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Its an analytical device that converts biological signal to electrical signal.

Or a device that utilises the biological components to detect the amount of biological material.
Canaries were once regularly used in coal mining as an early warning system. Toxic gases such as carbon monoxide, methane or carbon dioxide in the mine would kill the bird before affecting the miners. Signs of distress from the bird indicated to the miners that the situation is unsafe
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A biosensor typically consists of a bio-recognition component, biotransducer component, and electronic system which include a signal amplifier, processor, and display. The recognition component, often called a bioreceptor, uses biomolecules from organisms or receptors modeled after biological systems to interact with the analyte of interest. This interaction is measured by the biotranducer which outputs a measurable signal proportional to the presence of the target analyte in the sample. The general aim of the design of a biosensor is to enable quick, convenient testing at the point of concern or care where the sample was procured.[11] [edit]Bioreceptors In a biosensor, the bioreceptor is designed to interact with the specific analyte of interest to produce an effect measurable by the transducer. High selectivity for the analyte among a matrix of other chemical or biological components is a key requirement of the bioreceptor. Anitbody/antigen Interactions Enzymatic InteractionsThe specific binding capabilities and catalytic activity of enzymes make them popular bioreceptors. Analyte recognition is enabled through several possible mechanisms: 1) the enzyme converting the analyte into a product that is sensordetectable, 2) detecting enzyme inhibition or activation by the analyte, or 3) monitoring modification of enzyme properties resulting from interaction with the analyte. Nucleic acid Interactions-genosensors Organelles Cells Cells are often used in bioreceptors because they are sensitive to surrounding environment and they can respond to all kinds of stimulants Tissues Tissues are used for biosensor for the abundance of enzymes existed. Advantages of tissues as biosensors include the following:[18] 1)easier to immobilize compared to cells and organelles 2)the higher activity and stability from maintain enzymes in natural environment

Biotransducer

Biosensors can be classified by their biotransducer type. The most common types of biotransducers used in biosensors are 1) electrochemical biosensors, 2) optical biosensors, 3)electronic biosensors, 4)piezoelectric biosensors, 5) gravimetric biosensors, 6) pyroelectric biosensors. [edit]Electrochemical Electrochemical biosensors are normally based on enzymatic catalysis of a reaction that produces or consumes electrons (such enzymes are rightly called redox enzymes). The sensor substrate usually contains three electrodes; a reference electrode, a working electrode and a counter electrode. The target analyte is involved in the reaction that takes place on the active electrode surface, and the reaction may cause either electron transfer across the double layer (producing a current) or can contribute to the double layer potential (producing a voltage). We can either measure the current (rate of flow of electrons is now proportional to the analyte concentration) at a fixed potential or the potential can be measured at zero current (this gives a logarithmic response). Note that potential of the working or active electrode is space charge sensitive and this is often used. Further, the label-free and direct electrical detection of small peptides and proteins is possible by their intrinsic charges using biofunctionalized ion-sensitive field-effect transistors.[24] Another example, the potentiometric biosensor, (potential produced at zero current) gives a logarithmic response with a high dynamic range. Such biosensors are often made by screen printing the electrode patterns on a plastic substrate, coated with a conducting polymer and then some protein (enzyme or antibody) is attached. They have only two electrodes and are extremely sensitive and robust. They enable the detection of analytes at levels previously only achievable by HPLC and LC/MS and without rigorous sample preparation. All biosensors usually involve minimal sample preparation as the biological sensing component is highly selective for the analyte concerned. The signal is produced by electrochemical and physical changes in the conducting polymer layer due to changes occurring at the surface of the sensor. Such changes can be attributed to ionic strength, pH, hydration and redox reactions, the latter due to the enzyme label turning over a substrate ([1]). Field effect transistors, in which the gate region has been modified with an enzyme or antibody, can also detect very low concentrations of various analytes as the binding of the analyte to the gate region of the FET cause a change in the drain-source current.

