A

STIT
ET NIMES S

SA HAUTES
SUL

TO

L
IMPRIMERIE DE
D'ARCHE

FOOD
SIR AR

PREFA
The material for this paper Sir Armand Huffer, C. M. C. , view to tracing the connecti Egypt, and the incidence of among the inhabitants at diff wrote an exhaustive treatise, His death in April 1917, on prevented his editing the pap have wished. l have howeve and without adding Introducti rely as a work of reference for in the Food of the Ancient Eg
January i 9 i 8.

FOOD
C

Cattle were kept in Egypt a ments of the Bos Taurus and B kjokkenmoddings of Toukh. E the feet of furniture in the shap dating from the time of let, we Some of the cattle as shown with large semi-circular, lyre others, equally tall, had short implanted on the sides of th developed hump level with th high rc chignon', were represent The bones of cattle uneart Remains of Bos indicus Lim., n domestic Egyptian ox, have b Remains of the short-horned an ceros) have not been found, bu these animals having been bre letons of the tall, short-horne numerous correct representati
(') CAPART
,

Les claws de Part en E p. 13o.

(') LORTET et GAILLARD, La Faune
Me'moires de Pbstitut d'Egypte,

t. I.

Large and small cattle are fre presented both at Beni Hasan bringing them in. It must be re cattle on a smaller scale than t these walls. Of the mountain cattl The mummified cattle are of bably therefore that particular r of the oxen and goats of the an Among the offerings at Saqqarah lated the r long-horned ox,, or r ox,,. Cattle-breeding and 'the supe ferred a high position on the pe seer of cattle,' ( ), cc Overseers of the cattle of Senmut triumphant Royal House, were high official herd of cattle was the outward numerous cattle was equivalen days. The wealth of the temple inscription stating that nits cattl up millions,,. Elsewhere, a mon the nome with men and cattle,' ( man had many colours, the cow of calves (ii)
7

(1) Great Abydos Inscription dating

6

Ramses H (BREASTED, Ancient Records no. 967). Papyrus Harris. (2) MARGARET MURRAY, Saqqara Mastaba p. 13, pls. IX, X, XII.

very early into Egypt, but the theory., that the importation began after the destruction of the long-horned race by an epidemic is not supported by any facts. All that is known for certain is that the long-horned cattle disappeared and were replaced by short-horned animals. Although hornless cattle were numerous, their bones have not been unearthed. One domain alone ( ) is said to have contained 35 long-horned and 22o hornless cattle, but, until anatomical proof is forthcoming, the existence in ancient Egypt of a race comparable with the hornless races of the modern world remains not proven, as the animals represented as hornless may have been simply mutilated. The famous Hathor from Deir el Bahari ( ), a typical specimen of the old race, resembles many drawn at Memphis or Thebes. The small head, narrow chest, thin shoulders, long, well curved spine, high and thin legs, muscular_ thighs, prominent hips, and small udders are typical. The coat is brownish red, dark on the back, lighter and tawny, shading into white, on the belly, and is studded with dark spots like flowerets, which might be looked upon as artificial, were it not that the coats of modern Sudanese cattle are similarly marked. The cow is a typical Bos Africanus. The colour of the cattle varied a good deal : black, pie-bald, a very few white, and the majority fawn-coloured, and of many colours (s). Ramses III (A) bred in the Delta black cows and faultless animals for the sacrifices. Mulch cows ('l were white or with black spots, with black and red calves, the heads of sacrificial oxen white with black stripes, the bodies white, white with a few black dots, black with reddish-brown bellies and red-brown cross lines on the legs, but, as will be seen later on, the sacrificial oxen were generally red. In a ceremony often repeated, the king or queen offers four bulls to Amon-Ra,, red, white, black and spotted. At Deir el Bahari, for instance ( ), the queen holds the four calves together with four ropes tied to the left forefoot, and.she brings them to the god Min who makes a suitable speech.
(1)
,

( BREASTED,

(4) WIEDEMANN ,

(3)Pap. Harris (BREASTED, Ancient Rec IV, no. 272). ) L. LOAT Gurob , p. 33. ( 5 ) MARGARET MURRAY, Saqqara Mast
0 ,

ERAIAN, Egypien, quoted by LORTET La Faune 2nomifi4e , p. 65. MASPERO, Causeries d'Egypie , p. 3 2 1. ( 3 ) Inscription of Siout, IX' or X`" Dynasty

Ancient Records, 1, no. 4o8). Herodots zweites Buck, p. 181. (5) Ibid., p. 181. (6) NAVILLE Deir el Bahari, Part V, p. 7.
,

Part I, p. 34. (') NEWBERRY Life of Rekhmera , p.

,

28.

The numbering of animals was a great feast. The Palermo Stone mentions the 7Year of the second occurrence of the numbering of all large and small cattle of the North and the South7, and also 7of the third year of the numbering of large cattle ( 1 ) 7. The requisitioning of cattle as tribute probably accounts for their annual numbering, and the inspection of the cattle bythe owner and the vizier is depicted with tiresome reiteration on Egyptian monuments. Bulls, oxen and cows were brought from abroad, sometimes in very large numbers, as spoils of war, tribute or by way of trade. King Snefru of the ifird Dynasty brought 2 oo,000 large and small cattle from Negro land ( 2 ), as well as small cattle and bulls from Negro land ( 3 ) or Ibhet and Hua south of the Atbara Meshwesh, as spoil of the Libyan Mediterranean expedition. Under Thutmose III (") large and small cattle were raided from Megiddo, Zahi, Naharrin, Retenu. The white small cattle from Megiddo ( 5 ) and the red cattle from Negro lands are specially mentioned (") in other inscriptions. Part of the income of the temples of Amon and other gods consisted of cattle offered by kings, nobles and others. 866 heads of cattle formed part of Amon's income ( 7 ), and Ramses III gave 997 7various cattle'', etc. (s), and again 3o29 7various cattle n for the new feasts. Cows certainly are mentioned as divine offerings (), but there are no representations of cow sacrifice in ancient Egypt. According to Herodotus, this animal was holy, and never sacrificed, and was sacred to Isis, 7 for the image of Isis is made in the form of a woman with the horns of a cow, as the Grecians represent to, etc.,,. Cows were not slaughtered for food as the following curious passage of Herodotus indicates : 7The people of Al va (is) and Apis, in the part of Egypt
,

(5) The Annals ( BREASTED, Ancient Records,

II, no. 435).

(') BREASTED, Ancient Records, I, nos. 81, 157. (2)Palermo Stone ( BREASTED, Ancient Records, I, no. 146).
,

bordering on Libya, deeming them being discontented with the restrict not to be restricted from the use of c saying they had no relation to the E Delta and did not speak the same la eat all manner of food.,1 The god, h that all the country irrigated by the N below the city of Elephantine, and d The bull was the emblem of stren to a bull. 7He made me mighty as a to see thy majesty as a young bull, fir Or the terrifying aspect of a king is into women ( 3 )7. Bulls were often sa the head of the bull was a mortuary already. The worship of the bulls Apis an writers. Apis was engendered by a fl heaven, and impregnated a cow tha young. The Apis had certain charac spots; on his forehead he had a whit a crescent moon. On his back he gene cribes him as black with a square sp back the figure of an eagle, and in th a swelling shaped like a beetle. Di mitichus (a), for instance, built a court he appeared, opposite the portico, sculptured figures There are (a), said Pliny, two temp Hetemi, and to these the people resort
(1) Coronation Inscription of Thutmose III,
XVIII"' Dynasty.

(2) Thutmose III, Hymn of victoria, Karnak, XVIII"' Dynasty (BREASTED, Ancient Records ,I1,
no. 659).

(3)Inscription of Harkhuf at Assuan, VI"' Dynasty (BREASTED, Ancient Records, I no. 336). (4)Merenplah, XIX"' Dynasty (BREASTED, Ancient Records , I, nos. 435, 462, 482).

(') Karnak Sheshonk I, XXII" Dynasty (BREASTED, Ancient Records, IV, no. 724). (7) Tomb of Bekhmere , XVIII' Dynasty (BREASTED, Ancient Records, 11, no. 736). (8) BREASTED, Ancient Records, IV, no. 235. (9) IDEM, ibid., IV, no. 190. (") HERoaons, II, 18.

ox enters the one or the other of these places, the augury is deemed favourable or unfavourable. He gives answers to individuals, by taking food from the hand of those who consult him. He turned away from the hand of Germanicus Cesar; who not long after died. The honours which were paid him both during his life and after his death were described by Diodorus Siculus (n. The death of Apis caused the people to go into mourning until the priests had found a successor, who was then brought to Nilopolis where he was fed during It o days. He was then taken down the Nile in a special vessel, in a gilt cabin, and finally reached Memphis. The animal might not drink the water of the Nile, but used that of a special well. The rule was that it must not live for more than 9, 5 years ( 2 ), but this rule was sometimes broken, for it is known that in the XXII"d Dynasty, two of the holy steers lived more than 26 years (s), and Diodorus(") mentions an Apis who died of old age. When Apis died ( 5 ), the pious wore mourning garments, and nothing but water and vegetables entered their mouths for fully 6o days, till his burial was over. His tomb was visited by pilgrims, and grave-stones were erected inscribed with the interesting biography of this bull; when he was born, when lie was brought into the temple of Ptah, and what was the entire length of his life; we are told what place it was that had the honour of being his home, and the name of his mother. His burial was conducted with fullest observances, for the State itself provided for it. In 547, king Amasis made for Apis cc a great sarcophagus of red granite, which his Majesty had found, such as never had been made of stone, by any king or at any time. And he fitted him out with bandages, and amulets and all adornments of gold and all precious stones; they were more beautiful than any that had ever been made before.,, This was the first of those colossal sarcophagi at Saggara, made of a single block of granite, four metres in length, and over three metres high. The second best known bull in Egypt was Mnevis with the same physical characteristics. It was worshipped at Heliopolis ( 6 ) with honours as great as those given to Apis. The bull Netos may have been .Mnevis under another
(1) D1ODORUS SICULUS , I, 85. (2) PLUTARCH , 56. (3) FRAZER
, ,

in the temple of Jupiter Polieus in The goddess Hathor was often wo at Dendereh, the principal seat of especially on columns, as a wom beautiful Hathor cow from Deir el attributes of the goddess, namely ostrich feathers. A clump of lotus at gracefully bending round the nec figures close to it, the first stands i with the back towards the animal. titude, the umus on the crown, and indicate that it is meant for a Phar extended in a position of submissi servant of Mahon The second pers red, and, kneeling beneath the ani The seven Hathors that assisted part similar to that of our fairies. In of the dead par excellence, and, to woman was then not called an Osiri The sky, generally regarded as a pictured as a cow, with ships sailin born in the morning as a calf of the of the sky. The cow was sacred to Isi of Egypt (') and especially in certai appeared as a white cow, at Hermo The great veneration for this ani sarcophagi show the head of a cow o said to have buried his favourite da in the shape of a cow. The old Greek idea that the cow
ERMAN, A p. 170.
(6)

handbook of Egyptian Religion,

DIODORUS , I, 84 and 88.

(1) ERMAN, Egyptian

Religion,
(2) HERODOTUS , II, 41. (3) STAAB , XVII, 812.

p. 7.

Spirits of the Corn 11 p. 36.

(4) DIODORUS I, 85.

does not appear to be based on fact. In the 2 given to the bull, the husband of the divine cow,,. In the same work ( ) a . vignette represents a cow having the disk with plumes between her horns, 5 and wearing a collar, from which is suspended the emblem of life. Elsewhere ( ) is seen a vignette showing a hall or shrine within which, on the left, the deceased stands between two rows of offerings adoring Ra, or Osiris, hawkheaded. Next are ranged seven kine and a bull, each animal having offerings before it. Before it are four rudders, emblematic of the cardinal points, and on the extreme right are four triads of gods. The speech of the deceased read: c Hommage to thee, 0 thou lord, thou lord of right and truth, the only One, the lord of eternity and creator of everlastingness, 1 have come unto thee, 0 my lord Ra , I have made offerings of herbs unto the seven kine and unto

budget would have been necess skeletons were ever carried to Ar heads and skeletons of bulls and o in many and various parts of Eg death, as the skin of the ox is a we Mummies in the shape of catt animals, and this has been invoke This fact, however, is of little val mummifiers may account for this characteristics of birds contained bo with the head of a ram contained bi made up of a human adult femur truth -being that the mummifiers' ever existed. It is very probable therefore th or facts which he generalised undu The castration of bulls for the p out at a very early period. The ad following passage : nI have come beasts,,. The castration of animal represented on Egyptian monume white ox, for instance, was offered with legs bound, 72 ox haunches a of offerings.

their bull, etc.,,. The method of burial of the animals that died a natural death is said to have been peculiar ("). The cows were thrown into the river, but there is no 5 confirmatory evidence of this statement, and mummified cows ( ) have been found at Thebes. The males, according. to the same author, were severally interred in the suburbs, with one horn, or both, appearing above the ground for a mark. When the bodies were putrified and. the appointed time arrived, a raft came to each city from the island called Prosopitis : this island was in the Delta, and was nine schwni in circumference : cr Now in this island Prosipitis there are several cities; but that from which the rafts come to take away the body of the oxen, is called Artabechis; in it a temple of Venus has been erected. From this city then, many persons go about to other towns; and having dug up the bones, all carry them away, and bury them in one place; and they bury all other cattle that die in the same way that they do the oxen; for they do not kill any of them.,, The statement that oxen were not slaughtered is manifestly erroneous (witness the frequent representations in tombs of cattle being sacrificed), and, moreover, it is difficult to believe that all the male cattle were buried in the way just described, as a regular State department with a large staff and
(4)

HERODOTUS, II, h I . WILKINSON, Manners and Customs of the ancient Egyptians, V, 195.
(5)

(o The Book of the Dead, II, ti3o. Ibid., III, 533. ( 3) Ibid., chapter cxLvm.

Egypt not having much pastur butcher were often stable fed. At coaxing oxen to swallow balls pro food, and the animals are often re as develop in animals kept in impri The hooves of animals found so xith Dynasty temple at Deir el Ba the animals had never been used fo
( 1 ) The Book of the Dead, III, p. 591.
Memoires de l'Institut d'ggypte, t. I.

The slaughter of cattle for sacrifice or food is depicted on many monuments, and the pictures resemble one another so closely that the description of one such scene will suffice. The animal was thrown, its legs tied together and the throat cut with a knife. One man held up one of the forelegs (i), while another with a strong knife severed the leg from the shoulder, for the legs were evidently the choice parts. A butcher was represented also sharpening his knife with a long whetstone hanging from his belt, as with butchers of the present clay. The heart was then taken. out or the body and also the liver; the animal was skinned in order to cut out the ribs. Even the phrases which accompany the scene vary but little, we find them in other places than Deir el Bahari. They are either the explanation of what is being done, such as these words : c the sharpening of the blade'', or they are short dialogues between the men who are working. Thus : u Thou_ art brave; put the knife into the leg N Cut it completely,, and the answer A do as you like's. The animals used. for sacrifice were carefully examined beforehand ( 2 ), and the animal was rejected the examiner found one black hair upon him, and one of the priests appointed for this purpose makes an examination, both when the animal is standing up and lying doWn; and he draws out the tongue, to see if it is pure as to the prescribed marks... He also looks at the hairs of his tail, whether they grow naturally.'' If the beast was found pure, it was duly marked for sacrifice; but any one who sacrificed an unmarked animal was punished by death. The real object of the careful examination was probably to avoid possibility. of slaughtering an animal with the characteristic marks of an Apis. Plutarch (s) went so far as to say that in order to avoid a mistake, no cattle were slaughtered. It was perhaps because no mistake could possibly occur in the case, of red oxen that these animals were allowed to be slaughtered(") and not, as Diodorus suggests, because Typhon was red. It is strange, however, that the Jews followed this custom ( 5 ). This is the statute of the law which the Lord has commanded, saying : Speak unto the children of Israel, that they bring thee a red heifer without spot, wherein is no blemish... and one shall slaughter,
(1) NAVILLE, The Temple of Deir el Bahari, Part IV, p. 7. (2) HERODOTUS, 38. (') PLUTARCH, De Iside, p. 31.
(4)

before slaughter : ccA. sacrificial and the nose of which has not be been cleaned in the temple pool, e dirt on his head has been washed He is now led to the altar, which i is stretched out on the sacrificial t proaches and after careful examin his two forelegs, etc.,' After sacrifice and dissection, _ offerings of meat actually foundi n as to what parts were appreciated At Deir el Bahari, for instanc found among the offerings for qu leg seems to have been the most and in all representations of offeri generally on his shoulder. Sekhen(" hot was the flesh of the forepart. Se alimentary offerings, of which abo found in the tombs of Thutmosis il These offerings consisted of piece the body, with the exception of t mities of the limbs, i. e. metacarpa About So such muscles or frag the bones and consisted of pieces metres long, which still showed th suspended. Twenty-one pieces consisted o pieces of the humerus, eighteen pi teen pieces of the scapula, all of t pieces consisted of the whole forel
(1) DEMICHEN, Gene; r. Inschr., 11, go, Z. 7 DIODORUS, 1, 88.
0

(2) G. MASPERO , Guide to the Cairo Museu

) Numbers, xix, a.

other perfumes; cc and after they ing on it a great quantity of oil. while the sacred things are being they have done beating themselv of the victim.,, The frankincense appreciated now, but a stuffing o unlike the stuffing that modern Eg Doubtless, as is done in the Ea was passed through several small over a charcoal fire or brazier. I the domain of king Shepseskef, with pretty open-wOrked sides. Th the smaller pots were placed on supports over the open fire. At t kitchen of Ramses lll, a great met the kitchen boy is stirring the con The stock of meat is hung on a ba From the time of the Old Empi dough of bread. The herdsmen a dough.), and making it into rolls, mals, they coaxed them to eat it, mouths. Oryx, antelopes, geese, and cr Fattening houses for animals a gifts to the gods by Ramses III.

