Signals, Spectra and Signal Processing (EC413L1)

Chapter 2 DISCRETE-TIME SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS

2.0 Introduction This chapter introduces the different elementary discrete-time signals that are important in the treatment of signal processing. These are used as basis functions or building blocks to describe more complex signals. This chapter also emphasizes the characterization of discrete-time systems in general and the class of linear time-invariant (LTI) systems in particular. The motivation for studying LTI systems is twofold: first, there are a large collection of mathematical techniques that can be applied to the analysis of LTI systems; second, many practical systems are either LTI systems or can be approximated by LTI systems.

2.1 Discrete-Time Signals A discrete-time signal x(n) is a function of an independent variable that is an integer. A graphical representation of a discrete-time signal is shown below
Discrete-Time Signal 2

1.5

x(n)

0.5

-0.5

-1 -4

-3

-2

-1

0 n

Figure 2.1. Graphical representation of discrete-time signal

Note: A discrete-time signal is NOT DEFINED at instants between two successive samples. A discrete-time signal is defined for every integer value n for - < n < +. x(n) refers to the nth sample of the signal.

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Some alternative representations of discrete-time signals: o Functional representation through equations: Example: 1, for n = 1,3 xn = 4, for n = 2 0, elsewhere

Tabular representation through tables: Example:

Sequence representation through row matrices: Examples: For infinite-duration signal, the time origin (n = 0) is indicated by an below the value.
x (n ) = . . . 0 0 1 4 1 0 0. . .

A sequence, which is zero for n < 0 can be represented as

x (n ) = 0 1 4 1 0 0 . . .

If an arrow is omitted, the leftmost value is understood to be the sample at time-origin. A finite-duration sequence is represented as
x (n ) = 3 1 2 5 0 4 1

whereas a finite-duration sequence that is defined only at n > 0 can be represented as

x (n ) = [0 1 4 1]

2.1.1 Some Elementary Discrete-Time Signals Unit sample sequence, denoted as (n), is defined as

In words, the unit sample sequence is a signal that is zero everywhere, except at n = 0 where its value is unity. It is also called unit impulse. The graphical representation of (n) is shown below.

1 for n = 0 n = 0 for n 0

2.1.6

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2

1.5

0.5

0 -10

-5

10

Figure 2.2 Unit impulse sequence

Unit step signal, denoted as u(n), is defined as

Unit step signal is illustrated below

2

1 for n 0 un = 0 for n < 0

2.1.7

1.5

0.5

0 -10

-5

10

Figure 2.3. Unit step sequence

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Unit ramp signal, denoted as r(n), and is defined as n for n 0 rn = 0 for n < 0

2.1.8

Unit ramp sequence is shown below

15

10

0 -10

-5

10

Figure 2.4. Unit ramp sequence

Exponential signals are of the form

If a is a real number, then x(n) is also a real number. The figures below illustrate x(n) for various values of the parameter a.

xn = a

2.1.9

Figure 2.5. Real exponential signals for various values of the parameter a

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When the parameter a is complex-valued, it can be expressed as a = re

and x(n) as

having a real part xR(n)

xn = re = r e = r cos n + j sin n

2.1.10

and imaginary part xI(n)

xR n = r cos n xI n = r sin n

2.1.11

2.1.12

Figure below shows the real and imaginary plots of the complex exponential signal. Notice that the real part is a damped cosine wave while the imaginary part is a damped sine wave.
real part 1 0.5 0 -0.5 0 5 10 15 imaginary part 1 0.5 0 -0.5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 20 25 30

Figure 2.6. Graphs of real and imaginary components of a complex-valued signal

Complex exponential signals can also be represented graphically using the amplitude function |xn| = An = r 2.1.13

and the phase function

The figure below shows the plot of complex exponential function in terms of magnitude and phase functions.

xn = n = n

2.1.14

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magnitude 1

0.5

10

15 phase

20

25

30

5 0 -5

10

15

20

25

30

Figure 2.7. Graph of amplitude and phase function of a complex-valued exponential signal

2.1.2 Classification of Discrete-Time Signals Energy and power signals o The energy E of a signal x(n) is given as E = |xn|

2.1.15

o o

If the energy of the signal E is finite, then it is an energy signal. If its energy is infinite, it may have finite average power, given by 1 |xn| P = lim N 2N + 1
N N

2.1.16

If it has finite average power, then it is a power signal.

