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Physics: Magnetism and Matter
Hand-Out Chapter - 5
1. MAGNETIC FIELD LINES
Magnetic Field: The space around a magnet (or a conductor carrying current) where its magnetic effect can be
experienced.
A magnetic field line is the path along which an isolated north pole will tend to move, if placed inside a magnetic field.
The magnetic field lines give the visual representation of the magnetic field.
Properties
The magnetic field lines form continuous closed loops.
The tangent to the field line at a point represents the direction of the net magnetic field at that point.
The larger the number of field lines crossing per unit area, the stronger is the magnitude of magnetic field.
Two magnetic field lines of the same field do not intersect, for if they did, the direction of the magnetic field would
not be unique at the point of intersection.
Bar Magnet as an Equivalent Solenoid
The magnetic field lines of a bar magnet and a solenoid are similar.
A bar magnet can be thought of as a large number of circulating currents similar to that of a solenoid.
The strength of magnetic field along the axial line and equatorial line of a solenoid and a bar magnet have similar
expressions.
2. MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A MAGNETIC DIPOLE ALONG AXIAL LINE
Consider a bar magnet NS, whose each pole is of strength m. Let 2l be the magnetic length of the magnet and O be its
centre. Let p be a point on axial line of the magnet at a distance r from the centre of the magnet.
The magnetic field
axial B

at point P due to the bar magnet will be the resultant of the magnetic fields B
1
(due to N-pole
of the bar magnet) and
2 B

(due to S-pole of the bar magnet), i.e.

axial 1 2 B B B =

Now =
0 0
1
2 2
B (along )
4 4 (NP) ( )
x
m m
p
r l
= =

And =
0 0
2
2 2
B (along )
4 4 (SP) ( )
m m
PS
r l
= =

It follows that
1 B

is greater than
2 B

.
Since 1 B

and 2 B

act along the same line but in opposite directions.

axial 1 2 B B B =

(along PX)
Or B
axial
=
0
2 2
1 1
4 ( ) ( )

m
r l r l
l
l

l

l
=
2 2
0
2 2 2
( ) ( )
4 ( )
r l r l
m
r l
l

l

l
=
0
2 2 2
(4 )
4 ( )
rl
m
r l
l
l

l
We have, m (2l) = M, magnitude of the magnetic dipole moment of the magnet.

0
axial 2 2 2
2
B along PX
4 ( )
Mr
r l
=

(1)
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In vector form
0
axial
2 2 2
2M
B
4 ( )
r
r l
=

When the length of the bar magnet is very small,

i.e., l r < <

0
axial 3
2M
B
4 r
=
along PX (2)
Similarly, magnetic field on equatorial line of a bar magnet can be derived which comes out to be
0
equatorial
3
M
B
4

r
=

From equations (1) and (2), we find that

axial equatorial B 2B =

3. DIPOLE IN UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD
Torque on a Magnetic Dipole in a Uniform Magnetic Field: Let a magnet NS having
pole strength M and length 2l

be placed in a uniform magnetic field of strength

B

making an angle with the direction of magnetic field lines.

The expression can be derive using the same same method as in electrostatic and
moving charge in magnetism.
The expression of torque on the bar magnet is M B =

Magnitude of torque: MBsin =
4. POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A BAR MAGNET PLACED IN A MAGNETIC FIELD
The magnitude of torque acting on a magnetic dipole of moment M in a magnetic field of strength B is given by
MBsin =
This torque tends to align the magnet along the direction of the field. If the magnet is to be rotated against the action of
this torque, then work has to be done.
Suppose that the magnet is rotated through an infinitesimally small angle d under the action of the constant torque t.
Work Required
dw d =
; MBsin dw d =
If the magnet is rotated from initial position

1
to final position

2,
then the total work done is given by
W
2
1
M B sin

d =
]

2
1
MB sin

d =
]
[ [
2
1
MB cos

= ( )
2 1
MB cos cos = = ( )
1 2
MB cos cos
Suppose magnet is initially perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field, i.e.
1
= 90.
Then potential energy of the magnet in any position making an angle with the direction of the field can be obtained by
setting
1 2
90 and in equation
U = MB (cos 90 cos

) = M B cos

U M B =

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Special Case
(i) When = 0, U= MB cos 0 = MB (min.) (ii) When = 90, U= MB cos 90 = 0
(iii) When = 180, U= MB cos 180 = + MB (max.)
Thus, dipole possesses minimum potential energy, when M

and
B

are like parallel and maximum potential energy when

M

and
B

anti parallel.
5. GAUSSS LAW IN MAGNETISM
An isolated magnetic pole does not exist. In other words, a surface may enclose a magnetic dipole i.e. a pair of equal and
opposite magnetic poles so that the net pole strength enclosed by the surface is zero.
Therefore, the magnetic analogue of Gausss law in electrostatic may be stated as
B 0 ds =

, i.e., surface integral of
magnetic field
B

over a closed surface is always zero. It is called Gausss law in magnetism.