There were eleven sternums of ox or calf with their costal cartilages; five pieces each composed of four to eight ribs, nine pieces of the vertebral column, each of five to eight dorsal vertebrae with their long spinous processes, and lastly 61umbar vertebrae in one block. Pieces of liver and spleen were also found, but no trace of heart or lungs. The bones belonged to young animals with ununited epiphyses, not more than two or three years old therefore. The animals from which they came possibly belonged to the Bos brachyceros. The myst m kidneys (?),, and nenshem cc spleen are mentioned in the list of offerings of the 17th Dynasty ('). According to Griffith ( ), the sut was the haunch or shoulder shrunk by boiling, and yua was the shoulder similarly treated. Although it has been repeatedly stated that these meats were salted, there is really no evidence to that effect. At first sight, the fact that no part of the head was found would appear to confirm Herodotus' statement that when an animal was sacrificed the head was cut off and sold to a Greek merchant, or, in the absence of such a merchant, thrown into the -river; the following imprecation being pronounced on the head : If any evil is about to befall either those that now sacrifice, or on Egypt in general, may it be averted on this head Herodotus adds : cc With respect, then, to the heads of beasts that are sacrificed, and to the making libations of wine, the Egyptians observe the same customs in all sacrifices alike; and from this custom no Egyptian will taste of the head of any animal Yet on the walls . of many Egyptian monuments, one sees the calf's head being carried on a tray or actually put on the dinner table with the rest of the food. The prohibition, therefore, did not extend to calves, or was not so complete as Herodotus supposed, or did not exist in early Egyptian times. Of the cooking of the meat very little is known. When they sacrificed to the goddess ( cc whom they consider the greatest. . ,,, they removed the intestines, leaving the vitals with the fat in the carcase; cut of the legs, and the extremity of the hips, with the shoulder and legs, and filled the body of
3)
0)

Large numbers of sheep were br at the time of the pyramid builder

(2
(3

MARGARET MURRAY,

Saqqara Mastabas, I,

) IDEM, ibid., p. 37.

) HERODOTUS, H , 109.

p. 38.

Life in ancient Egypt, p. G38. ( ) Pap. Harris (BREASTED, Ancient Recor

(`) ERMAN, 2

then as now the breeding places for sheep, as these animals can live for a very long time without water, if allowed to proceed at their leisure. Two principal races of sheep existed. The first, Ovis longipes (Tritzinger), Race palccoaigyptiacus, has been identified by fragments of crania found in the kjokkenmoddings at Toukh( 1 ). The characteristic horns, heavy, with long transverse spirals arc figured on a very beautiful slate found at El Bershelt (') and now in the Cairo Museum, and on the papyrus Neb-Qued of the Louvre Museum (a), and on a clay seal found at Hierakonpolis ("). No mummified remains of this sheep have been found so far. The sheep with curved horns, the typical Amon's horns, was by far the most common, and several mummies of this animal are in the British, the Cairo and Berlin Museums. The Cairo specimens come from Saqqara and one of them still bears branded on the forehead the mark of the former owner. Lortet( 5 ) states definitely that this race of sheep does not appear on the monuments till the XlIth Dynasty, and without bringing any proof or documents, lie assumes that the Ovis pakoawyptiacas died out about the beginning of the Saitic period, and was replaced. by the second species. At the time of the Ptolemies, Etiboaan and Arabian sheep were brought into Egypt. According to some authors, the cult of the sheep was spread all over Egypt( 6 ), whereas Strabo localises it in Sais and the Thehaid. The sheep is mentioned among the animals that were fed by Amon ( 7 ), and a sheep with human voice also rendered oracles. The divine shadow was in the likeness of a ram (8) . In the speech of Ptah regarding the birth of Ramses (a) the god exclaims : rrI assumed my form as the Barn, lord of Mendes, and begot thee in
figs. to and 11. I') LORTET et GAILLARD, op. cit., p. PoLvAiN, VII, g; see WIEDEMANN, Hero-

dot, p. 196.
(7)

(') In the original paper J. de Morgan , p. 99, there is no mention of these crania, althopgh later on Lortet repeatedly refers to this list. As far as I can make out Lortet first thought these fragments belonged to a goat and changed his mind afterwards. (2) NEWBERRY, El Berslieh, II, 1)1. XXV. (3) LORTET et GAILLARD, La Falter motnifije, P. 87. (") QUIBELL, Hierakonpolis, Part II, pl. LXX,

MARIETTE, Pap. Bulak , 17, pl. 6 (see

thy august mother ::. The ram-he well known, and the head was fre The god Khnum and kings suc with the long spiral horns, where including Alexander the Great, teristic of Amon. An attempt has with the long horned sheep, but, show both kinds of horns (a). The question whether the ani goat is an open one, which, howe the animal may have been, sterile the animal is said to have had sex occasions. It is more probable, ho ram or goat was the active agent. As in the case of cattle, it has b wool, butter, cheese, milk, etc., at one time ( 3 ). Sacrifices of sheep but the theory does not appear to It was said that the animal was habitants of the Nitriotic nomes sheep:: (s), but it was eaten. in Lyc the Tliebans slaughtered a ram, c the creature, placed. the statue o selves and forthwith buried the ra The animal was doubtless eate against it at some time or other, Juvenal (a) went so far as to say th Bones of Capra hircus (") hav Toilkh, and some osseous frag
(I)

WIEDEMANN, Herodot p. 196 ). 0) Karnak Inscriptions, XVIII' Dynasty,

LORTET, La Fence momifiee, p. 91. (2) WIEDEMANN, Ilerodot, p. 219. (3) DIODORUS, I, 87. Thutmose II (BREASTED, Ancient Records, II, no. 396). 0) BREASTED, Ancient Records, Ill, no. /too.

Sext. Emp. Pyrrli., III, 220.

(3)

STRABO, XVII, 8o3.

ses 111 ), and these animals were p in the XIIt 1 i Dynasty ( 2 ). Wild goats were caught in some himself, as prey, like wild goats cr hunted ( 4 ). This animal was eaten by bread, and wine for every day, coo wild goats of the Large numbers, 2o,000 large abroad in the Old Empire (s). Needle for such large numbers, and hence t authors. Three specimens of the wild she tombs have been described. The fi cranium of a very old subject; the s dividual, and the last is the intact these remnants were found at Saqq by ancient Egyptians, for it is not perhaps at Ilierakonpolis. The evide but, in any case, the flesh of this great request. The idea that it was the ancest entirely given up. GA Two kinds of Oryx inhabited the corix with curved horns, and the Or
(1)Pap. Harris (BREASTED, Ancient Records
IV, no3. 098-347).

) remains of ,Capra caucasica(i or of males of Capra membrica. A skull of Hircus membricus was found at Saqqarah (Cairo Museum, no. 9673), and representations of this animal adorn the walls of the funerary chapel of Ra-n-ousir of the Yth Dynasty, of a Gizeh tomb of the IVI' Dynasty, and of other monuments ( 2 ). A skull of Hircus Thebaicus, an animal pictured on the most ancient Egyptian monuments, is in the Cairo Museum, and fragments of the skull of Hircus reversis, the dwarf goat of Central Africa, have been found in the pre5 historic debris of Toukh ( ). Long-horned goats (") were buried in the animal cemetery at Gurob. The horns of a fine specimen measured, according to Mr. Oldfield Thomas, 1 foot i o 1/9 inches along the outside curve and i foot 7 inches from tip to tip. The sacrifice or slaughter of the goat is not often seen on monuments. The best is at El Gebrawi ( 5 ), where the skinning of a goat hanging from a branch of a tree is the subject. u Cut it up and make it come,' seems. to be the injunction, and the other u I am doing according to thy pleasure n. A man who is described as : uA tomb-cook performing his duty, is cutting up meat on a hoard, while a comrade stirs the joints which are being cooked in a cauldron 6 over the brazier. He remarks : u These are done . In Rome ( ) the she-goat was a favourite dish. Goats were of some value as they were taken as spoils of war, and were presented to Ramses It of the XIX' Dynasty by Asiatic princes who visited him. A favourite general, UM, under Pepy I of the VP' Dynasty, boasts that of his soldiers u no one thereof took any goat from any people T. Menerptah, on the other hand, commandered the goats of his Libyan enemies N. White and small goats were brought back as spoils of war by Thutmose III (s). Mountain animals were offered as sacrifices under Thutmose III (a). 1,089 goats and 205 various goats are numbered among the offerings of Ram(1)

LORTET et GAILLARD, La Faune inomifiae,

p. 111. (2) GAILLARD C1 DARESSY, La Faune moinifige,

P. ' 6 . ( 6) ATIIEN,EUS, Cookery. (1)Karnak Inscription (BREASTED, Ancient Re,

(2) The Contracts of Hapzefi (BREASTED, op. Cit.,

I, no. 556).
(2)

II. 102. LORTET el GAILLARD

(3)

La Faune moniffige,

cords, III no. 584). (a ) The Annals (BREASTED, Ancient Records,

II, no. 490).
,

3 serie, p. 80. () LOAT, Carob, p. 3.

(5)

Medinet Abou , Ilanries III, XX''' Dynasty ( BREASTED, op. cit., 1V, no. 91). (2) Coronation Inscription (BREASTED Ancient Records, II, no. 139). Sphinx Stela, Thutmose Ill (BREASTED, op. cit., II, no. 5o i)..
(4)

N. DE G. DAVIES, Deir el Gebrawi, Part I,

1116noires de ['Institut d'glipte, 1.. I.

for the new feasts, and were off Dynasty. Ramses Ill appointed f white oryxes, in order to offe whole, however, it would appe white oryxes, male gazelles, are of Ramses III (s), an insignifican of head of cattle given by the ki A skeleton (") of a male Bub rarely drawn on Egyptian monu Cairo Museum. The hartbeest is palette from Hierakonpolis ( 5 ). Various antelopes are painted dah and Ballas lo). A prehistoric many excrements or antelopes, then kept in captivity, and the e favours the same idea. Later on, and the fatness and sleekness of for the table. Antelopes do not often appea tioned in the papyrus Harris, for XXI Ind Dynasties (''). Bones of the Gazelle Isabella bris of Toukh ( 12 ), in the temen same locality ( 14 ). At Tarkhan (is)
(I)

with two long, straight horns of the oryx, have been found in a tomb of the I" Dynasty. The monuments of predynastic times mostly show the Beisa variety, and the Leucorix appears on those of the Ancient and Middle Empires. Its white back, and characteristic brick-coloured belly are well shown in the tombs of Beni Hasan. Representations of oryx anterior to the Pi Dynasty exist on a hard cylinder from the royal tomb of Negadah ( 0 , on an ivory plate, probably prehistoric ( 2 ), on several vases at Ballas and Negadah (s), and on the walls of a prehistoric tomb at. Hierakonpolis. At Gizeh and BHA ( 4 ) an oryx couchant forms the handle of an ivory lid. The hunting of the oryx is represented on a prehistoric palette from I lierakonpolis ( 5 ) and it appears several times at Beni Hasan and at Saqqarah. Herds of the animal are seen walking about the desert, and the birth of an oryx is represented, with a wolf or jackal waiting for the young to be born in order to devour it( 6 ). The animal was domesticated ( 7 ) and was also imported from the South, possibly because it had been gradually killed off in Egypt. It was fattened for the table; an oryx, for instance (s), is seen lying in its stable; and an inscription relates how the man is there to fatten the oryx. A similar scene is represented at Beni Hasan ( 9 ). It was slaughtered for food in exactly the same way as cattle, the butcher using almost similar words : Hold fast the oryx that I am cutting to pieces. That is clone, comrade. Pull towards thee very strongly, comrade. y, The sacrifice of the oryx is somewhat realistically represented twice (10); white oryx ( 11 ) were kept in the slaughteryard of the temple of Medinet Abou ( 12 )
( )

i J. DE MORGAN,
(6)

Recherches sur les origines

LORTET et GAILLARD, La Panne moinificce ,

BREASTED, Ancient
1

Records, IV, no.

( 2 ) IDEm, op. cit., IV, no. 266.

de l'E'gypte , I, 1896, p. 115, fig. 136, and 11,

(2)

p. 170. ( 9 ) N. DE G. DAVIES, Dole el Gebrawi, Part II, P 9. ( 5 ) LORTET et GAILLARD, op. cit., p. 170.
(9

1897, pl. V, p. 266. Pitt Rivers collection (J. DE MORGAN, Recherches, 1896, 11, p. 169, fig. 56o). FL. PETRIE , Naqada and Ballas, pl. LXXVI1
0

' ) Pap. Harris.

' NEWBERRY, Beni-Hasan, I, pl. XXVII. ) See LORTET et GAILLARD, op. cit, p. 172. (") Pap. Harris ( BREASTED, Ancient Records,

II,

(4) GAILLARD et DARESSY, La Patine inot no. 29519. (5) Plate LXXV and following of Hier polio , II. ( 5) PETRIE and QUIBELL, Negadah and pi. LI and TAIL See CAPART, p. 126.

and following. (') FL. PETRIE, Gizeh and Rifeh , p. 6. ( 5) QUIBELI, and GREEN, Hierakonpolis, pl. XXVIII, p. 41.

IV, no. 19o). BREASTED, Ancient Records, IV, no. 2112.

(12)

(7)

J. DE MORGAN, Origines, p. 31.

cylinder of King Ka (?), and bony fragments were present in the mummy tombs of Dendereh 0 ) which were used from the time of the XVIIPh Dynasty until Ptolemaic times. The graceful head of the animal ornamented the prehistoric pottery of Negadah, and two long-necked gazelles and a palm tree are seen on a prehistoric slate. r The details of the forms of the 'joints and the general pose of the animals is excellent, and the feeling for the graceful, slender outline and smooth surfaces is enforced by the rugged palm stem placed between the gazelles N. T) Mummified bodies, male and female, of Gazella Dorcas and Gazella Isabella have been found in large numbers at KOm-Mereh, Kom Ombo, Toukh ( 3 ) and elsewhere, and it has been stated that 0) the dorcas gazelle is figured chiefly in monuments of Upper Egypt and the gazelle ISabella on those of Lower Egypt. The members of the ruling houses or families wore the undressed skins of animals such as goats or gazelles made into drawers, fastened round the waist by a rope or cord, tied in a knot ( 5 ). The skin, in the prehistoric period, was used for various purposes, including the wrapping up of the dead N. Gazelle hunting is often represented on the monuments, and rich men, especially in the Ancient Empire, kept herds of gazelles which were fattened for the table. They were offered . to the gods occasionally. Thutmose Ill relates how he ordered gazelles to be represented to Amon-Ra ( 7 ), and these animals figure among the oblations by Ramses Ill to Amon-Ra N, among the animals N in the slaughter-yard of the temple at Medinet Abou, and among the offerings of the priest Osorkon under Sheshonk III (XXIInd Dynasty) ( 10 ), and this king presented to Amon-Ra gazelles brought from negro land (").
(I)

FL. PETRIE,

(7) Coronation Inscription of Thutmose III

(BREASTED, AC/CH/ATOMS, II,

no. io6).