Periodic and aperiodic signals o A signal x(n) is periodic with period N (N > 0) if and only if xn + N = xn for all n 2.1.20

If there is no value of N that satisfies the above equation, the signal is considered aperiodic.

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o The energy of a periodic signal x(n) over a single period is finite, if x(n) takes on finite values over the period. However, for the whole duration of the signal (from negative to positive infinity) its energy is infinite. For the whole duration of the signal, the average power of the periodic signal is finite and is equal to the average power over a single period, given by 1 |xn| P= N
N

2.1.23

hence, a periodic signal is a power signal. Example: Determine whether the following signals are energy or power signals and determine their energy and power. a) Unit sample sequence b) Unit step sequence d) xn = 0.2 un e) x (n) = L 3 2 1 1 4 3 2 L Symmetric (even) and antisymmetric (odd) signals o A real-valued signal x(n) is called symmetric or even if x(-n) = x(n) o It is asymmetric or odd if x(-n) = -x(n). We note that in this case, x(0) = 0.
Even 4 2 0 -5 5 0 -5 -5

c) xn = cos , for < n < +

0 Odd

Figure 2.8. Graphical illustration of even and odd signals

Any signal can be expressed as the sum of two signal components, one even and one odd.

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o The even signal component is formed by x n = o x n = 1 xn + xn 2 1 xn xn 2

2.1.26

The odd signal component is formed by

2.1.27

Example: Resolve the following signals into its odd and even components and plot the resulting sequence. Verify your answers. a) Unit step sequence 1 + for 3 n 1 b) xn = 1 for 0 n 3 c)

x (n) = L 3 2 1 1 4 3 2 L

0 elsewhere

2.1.3 Simple Manipulations of Discrete-Time Signals

Transformation of the independent variable (time) o Time shifting shifting the signal x(n) in time involves replacing n with n k, where k is an integer. If k is positive, the time shifts results in the delay of the signal by k units of time. If k is negative, the time shifts results in an advance of the signal by |k| units of time.

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Figure 2.9. Graphical representation of a signal, and its delayed and advanced versions

Time folding the signal x(n) is folded about n = 0 when the time variable n is replaced by n.

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Figure 2.10. Graphical illustration of the folding and shifting operations

Time-scaling the signal x(n) is downsampled when the time variable n is replaced by an, where a is an integer. It is upsampled when the time variable n is replaced by n/a, where a is an integer. Downsampling means resampling the sampled signals, that is, decreasing the sampling rate by a. Upsampling means inserting a 1 samples in between samples.

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Figure 2.11. Downsampling and Upsampling

Addition, multiplication and scaling of sequences o Amplitude scaling of a signal by a constant A is accomplished by multiplying the value of every signal sample by A. yn = Axn for - < n < +

The sum of two signals x1(n) and x2(n) is a signal y(n), whose value at any instant is equal to the sum of the values of these two signals at that instant, that is yn = x n + x n for - < n < + yn = x n x n for - < n < + 1+

The product of two signals is similarly defined on a sample-to-sample basis as

Example: A discrete-time signal is defined as xn =

a. Determine its values and sketch the signal x(n). b. Sketch the signal that will result if we: i. First fold x(n) and then delay the resulting signals by four samples. ii. First delay x(n) by four samples and then fold the resulting signal. Chapter 2 Discrete-Time Signals and Systems Page 11

n for 3 n 1 3 1 for 0 n 3 0 elsewhere

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c. Sketch the signal x(-n + 4). d. Compare the results in parts (b) and (c) and derive a rule for obtaining the signal x(-n+k) from x(n). e. Express the signal x(n) in terms of signal of unit sample and unit step sequences.