1. If a number of magnetic field lines are leaving a closed surface, an equal number of field lines must also be entering
the surface.
2. Isolated magnetic poles do not exist, i.e., magnetic poles exist in pairs of equal strengths.
6. THE EARTHS MAGNETISM
A vertical plane passing through the geographic axis is called the geographic meridian.
A vertical plane passing through the magnetic axis of the earth is called magnetic meridian.
Elements of Earths Magnetism
The physical quantities, which determine the intensity of earths total magnetic field completely (both in magnitude and
direction), are called magnetic elements. They are:
(i) Magnetic Declination: Declination at a place is the angle between the geographic meridian and the magnetic meridian.
It is denoted by .
In the figure, ABCD and ABCD represent magnetic and geographic meridians respectively.
BAB . =
represents
the magnetic declination.
(ii) Magnetic Inclination or Dip: Dip at a place is defined as the angle made by the direction of earths total magnetic
field with the horizontal direction. It is denoted by . In the figure, BAP . is the angle of dip.
(iii) Horizontal Component of Earths Magnetic Field: It is the component of earths magnetic field along the horizontal
direction. It is denoted by B
H
.
From point P (refer to the figure), if we drop PL perpendicular to AB and PM perpendicular to AD. Then AL and AM
represent horizontal component (B
H
) and vertical component (B
V
) of earths magnetic field.
In right ALP,
H
B AL
cos
AP B
= =
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B

Or
H
B B cos = (1)
Also
V
B LP AM
sin
AP AP B
= = =
V
B Bsin = (2)
Squaring and adding the equations (1) and (2) , we have
2 2 2 2 2 2
H V
B B B cos B sin =

2
B =
2 2
H V
B B +B = (3)
Dividing equation (2) by (1), we have
V
H
B Bsin
Bcos B
=

V
H
B
tan
B
=
(4)
7. MAGNETISATION AND MAGNETIC INTENSITY
(i) Magnetic Permeability : It is the ability of a material to permit the passage of magnetic lines of force thorugh it i.e.
the degree or extent to which magnetic field can penetrate or permeate a material is called relative magnetic permeability
of the material. It is represented by
r

Relative magnetic permeability of a material is defined as the ratio fo the number of lines of magnetic induction per
unit area (i.e., flux density B) in that material to the number of magnetic lines per unit area that would be present, if the
medium were replaced by vaccum. (i.e., flux density B
0
)
i. e. r
0
B

B
=
r
has no dimension. Its value for vacuum is one.
Relative magnetic permeability of a material may also be defined as the ratio of magnetic permeability of the
material ( ) and magnetic permeability of free space ( )
0

r
0

=
or
r 0
=
We know that
7
0
4 10 = weber / amp - metre (Wb A A
1
m
1
) or henry / metre (Hm
1
)
S.I. units of permeability ( ) are
Hm
1
=
1 1
Wb A m
=
2 1 1
Tm A m
=
1
Tm A
(ii) Magnetising force or magnetic Intensity
( )
H

The degree to which a magnetic field can magnetise a material is represented in terms of magnetising force or
magnetic intensity ( )
H

.
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The magnetic induction of the field produced in the material to the toroidal solenoid is
B = n I
The product n I is called the magnetising force or magnetic intensity H. i.e. H , so that B n I H = =
If inside the toroidal solenoid, there is free space, then magnetic induction
0 0
B H =
(iii) Intensity of Magnetisation ( )
I

.
It represents the extent to which a specimen is magnetised, when placed in a magnetising field.
Quantitatively, the intensity of magnetisation of a magnetic material is defined as the magnetis moment per unit
volume of the material.
Magnetic moment M
I
volume V
= =

.........(i)
If a = uniform area of cross -section of the magnetised specimen (a rectangular bar)
2 l = magnetic length of the specimen.
m = strength of each pole of the specimen ,
from (i),
2
I =
2
m l m
a l a

Hence intensity of magnetisation of a magnetic material is also defined as the pole strength per unit area of across-
section of the material.
As
magnetic moment
I =
Volume