Dendereh, p. 29. (') FL. PETRIE, Arts and Crafts in Egypt, p.49. (3) LORTET et GAILLARD, La Faune momiRe ,

(8)Pap. Harris (BREASTED, Ancient Records,

Pigs were not an object of repuls from the time of Menes are pig-sha upon as repulsive, this shape would on which paint used for the adorn A glazed pig dating from the Is' Ombo, in a temple of the Roman P pension, have been discovered. Oth periods ( 3 ) exist, some representing s of fertility and carrying the inscripti of this sow . In the IP' Dynasty, a pl of the white sow,' ("). The name Taasty ( 5 ), and during the Ptolemaic p word cattle-herd N. Nevertheless, the existence of a s native Egyptians ( 7 ), were not allow others, implies a fairly large trade i Pigs were used for treading the sowing, but as this work occupied a this animal must have been eaten Renni, whose tomb is at El Kab ( as this man was a prophet of the earned an honest penny by providin There is evidence to show that th sentiment of religious awe and fea abhorrence are almost equally blen as an embodiment of Set and Typho It was in the shape of a black pig
(1) MASPERO, 4'

1" serie, p. 78. (4) SELATER and THOMAS, The Book of Ante lopes , vol. III, p. io5, 1898. (5) BUDGE, History of Egypt, p. 5o.
c 6) J. DE MORGAN,

Guide to the Cairo Museu

Recherches sur les origins

de PE gypte , p. 134.

IV, no. 242). (9)Ibid. (BREASTED, op. cit., 110. 190). (To) Inscription on the Bubastis gate (BREASTED, op. cit., IV, no. 768). (") Wall Inscription of Karnak ( BREASTED, op. cit., IV, no. 7211).

edit., p. 539. (2) FL. PETRIE, Abydos, II, p. 25, pl. VI. (3) REISNER, Amulets, p. 162, also plate X (4) WIEDEMANN, fier0C10/8 ztveites Bach, p. 8

 22

Ptolemy ( 1 ) must needs relat the Assians brought him a of his body corresponding as snow : and they said tha ing all these animals fro drachmae as price for one r including stuffed sows' tea Alexandria. The meat supply of Egy and partly on the slaughter oryx, antelopes, gazelles, desert. Many illustrations pleasures of the chase, and, bordering on the desert se bivora which browsing on t How great that damage can to conceive, and the villag during a short stay, to slau devices, devastated their m lopes, gazelles, etc., was the precaution on the part of th himself with excellent meat.

Horns, who burned him and. instituted the sacrifice of the pig, the sun-god having described the beast as abominable. In the Egyptian Heaven and Hell ( 1 ), where Osiris is represented sitting in judgment, a pig is beaten by an ape, and possibly represents here the eater of the dead. In the papyrus of Nekht also, the deceased is seen grasping a chain by which a serpent is fettered, and spearing a pig. The Egyptians at one time, certainly abhorred the pig, as a foul and loathsome animal, for if a man ( 2 ) so much as touched a pig in passing, he stepped in the river with all his clothes on to wash of the taint; and to drink pig's milk was believed to cause leprosy and other skin diseases to the drinker 0). Yet, once a year, the Egyptians sacrificed pigs to the moon and to Osiris, and not only sacrificed them but ate of their flesh, though on any other day of the year they would neither sacrifice them nor taste of their flesh. Those who were too poor to offer a pig on that day, baked cakes of dough and offered them instead. cc When the sacrificer has slain the victim, says Herodotus, he puts together the tip of the tail with the spleen and the caul, and then covers them with the fat found about the belly of the animal, and next consumes them with lire; the rest of the flesh they eat during the full moon in which they offer the sacrifices, but on no other clay would any one taste it. In the kjokkenmiiddings of Toukh(") many fragments of long hones and jaws of swine were discovered and debris of Sus &I* have also been identified from tombs in the Fayoum. The popular idea that the old Egyptians abstained from pork because of its supposed unwholesomeness has no certain foundation. The priests, it is said, r hated,' pork because its meat left too much residue, but, as they attributed the same drawback to mutton, it is clear that the explanation was an after-thought, and that the reason for their avoiding this meat is unknown. The Greeks living in Egypt partoOk of pork freely without suffering any evil consequences. We have ( 5 ) a letter from a man, Alpino, to his friend Eronos asking him to send him two nice little pigs, and begs him to see that, they are really good ones and not rr quite useless like the last one r. King
'()) BREASTED, Ancient (2) HERODOTUS, II, 47. (3) PLIITARQUE , OEuvres morales, p. 226.

The hyena occupies a pe vorous animal that was eat and such fattened hyenas ar The skin and various part and curative powers, and in
(4) LORTET at GAILLARD, La 3 serie, p.
' . (5) COMPARETTI, Leilere d He1 0a0fle(?),110.

Records, III, no. i6o.

Fauna moutifile,
(1)

TI1ENXUS , IX, 17.

166.

0)

FL. PETRIE

, Deshesheh, I X; N. D

 --

the hyena. The modern Sinai Bedouins hunt the animal for the sake of its fat, which is popularly supposed to be the best fat for ointments. In the Old Kingdom hyenas were amongst the domestic animals and were 0 probably used for food ). In the tomb of Sekhemka (pl. VII), among the animals which are being taken to the sacrifice is a hyena, carried in the arms 2 of a Ka-priest. In the tomb of Peheniuka ( ) at Saggara there is another being carried _among the deer and cattle which are offered to the deceased. In several tombs of Gizeh, at Sheikh Said, at Deir el Gebrawi,, and at Desheshell , hyenas are seen being driven or led by men, generally herdsmen, and very seldom by women, and, clearly therefore, they were not uncommonly offered to the dead. They appear to have been domesticated like 3 antelopes, onyx, etc., for they were led ( ) like dogs, tethered to the ground 3 as other farm animals ("), or they were kept in packs ( ), or fattened and stuffed like cattle, geese, etc. H. It is not clear where the supply of hyenas came from, for neither their capture nor their slaughter is represented. It seems probable, considering the number of females which appear, that they were bred in confinement, like other farm-yard animals. On the ivory handle of a prehistoric flint knife in the Pitt-livers collection (') hyenas are carved. It was a sacrificial knife , and the animals figured on the handle are possibly sacrificial animals.
HARE.

have a tender, white, some than a few months old, pos jackals, or, perhaps, becaus

Among the divine offerin the tomb of Harmheb 0 ) say tions of water, wine and mi of Thutmose III ( 2 ) comprise of into jars of electrum eac Among, and the coronatio Amon commanded milk rea which my majesty made fo to r Fill ye me the altar with Ramses III ( 5 ) offered mi gods, and it is mentioned a of Tanutamon in the XXV XXVIth Dynasty. In more was still offered as a sacrifi The milk of asses and goa El Kab of the XV1Ilth Dynas ,ephalis of durra, the milk balsam, and 2 jars of oil', (b 0 As at.the present time in being served up (") The Be
(I)

Bones of Lepus (sp. undetermined) were buried in the prehistoric kjokkenmoddings at Toukh, and the animal sometimes figures among the presents of the peasantry to the master of the estate (s). It is not at all certain that hares or rabbits were domesticated, and the hones which were found were doubtless those of animals killed in the desert wadys near the cultivated land, which
(') MARGARET MURRAY, Saqqara Mastabas, (5) LEPSIUS, Denkm., II, 96. n ) Edwards collection, see MARGARET MURRAY. (7) PETRIE and QuIRELL, Negadalt and Ballas,

BREASTED, Ancient Records, I

MX' Dynasty. (2) IDEM, op. cit., II, no. 556. (3) IDE11, op. Cit., II, no. 162. ) IDEA!, op. cit., II, no. 571. ( 5 ) Papyrus Harris (BREASTED, cords, IV, nos. 295, 301, 35o, 395
0

pl. LXXVII.
(8) NAVILLE, Ahnas el Medineh, p. 24.

Part I, p. 29. (') LEPSIUS, Denkmiiler, II, 43. (3) QUIBELL , Ramesseum, pl. XXXIII. (4) LEPSIUS, Denkm., II, 5o b.

( 9 Stela of Piankhi, XXIII"' Dyn Me'moires de l'Institut d'gypte , t. I.

 26

heated up the milk for the stranger within his tent, just as his successor 5o oo years afterwards did for Doughty and for the writer. The milking of cows has been represented many times, at Deir ei Bahari (I) and Deshesheh for instance, the milk being received in appropriate vessels. The celebrated Hathor's cow of the same .temple has the king crouching under her and sucking milk from her teats. At Alexandria many dairies were opened, and, as far as can be made out, the milk was as quite dear as it is now ( ).
2

BIRDS.

GOOSE.

The third source of meat supply consisted in the numerous domesticated. or semi-domesticated birds and in the wild birds caught in the fowler's net, and the one most often eaten was the goose, wild or domesticated. Several well preserved ancient specimens of this bird have been discovered. Included ( ) in the funerary offerings of Amenhotep H at Thebes (") are the
5

fragments from all parts of the body, of a goose, with the exception of the head and extremities which were always removed before roasting. A specimen from the tomb of Biban el Molouk at Thebes ( ) and another in the same case ( ) probably belonged to the same species also, large numbers of which winter
5 6 7

Two geese (sp. Ansel' ci as above were also found i In the foundation deposi mummies of the Egyptian g but it is not possible to say The well known picture .Branta ruficollis, Anser cine winter in Egypt. Three species of geese R with pellets contained in a matical Papyrus, the Be an for fattening, namely : 1/6 while the Set only receives less than half a pint 0). Else 111,000 hen or smen gees of one man. Other kinds of pw-geese ( ) and white geese Geese are often mention The inscription of Senmut mortuary offering of bread, which Amon-Ba and the ki May they grant the mortua The goose is repeatedly me Ptah-temple ( U), on the Ele mouth 0 3 ), etc. Live geese of the exacti
LORTET et GAILLARD, La 3 serie, p. 1115. (2)Ibid., p. 154.
(2)

in Egypt. A goose from the tomb of Maher-Pra at Thebes ( ) is so well preserved that the insertions of the feathers are still noticeable. The viscera had been taken out, and the gizzard, heart and liver were bandaged, tied together by string, and replaced in the interior. Clearly, these were considered as titbits by the Egyptian gourmet.
(1) NAVILLE, Temple

Faun

of Deir el Bahari, 1,

p. 63.

pl. XXVIII and XX. (2) SCDUBERT, p. 513. (3) Cairo Museum. (4) GAILLARD et DARESSY, La Faune mompe,

(5)InEm, ibid., 110. 29704. (6) 1DEM, ibid., DO. 09705.

h (7) XY111

Bersheh, p. 31. (") See Proceedings S. B. A., X for June.

Dynasty. LORTET, La F aune mond(5)

(3) NEWBERRY, El

Mastaba of Ptahhetep, Part 1, p fiue , e serie, p. 97.

XlIth Dynasty, Sesostris III (B

Ancient Beards, I, no. 729).

 28

endeavoured to propitiate Ag fatted calves and geese.

Some mummified remai been discovered (i). Dqfila acula (Linni), easily many Egyptian monuments at El Bersheh (s). Bones of (9 monkey's bones in the Valley In the tomb of Paheri ( 4 ) a

Payrus Harris as part of Amon's income ( 1 )., Then (') no geese .occur among the gifts of the king to Amon, 5!to i/n (sic) as part of Ra's income (s), t 15o as (a) offerings for the new feasts (4), 1 on as offerings to the Nile god , etc., etc. ccliive geese of the exactions', to the number of 192 0 are mentioned in the (e) same papyrus as the total of the god's income , and a total of 353,9 t 8, ccfat ,, geese, live geese, and various water-fowl were offered by the king to the gods. The rations of soldiers on the march consisted partly of goose flesh, and the bird was the favourite food of priests ( 7 ) and kings. Under the Ptolemies, ( ) a special class of men, the xne6a)tot s , reared and fattened geese for the 9 market, and paid a special tax against which they grumbled feelingly ( ). Geese were sometimes kept as pets (). The Anser gypticus, Chelentopex or Vulpenser was sacred to the god SA, who, though one of the t 9 great gods of Egypt, appears to be little known On. The bird( 12 ) often appears in some relation to Amon-Ra, as in a Theban stela of the XVIII"' Dynasty (is) which shows a goose called Amon-Ra, and in another stela(") which mentions two geese ff Amon-11a, the beautiful goose, and the beautiful goose of Amon-Ball, that is, the god incorporated in the goose and the animal sacred to the god. A third stela Os) mentions with Amon-Ra , cc The beautiful goose, time great goose of lover, and a fourth puts, near the god, the goose as the picture of Ament his female appearance. The liver was presented to Isis and Osiris in the Roman cult of Isis ("). Veal and geese were the food of kings ( 17 ), so much so that the Egyptians Os)

for pickling, and fragments o no,000 pin-tailed ducks are -A passage of the Papyrus o attain to the offerings, that i ducks, etc.,,. And elsewhere the gods who dwell in Sekh oxen, and clucks, etc. n. A pi Dendereh The ducks were cl ally carriedout by skewerin over the fire. This process ha ti me immemorial; modern co all birds, from turkeys clow flame. The sec teal is represented
(1! GAILLARD et DARESSY, La Fauna

(1) BREASTED, Ancient Records, IV, no. 229. (2) IDEM, op. cit., IV, no. 239. (3) IDEN, op. cit., IV, no. 283. ( ) IDEM , op. cit., IV, no. 993. ( ) ID EM cit. , IV, no. 298. ( ) laEm, op. cit., IV, no. 387. (7) IImmootus, II, p. 37. (8) BOUCIIg-LECLERCQ , /178/0ire , III, p. 247,
5

(nos. 29704, 29705 and 29706 in t Museum probably refer to ducks). (2) NEWBERRY, El Bersheh, I, pl. XX (3) LORTET , La Faune momip e , pp. 5, liv. p. 132. (`) Egypt Exploration Fund XX'"

note 2. Pap. Petrie, II, no. 10. (10) ERMAN , Life in ancient Egypt, p. 494. 01) Wilkinson gives as his authority Ilerodotus, II, 72, but in my edition it is simply stated

that the Vulpenser was considered sacred. (12)WIEDEMANN , Herodot, p. 311. (13)Wiedemann collection. (14)LAN ZONE, Dizionavio di Mitologia egizia , XXII. (16)Rev. arch., I, serie VII, p. 2. (") Wiedemann quotes Ovid. Fast., I, p. 453. In my edition, the passage runs as follows : rf Nor does the defence of the capitol avail to prevent the goose from Wording its liver for Ihy dishes, 0 dainty daughter of Machus". (17)DIODORUS , I, 70. (18)ATIIENYUS , IX,

 30

salted quails, ducks and of quail (') called xevviov,

PIGEON.

I can not f
Plucking t

The pigeon is not often represented on Egyptian monuments, and one might presume therefore that these birds were not popular before Ptolemaic ti mes, when the Greeks bred them in large numbers, the birds nesting in pots put out for that purpose as is the custom in modern Egypt. As a matter of fact, however, these birds were numerous in ancient Egypt, at the time of Thutmose Ill for instance ( ). The scribe of the islands which are in the south,' brought in 3o pigeons as tribute (`n b-t m'.t); Ito birds were contributed by the scribe of the district of Hermonthis, 50o by the mayor of Atuet-Amenemhet (') and some also by the Recorder of Diospolis Parva , i i i,000 pigeons are mentioned as part of the fortune of an Egyptian noble (s). Ramses IIl (") gave 9,5,o9.o pigeons ( mnyt) as offerings for the new feasts and 68 pigeons on another occasion (a). Pigeons' eggs. were occasionally placed as funerary offerings in small recesses, as for instance in the Necropolis of HeracleopolisM, and in the Necropolis of Sedment of the XVIlIth and X1X''' Dynasties. Eggs of the size of pigeon's eggs are often found with other funereal objects (v).
1

Though no remains of c kenimiddings, these birds A lime-stone slab in the cranes, among which the execution is very skilful an admirable accuracy. At D cranes as presents, and at these birds is represented.