Placement of Biosensors
In-vivo: An in-vivo biosensor is one that functions inside the body. Biocompatibility concerns follow with the creation of an in-vivo biosensor. That is, an initial inflammatory response occurring after the implantation. The second concern is the long-term interaction with the body during the intended period of the devices use.[29] Another issue that arises is failure. If there is failure, the device must be removed and replaced, causing additional surgery. An example for application of an in-vivo biosensor is insulin monitoring within the body.

In-vitro: An in-vitro biosensor is a sensor that takes place in a test tube, culture dish, or elsewhere outside a living organism. The sensor uses a biological element, such as an enzyme capable of recognizing or signaling a biochemical change in solution. A transducer is then used to convert the biochemical signal to a quantifiable signal. An example of an invitro biosensor is an enzyme-conductimetric biosensor for glucose monitoring.

A glucose meter (or glucometer) is a medical device for determining the approximate concentration of glucose in the blood. It is a key element of home blood glucose monitoring (HBGM) by people with diabetes mellitus or hypoglycemia. A small drop of blood, obtained by pricking the skin with a lancet, is placed on a disposable test strip that the meter reads and uses to calculate the blood glucose level. The meter then displays the level in mg/dl or mmol/l. There are several key characteristics of glucose meters which may differ from model to model:

Size: The average size is now approximately the size of the palm of the hand. They are battery-powered.

Test strips: A consumable element containing chemicals that react with glucose in the drop of blood is used for each measurement. For some models this element is a plastic test strip with a small spot impregnated with glucose oxidase and other components. Each strip is used once and then discarded. Instead of strips, some models use discs that may be used for several readings.

Coding: Since test strips may vary from batch to batch, some models require the user to manually enter in a code found on the vial of test strips or on a chip that comes with the test strip. By entering the coding or chip into the glucose meter, the meter will be calibrated to that batch of test strips. However, if this process is carried out incorrectly, the meter reading can be up to 4 mmol/L (72 mg/dL) inaccurate. The implications of an incorrectly coded meter can be serious for patients actively managing their diabetes. This may place patients at increased risk of hypoglycemia. Alternatively, some test strips contain the code information in the strip; others have a microchip in the vial of strips that can be inserted into the meter. These last two methods reduce the possibility of user error.

Volume of blood sample: The size of the drop of blood needed by different models varies from 0.3 to 1 l. (Older models required larger blood samples, usually defined as a "hanging drop" from the fingertip.) Smaller volume requirements reduce the frequency of unproductive pricks.

Alternative site testing: Smaller drop volumes have enabled "alternate site testing" pricking the forearms or other less sensitive areas instead of the fingertips.

Although less uncomfortable, readings obtained from forearm blood lag behind fingertip blood in reflecting rapidly changing glucose levels in the rest of the body.

Testing times: The times it takes to read a test strip may range from 3 to 60 seconds for different models.

Display: The glucose value in mg/dl or mmol/l is displayed in a small window. The preferred measurement unit varies by country: mg/dl are preferred in the U.S., France, Japan, Israel, and India. mmol/l are used in Canada, Australia, China and the UK. Germany is the only country where medical professionals routinely operate in both units of measure. (To convert mmol/l to mg/dl, multiply by 18. To convert mg/dl to mmol/l, divide by 18.) Many machines can toggle between both types of measurements; there have been a couple of published instances in which someone with diabetes has been misled into the wrong action by assuming that a reading in mmol/l was really a very low reading in mg/dl, or the converse. [show] Blood glucose units of measurement by country[1]

Glucose vs. plasma glucose: Glucose levels in plasma (one of the components of blood) are generally 10%15% higher than glucose measurements in whole blood (and even more after eating). This is important because home blood glucose meters measure the glucose in whole blood while most lab tests measure the glucose in plasma. Currently, there are many meters on the market that give results as "plasma equivalent," even though they are measuring whole blood glucose. The plasma equivalent is calculated from the whole blood glucose reading using an equation built into the glucose meter. This allows patients to easily compare their glucose measurements in a lab test and at home. It is important for patients and their health care providers to know whether the meter gives its results as "whole blood equivalent" or "plasma equivalent." One model measures beta-hydroxybutyrate in the blood to detect ketoacidosis (ketosis).