2
1
3
Amp. metre
I = Am
metre
=
These area S.I. unit of I

.
(iv) Magnetic Susceptibility ( )
m
. It is a property which determines how easily a specimen can be magnetised.
Quantitatively, susceptibility of a magnetic material is defined as the ratio of the intensity of magnetisation (I)
induced in the material to the magnetising force (H) applied. susceptibility is represented by
m

Thus
I
H
m
=
(v) Magnetic Induction: When a piece of magnetic material is placed inside a magnetic filed (B
0
), it gets magnetised and
produce its own magnetic field. Magnetic induction denotes the number of magnetic lines of induction (magnetic
field lines inside the material) crossing per unit area normally through the magnetic substance. It is denoted by B.
The magnetic induction
B

is the sum of the magnetic field

0
B

and the induced field B

i

0
B B B
i
=

Relation between magnetic permeability and susceptibility
By definition:
0 0
B H =

and
i 0
B = I

Then,
0
B (H I) =

( )
0
B H I = ... (i)
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Magnetic induction is also known as magnetic flux density or simply magnetic field.
Dividing equation (i) by H, 0
B I
1
H H
1

=

( )
Using
B

H
= and
I

H
m
= ,
( )
0
I
m
=
0

m
=
1
r m
- (as
0

r
= , relative permeability of the magnetic substance)
8. MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Different materials show different magnetic behaviour e.g. iron, steel, cobalt and nickel are strongly magnetised whereas
aluminium, copper, gold, mercury etc, are weakly magnetised in an applied magnetic field.
Curies law
Curies Law can be stated as, magnetic susceptibility of a material varies inversely with
temperature (in Kelvin).
Curie discovered experimentally that intensity of magnetisation I of a magnetic material is
directly proportional to magnetic field intensity B and inversely proportationl to the
temperature T (in kelvin)
i.e.,
B
I
T
or
H
I
T

or
I 1
H T
or
C
T
m
=
where C is called Curie constant.
Increase in magnetisation (I) with decrease in temperature has a limit when the material becomes saturated. Figure I shows
a curve between (I) and (B / T). Once saturation is achieved further decrease in temperature does not bring change in
magnetisation.
Curie temperature for iron is about 1000 K, for cobalt it is about 1400 K and for nickel it is about 600 K.
Classification / Categoes of Magnetic Material.
Faraday divided the materials in three classes according to their magnetic behaviour :
(a) Ferromagnetic Materials : The materials which are strongly magnetised in the direction of the applied magnetic field
are known as Ferromagnetic Materials. Iron, steel, nickel, cobalt and alloys like alnico (aluminium + nickel + cobalt)
are ferromagnetic materials. Ferromagnetic substances can be easily magnetised. Ferromagnetic effect is noticed
even in the presence of weak magnetic field. with the rise in temperature it becomes comparitively less easier to
magnetise the ferromagnetic substance.
(b) Paramagnetic Materials : The materials which are weakly magnetised in the direction of applied magnetic field are
known as Paramagnetic Materials. Aluminium, chromium, manganese platium, antimony, sodium, copper chloride,
salt solutions of iron and nickel, liquid oxygen, cross glass etc are paramagnetic materials. Paramagnetic materials.
Aluminium, chromium, managanese platinum, antimony, sodium, copper chloride, salt solutions of iron and nickel,
liquid oxygen, cross glass etc, are paramagnetic materials. Paramagnetic materials tend to lose their magnetic behaviour
the rise in temperature. Paramagnetic materials can not be easily magnetised.
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(c) Diamagnetic Material : the materials which are weakly magnetised in a direction apposite to the direction of applied
magnetic field are known as diamangetic Materials, Gold, silver, zinc, lead, bismuth, mercury, marble, glass, quartz,
water, alcohol, air, helium, argon, hydrogen, salts like sodium chloride etc are diamagnetic materials.It is very difficult
to magnetise a diamagnetic material. They require very strong magnetic field to show magnetic properties. Their
magnetic behaviour normally does not depend upon change in temperature.
Properties of Magnetic Materials
A comparative chart of properties of ferromagnetic, paramagnetic and diamagnetic materials is given below:
Diamagnetic Materials
(a) They are weakly repelled by a
magnet.
(b) A freely suspended diamagnetic
rod slowly sets itself at right angle
to the direction of external
magnetic field as shown in
figure 2 C.
Figure 2 (C)
(c) When they are placed in a magnetic
field, the lines of force do not prefer to
pass through them.
Figure 3(C)
(i) Field within the sample is decreased to
a very small value (figure 3C) i.e.
permeability ( ) is always less than
unity
(B < H or
B
H
< 1 of < 1)
(ii) Flux density (B) inside a diamagnetic
material is less than in air.
(iii) The sample gets weakly magnetised in
the direction opposite to the direction
of magnetising field.
(c) When they are placed in a magnetic
field, most of the lines of force
prefer to pass through them.
Figure 3 (B)
This behaviour indicates that
(i) Field within the sample is more than
the magnetic intersity (figure 3B)
i.e. permeability () is more than
unity (B > H or
B
H
of > 1).
(ii) Flux density (B) inside a paramag-
netic material is larger than in air.
(iii) The sample gets weakly magnetised
in the direction of magnetising
field.
Paramagnetic Materials
(a) They are weakly attracted by a
magnet.
(b) A freely suspended paramag-
netic rod slowly sets itself
along the direction of external
magnetic field as shown in
figure 2 B.
Figure 2 (B)
Ferromagnetic Materials
(a) They are strongly attracted by
a magnet.
(b) A freely suspended
ferremagnetic rod quikly sets
itself along the direction of
external magnetic field as
shown in figure 2 (A).
Figure 2 (A)
(c) When they are placed in a
magnetic field, the lines of force
prefer to pass through them.