QUAIL. Every year, from the first week in September and sometimes earlier, large numbers of quails migrate from the North into Egypt, and as they are utterly exhausted by the journey, many are easily caught in nets along the sea-shore. These having just gorged on the excellent grapes of Greek Islands, are in

Ptolemy (") mentioned in (reTapoc) . which they sent f liens, and thus raised a suf excellent eating,,. It must sants were carried togethe mense number of /Ethiopia the ti me of the Ptolemies.

prime condition for the table. The same was probably done in ancient Egypt, and the Egyptians also
no. 242).
(5)

The bustard, imported f Alexandria.

BREASTED,
(2)

./.1/2CiCiit Records, IV, no. 298.

NAVILLE , , Ahnas el Medineh , p. 19
(7)

(2)

(1) The Tomb of ReltInnita (BREASTED, Ancient Records, II, no. 726). (2) BREASTED, op. cit., II, 110. 735. 0) Ptabhotep ( BREASTED , op. cit., I, no. It).
(2)

NAVILLE

, Temple of Deir el Bahari, III,

p.

(I) HERODOTUS, II, 77. AT11ENEUS, IX, 48. 0) MASPERO Guide to the Cairo

Pap. Harris (BREASTED, op. cit., IV,

 32

DOVE.

Doves are hardly ever mentioned except in figurative language; the Papyrus Harris ( 1 ), however, mentions 65io doves given by Ramses III as offerings for the new feasts.

FISH.
The Nile and the many large and small irrigation canals were inexhaustible reservoirs of fresh-water fish. r Its canals ( 2 ) are full of fish. The red fish is in the lotus-canal, the Borian fish in the ponds, besides carp and pike in the canal of Pallarotlia, fat fish and Khipti-pennu fish are in the pools of inundation, the Haaraz fish in the full mouth of the Nile near the full mouth of the
conqueror

N.') To this day, a fish drive in the canals, even when these are a few feet wide only, brings together all the boys of a village. When, owing to the fall of the river, the canal is gradually emptying itself into the river, a net spread over a small barrage of palm-leaves constructed across the canal soon contains

many fish. The Nile banks, far from being clean and free of plants as they are now, were lined in many places with very tall vegetation, resembling that of the fresh-water canal now connecting Ismailia with Suez. Near the banks there runs a very sluggish stream of yellow water, two-thirds of which are invaded by reeds. Water-fowl here abound, which, trusting to the protection of the thick vegetation, do not rise even when the sportsman is almost touching them. The innumerable fish are invisible in the muddy water, and the ancient Egyptian sport of spearing fish therefore was probably carried out in shallow pools into which fish had been driven, and which may then have been so thickly crowded together that the fish could be caught by hand. During the fall of the Nile . also, many fish collect in the pools, creeks and small streams left behind by the vanishing river.
(3)

The Egyptians probably now, with excellent railway and Greeks are almost the o Oil. the narrow strip of l muddy lakes, vegetable life the numerous birds and a fe dog may be seen skirting th In the morning, before t ing absolutely still in the wat the head disappears under in the dog's mouth. This ob in the Cairo Museum there off with a fish in its mouth, t A few snakes, rats, here a ing at certain times innum animal life on this barren str The w hole coast, is indeed blowing day after day, almo the sea, in spite of the prese dunes are covered with a fe on the other side of the big l some places only a few wat in deep trenches artificially It is from these great lag ancients probably got their s t h e coast only, for when a jo at least, and artificial ice had sent more than a few miles i Clarias anguillam, Syno discovered. in prehistoric kj have been isolated from the al
Egypt under the Pharaohs,
BR UGSCR , pp. 299-300.
0

(I)

BREASTED, Ancient Records, IV, no. 242.

(2)

Papyrus Anastasi III.

. ) J. oz MoRoAN , Recherches sue les t ypte, p. 99.

Ile:moires de ntstitut d'Egypte, t. I.

 31i

--

fish bones and scales which were frequently swallowed, led to the identification of the species used for food with Tilapia nilotica. Large numbers of ivory 1 fish figurines from the tomb of Mena at Negadah ( ), and a similar figurine from a tomb of the Is' Dynasty at Abydos testify to the popularity of fish in these early days ('). Fish-hooks also have been found in the royal tombs of Abydos The supply was so abundant that Egyptians are said to have lived principally on fish, fresh, dried, or salted 0 ), and an ancient Egyptian hoped to see the day when corn would. be as cheap as fish. The army on the march, and great persons, king's messengers and standard-bearers on a mission, had rations of fish served out to them in the XIX"' Dynasty ( 5 ), and an Egyptian stranded and starving in Syria, was provided with 3o measures of fish by the king of Egypt. Cured fish, packed in baskets N, was exported from Egypt to Palestine. Certain places were celebrated for some particular fish. Thus, the henia was found in the greatest numbers and in the finest condition off Canopus, a place also celebrated for the telling, c digestible, light, and nutritious, 7 and most common where the Nile begins to rise up lo the .higher ground,' ( ).

tool' ( 1 ). The foreigners born bered the names of the chief born in Egypt, had not forgo snub-nose, phagrus, oxyrhy thrissa, abrainis, blind-fish, sc others. Strabo N enumerates t ( Perca ndotica), alabes (Silur phagrus, silacus, cifitarus, thci boos. The most accurate informa based partly on the represent partly on the examination of t Lutes nilolica (Arabic name melts, is represented in the to rawi. Numerous specimens ha nini ( 7 ) recognised that it was worshipped at Esneli, and he the Greeks. Tetrodon fithaka is to be se fishing scene of the Gizelt pyr .Deir el Gebrawi ("). The salpe('') was considere tion of those caught in Alex were full of moisture, and Dressed shene fish is menti or Tm.lapma ndotica is represent
(') HUNT,

The Nile coracinus was celebrated everywhere, whereas connoisseurs were far from unanimous regarding the fish from other places. The Mendesian fish, for instance, nwas considered by some 10 he most agreeable, whereas others were of opinion that a mad dog would scarcely touch Pickling factories, Tiprxm, were established at the Pelusiac, Canopic and Mendesian mouths of the Nile and at Senos, but pickled fish were prepared in private households also. The transition of the sublime to the ridiculous is seen in a letter from one brother to the other warning him against the deSigns or certain people on a girl called. Thais, which ends without any transition : '1. f you are making any pickled lisp for yourself send me a jar, (1)J. DE MoRGAN, Recherches sur les origines
de l'Egypte, figs. 70a, 707. (2) FL. PETRIE, Royal Tombs of the Earliest
P. 9.
(5)

Oxyr. Pap., Part VI, p.

(2) ATHEN,EUS, VD,
0

IIERODOTUS,
5

It, 77; MoDonus, I, 36.

( ) Silsileli Quarry Stele (BREAsTED, Ancient Records, III, no. ao8). 0 ) .Rib]. Eacycl., Art. Fish.
(7)

88. ) XVII, n, 0) See mastabas of Mera, Deir el G Sheikh Said, etc. FLINDERS PETRIE., Meidunt, pl. XI (3) 1MAT, Gurob.
(5)

( 7) Voyage dans be Haute et la Basse

Dynaeies, Pert II, p. !) 1. 0) FL. PETRIE, Rayed Tombs if the Earliest Dinasiies, Part II, p. cm; also ilbydos, Part I,

AMEN:US, Deip//080rhiS/8 ., Ill, 40.

Paris, an VII, vol. Ii, p. 299

 36 --

the llamesseum, in the Mastaba of Ptah-Hotep, etc. The oldest figure of this fish is perhaps that on a slate plate from a prehistoric grave at Hierakonpolis('), but other (') bronze and ivory palettes and figures probably represent this fish also o). The coracinus was one of the most esteemed of Nile fishes ("). ec coracinus, glory of the Egyptian markets, where you are eagerly sought, no fish is more highly esteemed than you among the gourmands of Alexandria(').r Two species of this fish inhabited the Nile; one was black, inferior when roasted to the larger kind, but in any case it was roasted, c:good for the stomach and good for the bowels Mr. The other was the heinhierus of the Alexandrians, c: flesliv, nutritious, easily digestible, and not apt to disagree with any one('(, , was rather fat and had a juice far from disagreeable, . The Alexandrians gave the name of Platens to the whole genus. The only discordant note is given by Athenaras (s) : Whoever eats a sea born coracinus when lie may have a grayling, is a fool,,, lie quoted. Magi/ capito, the grey mullet, adorns the walls of the tombs of Mera, of 9 Ti at Saqqarah, of Ptah-flotep ( ), and at Deir el Gebrawi. Strangely enough, it is not mentioned by Strabo. A mullet roasted on the glowing em hers was considered as a most delicate dish, amid far more agreeable than the vege9 tables and fish which you make such a fuss about 0 ),,. Mummies of Barbus bynni Forska 1, the lepidolus of Strabo and. Athentens, sacred in some parts of Egypt, are not at all rare. Two bronze representations of this fish are known (II). Malapterurus electricus, the electric cat-fish of tropical Africa , is also re2 presented in the tombs of Mera, in the tomb of Ti at Saqqarah(' ) and also
(') GREEN and ()mom,

in a tomb at Gizeli. It has b palette, whereas others 0 ) which is represented ther implies that the ancient Egy Mormyrus oxyrhynchus is ancient Oxyrhynchus was th tions of this fish in schist or Only one specimen of S in the necropolis of Gouro and at Deir el Gebrawi - (). branaceus have also been ide of swimming on their back Egyptian artist. Some of the eels in Mer lazera. The latter has been youm ( 6 ). A fish drawn on th other tout has been identi An eel on the walls of th 'wok h1\ represents Airtillar flyperopisus bebe (Genus H sented in the tomb of Mem pictures at Giza Deir el Gebr Papyri mention the Lotus fi which was probably some hi Two specimens of the Ba at Gurob(to). Nothing is more difficul Egyptians towards fish. On t

Hierakohpo/is, 1900,
P.

(5)

MARTIAL, Epig., 13. XIII, Eh. LXXXV, 99. ( 61 .TIIEN_EUS, II, 56o.
5

pl. LXVI.

2) IDEN, ibid., pl. XXI.

(3)

J. DE MORGAN, ReChereheS sur les origines de l'Egypte, p. 193; LA-isms, Denlanider,

(I) (2)

LORTET. LORTET el GAILLARD, La p.

(10)

( 71 ATHEN:EUS, III, 93. ATIIENAWS, DeilMOSOphiSiS, VII, 81. ( 61 N. DE G. DAVIES, The Mastaba of Ptah-Hotel), pl. XXV.
ATIIEN.EUS, III, 88, 91). (") IIOULENGER, The Fishes of the Nile.
(12)

Fiume
Cairo Museum. LoAT, Gard), p. 5, pl. IX, ((') IIOULENGER, The Fishes of Ike :fil
01

II, pl. IX and LVI; QUIBELL The Ramesseum , pl. XXXII, i898I N. DE G. DAVIES, The Mastaba r f Ptah-Hotel), pl. XXV, 1900; Inn, Deir el Gebrawi, I, pl. III and 1V; II, pl. IV, V, 1909. PUNY. IX, toti.

BOULENGER, p. 330.

-- 38

The Lutes niloticus were which are stamped with its are quite common M. It w carried the cow's horns an numerous mummies are u numerous young ones are buried quite superficially i the human necropolis of th The Oxylinehus was sa which it was, and so holy taken with a hook, lest the cult extended to Esneh, represented sometimes ca seems never to have been provided by the story that into the river, the penis, h and the oxyrhinclilis, was t The feuds(") between th are well known. The latter retaliated by eating a dog, followed. The Phagrus was sacred and in Phagriopolis. It has at ('), which together with t nomos of Lower Egypt. The worship by the Egy to the Greeks :

by the people all over Egypt, from prehistoric times right down to the present. On the other hand, there is equally sure evidence that the priests abstained from fish altogether, that certain fishes were not eaten in some places and were.therefore considered holy, and that in certain localities fish were buried like other sacred animals in special cemeteries. In the animal cemetery of Gurob, for example, a certain part was reserved for fish (i) which were buried in carefully dug pits. Many of these pits were occupied by a single fish, and when two or more were buried together a certain arrangement was followed : they were either side by side, or in layers, and someti mes head to tail, in a thick packing of grass ashes, probably lialfa, which was also introduced into the mouth and openings of large specimens. Someti mes the fish had been disembowelled and the cavity packed with ashes. The greater part of the fish were Lutes nilotiots, but a few examples of other species were also found, though in no case were different species placed in the same pit. A few specimens were found wrapped in cloth. The Sudanese king Mani, hi would not admit to his presence the Egyptian messengers who bad eaten fish. This proves two things; firstly, that in the Sudan fish was considered impure, and secondly, that most Egyptians- ate fish. Yet certain Egyptian ceremonies ( 2 ) could only be performed by men ceremonially pure, and one of the qualifications for that state was that the man must have eaten neither meat nor fish. The Jewish law prohibited certain fishes. cc All that have fins and scales ye may eat; but those that have not fins and scales, ye may eat none : they are unclean unto you ( 5 )7. In Leviticus 0) the forbidden fish are styled an 7 abomination7. Later on, the law was not considered to have been broken if the fish had two scales and one fin ( 5 ), and this interpretation brought the whole law into ridicule. Fish as offering to the gods is mentioned in the Papyrus Harris, and also in a Hyksos grave("). Fragments of fish in black pricked pottery are very common in these graves and the Hyksos vases are mostly in the form of fish.
(13

I never cou for neither agree with

L. LOAT ,

Gurob, p. 3. 0 ) BUDGE, II, 40.

(3) Dot ter., XIV, (3.
0)

( 5 ) Bib!. Encycl. (G) FL. PETRIE , ITyksos and Israelite Cities, p. 14.

(I)

STRABO , XVII, I 47.

Leviticus, XI, 9, so.

(') Cairo Museum. (0) PLUTARCH, De Iside et Osiride.

 40 You do adore an ox, I sacrifice him to the great gods in Heaven. You do think an eel the mightiest of divinities, but we do eat him as the best of fish. (Alexandrides in Athenceus , p. 55.)

discovered especially in U face paint are not uncom the walls of Deir el Balia two . small fish swimming i That fishing was a favo tomb; and a native ( 1 ) spo fowl, and loving the goddes in the papyrus beds and po with the trident, he spear seem, came into fashion q Fishermen in large num the divisions of the court fi expedition N. The fisherme from taxes ("), and contri the god's income M, or w community, as for instance The fish was sold in the the most honest of men :
Hermeu And dis And sel (A

Ph ysa is associated with Selene (0. Silures was holy to the goddess tlatinahit of Mendes, and many of these fish were kept in a pond at Bubastism. It was (') one of the largest fishes of the Nile (") and has been identified_with the Silures emus. The Sir, A cerina, a kind of perch, was embalmed N. The priests, according to Plutarch, abstained from all kinds of fish, and so great was their horror of it that to them the word to hale, and also any disgusting thing were figured by a fish. On the gill day of the first month. when every Egyptian ate a roast fish before his house, the priests did not taste it though they had one burnt in front of their doors. The first reason for this was the fact that they looked upon fish as impure, and the second Plutarch calls r evident, so to speak, it is, that as a food, fish, on the one Icand, is not indispensable, and, on the other hand, there is nothing exclusive about Plutarch's contemporaries ;\ ere of a different opinion and so fond of fish that opsonn (a relish), came to mean almost exclusively a relish of fish. c \ Ito ever buys some opson for his supper. and when he might get real genuine fish, contents himself with radishes, is mad ('').n Further, some of the gods, kings, and common people did not share the priestly hatred of fish. On the stela at Abort Simbel in the XIX"' Dynasty, Ptah promises plenty of fowl and fishy); when King Bamses dug a well (pond?) at Akite, he stocked it with fish from the Delta (s) marshes, and the Nile was described as the great Nile, lord of fish and fowl M. Wooden toys () for children represent fish; fish-shaped amulets have been
1)

The farming of the fishi as example, gave his wife t brought in a talent each d kinds of' fish, and so many in salting fish could hardly The fish tax enforced by
pr. 202, 278. (6) AMPHIS in ATIIENYES, VIII, 5.
1
(i)

See WIEDEMANN; JELIAN, De animalinat

natwyt, XII, 13.

