Professional Documents
Culture Documents
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Executive Summary……………………………………………... 2
Introduction………………………………………………………3
Discovery………………………………………………………….3
Regional Assessment……………………………………………...6
Conclusion of outbreak…………………………………………10
Acknowledgements…………………………………………….. 19
References………………………………………………………. 20
Appendix 1………………………………………………………21
Appendix 2………………………………………………………22
2
BREAM Tritonia hamnerorum
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
• On July 14th 2005 a large population of the nudibranch Tritonia hamnerorum was found
to be at infestation levels on a collection of patch reefs on the Devil’s Flat reef complex.
This species was never before recorded in Bermuda.
• The nudibranch numbered in the many hundreds on some sea fan colonies, and was
feeding on the sea fans, which caused damage and death to many of these important
sessile animals.
• Surveys carried out over the course of the summer determined that the outbreak was
patchily located over a ~20 km2 area along the Northern rim and outer patch reefs of the
North Lagoon, but not observed nearer to shore, nor along the Western, Southern nor
Eastern rim reefs.
• Highest levels of the outbreak occurred at the buoyed Marine Protected Area at Eastern
Blue Cut (EBC), and across Devil’s Flat (DF), causing mortality to roughly half of the
sea fans on some areas.
• Re-assessment on November 18th, 2005 at the EBC and DF outbreak sites found that the
populations were no longer present, presumably due to the colder temperatures prevalent
as winter approached.
• The BBP team will watch out for another outbreak of the nudibranch in the early summer
of 2006, when sea water temperatures increase again.
• Population assessments of sea fans indicate that these soft corals are most abundant in
shallow outer reef areas, which may account for the high densities of the nudibranchs in
the same area.
3
BREAM Tritonia hamnerorum
Introduction
On July 14th, 2005, a large population of the nudibranch Tritonia hamnerorum Gosliner and
Cheselin 1987 (Fig 1, Appendix 1) was discovered on the Bermuda reef platform. T.
hamnerorum is a small, white or beige, dendronotid nudibranch that feeds exclusively on the
purple sea fan Gorgonia ventilina. While the nudibranch has been recorded in the Caribbean
since 1987, this report represents the first definitive record for the species in Bermuda..
The presence of T. hamnerorum in Bermuda is of concern, as high densities the nudibranchs have
been observed to rapidly remove tissue and cause the partial or total mortality of sea fans in the
Florida Keys (Cronin et al. 1995). Often filamentous algae then colonize the dead sea fan
skeleton. T. hamnerorum has been observed previously across the northern Caribbean, in
Honduras, the Cayman Islands, the Bahamas and the Florida Keys. In Florida it was found that
the organism is capable of reaching the very high densities on individual sea fans of over 1700
individuals per colony.
Bermuda is noted for its high abundance of soft coral fauna. Purple sea fans (Gorgonia
ventalina) are one of the predominant forms of sessile biota found in some areas of the Bermuda
reef platform. Sea fans filter the water column for plankton and particulate matter, create critical
habitat for several species, and provide food for the Flamingo Tongue gastropod (Cyphoma
gibbosum; Neal and Pawlik 2002)
Discovery
The presence of the nudibranch was first noticed on July 14th, 2005, by BBP intern Caitlin Lustic
while assisting Thad Murdoch, BREAM Project Coordinator, BBP, in a pilot study on the
assessment of a collection of patch reefs located in the Devils Flat reef complex (Fig 2). It was
observed that many of the purple sea fans on a patch reef were dead or dying and also infested
with the nudibranch. There were large numbers of nudibranchs on many of the healthy sea fans
as well (Fig 3). Subsequent visual assessment of all of the patch reefs within a ~100 m area
confirmed that many sea fans on some patch reefs were also colonized by nudibranchs to a
varying degree, while other patch reefs were apparently devoid of them (Fig 2).
4
BREAM Tritonia hamnerorum
Fig 2. An aerial photograph of the Devil’s Flat reef complex, and the location of the first set of
visual surveys of the distribution of the T. hamnerorum nudibranch.
Fig 3. Underwater photographs of infested and dead sea fans at Devil’s Flat.
5
BREAM Tritonia hamnerorum
Fig 4. Digital photograph of juvenile nudibranchs on a piece of sea fan, taken under a
microscope. Each nudibranch measures 3 mm in length.