Figure 3 (A)
This behaviour indicates that
(i) Field within the sample is
much more than the magnetic
intersity (figure 3A) i.e. perme-
ability () is much more than
unity. (B > > H or
B
H
> > 1 or
> > 1).
(ii) Flux density (B) inside a
ferromagnetic material is much
larger than in air.
(iii) The sample gets strongly
magnetised in the direction of
magnetising field.
(iv) Intensity of magnetisation
(I) has large positive value.
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(v) Susceptibility has a large positive
value
1
:
H
m
= I is large + ve so

m
is large + ve).
(d) They obey Curies law. At a
certain temperature i.e. Curie
point, ferromagnetic properties
disappear and material starts
behaving as paramagnetic.
(e) Liquids and gases do not show
ferromagnetism. If a finely
powered ferromagnetic material in
a watch glass is placed on closely
spaced magnetic poles and then
widely placed magnet poles, the
effect is observed as shown in
figure.
Figure 4 (A)
It shown that such materials move
from weaker to stronger magnetic
field.
(f) When a sample of ferromagnetic
material in a very finely powered
from is placed in U-tube and
magnetic field is applied to one
limb, the level rises in that limb
(Figure 5A)
Figure 5 (A)
(iv) Intensity of Magnetisation (I) has
small positive value.
(v) Susceptibility has a small positive
value
1
( :
H
m
= I is small + ve so

m
is small + ve).
(d) They obey curies law. They are
badly affected with the rise in
temperature. Due to rise in tempera-
ture they lose magnetic property.
(e) If a paramagnetic liquid in a watch
glass is placed on closely spaced
magnetic poles and then widely
placed magnet poles, the effect is
observed a shown in figure. In the
middle but in the second case
Figure 4(B)
there is a depression in the middle. It
shows that such materials move from
weaker to stronger magnetic field.
(f) When a sample of paramagnetic
liquid is put in a U-tube and mag-
netic field is applied to one limb, the
level rises in that limb i.e. from
weaker to stronger magnetic field.
Figure 5 (B)
(iv) Intensity of magnetisation (I) has small
negative value.
(v) Susceptibility has a small negative
value
1
( :
H
m
= I is small ve so
m
is small ve).
(d) They do not obey Curies law. Normally
their magnetic properties do not change
with temperature*
(e) If a diamagnetic liquid in a watch glass
is placed on closely spaced magnetic
poles and then widely placed magnet
poles, the effect is observed as shown
in figure. In the first case there is a
depression

in the middle but in the
second case
Figure 4 (C)
there is a rise in the middle. it shows
that such material move from stronger
to weaker magnetic field.
(f) When a sample of diamagnetic liquid is
put in a U-tube and magnetic field is
applied to one limb the level falls in that
limb i.e., from stronger to weaker
magnetic field.
Figure 5 (C)
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9. HYSTERESIS
The lag of intensity of magnetisation behind the magnetising field during the process
of magnetisation and demagnetisation of a ferromagnetic material is called Hysteresis.
The graph plotted with B

against H

for a ferromagnetic substance is referred to as

hysteresis loop. It is shown below.
In the figure, B increases non-linearly with H along OPA. If H is reduced to zero, B
does not fall back to zero along the same curve, but decreases along path ABC, i.e. it
is non retraceable. The lagging of B behind H is called hysteresis.
Also, when H becomes zero, B does not do so. It has a certain value B
r
equivalent to OB
(in the figure). Retentivity is a measure of this remaining field.
Further, if H is increased in the reverse direction, the value of B reduces and becomes zero when H has value H
c
= OC.
This value of magnetic field is called coercive force or coercivity of the specimen.
BH =
2
0
B B
B
r