./ELIAN, mentioned by \VIEDEMANN. (3) PUNY, V, co. (4) PLINY, 1X, 1 7. (5) WIEDEMANN; ABDEL LATIF, ed. S. DE SACY,

NEWBERRY,
(2)

BREASTED,
(s)

Beni Hasan, Part 1 Ancient Records, I

(7) BREASTED, Ancient Records, Ill , HO. 40 1. Dynasty. IDEM, op. cit., no. 291, .9) IDEOI, Op. Cit., II, 110. 883. ( 10) Cairo Museum and British Museum.
0

) Ramses IV, XX''' Dynasty.

op. cit., IV, BO. 14 (5)Papyrus Harris ( BREASTED,

(4) BREASTED,

.1114wires de l'Astitut d'4-Nth?, t. I.

/12
On the other hand, som kjokkenmoddings (') may color, Spatha CaillauC Spat No doubt they tasted greatly relished by the mo
(9

J.

DE Mottn.AN,

Recherches su

Vespasian reintroduced it, the Alexandrians retaliated by giving this king an .opprobious nickname. . The Greeks and Romans also were very partial CO fish. Athenams (I) wrote : fc Although all the different fishes which we eat, besides the regular meal, are properly called by one generic name, Olpov, still it is very deservedly that on account of its delicious taste, fish has prevailed over everything else, and has appropriated the name to itself,,. The Greeks also spoke of a man being 61iqayi6TaTos or exceedingly fond of fish (Q), and yet, the old heroes of Homer would eat fish only when hunger subdued their belly (3)1, Very little is known regarding the cooking of Hie fish in ancient Egypt. It w as usually broiled over the fire as soon as caught, a long stick being passed through its mouth and tail and the fish turned over the fire until done, the cook meanwhile fanning the fire with a fan 0). Or the fish was split open with a knife or sharp stone, and then dried in the sun ( ), while sometimes it was placed into large pots for pickling. The Romans were very fond of a fish sauce, garum, which was prepared at Pompei, Clezomene, Leptis, and many other towns, the best coming from CartRagena or Cartheia. It was made from the intestines of the c scombren, salted and exposed to the sun or artificial heat, and there were various brands of. the sauce, including a Kosher,, sauce for the Jews. It is very probable (bat this sauce, if not made in Egypt, was imported into the country, but there is no proof of it.
5

SHELLS. Molluscs never played a great part in the alimentation, as the climatic conditions did not allow marine molluscs, e. g. 'oysters, to be carried inland. It is clear that the shells of marine molluscs found at Memphis and in Upper Egypt had been imported there, not for food, but for some other purpose, such as ornamentation.
(1)

ATHENYUS, VII, 5.

(") DAvIES, The Tombs of Sheikh Said, pl. XII.,

Cairo Museum,
NEWBERRY, El Bersheh , Part I; Guide to the ed., p. 180.

(") ATDEN.EUS, VIII, 2. (") Hour, Od., IV, 366 and XII, 399.

C
CERE
'[lie most important food cereals, wheat, barley, and po dim-palm dates. The fondnes that they were nick-named 7a food par excellence, and the food in this country. The most out bread and their bodies sha The hard stones used for gri prehistoric and very ancient his between two hard stones, a fat ters of the poor and for the sl use in early times of handmills The dough, wrapped up in feet : They knead the dough w with their hands,,, wrote Ilero pulsive to Greek authors as in by machinery. Some Greek g workmen wear gloves and tie mination of the dough ( 7 ) by t As a rule, however, kneadi rows of bakers, probably slav and it stands to reason that the too small to be kneaded easil hold was prepared as in Palesti
(I)

HERODOTLS. (') IDEM, 11, 995. (3) J. DE MORGAN, Recherches

sar les or
(4) See J. DE MORGAN.

servant (`), whereas rich people and temples had their own bakers under the 3 order of a chief ( 2 ). cr U ye priests ( ) and scribes of the house of Amon, good servants of the divine offerings., bakers, mixers, confectioners, makers of cakes and loaves, etc. n. Bread was also bought from professional bakers whose work is described as unpleasant ("). The process of bread-making is illustrated in some of the monuments, at 5 El Bersheh. First is a man crouched ( ) with his hands on a table in front of him, above is the inscription art hesa,, making dough. Next, a woman seated on the ground holds in her hand an elongated object, the inscription above which reads men at = 7a roll of wheat-dough,. After a gap, we see rows of bread on mats ("), then a woman mixing or pounding grain called aet aget set at. The two kinds of aget called set and at are frequently found in the list of offerings. In the next picture the white and green sliest, are being prepared. Little is known about the leavening of the bread in ancient Egypt, or regarding the date when this process first became fashionable. The Alexandrians undoubtedly ate leavened bread, and the Ivoupyog, was a specialist in preparing leaven. Baking over a fire or in the ashes of a small fire was a simple procedure in small households, whereas more important households and public bakeries used a large earthenware stove on which the cakes were stuck onfil dry, when they dropped off. In order to avoid this, the stove was sometimes

Large quantities of wheat mentioned on a stela in the te ,gods ( 2 ), and as temple endow wheat are mentioned in mor transport of cereals on the Nile During funerals ( 3 ) the Egyp The encouragement of the meritorious acts of great king Amenemhet of the XIV' Dyna granaries for the temples : n f oTain 0 The - same monarch(') b other gods. Ramses II (I endo ries and grain. Grain was a f private individuals. Under Ame offerings (v) His granaries wer It is mentioned as being presen Ha's income (") as offering to the of the god's income 0 "). In the endowment of the temples. It w uary offering as early as the Vth Although grain was so plentif to Rome and elsewhere yet th conquered nations, and when their wars.
) XI' Dynasty (BREASTED, Ancient R IV, no. 9).
0

covered with small projections It is doubtful of what grain the bread eaten by the mass of people was made. Herodotus' statement that (') The Egyptians feed on bread made into , loaves of spelt, which they call cyllastis, , cart.not be accepted unconditionally. Whereas the same bread was known to later authors, Athenams (m) and Aristophanes mention the cyllastis and the petosiiis. Nicander of Thyatira, on the other hand, wrote that the cyllastis of the Egyptians was made of barley.
0) 0

( 2 ) BREASTED, Op. cit., IV, no. 363.

("7)

D1ODORUS, I, 84. I, 483. 5 ( ) Papyrus Harris ( BREASTED, op. cit no. 267). IDE31, op. cit., 1V, 110. 362,
0)

) Papyrus Anastasi II, 6, 7 = Sall. I, 6 II: (') INENVBERRY, El Bersheh, 111, p. 34, pl. XXV. IDEA, ibid., pl. XXXI, p. 5.
(7

(7)

XIV' Dynasty ( BREASTED, op. cit i

(s)

Exodus, tu, 5. (') Genesis, ta., 9, 5. ( 3 ) Karnak Inscription of the High Priest Roy, XIX" Dynasty Meneptah (BREASTED, Ancient Records, III, nos. 624-695).

ERODOTUS, II ; 77. ATHEXEUS, Deipnosophisis, 111, 189.

110. 271). Dynasty.

48

1 Tbutmose Ill (XVIIPh Dynasty ( ) levied a toll on the harvest of Za16, con2 sisting of clean grain, and brought some back from the land of the Retenu ( ), Naharen ( 3 ), Tunip (") and other Syrian tribes. Several kinds of grain are mentioned, which it is not always easy to iden-

tify now. There are ec red grain,' which was probably barley. Clean rainn which, as its name implies, was probably grain harvested with great care, dearer, and therefore a favourite present, to the gods. Clean grain in kernel is an expression which is not quite clear. Sekhet hez translated cc white sekhet-corn, , , sekhet uaz translated r(' green sekliet-corn", apt or yellow 51 corn ( 5 ) are all mentioned in the lists of offerings of the X ' Dynasty (''). Baut has been translated ( .7 ) cc green corn'', but M. Maspero suggests cc lentils, (s). Several other grains such as sw-t grain, Sc grain, tb- grain, ych are men-

These men were entrusted with grain. An overseer of (l member of the commission Ramses IX. Even after deat cials ( 2 ) whose tombs were so Taxes ( 3 ) were often paid i and as late as the XIXth D Egyptian officials bring gra tribute to the temple of Amo Grain was imported in gr the store city of Ramses II, is mentioned ( 7 ), and in one the upper portion of which top to allow The smoke to p rested on a brick-built platf of Joseph have been well des

tioned, the nature of which is not known. A grain mentioned is the cr southern grain' , which probably came from Upper Egypt. It was one of the offerings of Sesostris III, and is mentioned 10 as a taxed product in Beklimara's tomb at Thebes (u) and at Tell el Amarna( ). The officials, supervisors of the granaries were very high personages in11 deed. Simontu, registrar of the grain under Ainenemhet II ( ), was also (7 scribe of the hareem n and cc chief of works of the entire land,. The overseer of the granaries, lienu, was ccWearer of the Royal seal, sole companion, overseer of the temples, overseer of horn and hoof, chief of the 6 courts of Egypt, 12 etc. 7. Another overseer, Ineni (XXth Dynasty) ( ), was cc Hereditary Prince, count, chief of all works in Karnak... Excellency, overseer of the double granary of Amon,c. The overseer of the granaries was probably the manager 13 of the whole of the king's estates ( ), and the granaries of temples of Amon, of Aton, etc., were also under the supervision of very high officials.
") BREASTED,
2

The making of bread had in Pompeii ; the grinding of t the same trade ( 3 ). Mortars w

Anc. Rec., II, nos. 510, 519.

(') IDEM,
6

(7) GRIFFITH, Beni Masan, 111, p. 3o. (8) FL. PETRIE, Royal Tombs, I, pl. X LII, p.64. (0) BREASTED, Ancient Records II, nos. 797 bis,

for husking the grain, and by animals. Important publi peum, probably worked their Barley flour, 6417ov, and are mentioned. Starch-flour different, and a special kind hand, Egyptian barley was ap
(I)
0

( ) IDEM, Op. Ch., II, no. 1173. op. cit., II, no. 480. op. CO., II, no. 53o. IDEM,
III,

BREASTED,

Ancient Records, IV,

) IDEM, op. cit., IV, BO. 517. 741, 742, 7113. (10) IDEm , (p. cit., II, no. 987. (0) IDEM, op. cit., I, no. 598 (XII 6 Dynasty).
(3)

.( ) GRIFFITH, in Beni Ilasan,

p. 3o, gives

yt-aget.
0)

IDEM,
(10) (13)

MARGARET MURRAY,

Saqqara Mastabas, Part

1, p. 4o.

InEm, op. cit., 11, no. 43. Ion], op. cit., II, no, 768 (XVIII"' Dyn.).

(5)

Op. Cit.., 1V, 110. 1103. IDE AI, op. cit., II, no. 1169. (') IDEM, y. cit., III, no. 6.
.

Alintoires de l'Instilut

d'Egypte, t. I.

 50

"thv os.

xowrciptov or sesame ca A4yavov cake.

(.,e6-)41-w(ix honey-cake. xacrotis) tov small cake.

7- 1)n XOVS.

Some bakers specialised in certain breads. The OAvpot, for instance, was baked by the 62,v,r,oxox .2, but as the word is mentioned once only, olyra was . probably not as popular as Herodotus thought. The o-I tyvtaplot or wheat bakers (these appear only in the vth century) and the confectioners, the xothotpoupyot and ,xXxxouvToxotot. Home baking was carried out as well, but all the finer confectionery appears to have been bought. The special breads were :
aircrog aoTxvpos

xpvcrr*twos sweetmea narcapxia cakes mash

were made up into round balls to keep them together..

Coarse wheat bread. &pro; Pevepixac = a bread baked specially for the wives of the priest. ervis = a bread of the finest wheaten flour, = a roll. Fi.o5 6et.ti
OXonvpmjs.
41-05

Anise was sometimes st

scenios.

wixets = a bread from Ricinus, a remedy against diarrhoea 0). It was a

aim bread. x03,46Tis = or olyra bread (a).

Lotos bread from the seed of the lotus N.

Tryphon of Alexandria (n the loaf made of best wheat of remnants, thin, very dige groats, said he, is made of There was also a loaf called i

Certain localities were celebrated for special bread , e. g. Panes A /motdrini ("), and the breads of Canopus. 5 A loaf called cf OS'EXIcits,,( ) or penny loaf, because it was sold for a penny, was a favourite at Alexandria. Chronos breads were baked in hot ashes and coals and distributed in the Clironos temple at Alexandria. A certain amount of salt was added to bread ( 6 ) and in some cases, this was replaced by nitrum. Among cakes and confectionery may be mentioned
pi , milk cakes.
TTMCITOS (7) .

(3ouxtov.

Bread and oil fooned the messengers were given 9,o d which was carried by numero Bread is mentioned man was the gift most in request The temples' income and instance, presented ( 7 ) about The Egyptians, aware that offered to the dead would dis made of clay; some of which to the XXVIth Dynasty. A co
C300 , 1:: London, II, p. 955, 37 and also, ciprO0
(1

PLINY, III, 74. (2) BREASTED, Ancient

Records, 11, cit., 111, no. 208. (4) Ahydos Stela, XX' Dynasty (BR op. cit., IV, no. 467).
(3) IDENI, op.

( 2 ) The reference is STRARO, XVII, 824, who does not say that kakeis was made of castor oil. ( 2) ATI-TEN/EDS, Hehateios , XI, 418 E; HERODOTES , II, 92; DIODORUS, I, 34, 6, etc. IIERoDons, II, 92; DIODORUS, I, 34, 6; PLINY, XXII, 56. See also date-bread, cipToe

Tripos London, I, p. 71. ) PLINY, XX , 163. (') ATIIEN.EES, III, 76. () PLINY, XXXI, 16. ( 7 ) See ATIIENIEUS, XVI, 647 b.

(5) it/sec/pi/on of Piohsepses (BRE

-- 52

with the names and titles of princes ( 1 ), chiefs and officials, dates from 15oo to i 000 13. C. Some stamped with the names of two persons had evidently been used twice. BARLEY. Isis discovered wheat and barley growing wild, and her husband and brother ( 2 ) Osiris showed men how to cultivate it (s). At the feasts of Isis () baskets full of wheat and barley were carried in the procession in memory of 5 the benefaction of the goddess. Husks of this cereal ( ) were isolated from almost every sample of intestinal contents of predynastic Egyptians both in .2 Egypt and in Nubia (s) and also as late as the Christian ( ) period. Barley grains were contained in an amphora from the Royal Tombs of Negadalt (s) and. carbonised fragments of a wooden carving of an ear of the bearded variety were discovered. in a tomb or the Ft Dynasty ('). Fragments of ears of Hoe-denim vulgare have been isolated from bricks made of unbaked mud, dating from 35oo-It000 years ago (J 0 ), and also from bricks of the XXlh1d Dynasty. Broken-up ears of barley from the Vth Dynasty ( 11 ) found at Saqqarah belong to the "'oedema hexastichunt species, specimens of which have also been discovered ( 12 ) in ancient Egypt by Ungar and Alphonse de Candolle. In the Valley of the Kings at Thebes there was found the tomb of a royal fan-bearer v Ito had lived about i Soo years B. C. Among the rich contents of the tomb there was a bier on which rested a mattress of reeds covered. with three layers of linen. On the upper side of the linen was painted a life-size figure of Osiris; and the interior of the figure, which was waterproof, contained a mixture of mould, barley and a sticky fluid. The barley had sprouted and sent out shoots two or three inches long(':'). Debris of Tritium dieoccum were also found, and, strangely enough it is called Egyptian spelt in Germany still. The literary evidence also shows that barley was always grown in Egypt.
British Museum.
DioDoRus, I, 16.
FRAZER,

Sinuhe relates that it grew i inscriptions and papyri such a and his queen at Karnak, in in the Book of the Dead. Th Tombs of Sheikh Said ( 3 ) and by the bearded ears and by t Some of the barley was c the stalks thereof it cubits7. of the Dead, it is difficult to been referring. In this conne lierodotus the ear of Mesopot Barley grew abundantly in instance from the lands of t possibly before that date. The c from the impost of peasan was by no means cheap, one drank in Alexandria, for the mentioned in one of the papy is mentioned as a divine offeri to Ptah and other divinities. for instance, those of Medinet temple of Sebek at Kom Ombo Like all foodstuffs it was o of Sais, for instance, stimulate promise that this town was full

( 8 ) J.