Example: A discrete-time signal x(n) is shown below. Sketch and label carefully each of the following signals:

a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h)

x(n 2) x(4 n) 3x(n + 2) x(n) u(2 n) x(n 1) (n 3) x(n2) even part of x(n) odd part of x(n)

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2.2 Discrete-Time Systems

A discrete-time system is a device or an algorithm that performs some prescribed operation on a discrete-time signal. The discrete-time system performs operation on an input discrete-time signal according to some well-defined rule (the algorithm) to produce the output or response. We can describe the operation applied by the system to the input signal x(n) to produce the output y(n) in the following manner yn = xn 2.2.1

where T denotes transformation (also called an operator) or processing performed by the system on x(n) to produce y(n). 2.2.1 Input Output Description of Systems

The input output description of a discrete-time system consists of a mathematical expression or a rule, which explicitly defines the relation between the input and output signals

Figure 2.12. Block diagram representation of a discrete-time system.

Example: For the input signal

Determine the output of the system defined by the following input output relationship. a) yn = xn b) yn = xn 1 c) yn = xn + 1 d) yn = xn + 1 + xn + xn 1

|n|, xn = 0,

3 3

e) yn = maxxn + 1, xn, xn 1 f) yn = xn = xn + xn 1 + xn 2 + Chapter 2 Discrete-Time Signals and Systems Page 13

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2.2.2 Block Diagram Representation of Discrete-Time Systems

An adder a system that performs the addition of two signals sequences to form another sequence, which is the sum of the two inputs. The symbol for an adder is illustrated below

Figure 2.13. Symbol for adder

A constant multiplier a system that multiplies the input signal by a scale factor. The symbol for the constant multiplier is shown below.

Figure 2.14. Symbol for constant multiplier

Signal multiplier a system that multiplies two input sequences to produce the product sequence. A graphical representation of the signal multiplier appears below.

Figure 2.15. Symbol for signal multiplier

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Unit delay element a system that simply delays the signal passing through it by one sample. The figure below illustrates such system.

Figure 2.16. Symbol for unit delay element

Unit advance element a system that moves the input ahead by one sample. A unit advance system is graphically illustrated as the figure below.

Figure 2.17. Symbol for unit advance element

Example: Sketch the block diagram representation of the discrete-time system described by the input-output relation yn = 1 1 1 yn 1 + xn + xn 1 4 2 2

2.2.3 Classification of Discrete-Time Systems

Static versus dynamic systems o A discrete-time system is called static or memoryless if its output at any instant depends at most on the input sample at the same time, but not on past or future samples of the input. The systems described by the following input-output equations yn = nxn + bx n yn = axn

are both static or memoryless. Note that there is no need to store any of the past inputs or ouputs in order to compute the present output.

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o If the output of the system at any instant is computed using the past or future sample of the input and the past output, the system is said to be dynamic or to have memory. The systems described by the following input-output relations yn = xn + 3xn 1 yn = xn k

yn = xn k

are dynamic systems or systems with memory.

Time-invariant versus time-variant systems o A system is time-invariant if its input-output characteristics do not change with time. If a system T in a relaxed state is excited by the input x(n) to produce the output y(n), then we have yn = Txn 2.2.13

If we excite the system by an input delayed by k number of samples, the output becomes yn, k = Txn k

The system is said to be time-invariant if y(n,k) = y(n k); otherwise it is said to be time varying. o The system identified by the input-output equation yn = xn xn 1 yn = nxn

is time-invariant while the system

is time-varying system.