The heavily-affected patch reef site was marked with a buoy and it’s latitude and longitude
recorded [32° 24’ 52.47” N; 64° 50’ 35.73”W]. Also UW digital photographs of sea fans were
taken by TJTM, and samples of adult and juvenile nudibranchs collected. Collected specimens
were subsequently photographed while alive (Figs 1, 4), and then fixed in alcohol and archived
at the Bermuda National History Museum. Soon after the initial discovery of the nudibranch, a
range-extension report was sent in to the “Sea Slug Forum”, which is an online nudibranch
website hosted by the Australian Museum. The report, which is reproduced in Appendix 2, can
be seen at:
http://www.seaslugforum.net/display.cfm?id=14424
6
BREAM Tritonia hamnerorum
Regional assessment
In order to ascertain the extent of the distribution of the novel nudibranch species, surveys of
reefs located across the Bermuda reef platform were carried out by snorkel or while on SCUBA
over the rest of the summer 2005. During the snorkel surveys all colonies of sea fan located at
shallow reef sites were visually assessed during a timed 5-minute period for the presence and
relative density of the nudibranch. Sites were ranked on a scale from 0-5, with 5 indicating that
many sea fan colonies were heavily affected by T. hamnerorum, and 0 indicating that no
nudibranchs were observed on any sea fan. Additionally, during the assessment of reef sites for
the 2005 BREAM-AGRRA surveys, the presence and relative density of the nudibranch on sea
fans observed at any time over the hour-long dive was also recorded.
By October 2005 a broad expanse of the reef platform had been assessed for the T. hamnerorum
nudibranch, and the extent of its spread mapped to GIS (Fig 5). The nudibranch appeared to have
been limited to the northern rim and inner set of faros located to the north of the North Shipping
Channel). The western-most sighting occurred at Chub Cut, and the easternmost sighting was 3-
km west of North Rock. None were seen at the North Rock protected area. The largest area of
densely colonized sea fans appeared to have been on Devils Flat, where three separate patches
with high densities were observed.
Interestingly, when the patch reef with high densities was visited during days with winds over
15 kts and choppy sea state, no nudibranchs could be seen on any sea fan. However, when the
patch reef was re-visited on the next calm day sea fans were again re-infested by nudibranchs.
Additionally when one disturbed a sea fan with many nudibranchs on it by shaking or wafting
water past the fan, many nudibranchs fell off and then floated downstream, not sinking, but
suspended in the water column. It appeared that the nudibranchs could be transported across the
sandy areas between patch reefs in this manner. Also it appeared that since they were easily
dislodged by weak water currents, they left the surface of the sea fans on days with rough
weather, and presumably crawled into the reef matrix until the weather improved. However, we
could not find the nudibranchs hiding in the reef on rough days, even on heavily populated patch
reefs.
7
BREAM Tritonia hamnerorum
Fig 5. A map of the Bermuda reef platform illustrating the maximum distribution of Tritonia
hamnerorum nudibranchs detected during the summer of 2005. At sites where nudibranch
densities were characterized as “Rare”, less than 100 nudibranchs were observed on less
than 10 sea fan colonies, within a 5 minute search period. Sites characterized as
“Abundant” had greater than 100 nudibranchs and more than 10 sea fans were seen to be
affected within a 5 minute interval.
Of greatest concern was the observation of large numbers of nudibranchs on many sea fans at the
Marine Protected Area at Eastern Blue Cut on July 30th and again on September 10th. The
nudibranch was particularly abundant along the northern face of the sand hole located at the
northern side of the EBC tunnel, in which mooring buoy labeled “A” is seen in Fig 6, below.
Along this area many sea fans were heavily grazed and suffering from partial or total mortality
8
BREAM Tritonia hamnerorum
(Fig 7). Fewer nudibranchs were seen at the areas popular with SCUBA divers on the southern
side of the same sand hole or along the wall of reef on the eastern side of the tunnel.
Fig 6. A map of the Eastern Blue Cut Marine Protected Area. Gray areas represent reef substrate
and white areas represent sand-covered sea floor. Labelled circles represent the location
of mooring buoys.
9
BREAM Tritonia hamnerorum
Fig 7. High densities of nudibranchs can be seen as white objects on the sea fans in this UW
photograph, taken at Eastern Blue Cut during the apparent peak of the infestation event.
10
BREAM Tritonia hamnerorum
Conclusion of outbreak
On November 18th, 2005, sea fans were re-assessed for the nudibranch at both Eastern Blue Cut
and at the patch reef at Devils Flat where they were first discovered in high numbers. No
nudibranchs could be found at either location, even though it was a calm, waveless day. It is felt
that the colder temperatures and rough seas that are characteristic of the autumn season and that
occurred in the weeks prior to the survey contributed in the disappearance of the nudibranch (Fig
8).
Fig 8. Sea surface temperatures for the area near Bermuda during the year 2005. The time series
were extracted from a 50 km wide area monitored by satellite and located less than 1 km
SE of the island. The arrow labeled A indicated the temperature on July 14th, the first day
the presence of the nudibranch was observed, . The arrow labeled B indicates the >3°C
cooler temperatures Bermuda experienced on Nov. 18th. Chart modified from the Coral
Reef Watch SST series char, NOAA:
http://coralreefwatch.noaa.gov/satellite/current/sst_series_bermuda_cur.html
11
BREAM Tritonia hamnerorum
the heavily infested patch reef in Devil’s Flat by SCUBA (Figs 9, 10). The index of relative
condition was recorded as the relative proportion of the area of each sea fan that appeared dead,
according to six categories (0; <10, <25, <50, <75 and 100% dead).