DE MORGAN,

Recherches sur lee origines

( 1 ) XVIII' Dynasty (BREASTED, An colds, I no. 496). Pl XVIII' Dynasty, IL p. 149. ( 11 ) DAMES, Tombs of Shah Said, p.
(4)

Osiris, IV, p. 970. 1.

DioDoRus, I, 16. ELLIOT 8111T11, The Proto-Egyplians, p.

de l'Egypte, p. 171, also pp. 94, 95. ( 9 ) FL. PETRIE, Royal Tombs, p. 93. WONin, pflatizen in alien Aegypten. (") , pp. 568-169. ( 10) SCIIWEINFURTII.
(10) (13)

Archeological Survey of Nubia, p. 189. IDEN , ibid., p. 219.

Cairo Museum.

HERODOTUS, I, 193. (')) Papyrus Harris (BREASTED, An carols, IV, no. 987). () BREASTED, op. cit., II, no. 1173. ( 7 ) .HUNT, Oxyr. Pap., p. 393. (") XVIII' Dynasty (BREASTED, An

Barley was one of the chief funeral offerings, c and there (') in the celestial mansions of heaven. . . let my hands hold upon the wheat and the barley which shall be given unto me therein in abundant measure Similar invocations are scattered through the Book of the Dead. Two kinds of barley, the white and the red, were evidently favourites. Of these, the first was probably the best for cc Let me live upon bread of white 2 barley n occurs in more than one passage ( ). Bed. barley was chiefly used in brewing
(
3

).

AV HE T. Wheat has been found in amphorae of the prehistoric tombs of Negadah 5 Triticuat vulgare has been isolated ( ) from old Egyptian mud-bricks, and some 6 grains from ancient Egypt are deposited in the Berlin Museum ( ). The old. Egyptian monuments show that both the bearded and the beardless existed, 7) and one beardless wheat has been identified as Tr. hibernum L.( , and the other probably as Tr. turgidum L. In Europe, .Thticum spetta was grown in. Neolithic times. In Egypt no remains of it have so far been discovered in ancient tombs('), but it is mentioned 10 in the tale of Sinulre ("), as a gift from the King in the XVIIIth Dynasty ( ) and XIXth Dynasty ( n), among the King's gifts to Ila (u), to Ptah ("), to the gods ("), to the temple of Nut at Korn Ombos Oa) and among the king's gifts to Atun in the XX''' Dynasty 0"). It formed part of the loot promised to the troops on the fall of Memphis. When Herodotus ( 11 visited Egypt, Ire says, cc Wheat and barley were a common article of food in other countries; but it is in Egypt thought mean
0

and disgraceful, the diet he which some call zea a. Woni accepted by Wiedemann ( 1 ), monuments. Schweinfurth ( 2 ) with the olyra of the Septua is most probably Tritium dico Theophrast gave the nam (a) which was finer and nicer made from it was supposed (' wheat flour and dried up mo than other wheaten flour, wh The remains of naked wh belong for the most part to the pyramids of Dahshur () forme ( 7 ) have been discovere allied to Tr. vulgare : Schwei Tr. durum, of which he had f Bread made of lotus seed several authors.

) The Book of the Dead, chap. Lxxxi.

(ID)

1, 110. 496). BREASTED, 01). cit., 11, 110. 171. (") [DER,
2)

(2) LER, ibid., chapters xcic, LXXII, etc.

(3)Book of the Dead, p. :308. (4) J. DE MORGAN, Recherches sur les origines de 1' Lf",crypte, p. 171.
(5) UNGER.
(G)

The ordinary Egyptian or Pers.-1101ms sorghum. L.), n - in Ancient Egypt also. It mu Thebes which are supposed (i with certainty, and neither B of this plant. Pickering alon leaves coming from catacomb
02)
(I)

WIEDE MANN, Herodot, p. 158.

(4 (1 9

WONIG, p. 166.

) SCHULZ.
9)

(') 'DEM, ibirl., p. 66.

(

PLINY. (") DIOSCORIDES.

s ) ScauTz, p. 59; W'oNIG, p. I64.

op. cit., 111, no. 66. Papyrus Harris (BREASTED, Ancient Re" cords, IV, no. 25o). BREASTED, op. cit., IV, nos. 314 3 325. IDER, op. cit., IV, no. 325. 05) IDES, op. cit., IV, no. 359. (") IDEM, op. cit., 1V, no. -355. Ancient Records,
( ri)

( 2 ) XII' Dynasty (BREASTED,

HERODOTUS, IT, XXXV1,

UNGER, Schultz, p. 59.

 56 ---

Wilkinson 0) published pictures from Thebes and Eileithyes, in which a tall grain is seen. He thinks that from the colour, the height to which it grows compared with the wheat, and appearance of the round, yellow bead it bears on the top of its bright green stalk, it is evidently intended to represent the Durrah or Holcus sorghum. It was not reaped by a sickle like wheat and barley, but men, and sometimes women, were employed to pluck it up; which being done, they struck off the earth that adhered to the roots with their hands, and having bound it in sheaves, they carried it to what may be called the thredting floor, where, being forcibly drawn through an instrument armed at the summit with metal spikes, the grain was stripped off and fell upon the well swept area below.,, In a similar picture ( ) the old slave whose duty it was to do the combing is seated in the shade of a sycamore; he pretends that the work is no trouble, and remarks to a peasant who brings Rim a fresh bundle of durra to comb : thou didst bring me eleven thousand and nine, I would yet comb them The peasant, however, pays no attention to the foolish boast : Make haste,,, he says, cc and do not talk so much, thou oldest among the field labourers (3),,. According to Lepsius 0), it is also represented among hieroglyphics as a
2 5

rush with three seeds. Wiedemann ( ) agrees with Wilkinson that durra was the zea of flerodolus. Plinius(") speaks of bread made of durra, but I can find no trace of it in Egyptian monuments. In Italy ( the bread made from Indian corn was not considered as of good quality.
1
(I)

WILKINSON

, Manners and Customs, II,

50. ( 2) EIMAN, Life in Ancient Egypt, P. 435. ('') See also GRIFFITH, Beni Hasan, I, XXIX.

( 4) WONIG, F. 178. (') WIEDEMANN , Herodots ztreites Ruch , II. 158. ') PLINY, 18, Go, 81 and 90. ( 7) MommsEN and MARQUARDT , p. 49.

Ancient Egypt never prod when several European, Asiati etc., are growing in the countr of the country. The representations on anci that not more than a dozen di important of these, the grape, Figs have been discovered'i cimens are exhibited in the P the X11 11 ' Dynasty at Dra .Abo made of leaves of the date-pa found at Thebes. As early as were cultivated in gardens( 0 ); t asty are spoken of, and the tr from the XIV' Dynasty. The tree grows in lower E therefore common 011 the Nor tom of deep trenches made i perpetual blast of the Norther more easily. The process of ca Figs formed part of the rati in the XIV' Dynasty. Under
(1)Biography of Methen ( BREASTED Records, I, no. 173). (2)Inscription of Uni (Initm, op. cit
313). ille'moires de l'Institut d'16ple , t. I.

- 58 --

pyramids of figsw, and again 31 o measures, 14 i o c weightsn; 55 measures. 15,5oo measures, 31 o measures of figs of the impost are mentioned among the king's gifts for the new feasts ( 2 ). Sycamore figs, strung together, have been discovered in the royal tombs of the Is' Dynasty, and similar strings are now sold. in the streets of Cairo, Alexandria and other Egyptian towns. These fruits under the name of nebes are mentioned in the lists of offerings of the V''' Dynasty ('), and in the tomb of Ilekhmara (P1. V) they are brought as tribute, packed in skins. Pliny correctly describes the growth of the fruit on the trunk of the tree and not on the branches, and praises its sweetness, incorrectly stating, however, that it has no seed. According to this author, the fruit ripens only if incisions are made into it with hooks of iron. Provided this was done, seven crops were gathered yearly, whereas only four were obtained from a tree 1`') left to itself. Athenams describes the method of scraping the fig with a knife and leaving it on the tree; after three days exposure to the winds, especially if the wind is in the west, the fig becomes ripe and fragrant. At the present time, the natives often make an incision in the fruit to hasten its maturity. The sycamore tree plays an important part in the worship of the dead and. was sacred to Isis, Nephihys, Nut, and flathor. In the Book of the Dead in the chapter in (a) the deceased exclaims : Let me eat my food under the sycamore tree of my lady, the goddess Ilathorn, or he is represented kneeling beside a pool of water, wherein grows a sycamore tree, in which the goddess Nut is seen pouring out water for him from a vessel with the left hand, and giving him cakes with the right, whereupon he exclaims : flail, the sycamore tree or the goddess Nut! .. Grant thou 1 to me of the water and of the air which dwells in thee, etc. " 3 . Elsewhere the deceased (') is seen kneeling by the side of a pool of water and receiving

water in a bowl which he h goddess of the sycamore tree Evidence of worship of th were, as we have seen, amo The gathering of figs fro in a similar scene from the t stands among trellised vines. A queer superstition was is related, for instance, that nally a man with a very we a man with a very fine voi years n (2). Fig-leaves during the Gre various meats and especially elsewhere.

Arabia has always been r and, considering the intimate it is quite possible that the d though there is no evidence been the original home of the in the prehistoric kjkkenm palm-tree in Egypt from the Numerous stalks, leaves, covered in Egyptian tombs. C and dates are exhibited in the Bahari have found a home in Date wine was known in t
p. 194, also chapter Lxxxiix cOf Avoiding hunger,,. (') Chapter Lnt, rrOf Snuffing the airl. BUDGE, I, p. 1o4. ( 7 ) Chapter 1,Vini A, p,01 Drinking water,,, p. 908.
(1) N. DE C. DAVIES, 1, 110. 1(1.

(1) BREASTED, Ancient Records, IV, no. 295. (2) IDEN1, Of/. cit., IV, 110. 240. (3) MARGARET MURRAY, Saqqara Mastatas , Part p. 40. 01 ATIIEN ,EUS Deipi/OSOphiS18 ., II, 110. 73. 2) ( Chapter of avoiding unclean food. BUDGE,

(2) DEMETRIUS the Scapsian aped Ill , no. 19. (3) J. DE MORGAN, Recherches su le de l'Egypte, p. zoo.

- 60

external appearance and the exceedingly apt to give heada Other Greek authors wrot
And at the sa Loaded with A dainty grea

The brains of the d heavy and not very digestibl stomach,-. Nevertheless, one may re of date-cabbage is Egypt. Xe bage was fatal to the tree, an greatly. It stands to reason Ih rarely sacrificed for the sake a few tender shoots 11111V hav Dates, grown in Egypt o quantities. During the Greek connoisseurs. Throughout th species and produces no go and Alexandria; yet the best ever, two kinds of dates in t other. The Thebalc is hinter dales were grown on an islan kings.

in the XIIIth Dynasty ( 1 ), as divine offerings and oblations (') in the XVIllth Dynasty. Ramses Ill offered dates, fresh and dried, to the gods (s), and this fruit was among the provisions carried by the nobles on an expedition''). The palm-tree was grown in the whole of Egypt, and probably in the same sites as now, namely in the vicinity of the village ponds, and sakkias, and aloni, the banks of the rivers and canals. The life history and the fertilisation of the female palm by the male tree were well-known to the ancients ( 5 ). It is asserted (") that in a forest of natural growth the female trees all become barren if they are deprived of the males, and that many female trees may be seen surrounding a male with downcast heads and a foliage that seems to be bowing caressingly towards it; while the male tree, on the other hand, with leaves all bristling and erect, by its exhalation, and even by the very sight of the dust from oft, it fecundates the others; if the male tree, too, should happen to be cut down, the female trees, thus reduced to a state of widowhood, will at once become barren and unproductive. So well, indeed, is this sexual union between them understood that it has been imagined even that fecundation may be ensured through the agency of men, by means of blossoms and the down gathered from off the male trees, and, indeed, sometimes by only sprinkling the dust from off them on the female . trees.,, All the uses of the palm-tree were well-known : The palm tree(') furnishes... bread, wine, vinegar and meal; all kinds of woven articles are also produced from it. Braziers used the stone of the fruit instead of charcoal. When softened by being soaked in water they are food for fattening oxen and sheep.,, This description of the use of the palm in Babylonia applies to the Egyptian tree also. The brain of the palm may sometimes have been eaten as a vegetable. (Xenophon N relates how the soldiers first tasted. the cc cabbage from the top of the palm-tree, and most of them were agreeably struck both Vi 411 its Or,
CEiS (BREASTED, Ancient Records, IV, no. OA).

Authors, however, did no \ rabic dates as being dry and up and scorched by the cons rather than with a skin. The natural heat and freshness, for to restore its fresh taste, it w an oven.
(7

(1)BREASTED, Ancient Records, I, no. 785. (2)IDEM, op. cit., H, no. 15n. (3) Pap. Harris (Ion', op. cit., IV, nos. otih, 2)5, 200, 344, 347). (') XXVI' Dynasty. Stela of adoption of Nilo-

( 5 ) THEOPHEAST, II, 6 and 8; V, 6. PLAY, XIII, 7. % STRABO, XVI , I, i A. XEMPIION ,(1//abaSiS, 11 , III 16. (8)
,

STRABO, XVII , I, Si.

The tree (Ifyidtama theba; phocon of the Greeks, has been

Very probably, these two authors were not writing of the same fruit, and it seems possible that Pliny's Thebaic date as the fruit of the dine-palm. The /Ethiopian()) date, brittle owing to the dryness of the climate, was ground to flour and kneaded into bread. It was named coix and grew on a shrub, with branches a cubit in length, and had broad leaves. The fruit was round, and larger than an apple. The shrub came to maturity in 3 years, and rc there is always fruit to be Found upon the shrub, in various stages of maturity r. The only certain conclusion to be drawn from this description is that this shrub was not the date-palm. . Many of the soldiers of Alexander the Great were said to have been choked by eating great quantities of dates, and a similar fate, it was said, had overtaken greedv people elsewhere('(. The dates were so remarkably luscious, when fresh, that there would have been no end to eating them, had it not been for fear of the dangerous consequences that would certainly have ensued. The story, though most probably true, has been scoffed at by many authors. Cases of death from surfeit of dates are not rare in Egypt when dates are just ripening, and like the soldiers of Alexander the Great, the voracious patients suffer from intense dyspricea. Indeed, when one sees the enormous quantities of dates which an Egyptian can eat at a sitting, the comparative rarity of such deaths is a matter of wonder.
-

the forked division of the br dates and the uses to which t peated statement that Straho palm under the name of Th praised the Thebaic date as be grown in Egypt. The special fluxes (') was supposed to hav These dates are frequently

D The dim-palm does not, and probably never did grow in Lower Egypt, at any rate within historic times, and it is not seen now below the latitude of .Assiut. Dates from this palm are contained in the Passalacqua collection and large quantities have been discovered among the debris of mummies in Theban graves (s), in a tomb of XXtb Dynasty at Dra Abou Nagga (''), at Gournah el.Makhzin ( 5 ), and in the mortuary offerings of Alums el Medineh. A sepulchral box in the British Museum('') from about 900 B. C. also contains these dates.
(') PLINY.
(2)

Melon seeds have been dis bodies, thus establishing the nig (") has identified on Egy Cucumis melo L. Cactonis sha Holum-dim halsamina The water-.mel on, or as a favourite dish offered t vulgaris L., var. colocynthoides remains of funeral chamber priest Neb Seni of the XXI' covered. their intense green co a variety still thriving in the furtli). Other melon leaves fou Melons are mentioned amo in Egypt ('), whose praises we rullus vulgaris. The Calabass (Lagenaria v grown in Egypt as early as 9,
SGIIWEINFURTO. (5) Cairo Museum.

PLINY, XIII, 9.

(") F. UNGER.

(6) Guide, p. 113.

(1) THEOPHRAST [list. Plant., 1, Io, (2) STRABO, XVII, II, 5.