Example: Determine if the following systems are time-invariant or time-varying systems a) yn = xn xn 1 b) yn = nxn c) yn = xn d) yn = xn cos n

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Linear versus nonlinear systems o A linear system is one that satisfies the superposition principle. o The superposition principle requires that the response of the system to a weighted sum of signals be equal to the corresponding weighted sum of the responses of the system to each of the individual input signals. o A relaxed system T is linear if and only if Ta x n + a x n = a Tx n + a Tx n 2.2.26

for any arbitrary input sequences x1(n) and x2(n) and any arbitrary constants a1 and a2.

Figure 2.20. Graphical representation of the superposition principle

Chapter 2 Discrete-Time Signals and Systems

Linear systems exhibit multiplicative or scaling property and additive property. This is the consequence of the definition of the superposition principle (Eq. 2.2.26) o The linearity condition stated by Eq. 2.2.26 can also be extended to any weighted linear combination of signals. Example: Determine if the following systems described by the following input-output equations are linear or nonlinear. a) yn = nxn b) yn = xn c) yn = x n d) yn = Axn + B e) yn = e o Page 17

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Causal versus noncausal systems o A system is said to be causal if the output of the system at any time [i.e., y(n)] depends only on present and past inputs [i.e., x(n), x(n 1), x(n 2), ], but does not depend on future inputs [i.e., x(n + 1), x(n + 2), ]. o If a system does not satisfy this condition, then it is said to be noncausal. o Noncausal systems are physically unrealizable in real-time signal processing applications. Example: Determine if the systems described by the following input-output equations are causal or noncausal o yn = xn xn 1 o yn = xk o yn = axn o yn = xn + 3xn + 4 o yn = xn o yn = x2n o yn = xn Stable versus unstable systems o Stability is an important property that must be considered in any practical application of a system o An arbitrary relaxed system is said to be bounded input bounded output (BIBO) stable if and only if every bounded (finite) input produces a bounded output. o If, for some bounded input sequence x(n), the output is unbounded (infinite), the system is classified as unstable. Example: Analyze the stability of the nonlinear system described by the input-output equation yn = y n 1 + xn

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2.3 Analysis of Discrete-Time Linear Time-Invariant Systems

We now turn our attention to the analysis of the important class of linear, time-invariant (LTI) systems. In particular, we shall demonstrate that such systems are characterized in the time domain simply by their response to a unit sample sequence. We shall also demonstrate that any arbitrary input signal can be decomposed and represented as a weighted sum of unit sample sequences. The general form of the expression that relates the unit sample response of the system and the arbitrary input signal to the output signal, called the convolution sum or convolution formula, is also derived.

2.3.1 Techniques for the Analysis of Linear Systems

Two basic methods for analyzing the behavior or response of a linear system to a given input signal. o Direct solution of the input-output relationship of the system, whose general form (for the LTI discrete-time systems) is yn = a yn k + b xn k
N M

2.3.1

called the difference equation and represents one way to characterize the behavior of a discrete-time LTI systems. o The second method of analyzing the behavior of a linear system to a given input signal is first decompose or resolve the input signal into a sum of elementary signals. The elementary signals are selected so that the response of the system to each signal component is easily determined. Then, using the linearity property of the system, the responses of the system to the elementary signals are added to obtain the total response of the system to the given input signal. The first method is discussed in the next section, the second method is discussed in this section.

The choice of the elementary signals appears to be arbitrary, as long as the response can be determined conveniently. Resolution of the input signal to a weighted sum of unit sample (impulse) sequence proves to be mathematically convenient and completely general solution to the response of the system. But if the input signal is periodic with period N, it can be more mathematically convenient for us to resolve these signals into harmonically related exponentials x n = e k= 0, 1, 2. . . N-1 2.3.5 Page 19

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where the frequencies k are harmonically related and equal to 2k/N. 2.3.2 Resolution of Discrete-Time Signals into Impulses

Suppose we have an arbitrary signal x(n) that we wish to resolve into a sum of unit sample sequence. We select the elementary signals xk(n) to be x n = n k 2.3.7

Note that the signal (n k) is zero everywhere except at n = k, where its value is unity.