4
Uninfected
Infected
3
Sea fan count
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Size class (height) of sea fan
Fig 9. Size class and presence or absence of nudibranchs on 15 large sea fans on the heavily
Of the 15 sea fans examined, five (33%) were infected and 10 (66%) were not. Infected sea fans
tended to be smaller than the average size overall of the sample. However, even sea fans that
were not found to have nudibranchs present at the time of examination did show signs of partial
or total mortality that appeared consistent with grazing scars created by the nudibranch. Only
12
BREAM Tritonia hamnerorum
one sea fan show no sign of tissue loss, 80% showed at least 25% tissue loss, and 60% showed
signs of loss of at least half the tissue of the whole sea fan colony. Assuming the source of partial
mortality was the nudibranch, and since no other cause was found, it appears that the Tritonia
4
Sea fan count
0
0 10 25 50 75 100
Relative percent
of tissue lost
Fig 10. Relative condition of 15 sea fans located on the heavily infested patch reef at Devil’s
Flat.
13
BREAM Tritonia hamnerorum
Intermediate scale - Sea fan distribution and population structure within faros
The change in relative abundance of different size classes of sea fans relative to distance from
the edge of a faro reef complex was investigated with a pilot study. Faros are large reefs
characterized by a ring of coral and reef substrate surrounding a shallower sandy basin within
which are often scattered smaller patch reefs. Hard and soft coral cover often appears higher on
the outer ring of the faro than on the patch reefs within the faro, even if macroalgae cover is low
and the relative cover of bare substrate is high. Assessment of the relative abundance of sea fans
of different size classes would allow for the first examination of whether sea fan density was
lower within faros, and whether this reduction in density was due to recruitment limitation, or
increased mortality of adults, or both processes.
Four transects were placed at three sites located differing distances from the southern outer edge
of the Crescent Reef faro, located in the North Lagoon (Fig 11). The size and abundance of sea
fans was measured as described in the pilot study above.
The overall abundance per square meter at each site are plotted below in Fig 12. Sea fans were
more abundant at the outer site near open water and least abundant at the inner site which was
close to the center of the faro. Lower abundances within the faro could be due to reduced
recruitment, reduced growth or enhanced mortality due to stress or disturbance. While growth
rates cannot be determined from the size-frequency data, recruitment and mortality can be, as
described below.
14
BREAM Tritonia hamnerorum
The average abundance of each size class of sea fan at each site is plotted in Fig 13. Recruitment
of sea fans is apparently higher at the outer edge of the faro, and lower within the faro, as
determined by the relative abundance of the smallest size class at each site. However, since
abundance of sea fans peak at the outer site at smaller sizes than at the two inner sites, it appears
mortality is also higher at the outer sites relative to sites within the faro. The central and inner
sites have very similar levels of recruitment and population sizes of the 5-25 cm size class.
However, the inner site has lower densities of the larger 25-50 cm and >50 cm size classes
relative to the middle site, implying higher relative mortality to sea fans of these sizes at the
inner site. This may be due to a reduction in the amount of suspended matter available for
feeding at increased distances from the edge, or to declining water quality closer to the center of
the enclosed body of water within faro. Additional analysis of water quality and growth rates of
each size class at each site would be required to more fully explain which processes are driving
the patterns of abundance of each size class of sea fans across the faro.
Fig 11. Location of the three sites at Crescent faro in the North Lagoon. Sites vary in distance
from the outer edge of the faro, with the “Outer” site located closest to the edge and the
“Inner” site near the center of the faro reef complex.
15
BREAM Tritonia hamnerorum
10
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Fig 12. Average abundance (+/- SE) of sea fans at three sites on Crescent faro in the North
Lagoon.
Outer
6
Middle
-2
Inner
5
Sea fan abundance m
0
<5 5 to 25 25 to 50 >50
Size class of sea fans
Fig 13. Average abundance (+/- SE) of sea fans of four different size classes at three sites on
Crescent faro in the North Lagoon
16
BREAM Tritonia hamnerorum
Densities of sea fans were found to be highest at the site roughly 11 km from shore, and to
decline rapidly in density half-way across the platform at between 4 and 6 km from shore. The
two sites nearest to shore, and the southern shipping channel had approximately 10% of the
density of sea fans as the outer sites. Increased mortality nearshore due to declining water quality
closer to shore, or reductions in the rate of recruitment of the planktonic larvae of the sea fans
may be causing this pattern, but require further study. The next section examines whether
differences in the abundance of a range of size-classes of sea fans at a nearshore and offshore site
can illuminate the processes limiting sea fan densities nearshore.