Clock/memory: All meters now include a clock that is set by the user for date and time and a memory for past test results. The memory is an important aspect of diabetes care, as it enables the person with diabetes to keep a record of management and look for trends and patterns in blood glucose levels over days and weeks. Most memory chips can display an average of recent glucose readings. A known deficiency of all current meters is that the clock is often not set to the correct time (i.e. - due to time changes, static electricity, etc...) and therefore has the potential to misrepresent the time of the past test results making pattern management difficult.

Data transfer: Many meters now have more sophisticated data handling capabilities. Many can be downloaded by a cable or infrared to a computer that has diabetes management software to display the test results. Some meters allow entry of additional data throughout the day, such as insulin dose, amounts of carbohydrates eaten, or exercise. A number of meters have been combined with other devices, such as insulin injection devices, PDAs, cellular transmitters [2] and even Game Boys.[3] A radio link to an insulin pump allows automatic transfer of glucose readings to a calculator that assists the wearer in

deciding on an appropriate insulin dose. The principle behind blood glucose meters is based on reactions that are analyzed by electrochemical sensors. On each strip, there are about 10 layers, including a stiff plastic base plate, and other layers containing chemicals or acting as spacers. For instance, there is a layer containing two electrodes (silver or other similar metal). There also is a layer of the immobilized enzyme, glucose oxidase, and another layer containing microcrystalline potassium ferricyanide. Specifically, the reaction of interest is between glucose and glucose oxidase. The glucose in the blood sample reacts with the glucose oxidase to form gluconic acid, which then reacts with ferricyanide to form ferrocyanide. The electrode oxidizes the ferrocyanide, and this generates a current directly proportional to the glucose concentration. Currently, there are many meters on the market that give results as "plasma equivalent," even though they are measuring whole blood glucose. The plasma equivalent is calculated from the whole blood glucose reading using an equation built into the glucose meter. It is important for patients and their health care providers to know whether the meter gives its results as "whole blood equivalent" or "plasma equivalent" since glucose levels in plasma are generally 10%15% higher than glucose measurements in whole blood . This is important because homeblood glucose meters measure theglucose in wholeblood while most lab tests measure theglucose in plasma. Currently, there are many meters on the market that give results as "plasma equivalent," even though they are measuring wholeblood glucose. The plasma equivalent is calculated from the wholeblood glucose reading using an equation builtinto theglucose meter. This allows patients to easily compare theirglucose measurementsin a lab test and at home. It is important for patients and their health care providers to know whether the meter gives its results as "wholeblood equivalent" or "plasma equivalent." One model measures beta-hydroxybutyratein theblood to detect ketoacidosis (ketosis). So this is the principle of the measurement plasma vs. whole blood reading the importance being the art of detecting ketoacidosis a very important component in the diabetic condition of the patient.

iBGStar
With new and innovative technologies on the horizon, smartphones are ever increasing in popularity among consumers around the world. A recent study in the last quarter of 2011 has shown that approximately 91% of mobile users own a smartphone, powered either by Android or iOS operating systems.9 Smartphones have become so widespread that they have become a vital tool in peoples lives. In addition to calling capabilities, smartphones can be used to browse

the Internet, check e-mail, set appointments, and perform many other functions on a daily basis. Performing daily tasks becomes more convenient with the ability to access myriad functions and store data in one convenient, pocket-sized device. But what about using such a device for helping maintain a medical condition like diabetes? Thats where Sanofi US and AgaMatrix have partnered to offer the iBGStar Glucose Monitoring System (FIGURE 2).