If we multiply the input signal x(n) with (n k), the result of this multiplication is another sequence that is zero everywhere except at n = k, where its value is x(k). Thus if we repeat this process at all possible values of k, the equation below holds true: xn = xk n k

2.3.10

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Example: Resolve the sequence x (n) = 2 4 0 3 into a sum of weighted impulse sequence.

2.3.3 Response of LTI Systems to Arbitrary Inputs: The Convolution Sum

We denote the response of the system to the input unit sample sequence as h(n) and is called the impulse response of the system. A relaxed LTI discrete-time system is characterized, in timedomain, by its impulse response. The response of the LTI system as a function of the input signal x(n) and its impulse response h(n) is given as yn = xnhn k

2.3.17

and is called the convolution sum of x(n) and h(n).

The convolution sum involves four steps. o Folding Fold h(k) about k = 0 to obtain h(-k). o Shifting Shift h(-k) by n0 to the right (or left) if n0 is positive (or negative) to obtain h(n0 k). o Multiplication Multiply x(k) by h(n0 k) to obtain the product sequence x(k)h(n0 k). o Summation Sum all the values of the product sequence to obtain the value of the output at time n = n0. We note that this procedure results in the response of the system at a single time instant n = n0. To evaluate the response of the system over all time instants, we should repeat steps 2 to 4 accordingly. We also note that the convolution sum is commutative, that is, it can be also expressed in the form yn = xn khn

2.3.28

Example: The impulse response of a linear, time-invariant system is

h(n) = 1 2 1 1
Determine the response of the system to the input signal
x (n ) = 1 2 3 1

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Example: Determine the output y(n) of a relaxed linear time-invariant system with impulse response hn = a un, |a| < 1 xn = un

when the input is a unit step sequence, that is,

Example: Compute the convolution sum of the following pairs of signals

Example: Compute the convolution sum of the following pair of signals

2.3.4 Properties of Convolution and the Interconnection of LTI Systems

To simplify the notation of convolution, the following forms are used:

and

It was earlier noted that the convolution sum is commutative, that is xn hn = hn xn

The convolution sum is also associative, that is

Chapter 2 Discrete-Time Signals and Systems

xn h n h n = xn h n h n

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The distributive property of the convolution sum is described as follows:

xn h n + h n = xn h n + xn h n

2.3.5 Causal Linear Time-Invariant Systems

A causal system is one whose output at time n depends only on present and past inputs but does not depend on future inputs. For LTI systems, the causality condition also puts a restriction on the impulse response of the system. A causal system has a causal impulse response, that is h(n) = 0 for n < 0. It is a necessary and sufficient condition for causality.

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The convolution sum formula can now be modified to reflect this condition. Thus

If the input signal x(n) is also causal, that is x(n) = 0 for n < 0, the above formula can be further simplified, that is

2.3.6 Stability of Linear Time-Invariant Systems

An arbitrary relaxed system is BIBO stable if and only if its output sequence y(n) is bounded for every bounded x(n). In terms of its impulse response h(n), an LTI system is stable if and only if its impulse response is absolutely summable, that is, it decays over time, or

This implies that any excitation at the input of the system, which is of finite duration, produces an output that is transient in nature, that is its amplitude decays with time and dies out eventually, when the system is stable. Example: Determine the range of values of the parameter a for which the LTI system with impulse response h(n) = an u(n) is stable.

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Example: Determine the range of values of a and b for which the LTI system whose impulse response a , hn = b , n0 n<0

is stable.

