all characteristics of chordates, the 4 distinguishing characteristics of chordates are those that are similar to other craniates that are not retained during adulthood. They would be notochord, endostyle, dorsal hollow CNS, and postanal tail. Other characteristics are 3part brain, cranium, paired external sense organs, cartilage and the neural crest and its derivatives. 5. In the section on Other Craniate Characteristics, what comparisons can be made between the human condition and the patterns seen in other craniates for each of the discussed systems? How general are human features? For the integument, human skin is composed of the dermis and a multilayered epidermis. Many varieties of glands develop from the epidermis and empty on the surface.

For other craniates, the epidermis consists of a variety of horny appendages such as spines, reptilian scales, feathers, hair, claws and hooves. For respiratory mechanisms, humans respire by lungs, as well as other terrestrial animals. Fishes, by gills and some amphibians by their skin. In fishes, amphibians, and reptiles, the coelom is partitioned into a pericardial cavity and pleuroperitoneal cavity. In birds and mammals, we have a pericardial, pleural cavities and an abdominal cavity. Most craniates terminate their digestive tract in a cloaca. In mammals and birds, we have the anus. 6. In comparing humans to other terrestrial craniates, we see the presence of a neck in contrast to the condition in fishes. What explanation can you give for the origin of a neck in tetrapods? Fishes have their eyes on the sides of their heads. This position of the eyes allows the fish to see in front and on the sides. Upon leaving water to live on land, tetrapods developed their neck vertebrae, which lengthened the neck and allow the animals to move their heads to a greater degree. This allows them to look down at the ground.

Chapter 3 1. What are the living protochordates? Why is Hemichordata excluded from chordates? The Hemichordates, Urochordates and the Cephalochordates have living examples. For Hemichordata, an example is Saccoglossus or Dolichoglossus. For Urochordata, examples of the tunicates are Molgula and Pandocia. An example of Cephalochordata or amphioxus is Branchiostoma. Hemichordata is excluded from the other chordates because the hemichordates do not exactly have the 4chordate characteristics. They only have structures similar

or homologous to those of chordates. The stomochord in Saccoglossus is homologous to the notochord of the chordates 2. What are the big four or the synapomorphies for Chordata? Synapomorphies are derived features reflecting common ancestry. The big four of the chordates are the: notochord, dorsal hollow central nervous system, postanal tail and endostyle. 3. What structures found in amphioxus are homologous to human features? If they have been modified, then how? In amphioxus, a single blind ending branches off from the underside of the gut. It used to be thought that the caecum might be homologous to the liver of vertebrates. Similarly, the endostyle in protochordates is homologous to the vertebrate thyroid gland. The anterior end of the nerve cord contains regions homologous with the vertebrate forebrain and hindbrain. 4. If cephalochordates are the sister group to craniates, based on fossil evidence what is your estimate for the time of origin for craniates (at least minimal or youngest estimate)? How would you explain a lack of fossils if they were not found in the time frame of your estimate? The estimated period where craniates could possibly originate would be the Cambrian period. If there would be a lack of fossils, it is due to the environment dissolving certain fossilizable parts. 5. Why use a larval lamprey as a model for the hypothetical craniate ancestor? Does this imply that the parasitic adult lamprey is a good model for the lifestyle of early craniates? If not, how has the adult been modified from its common ancestor with other craniates?

Lampreys are odd animals, with peculiar anatomy. They have a long and special life cycle, with an extended embryonic and larval development. Ammocoete larvae exhibit craniate features that are not present in amphioxus, among which are special sense organs and a craniate means of eliminating excess metabolic wastes. Lampreys are not primitive organisms but represent highly specialized parasites. When comparing lampreys with fossil relatives, it is clear that their parasitic lifestyle is a derived character. There are isolated populations of landlocked lampreys that do not metamorphose into parasitic adults.