(
,
has the dimensions of energy per unit volume. Therefore, the area within the BH loop represents
energy dissipated per unit volume in the material.
Retentivity: The measure of the magnetic field remaining in the specimen when the magnetising field is removed.
Coercivity: The value of reverse magnetising field required so as to reduce residual magnetism to zero. Both coercivity
and retentivity depend on the nature of the material.
10. PERMANENT MAGNETS AND ELECTROMAGNETS
Permanent Magnets
Permanent magnets are the ferromagnetic substances which retain magnetism for a long time at room temperature.
One method to make a permanent magnet is to continuously run one end of a magnet on a fixed steel rod always
in one direction. The steel rod then acquires permanent magnetism.
Another method is to use electric current. When a current is passed through a solenoid containing a steel rod, then
the rod acquires permanent magnetism.
Steel or hard iron or hard alloys of iron like alnico are considered best for making permanent magnets.
Electromagnets
Soft iron has large permeability and small retentivity and hence is suitable for making electromagnets.
When a current is passed through a solenoid wound around a rod of soft iron, magnetic field inside the iron rod
increases many times making it an electromagnet.
On switching off the current, magnetic field more or less vanishes due to small retentivity of soft iron.
The soft iron rod will act as a magnet only as long as there is current in the solenoid. Electric bells, loud-speakers
and telephone receivers use electromagnets. Huge electromagnets are used in cranes to lift heavy things made of
iron.
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2013
1. Which of the following substances are diamagnetic?
Bi, Al, Na, Cu, Ca and Ni. (1 Mark)
2012
1. The horizontal component of the earths magnetic field at a place is B and angle of dip is 60. What is the value of vertical
component of earths magnetic field at equator? (1 Marks)
2. The susceptibility of a magnetic material is 2.6 10
5
. Identify the type of magnetic material and state its two properties.
(2 Marks)
2011
1. The susceptibility of a magnetic material is 4.210
6
. Name the type of magnetic materials it represents. (1 Marks)
2. A magnetic needle free to rotate in a vertical plane parallel to the magnetic meridian has its north tip down at 60 with the
horizontal. The horizontal component of the earths magnetic field at the place is known to be 0.4 G. Determine the
magnitude of the earths magnetic field at the place. [Ans. 0.69G ] (2 Marks)
2010
1. (i) Write two characteristics of a material used for making permanent magnets.
(ii) Why is the core of an electromagnet made of ferromagnetic materials? (2 Marks)
2. Draw magnetic field line when a (i) diamagnetic, (ii) paramagnetic substance is placed in an external magnetic field.
Which magnetic property distinguishes this behaviour of the field line due to the substances? (2 Marks)
2008
1. Define magnetic susceptibility of a material. Name two elements, one having positive susceptibility and the other
having negative susceptibility. What does negative susceptibility signify. (2 Marks)
2007
1. Why should the material used for making permanent magnets have high coercivity. (1 Mark)
2. (a) Distinguish the magnetic properties of dia, para- and ferro-magnetic substances in terms of
(i) susceptibility, (ii) magnetic permeability and (iii) coercivity.
Give one example of each of these materials.
(b) Draw the field lines due to an external magnetic field near a
(i) diamagnetic substance, (ii) paramagnetic substance. (5 Marks)
2006
1. Steel is preferred for making permanent magnets whereas soft iron is preferred for making electromagnets. Give one
reason. (1 Mark)
2. Why does a paramagnetic substance display greater magnetisation for the same magnetising field when cooled. How
does a diamagnetic substance respond to similar temperature changes. (2 Marks)
3. Three identical specimens of magnetic materials; nickel, antimony, aluminium are kept in a non-uniform magnetic field.
Draw the modification in the field lines in each case. Justify your answer. (3 Marks)
2005
1. What is the value of the horizontal component of the earths magnetic field at magnetic poles. (1 Mark)
2. Define the terms Magnetic Dip and Magnetic Declination with the help of relevant diagrams. (2 Marks)
3. Write two characteristic properties to distinguish between diamagnetic and paramagnetic materials. (2 Marks)