(;

graves. Those from Dra. Abou Nagga in the Cairo Museum date from the XII"' Dynasty. The squirting cucumber has been identified. on Egyptian monuments (AV6o nig, o6) and, considering how common this vegetable is now in Egypt, tlie probability that it existed in ancient times is very great. Sekhep generally translated cucumbers, may have been ('I a liquid expressed from fruit, or a very juicy fruit, and was included in the list of offerings of the Dynasty. 1 mong the offerings('-') carried by the farm women are large melons(?) striped with green, which may be sekbept.

The fruit is about as large a taste which. very bitter at bitter, and, in my opinion, alt A tree called &tuba or Saa nites yEgyptiaca, but botanists

POMEGRANATES.

Pomegranates are to be seen in the Passalacqua collection in Berlin, and blossoms of the tree were found by Alaspero in a grave of Sheikh Abd elGonna' (XXVI"' Dynasty). .3 They are mentioned several times as offerings of the king ( ) and in large quantities, e. g. 373 crates; i 5,5oo measures and 9,4o crates, etc. Large plantations of this tree must have existed therefore. The fruits thereof were crushed by smashing with a club ('') and eaten raw or cooked.

BALAN1TES.
Balanites iEgyptiaca (Lelobe in the Sudan, .11etretig in Arab) has been found ( 5 ) among the offerings of the dead and the stones have been discovered in a mummy tend) not far from the town of Elias]. Dakhel in the Liliyan Desert ( 6 ), and some are to be seen in the Museum of Florence and Hie Passalacqua Collection in Berlin. The Egyptians (I possibly ate the fruit and left Ike stone for the dead.
(I)

The Paliurus grew in Cyre of Linnaeus, or Ziziphus spin nut, the kernel of which had the taste of wine. An infusio It would appear that there just quoted describes in anoth astringent leaves, which, lO properties. This has been i Candolle. The paliurus was a favour mentions together the konnar elm or.fir with many _branches tender leaf. Its fruit, which it is about the size of a phauli while still green. When it had was eaten just as it was with of the paliurus was treated in the second. course in the beau

The carol) is represented papyri("), and in the Papyrus

(4) WONIG , 325. (5) SCHWEINFURT1I.
0)

MARGARET -MURRAY, Safplara Maslabas , PI. IX.

P,u I

p. 39. (') 411, 301, 279, 391. (') BREASTED, /117C/02/ Decor is, IV, nos. 23/1,

(6) \VONIG , 320. (7) SCHWEINFURT II.

Wiimn, 319. (') PLINY, XIII, 33. ( 3 ) STRABO , XVI, IV, 17. (') ATIIEN,EUS, XIV, Ga.
Memoires de l'Ittstitut &Elope, I. 1.

66--

furniture and utensils, such as chairs, chests, tables, chariots, etc., were made of this wood.

APRICOT.
.'shed, translated apricots (') are mentioned in the list of offerings of the Dynasty.
(1)

MARGARET MERRAY, Sapara Mastabas, Pali I p. 4o.

Vegetables were extensiv appear to have been remar pular were probably the roo when raw, are fibrous and to taste. Beans, lentils, onions, as, very probably, asparag quired special attention, we

The papyrus was distinct phic writing was the determ The papyrus ( Cyperus pa ancient Greek authors, grow and thrives in a garden prov tions of it are common at all of cyperus esculenlus have be el .Bahari, and those of an a the Berlin Museum. MI ancient authors ( 1 ) agr were eaten by Ethiopians an from grasses. The papyrus rhizome w boiled or roasted_ ( 2 ). When e remains forcibly spat out.
(t) pflanzett iv alien Aegy

but gives it also in winle'r to

) Of the Byhlus,, says Herodotuso , rr which is an annual plant, after taking it from a marshy place, where it grows, they cut off the tops, and apply them to various uses. They eat or sell what remains, which is nearly a cubit in length. To make this a still greater delicacy, there are many who previously

are well fed, even when the grows there under the corn; th and placed in wet earth. Wh with the fruit which is the si lent to eat, it is given to cat sarium L. still grow on parts f Sprengel thinks that Theophr h e mentioned. The second he still found among the Egyptia The itrundo donax L. (Spa its panicles occur among hier material, but there is no evide

roast it ( 2 ). n The rhizome Na as a favourite and cheap food for children and the parents cooked r angy plain food ready to hand; and they gave them also the lower part of the stem of the papyrus to eat, as far as one can roast it in the fire. Therefore, to bring up a child, costs his parents on the whole 9.o drachma obi., hard and wooden stems were used for fuel and other purposes, and the best writing material was made from the leaf. Of the cyperusw the Cyperus esculenlus L. was probably the best for food. 'Theophrast('') says that : 7In sandy places not far from the river, the so-called. lialimdalle grows near the earl h. It is round in shape, equal in size to a and vilnont capsule. 'I'm"' this tuberosity spring leaves miedlar without stone , The inhabitants gather these tuberosities, and cook them as ill I lie Ce,iperida . in barley drink, by which process they become very sweet. One generally eats them as dessert. , This plant is cultivated even now in Ike Delia on account of its rhizome rich in oil and sugar, and it also grows wild in various parts of the Delta. Its fleshy tuberosities (knollen), the size of a nut and sweet in taste, are sold in They are roasted and he anarLets of Egypt under the name of nab el ground down and sold under the name of ylandelkall'ee r. A plant called sari N, growing in water and in flat marshy places left by the retreating river, had a hard and curved root from which sprung roots called saria which were ahoul two cubits high. triangular like the papyrus and with a similar r head 7. These were eaten like Hie papyrus roots, that is the fibrous part was spat out after long mastication. Sprengel looks upon this plant as Roth. ('). In the same place, Theophrast. mentions two other Cyperus foodstuffs in Egypt, but without giving an accurate description of them. One kind which is quite excellent lives near ponds and swamps; one uses it green
THEopimAsT, lis1. Mani.. IV, 8, 19.
(5)

The special characteristics represented on monuments, c

VP Dynasties often fignred bo instance in the Papyrus Harves cophagus from Saqqaralt, whic Nympha'a carulea, howeve which though often seen in w i 933 B. C.) was afterwards e appeared almost completely fr teristics of plants supposed that a confusion between it a biu speciosum is always pos plants : 7There is a second sp which is not unlike a rose. T root, resembles a wasp's nest the size of an olive stone, whi
THEOPURAST, IV, S. (") I\ 6N1G, 130.
1) -

(I) ilmiouoTus, It, 92. Dionous, 1, 80.

(") About 19/-.

Dynast) 3733-3133 B. C.

0 Homer ( 1 ) relates how Ulysses came to the land or the Lotophagi (Egypt), who eat flowers as food : c There then we landed on the continent and drew water, and immediately my companions took supper near the swift ships. But when we had tasted of meat and drink, then at length I sent my companions, having chosen two men, giving a herald asthird in company with them, to go and inquire what men they were who would eat food upon the land. But they, going immediately, were mingled with (he Lotus-eating men : nor did the Lotophagi devise destruction for our men, but they gave them the taste of the lotus. But whoever of them ate of the pleasant food of the lotus, he no longer wished to bring back news, nor return, but preferred to remain there with the Lotophagi eating lotus, and to he forgetful of return. Then indeed weeping, I by force led them to the ships, and dragging, bound_ them under benches in the hollow ships. But I exhorted my other beloved companions to hasten and embark on the swift ships lest by chance any of them eating of the lotus, should be forgetful of return., It is possible, however, that the lotus mentioned by Homer was the Rhainnus lotus. The lotus plants ( 2 ) were probably cultivated artificially in Egypt. Lotus fruits were a very common article of food, for the poor at any rate. Herodotus(" ) describes how when the Nile had overflowed its banks, an immense quantity of plants of the lily species, Nymphea loots, which the Egyptians call locos, appeared above the surface : ,llaving cut down these, they dry them in the sun. The seed of the Hower, which resembles that of the poppy, they bake, and make into a kind of bread; they also eat the root of this plant which is round, of an agreeable flavour, and about the size of an apple., The seeds are numerous, small, quite round, brown and contain a good deal of 1 albumen and are imbedded in a kind of pulp, and ( ') the whole agglomeration resembles a poppy capsule. In order to isolate the seeds, the fruits were piled up in heaps, allowed to putrefy (s), and when the shell had rotted. away, the capsules were peeled off in the river and the seeds removed, dried. and pulverised. Bread was then made from the seeds.
(I

The Egyptian shepherds t milk and then made bread and so easily digestible as th of digestion and is more hea from dysentery or tenesmus The rhizoma of Nymphet( measures about 0 m. 53 cen covered by a dry, brown, leat roots. The root, Koroioti, has Dioscorides( 2 ). It was excelle and was eaten raw, boiled o cortex was used as fattening Piaffnean, Delille, Savory in that the roots of N. loins and The second kind of lotus, has almost disappeared no cen I u ry. The third kind, Nelumbiu phia it gypitaca of Th posed to have been brought a very common plant in Egyp The bean-grounds (") pres ment to those who were dispo These entertainments took pl kest pad of the plantation. w which were very large and 'se According r) to 1VOnig, le temple at Esneh. The rank, multi-jointed an sweet taste, and forms a numb
( 1) Timm, IV, 8.
DIOSCORIDES, IV,
(4)

) ihmER, (Jdyssey, IK, 84.

DIOSCOISIDES,
(3)

IN, 8.
TIIEOPIIRAST,

) PLINY. (') HERonoTus, II, XCII.

Hist. Plaint.

' 3)
(4)

PLIAT, XIII, 32; WUNIG , 29. \VONIG, 36.

72
1 resemble those of the bulrush. The w hole fruit or Kiborion( ) has been com3 pared to a wasp's nest (') or to the head of a poppy ( ), and all ancient writers agree that not more than thirty beans are present in any one fruit. The seeds measure o m. o 1 5 mill. x o m. o 1 cent. and enclose a meaty, white kernel, and were described as being the size of an olive stone (') or an Egyptian bean. Strabo thought, it necessary to explain that they differed both in size and taste from the garden bean. No part of the plant remained unused (:,). The seeds were eaten fresh or dried. the roots raw, or boiled or roasted (n), and the dried fruit capsules were rubbed into a farinaceous magma('). From the root a stomach-strengthening soup was prepared (s) was an excellent remedy against r excoriationem cholericam and dysenteriesr; the green part (gum of the seed) w hen rubbed up with oil and trickled into the ear calmed earache, and the flattish funnel or key-shaped leaves were used as drinking vessels in Alexandria.

COLO

CASIA.

may have been grown in ancient Egypt, but no certain evidence exists concerning this point. A plant called uvon(") is described as being as large as a squill, w ith a leaf like that of lapailmin and a straight s t a lk a cou ple of cuhils in l e ngth a nd the thickness of a walking stick. The root was of a 7.- milder nature, so much so, indeed, as to admit of being eaten raw r.
T COIOCatii(1

priests will not even look at t The statement is certainly inco tuba 1)(I), the ordinary broad in the funerary offerings of th (Cadianus [lichens L.) has also bee to the Nile god (:)) 11,998 jars mentioned. Ancient authors, Pl tion -of beans in Egypt. There certain Egyptians avoided this were given as mortuary offeri Egyptians did so for philosoph from eating lentils, others from other foods abundant in Egypt. know how to -abstain from ce wished to eat of everything, no Beans were used to adulterat Egyptian beans were expor considered of inferior quality t with its wool that sticks so clos with teeth and hands ( 7 ). r

BEANS. A passage of Ilerodottis('' ) has served as a basis for the oft repeated assertion tlial beans were nut eaten by ancient Egyptians. .r Beans are sown in no part of Egypt, neither will the inhabitants eat them, either boiled or raw; the
DI01)0111S, DIOSC01111)1(S.
r()

Mashed. lentils ('') ----- Lens esc mortuary offerings Of the NIP' I)eir el Ilahari (19) . in Ike tom presented silting before a cauld bread was made from them.
(I)

Bull. de amt. (Wypti ) (")

11

/10001IL-:. D1OSC 0111DE S. 130. (") (PLIM', XIX, 30.

1884, p. 3. WONw.
(3(

EOPIIRAST

arid IlmtonoTus.

()) PLimus. IIERODOTCS.

STRABO, XVII
.

Pap. Harris (13REAsTlin, Ancient R

IV, no. 301).
) IIERoporrus, II, 37.
141

C(, 15

In.E.u, op. cit., IV, no. 35o.

0)

(6)

IIERODOTUS.

PLINY,

XVIII, 3o.
Me'moires de l' Institut d'Egypie, t. I.

7/1

The best ( 1 ), greatly appreciated m Alexandria, came from PelusiumM and from Pliacusa, the lentil town. This vegetable being a favourite crop in Italy, large quantities of it were exported from Egypt to that country. Caligula's ship (") carried the great obelisk to Rome and o 7 000 measures of lentils also. The Romans greatly appreciated this vegetable : Receive these Egyptian lentils. a girt from. PCIUSI11111 if they are not so good as barley, they are better dean beans! ('). Two kinds were grown ( 5 ) and were eaten by rich people. When cooked with oil and garlic, they became of a chocolate-brown colour, and the (!)- red pottage!) or pottage of lentils ( .1 ) owed its red colour (`') to the lentils having been shelled_ before cooking ( 9 i. The fondness of the Alexandrians for lentils was a subject, for chaff by the Greeks who maintained that all the one gentlemen or the town were It'd on them_ from childhood, and that ! the whole city was f i ll of things made of lentils!).
ON I ONS
.

Egyptian onions, greatly appreciated by connoisseurs, haxe none of the disagreeable, 'biting taste of the European onion, but are almost sweet in taste, very white in colony, with an extremely thin and tender skirt. They ) have been cultivated from the earliest times, e. g. at the lime of the I )) amid builders, and are now a favourite article of food for all classes of the popiionions figure among !he list of offerings of the Dynasty-0 '). and as late as the Christian era we find St. Appolonius saying that the Egyp(0 tians give the name or g od to the onion. The Israelites greatly regretted the onions of Egypt. Nevertheless, the Egyptian onions were not always appreciated, and \ thenieus('"'a for instance, discussing the properties of several kinds
.)) \\' 1 , 1 ,,,, !A
0.

of onion, e. g. the royal, the Egyptian onions were the wo by th They were offered after time as mortuary offer funerary offerings ( 22), the Se ) her-heb exclaims : crOsiris unto thee that, they may fill t A similar formula was used ches of onions were offered : , white and health giving, have cations, this prayer is repeated As for all strongly smelling use of the onion. Thus for re was rigidly forbidden to pries Diclus, the suckling of the g w hen endeavouring to seize o the aversion of the priests lo t ; Tows in size and strength du The aversion of certain E Siculus(. 5 ). As a matter of fact nor for those who go for mer brings tears into the eyes of t maintained that Others the winds in motion.

178 .
, ,

161(1.,
1

Three stereotyped forms () sativam L. or gar first, sheath up to its middle; the The last, with a long egg-sha Shalot1//ium Isealonieum.
Ittaxi
v
""
r

6:\ LEN, ed. Po,sopit 1 ,>.1).

119a : ATILENAm- ,,

IV, 158:
9. 28,

1,

'' Pap. ItaPris ( I )lt HASTE

TIIEN EUS,

Ancie),t

IV,

!I a. Salgar Ihrsielbtts,

1 , nos. 96 , 3 18

6M(.;
NIARTIAL, PL

FluDGE

p i

Oi fune)-(o.ri

Epigrams, XIII,

L\ ,

7,5, 119.
. De /side.
'

GeheR. NkN,

Sr, XVIII, :I]. 3o.

": .NIARGARET IA. :is. '') Numbeis , xi. 5. 11,1;5. %

 76

Garlic and onions (') were invoked by the Egyptians, when taking an oath, in the number of the deities. The inhabitants of Pelusium (') more particularly were devoted to the worship of the onion, holding it in common with garlic, in great aversion as an article of food. At Pelusium there was also a temple in which the sea-squill was worshipped. Onions are not unfrequently found among the bandages or in the coffins of mummies of the XXIst Dynasty, and even as early as the XIIIth Dynasty, and onion skins were sometimes placed over the eye of the dead. . GARLIC AND LEEK. The poor Egyptians probably ate very large quantities of garlic and leeks, and the pleasant, sweet taste of Egyptian and Syrian garlic was praised by ancient authorsN: The Egyptian garlic was very strong and particularly suitable for persons who change water or place n. The Spanish leek (Allium porrum L.), so good as to be grown in Homeric 5 ti mes in special gardens, and also mentioned in the Bible (a), was grown ( ) in ancient Egypt. Seeds of Allium are contained in the Passalacqua Collection. Garlic was much used in Greek cookery ( 6 ) as, for instance, a seasoning for fish, and large quantities of it therefore must have been used in Alexandria. SALADS.