2.3.7 Systems with Finite-Duration and Infinite-Duration Impulse Response

With the knowledge on the impulse response as the time-domain characterization of linear, time-invariant systems, a classification on this subclass of systems can now be discussed LTI systems can be further subdivided into class of system depending on the duration of their impulse response: o Finite impulse response (FIR) systems whose impulse response is of finite length. o Infinite impulse response (IIR) systems whose impulse response has infinite duration. For causal, finite impulse response system, it can be said that its impulse response is zero for some finite time interval, that is h(n) = 0 for n < 0 and n M The convolution formula for such systems reduces to yn = hkxn k
M

This means that the output at any time n is the weighted linear combination of the input signal samples from x(0) to x(n M + 1). In effect, this system acts as a window that views only the most recent M input signals in forming the output. It neglects or forgets all prior input samples. Thus we can say that FIR systems have finite memory. IIR systems, on the other hand have infinite memory. Its output, through the convolution formula is yn = hkxn k

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2.4 Discrete-Time Systems Described by Difference Equations

We have treated linear and time-invariant systems that are characterized by their unit sample response h(n). In turn, h(n) allows us to determine the output y(n) of the system for any given input sequence x(n) by means of convolution summation yn = hkxn k

2.4.1

This convolution formula in Eq. 2.4.1 suggests a means for the realization of the system. In case of FIR systems, such a realization involves additions, multiplications and a finite number of memory locations. Thus, FIR systems are readily implemented directly by convolution summation. If the system is IIR, however it is impractical to implement it through the convolution summation, since it requires an infinite number of memory locations, multiplications, and additions. Thus IIR systems are more practically realized through the difference equation, which gives computationally more efficient way of implementing IIR systems. This section describes the method of analyzing systems using the difference equation.

2.4.1 Recursive and Nonrecursive Discrete-Time Systems

Recursive systems is a system whose output y(n) at time n depends on any number of past output values y(n-1), y(n-2), . . . etc. If the output y(n) does not depend on the previous outputs, the system is called nonrecursive. Recursive algorithm oftentimes provide more computationally efficient means of implementing algorithms. Example: Analyze the system which computes the cumulative average of a signal x(n) in the interval 0 k n. 1 xk yn = n+1

Example: Analyze the system which computes the square-root of a number A. yn = 1 xn yn 1 + 2 yn 1

The difference between recursive and nonrecursive systems is illustrated in the diagram below. Note the presence of the feedback loop and the delay element for recursive system.

for the input x(n) = 2u(n). Use 2 as an initial condition.

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2.4.2 Linear Time-Invariant Systems Characterized by Constant-Coefficient Difference Equation

Systems described by constant-coefficient linear difference equations are a subclass of the recursive and nonrecursive systems introduced in the preceeding subsections. Example: Analyze the simple recursive system yn = ayn 1 + xn

The first part of the response, which contains y(-1) is the result of the initial condition y(-1) of the system. The second part of the response is the response of the system to the input signal x(n). If the system is initially relaxed, i.e. y(-1) = 0, its corresponding output is called its zero-state response or forced response. It is denoted by yzs(n). If the initial conditions of the system is nonzero, and the input x(n) is zero for all values of n, the system still has output, and is called the zero-input response or natural response. It is denoted by yzi(n).

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In general, systems are described by linear, constant-coefficient difference equations. The general form for such an equation is yn = a yn k + b xn k
N M

The integer N is called the order of the difference equation or the order of the system. Observe that in order to get y(n), we need to know the present and the past inputs x(n) as well as the previous outputs y(n-k).

2.4.3 Solutions of Linear Constant-Coefficient Difference Equation

Given a linear, constant-coefficient difference equation as the input-output relationship describing a linear, time-invariant system, our objective in this subsection is to determine an explicit expression for the output y(n). The method that we will develop in this section is called the direct method. The indirect method of solving these types of equations involves the use of z-transform. The direct solution method assumes that the total solution is the sum of two parts: yn = y n + y n

The part yh(n) is called the homogenous or complementary solution, whereas yp(n) is called the particular solution.