4
-2
Sea fan colonies m
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Fig 14. Average density (+/- SE) of sea fan colonies at six sites located at increasing distances
from shore across the North Lagoon of the Bermuda reef platform, as determined from
17
BREAM Tritonia hamnerorum
counts from 4 videographic transects filmed on the tops of patch reefs located at each
survey site.
Large scale - Sea fan population structure at a nearshore and offshore reefs
Comparisons of relative abundances of different size-classes of sea fans may provide an
indication of the source of the decline in sea fan densities with proximity to shore, discussed
above. In a pilot study we quantified the density of sea fan’s of various sizes at two reef
locations: a patch reef close to shore at a site proximal to Government House, and the southern
outer edge of the faro at Devils Flat which is far from shore. All sea fans within size categories
of: < 5 cm, 5-25 cm, 25-50 cm and > 50 cm tall were counted within 12 transects measuring 10-
m long by 50-cm wide at each reef. Assessing the abundances of sea fans of different sizes
allows for the examination of the structure of the sea fan population and the production of
models of the future persistence of the population.
The results of the population assessment of sea fans is presented in Fig 15. A total of 60 colonies
were counted in 24 transects located over the two sites. Sea fans were much more abundant
offshore at the Devils Flat faro than at the patch reef near Government House. Additionally, at
the Government House patch reef sea fans peaked in density at the middle size classes while the
sea fans at Devils Flat peaked in density at the largest size class. The distribution of sizes of sea
fans at Government House implies low levels of recruitment as well as high levels of disturbance
which limit the abundance of the larger size classes of sea fans. At Devils Flat recruitment was
also fairly low, but large sea fans were abundant, implying low levels of disturbance allow the
soft corals to live for long periods of time in order to reach such large sizes.
18
BREAM Tritonia hamnerorum
4.00
Govt House
Devil's Flat
3.00
-2
Abundance m 2.00
1.00
0.00
<5 5 - 25 25 - 50 >50
Size Class
Fig 15. Average abundance (+/- SE) of sea fans of four different size classes at a reef near
Government House near North Shore, and at Devil’s Flat which is located far from shore.
Sea fans are more abundant at the Devil’s Flat site for all size classes, and show a
population structure that indicates low levels of mortality. Sea fans at the Government
House site show a decline in the larger size classes relative to the 5 – 25 size class,
indicating high mortality in larger sea fans at this site.
19
BREAM Tritonia hamnerorum
No further surveys were done after November 18th 2005. Since the nudibranchs were first seen in
July, when temperatures were over 27°C it may be that another infestation event will occur in the
next summer, after the water warms up in May. However, in the other countries where the
nudibranch has been seen, population outbreaks appear to be episodic, generally rare, and
followed by long time periods with no further sightings. If as similar pattern of occurrence
happens in Bermuda it may be many years before another population of T. hamnerorum is seen.
Preliminary analysis indicates that sea fans are at highest relative densities on shallow reefs far
from shore, and that densities decline both towards the center of individual reef systems and
across the lagoon from offshore reefs to nearshore reefs. Recruitment limitation and reductions in
water quality may cause these patterns, but further research is needed.
Acknowledgements
Field assistance was enthusiastically provided by the Bermuda Biodiversity Project interns
Caitlin Lustic, Mike Colella, Eva Salas, Alandra Batson, Alicia Wanklyn, as well as Mark
Outerbridge of the BBP and Anson Nash of the Department of Conservation Services. I am
particularly grateful to the Friends of the Bermuda Aquarium and the Ernest E. Stempel
Foundation for supporting this research, and to the Bermuda Government’s Ministry of the
Environments, Department of Conservation Services for providing the necessary logistical
support.
20
BREAM Tritonia hamnerorum
References
Cronin G. Hay ME, finical W, Lindquist N (1995) Distribution, density and sequestration of host
chemical defenses of the specialist nudibranch Tritonia hamnerorum found at high densities
on the sea fan Gorgonia ventalina. Marine Ecology Progress Series 119(1-3): 177-189
O’Neal W, Pawlik JP (2002) A reappraisal of the chemical and physical defenses of Caribbean
gorgonian corals against predatory fishes. Marine Ecology Progress Series 240:117-26.
Strong, A. E., C. B. Barrientos, C. Duda, and J. Sapper, 1997. Improved satellite techniques for
monitoring coral reef bleaching. Proc 8th International Coral Reef Symposium, Panama City,
Panama, p 1495-1498.
21
BREAM Tritonia hamnerorum
Appendix 1. Species description for T. hamnerorum on the Sea Slug Forum website.
22
BREAM Tritonia hamnerorum
Appendix 2. Description of the initial discover of T. hamnerorum in Bermuda on the Sea Slug
Forum website.
23