As the i in iBGStar suggests, the glucose monitor is specifically made for the Apple iPhone or iPod touch. iBGStar is the first device that has been cleared by the FDA for use on an Apple device, and it is currently available in some European countries.10 The device has also been recently introduced in Canada at a price point of CAD $64.99, and with the recent FDA 510(k) clearance, it is expected to launch in the U.S. soon.11 However, there are currently no data available to indicate costs or insurance coverage related to the device in the U.S.11 The iBGStar uses its Diabetes Manager App for the iPhone to help users keep track of blood glucose levels on a daily basis, while the application allows patients to send selected data to their physicians to aid in monitoring their progress.10 Since there are many other blood glucose monitors available on the market, how is the iBGStar different, apart from its smartphone capabilities? The new monitor uses a novel patented technology called dynamic electrochemistry.10 Dynamic electrochemistry is a technology that

uses complex mathematical methods to calculate and adjust for interference that may be caused by changes in temperature, humidity, and hematocrit levels.12 The device sends out signals of different frequencies and voltage in order to compensate for the interference that may cause inconsistent blood glucose readings.12 In patients who have abnormal hematocrit levels, which may be due to a disease state, a low hematocrit level may artificially overestimate actual blood glucose levels.12 This may pose a safety concern to the patient because it may lead him or her to use a higher insulin dose than required, possibly resulting in hypoglycemia and even hospitalization. Therefore, it is important to use a device that can measure blood glucose levels precisely in various conditions. In order to establish the accuracy of the iBGStar, a comparison study evaluated the BGStar, a device using the same dynamic electrochemistry method, against 12 other glucose monitoring systems from various manufacturers.12 The study specifically observed the consistency of blood glucose readings with varied hematocrit concentrations. The results showed that only four of the 13 devicesthe BGStar, OneTouch Verio, Glucocard G+, and Contouractually met the study criteria for having less than 10% maximal mean percentage deviation (MMPD) from control glucose readings.12 In addition, another study has supported the accuracy of the device by showing that the iBGStar has 99.5% accuracy.13 The iBGStar is an excellent device that will provide consistent blood glucose readings and is easier to use than conventional monitors due to portability and compatibility with smartphones, but it still requires the use of needles, which may hinder compliance to glucose monitoring for some patients. In order to alleviate the discomfort associated with needles, there are several other devices currently in development that may provide needleless blood glucose monitoring.

Noninvasive Products
Few patients with diabetes monitor their blood glucose as recommended by their physician due to inconvenience and pain associated with lancing their fingers. Therefore, in order to increase the compliance of glucose monitoring, noninvasive methods are being developed. Noninvasive products could revolutionize diabetes treatment by giving patients the flexibility to check blood glucose levels more frequently, ultimately reducing morbidity and mortality secondary to uncontrolled diabetes. In addition, the novel noninvasive technologies could reduce overall health care costs by reducing hospitalizations associated with long-term diabetes complications.14 EyeSense: EyeSense is a noninvasive technology currently in development that measures blood glucose concentrations simply by placement of the measurement device near the eye.15 This innovative, noninvasive technology utilizes a novel biochemical sensor that is inserted below the conjunctiva in a simple and painless procedure by the ophthalmologist on an annual basis. The technology would replace conventional fingersticking and would probably increase blood glucose monitoring compliance. The methodology hinges on a biochemical sensor that is embedded on a small, hydrogel disk. The chemical in the disk reacts with blood glucose in the interstitial fluid below the conjunctiva of the eye and emits fluorescent light that is quantified by the photometer device. The photo-meter can be placed in front of the eye to obtain the blood glucose results in less than 20 seconds.15 The advantage of noninvasive technology is that patients have the ability to measure their blood glucose as frequently as they want without having to lance their fingers. The implanted disk is invisible to the naked eye. Additionally, it is generally well tolerated and does not feel like a foreign body in the eye of the user.15 EyeSense is still in the advanced stages of development and its approval appears promising. Projections are for a release by 2013.15

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