The homogenous solution o Assume that x(n) = 0. Thus we will obtain the solution for the homogenous difference equation a yn k = 0 y n = m
N N

2.4.14

Assume that the solution is of the form of an exponential 2.4.15

Substitute this to Eq. 2.4.14 to form the polynomial equation a m = 0

or

The polynomial in parentheses is called the characteristic polynomial of the system. In general, it has N roots, which we denote as m1, m2, m3, , mN. The roots can be real or Chapter 2 Discrete-Time Signals and Systems Page 28

mN mN + a mN + + aN m + aN = 0

2.4.16

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complex-valued. Since the coefficients a1, a2, , aN are real, complex valued roots occur are complex-conjugate pair. Some of the N roots may be identical, in which case we have multiple order roots. o If the roots are distinct, the most general solution to the homogenous difference equation in Eq. 2.4.14 is
y n = c m + c m + c m + + cN mN

2.4.17

where c1, c2, c3, cN are the weighing coefficients. o o

These coefficients are determined from the initial conditions specified for the system. Since the input x(n) = 0, Eq. 2.4.17 can be used to obtain the zero-input response of the system. Example: Determine the homogenous solution of the system described by the first order difference equation yn = ayn 1 + xn Example: Determine the zero-input response of the system described by the homogenous second-order difference equation yn 3yn 1 4yn 2 = 0
yn

Example: Determine the homogenous solution and the zero-input response of the system described by the difference equation
yn = yn 1

2 + xn

Example: Determine the homogenous solution and the zero-input response of the system described by the difference equation yn 3yn 1 4yn 2 = xn + 2xn 1

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The particular solution o Assume a particular solution yp(n) that depends on the input

Substitute this particular solution to the original function. Solve for the necessary values of K that satisfies the original function for values of n where none of the terms vanish. Example: Determine the particular solution of the system described by the first order difference equation yn = ayn 1 + xn at the input x(n) = u(n). o o Example: Determine the particular solution of the difference equation
yn = yn 1 yn

to the input (a) x(n) = 4u(n) and (b) x(n) = 2nu(n).

2 + xn

Example: Determine the particular solution of the difference equation

to the input x(n) = 4nu(n).

yn 3yn 1 4yn 2 = xn + 2xn 1

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The total solution o The linearity property of the linear constant-coefficient difference equation allows us to add the homogenous solution and the particular solution in order to obtain the total solution. Thus yn = y n + y n

The resultant y(n) contains the constant parameters embodied in the homogenous solution. These constants can be determined to satisfy the initial conditions.

Example: Determine the total solution y(n), n 0, to the difference equation yn = ayn 1 + xn when x(n) is a unit step sequence and y(-1) is the initial condition. Example: Determine the total solution of the system
yn = yn 1 yn

to the input (a) x(n) = 4u(n) and (b) x(n) = 2nu(n). The initial conditions of this system are y(-1) = y(-2) = 1. Also determine the zero-state and zero-input response of this system.

2 + xn

Example: Determine the total solution of the system

to the input x(n) = 4nu(n). Also determine the zero-state and zero-input response of this system. 2.4.4 The Impulse Response of a Linear Time-Invariant Recursive System

yn 3yn 1 4yn 2 = xn + 2xn 1

The impulse response of the system h(n) was previously defined as the response of the system to a unit sample excitation. In the case of a recursive system, h(n) is simply equal to the zero-state response of the system when the input x(n) = (n) and the system is initially relaxed. Example: Determine the impulse response of the system yn = ayn 1 + xn We have established the fact that the total response of the system to any excitation function consists of the sum of the two solutions of the difference equation: the homogenous and the particular solution to the excitation function. In the case where the excitation is an impulse, the particular solution is zero, since x(n) = 0 for n > 0. The response of the system to an impulse consists only of the solution to the homogenous equation, with the constant parameters evaluated to satisfy the initial conditions dictated by the impulse. Page 31

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Example: Determine the impulse response h(n) for the system described by the second order difference equation yn 3yn 1 4yn 2 = xn + 2xn 1 We note that any recursive system described by a linear, constant-coefficient difference equation is an IIR system.

Reference: John G. Proakis, Dimitris G. Manolakis. Digital Signal Processing: Principles, Algorithms, and Applications: Third Edition. Prentice Hall, New Jersey. 1996

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