Artichokes are represente strangely enough, de Candol ver, however(, copied 36 diff ted out that the head was ge with its leaves often outlined 1 2 cubits in height, and 11 p

Asparagus( 4 ) is represented the V' Dynasty (3566-3333 ments was Asparagus officinalis ral kinds probably existed, fo which was thorny and leafless nefort. The asparagus described b of which the lightly boiled sh When mixed with white wine retic, and when boiled and ro gus was also recommended a It was certainly grown in G are mentioned in one of the

Salads ( .7 ) made from shoots and leaves of chicory (Chicorium intybus D.) was a favourite food on account of its bitterness. The wild endive or chicorium( 8 ) grew in Egypt, together with a smaller cultivated kind, Seris, distinguishable by its size and by the great vascularity of its leaves. Chicory had the most wonderful therapeutic magical properties, so much so that it was called mehrestion, and cc pancration n by its admirers.
(1) PLINY, XIX, 32. (2) BOSTOGR and TILLEY in PLINY. (3) PLINY, XXXVI, 12; XX, 23.
0
(3)

Though cabbages were ea occur on mouments. 62o Ticke the new feasts, and 39o,215 and southern fruit are mentio PLINY, XIX.
(6)

(t)

WONIG, 209. ATHEN/EUS, VI, 16.

(7)

(2) WONIG, 209. WONIG, 221.

(3)

(3) 'STRABO, XVII, III, PLINY, XIX, 39; XX, 99. (4) WONIG, 208.

5.

) Numbers, xi, 5.

- 78

The Alexandrian cabbage was notoriously bitter and attempts .n improve it failed(' ) , because the seed imported from Modes produced good cabbage for one year, and then rapidly degenerated, owing, it was said, to the nature of 2 the soil. So poor was the quality of Egyptian cabbage that,( ) it was despised in that country, a fact which doubtless astonished 'Ionians who were very partial to cabbage sprouts(").

Oil, the most important art very frequently in the record king was a great honour. an gods, to lia(m), to the Nile god

Al)SIE
The flattish (Baiduortes sativils L.) was grown in ancient Egypt and wasp ; greatly valued for its seed which yielded large quantities of oil. IV Ilene\ er possible, radishes rather than any other vegetables were sown, as the profit from such a crop was greater than from corn even, and at very small expense. Herodolus( 5 ) mentions that part of the food of the pyramid builders consisted of radishes. MANGOLD. The mangold (Bela vulgaris) was probably cultivated in Egypt also ( WOnig).
LEEKS.

as the temples consumed a gr poses, it was necessarily part The sacred oils enumerate part in religious ceremonies. I the 7 scented oils are shown c Griffith calls them Set Heb ( Tam, Hato ash (cedar oil?) san (v), the jars containing fiv sealed with clay, the lid being, air-light by a large piece of m r ase, and terminating there i stretched and clings closely to bird, from which the feathers be noted, also close with ani The four most important cnicus oil and castor oil. The &salmon orientate, a plant, n oil therefore was probably i sesamum bush was always ex extracted from the seeds or when in good condition yield Nevertheless, the cultivatio its seed_ is attested. by Theo
( 1) Pap. Harris (BREAsmn, Ancieni

Leeks (.1 Ilium. porunt L.) mentioned by homer as being grown in special gardens, were greatly missed by the Ilehrews on their wanderings. Egyptian leeks had the reputation of being the best("), the second hest coming from Ostia and. Aricia (7 ). BAMI k. tree(s) painted on the walls of Beni Hasa) is said, though without proof. to represent the bamia-tree, and a fruit called /N w is mentioned in the Papyrus Harris.
ATI1EN.EUS, IX, 9. (?) PLINY, XX, 35.
,3
5 '

HERODOTU.S. TI. 12.5. ) PLINY, XIX , 33. :;) See also MARTIAL, \III, 119. WON1G, 019.

IV, no. 986). InEm, op. cit., 110. 099.

(3)

) MARTIAL, Dimier own US.

PLINY, XX, 12 , 13.

"DEM , Op. Cit. , nos. 30,9, 3471.

0

(5) -

) TREAT. op. cit.,1.V. no. 36o.

SO

(callus( 0 , prefect of Egypt in 6),[t B.C., who is reported to have made the great discovery that the Nomads extracted oil from sesame. OLIVE. Olive twigs have been found in very ancient grav es("), and bundles of olive twigs may be seen in many ln usenn1S. , Hineral garlands of olive leaves dating from the XXIfill and XXVII D y nask arc in the Leyden Museum, others from Sheikh Abdel Gurnali from 7 the to :XXVI"' Dynasty may be seen in the Cairo 'vlusenna. kiaspero found

fruit -el. Had proper precautions ing to the carelessness of th The olives near Alexandria wer the trees acted EIS supports for The olive tree (01(ea Europt stadia inland, where its plantat statement very difficult to und the Libyan desert are meant, b does not agree with that given now grows luxuriantly in these my visit The olives of !he Fa day, and some of the huge ()Ike Greek or Boman limes. Neverth to be a land poor in oil, and t use for oil making. Olive oil was not as important who looked upon it as the ver custom of presenting successf tian Greeks("), and vases to hol been discovered in Alexandria these gases Athena, armed wit t wo co l umns, on th e top o r w hi 4thena, etc.; iti the field one r tically : T52N AOENEOEN AOAC2N Often, a second inscription give power, and on the other side stadium. One vase can thus be Criecus or Cnicus oil. mono probably made front the seeds o

an olive crow n on a Greek mummy at Thebes. Ramses "III ( 3 ) boasted of his great olive lands planted with great trees in all their many parts, wherein was oil more than the sand on the shored. And again('') : I made for thee olive lands in the City of Heliopolis, equipped them with gardeners and n ti morous people, to make pure oil. and the , best in Egypt, in order to light, the flame iii thy august house . The paswas sage suggests that olive oil was occasionally"sel for lighting temples. olive oil was part presented as a gift to IlaN or other gods(''). hider Soli of the rations of Ling 's messengers and standard bearers. and it was imported from Greece also. Plato, for instance, is opposed to have earned his living in the Nile Valley by selling olive oil. In spite of a heavy lax, it was also brought from Syria during the Alexandrian periodN, but, nevertheless it does not appear to have been in great request for cooking or lighting daring the Ptolemaic period, since the state did not monopolise its sale, as it did with other oils. The olive-tree never was popular in Egypt though it is represented on the walls of Tell el AntarnaM. In the first century, the Arsinoite was, it is said, the only nome planted with large, full-grown, olive trees. bearing line
H Pop. Harris ( BREASTED, Ancient Records,
lk, nos. 239, 241., 379, 393, etc.).
(7)

(') PLINY, VI, 33.

0

) WONIG, 33o.

XIXL Dynasty (IIREAsTED, op. cit., Ill, no. 208). GRE,NFE1,1. , ltcc arnie LIM'S pl. 150. ") \VONto, 327.

Ci) STEAM , XVII, I, 35.

THEOPM1AST, V6N1C. ,
(') Sec 71

Dynasty (BREASTED, (') Pap. Harris Ancient Records, 1V , no. 2i ( ). (") Ior.m, op. cit., no. tdi3. (') BREASTED Ancient Records, 1V, no. 288.

also 11..1. L. BEADAELL, .1a Eg

Mitnoires de l'Institut

t. 1.

82
Inns tineloritts . Howers of this plant arranged in small bundles had been
, Inlaid 011 the ninininy of Antenhotep 1 of the \\ 111'' D\ nasty, but the fl ower

The oil was extensivek used by an

ea a statue at

is not represented on 11101111ateas. kern

Castor oil) to light the

vi:d10\1 colon:' of the 11111111 my linen and mummy handages'J was usually due le the saiflon dye. has nt,nb) Ihat n ecte . o il was almost certain -I\ exThe suggestion'''' been
.
c

tracted from the seeds of some composii, possihly from a sunflower seed. There are no facts lo soppoll lids theory'. On the contrary, the E g H diari:"6 criecus, the seeds of widch have the ()team rni--

1 )it,lit

poss,ibl\ an artichoke, Or

This strong smelling oil may laooresl inhabitants, a prac ti ce Colocynth oil, mentioned in hly made from the Citittlitts rolo of the Sahara, who extract a coa 3 per cent of iked oil, II Inkt, O for anointing the holy -only both men and women-, Linseed Oil and Oil of pump Ptolemaic rid i ns.. ). Little i s kno seed oil. except that it nas e\id "'ere C're" 1 ( 1""" 1 4 's .([brit/ L.) 01' else from 0 com much used (luring the Boman p -a ol , e:,,.,c iat: i,p41 .1. ii iciiii,, \, \\ , tl isse,_h i \ri. ();t ( )i ll ni( tm:\ .) , 1 1)s

00M yptill 1111M, e \ISted in !IVO VarierICS, 111 and domesticated, and of the former there were. again, two sorts, and it IS distinctly slated that the )])"alas Hard and this \\ Ord omens was a thorny plant,
accurately- de; , rrihes the soirron Han! of Hy

third. oil. Eyiki. usually called croton oil, \\ as really castor oil. The inhabitants of the marsliy(:) 0eTounds, says Ilerodolus, made use ()I' on oil termed id e ol \ 1 as l i n , by th e m kaki, eN p ress ed f rom ;be riciots C01100 II HI'S of ( pros, where it N as c a ll e d prim). It grew 00 the hanks of the iNile or of canals, and kwcptswas produced aloindant strong-smelling fruit from which an unctuous b ell was as good as olive oil expressed, NIII1C11110LIV1[11starekng for burning. The plant called
SI, S(01001d sift/Post:1W

and crolOn

e\ rac e

l d

w it

h Th ere \\ k fl own.
Slrabo
ere

salt under pressure, yielded an Oil useful en o u g h

I

h o t dp ea db i l a s roo d
7000es"

als o !Hato' diff

n is lossiblo,

by no means pro;

used as

S14111 n 111) koilias.1

or hemmer of colic. contained castor oil. which

may have removed the cause of the colic Ity In.H%]) ariNi aC11011 ;Aid may Ems themselves with castor have been of SOIlle (ISO. i'OO!' people () guides in the Eastern desert did every 111011[11 \Yell ',reser\ ed seeds or the castor-oil plant hove b een f oun d i n several oil just Os Illy Bisliari and graves.
I I ERODOTES , 11 , X1\\

Sofe 't oil. mentioned in the V' special uses as revealed in the fo coun t, Z an , l wyon d ihr splend hi s w ho .w as 111 this 5 4 111111. Wili Ford, the king of Lpper and Lo
ever. that there he taken a coffi ldis AlatestY caused that I he owsl fin of wood
,

festive perfume,
(') H;;P: .1 ON, Cwiiiheaktiie.s', td. 384.
STRAW, X \

WONIG 351. 35-A. N1Amarc in B. P. GPENFELL Bev, , hue :Gaffs ,

p. (') PLINY, XXI. 53, 56.

R. .4. ;(n(l Dloo., 38 STir,I;0_ 17. 8,A 'I.

STRAD()

NVIEDiolAAN, 137. \\. 7

--

and of fine southern linen of (___) taken from the double w1140 house of the court of this Zan, etc.:, Evidently, this oil was used for anointing the dead or embalming. It is mentioned under Ramses III as a gift to the gods('), and was also imported from Syria (''). Another oil used for embalming, the so-called Festival oil, is mentioned in inscriptions of Sebni(") dating from the same reign. The inscription describing the embalmment or a man called Nleklin, states : cc He brought. Festive
, oil from the double While House: .

from lietenu w, the Naharin tribes. The Ptolemies monopoli foreign oil at first and taxed i to introduce foreign oil into sium or any other place. Offe the oil, and in addition pay
Or none in proportion. If an

private use, those who enter t selves at Alexandria, and pay portion and shall bring a rece Elaborate precautions were ta paid the import duties. Egyptian oil vas taxed hea the state, elaborate precauti The area of land to be plan province, was decreed befor forwarded to Alexandria by varied according to the care to for instance, the plaid had b The royal factory was pra allowed to make oil under ve in the temples throughout the agent of the 0:T0110m -us and i -

A special sweet oil, also imported from Syria(''), was part of the rations of D ynas t y. king's messenirers and standard bearers(') under Seti I in the xi 0 sweet oil of gums: , was possibly a more expensive oil. as only small quantities of it were given away, and only as a special favour. Itionses I \ H wishing to reward his favourite`-) decides that : Command has been given to the overseers of the White House, the butler of Pharaoh and all the Princes, to give to thee praise, to anoint thee with sweet oil of gums, etc.7. Breen oil H, a special oil also, was imported from Syria in large quantities. Other oils occasionally mentioned are red bhp oil(''( and nliff'"), oil from Syria, nblf oil from Egypt
,

and also lIaj( oil ("). oil ,,, but

Several qualities of oil existed, for in the Sallie paragraph, not

( hest oil:-., also are offered to a god '-').

Before the Ptolemaic period, oil was freely imported into Egypt by commerce or as a tribute. It is mentioned as a tribute from Punt on the walls of the toinh of Ileklimara('"), and several times as a tribute from abroad("').. Syria, the land of the olive tree and the sesame bush, was the great oil country, and it is no wonder therefore that oil figures prominently in die tribute
(
1

temple, and the number of m i mposed in case of non-comp private people of oil made in

:'') IDrni

01

Only sesame oil was made during a period of two mont

completed. The lad oil for th

contractors,
BREASTED.,

Ancieat 11e OPYIS

'Illulmoses III, (.!) Dynasty. 67/. cit., II, no. 1189_

up. cit., IV, o04. 9.39, 376. ) VII' Dynasty (IIREAsTED. Ancient Records, I, no. 366). 3911 . ) 111E11. Op. cit Dynasly (IIBEAsTED, Ancient Re') cords, II, no. 750). 01 ) Ste/a of loaf the Herald (11rd.AsTED , Ancient Records. II, no. 771). op. cit., it, no. 509. ri
,

ii,

Pap. Harris (IIREAsTED , Ancient Records,. (1). loc..d, op. cit. ; II, no. 518. (.') {DEN, op. cit.. I no. 370. , op. cit., 11, no. IDvm, op. cit., Ill , no. Recur& of lie Royal Tombs Robberies. ( 7, IlLEAsn.n Ancient Records, 1V, no. 497. (': IDLM op. cit., 11. nos. 5(19, 518. , 1100. a 3q 376. Int M , op. cit.,
(9)

,Anv one waking oil mortars or oil presses risked a Heavy fine, and those existing when the law was passed liad to be registered. Tie contractors had the right to search for concealed oil presses, the rights of the public 'icing. doly safeguarded, in case no press of oil was loontl. Certain government officials were hound to attend during the search, but if after duo notice given. they failed to appear, or to stay during the search, they were heavily fined. Any one pressing oil or begging it except from a contractor was heavily lined, .Jr incarcerated in case of non-payment. of the line.
Pr. E FATOR \ \ IMA LS. SI W) . CaZOIICS

[1:Te

13Jilbs Goose Duck Pigeon Ouli!

Crangy'
Pheasant Bashrd Dove. :Visa SinaLs

CEREALS AND BREAD. Bl'eft( BalleAr \ \rhea!

l'n[. ITS
Figs

Dates D
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......................................................

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88 . 6!i ........ . . . . ...... . . l'oinegranale; . . . ..... ..... .... ...... 6 ................ , . . . . . . . ..... . . , . . Bahniles .......... 65 Jujube 65 Carob . 66 . . Apricot ,. . .... ............. ....... ......... ..... ik. ............ . ............. . 67 67 7'' EGETABLEs ................ Papyrus Lotus Colocasia. Beans .. , .

7
73 76 76

1,entils

. . .

. .

. . .

77 77 77 78 78 78 78 So

Onions C, art iv, and leek Salad;. ArCeliokes . ksporagus Cabages . . ............................... ...... Radish. Mangold_ I ceks 13antil Oil Olive.

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