CroatianStudiesNotes

Generalfacts
TheterritoryofCroatiaincludes56,414km2oflandand33,268km2ofsea,makingup89,810 km2. Consideringonlylandarea,Croatiais: a)the126thcountrybysizeamong197countriesoftheworld b)the26thcountrybysizeamong48Europeanstates(or43countries,ifweexclude Europeanmicrostateswithterritorieslessthan1000km2). ThusCroatiacanbeplacedinthelowermiddlesizerange,bothamongcountriesofthe worldandamongEuropeancountries. AnexceptionalfeatureofCroatia,whichdistinguishesitmarkedlyfromothercountriesof moreorlesssimilarsize,isitslargeproportionofterritorialsea,andrelativelyverylong coastline. Bythelengthofitscoastline,Croatiaisranked22th(or21st)amongallcountriesoftheworld, and7thinEurope.
2

RANKINGSOFTHELANDAREASOFEUROPEANCOUNTRIES(km ) 1 EuropeanRussia* 2 Ukraine 3 France 4 Spain 5 Sweden 6 Germany 7 Finland 8 Norway 9 Poland 10 Italy 11 UnitedKingdom 12 Romania 13 Belarus 14 Greece 15 Bulgaria 16 Iceland 3,960,000 603,500 545.630 505,992 450,295 357,022 338,145 389,224 312,685 301,318 243,672 238,391 208,000 131,957 110,879 103,000
2

17 Hungary 18 Portugal 19 Serbia 20 Austria 21 CzechRepublic 22 Ireland 23 Georgia 24 Lithuania 25Latvia 26CROATIA 27BosniaandHerzegovina 28Slovakia 29Estonia 30Denmark 31Netherlands 32Switzerland
2

93,028 92,090 88,361 83,871 78,867 70,273 69,700 65,300 64,589 56,594 51,197 49,035 45,228 44,487 41,543 41,284

33Moldova 34Belgium 35Armenia 36Albania 37Macedonia 38TurkeyinEurope* 39Slovenia 40Montenegro 41Cyprus 42Luxembourg 43Andorra 44Malta 45Liechtenstein 46SanMarino 47Monaco 48VaticanCity

33,851 30,528 29,743 28,748 25,713 23,764 20,273 13,812 9,251 2,586 468 316 160 61 1.95 0.44

TotalsizeforRussiais16,996,800km andforTurkey770,760km ;theEuropeanpartofKazakhstan,constitutedforthemost 2 partbytheWestKazakhstanregion(151,300km )hasbeenommitted.

LENGTHOFTHECOASTLINESOFEUROPEANCOUNTRIES(km) 1 Norway 2 Greece 3 UnitedKingdom* 4 EuropeanRussia** 5 Italy 6 Denmark* 7 CROATIA 8 Iceland 9 Spain 10 Estonia 11 EuropeanTurkey** 12 France 13 Sweden 14 Ukraine 15 Germany 16 Portugal 28,735 13,676 13,001 9,000 7,600 8,431 5,835 4,988 4,964 3,794 3732 3,427 3,218 2,782 2,389 1,793 17 Ireland 18 Finland 19 Cyprus 20 Latvia 21 Poland 22 Netherlands 23 Albania 24 Bulgaria 25 Georgia 26 Romania 27 Montenegro 28 Malta 29 Lithuania 30 Belgium 31 Slovenia 32 BiH 1,448 1,250 648 531 491 451 362 354 310 225 199 197 99 66 47 20

*IncludesEuropeanselfgoverningterritories **Approximation

InordertoappreciatetherelevanceofCroatiaslongcoastline,wecannotethatCroatias landmassisabouttentimes(9,7)smallerthanthatofFrance,butitscoastisalmosttwiceas long(1,7)astheFrenchcoast. CroatiaalsohasalongercoastlinethanSpain(1,2times),andisaboutnine(8,9)times smallerthanthatcountry.Italyhasalongercoastline(1,3),buthasalandmassaboutfive (5,2)timesthatofCroatia. SimilarhighlyindentedseacoastsarepresentalsointhecasesofNorwayandGreece.

LANDSCAPEFEATURES Islands Croatiahasbeendescribedasacountryofathousandislands.Allinall,ithas1185islands, islets,seastacksandreefs(outofatotalof1233intheAdriaticsea);718constituteislands, butonly66areatpresentinhabited. ThelargestislandsareCresandKrk,practicallyequalinsize(405,78km2),andBra(394,57 km2),allthreeofwhicharelargerthantheRepublicofMalta(316km2). OtherlargeislandsincludeHvar(299,66km2),Pag(284,56km2),Korula276,03km2),Mljet (100,41km2),Vis(90,84km2),Rab(90,26km2)andLastovo(41km2). 2

ThefarthestoutlyingpointofCroatiaisthesmalluninhabitedisletGalijula(4222'49"N 1620'23"E),locatedabout3NauticalmilesfromthePalagruagroupinthemiddleofthe Adriatic. ThesmallislandsinthemiddleoftheAdriatic,suchasPalagrua,Galijulaandthevolcanic islandJabuka,aresignificantinthattheygreatlyincreasethesizeofCroatiasterritorial waters. Whilethelargeislandsoftenrepresentparticularentities,eachwithitsownpersonality, smallislands,especiallyiftheyarelocatedfarfromthecoast,havebeensufferingfrom progressivedepopulation. Smallislandslocatedclosetothecoasthavemanagedtopreservepermanentsettlements, dependingonhowwellcommunicationlinesfunctionandonotheravailableresources. Othersmallislandsserveasseasonalpastureareas,andsomehavebecomeattractiveto nauticaltourists(Robinsontourism). ThepredominantlyuninhabitedislandsoftheKornatiarchipelagohavebeenorganisedinto theKornatiNationalParkandregularlyreceivetoursfromZadar,ibenik,Murterandother placesonthecentralmainlandcoast. WhereastheKornatiislandshavegenerallyverysparsevegetation,typicallyonly Mediterreanmacchia,Mljetislandinthesouthischaracterisedbyexceptionalgreenery. MljetNationalParkislocatedonthisisland. TheBrioniislandsinthenorth,alsohavebecomeanationalpark.Theseislandsshowa remarkablecontinuityofhumanfocusfromRomantimesuntilthepresent,andtheyare mostknownasthepersonalresortofMarshalTito. Another"case"datingfromtheformerYugoslavperiodisGoliOtok(literally"NakedIsland), whichservedasanotoriousprisoncampinthecommunistperiod;itsworstperiodwas duringtheInformbirocrisisafterthebreakbetweenTitoandStalinin1948. AlargepartofCroatiaismountainous.ThisappliesfirstofalltotheDinaricchain, sometimesreferredtoastheDinaricAlps. TheDinaricregionextendsalongtheAdriatichinterland,andincludesalsoalargepartofthe territoryofneighbouringcountries,Montenegro,BosniaHerzegovinaandsouthwest Slovenia,whereitblendsintotheJulianAlps. CarstisthebasiccomponentoftheDinaricregion,whichrepresentsthelargestareaof continuouscarstinEurope.Itismadeupofdynamicandporouslimestone.Caves,pitsand undergroundriversarefrequent.Dependingonlocalconditions,thelandscapemayberugid andcraggy,orcoveredbyalayerofsoil,producingforestvegetation. TheDinaricchainisnamedaftertheDinaramountain,locatedontheborderbetween CroatiaandBosniaHercegovina.DinarapeakmarksthehighestpointinCroatia(1831m); othermajormountainsinclude:Kamenica(1810m),Biokovo(Sv.Jure1762m),Velebit (Vaganskivrh,1758m),Pljeivica(Ozeblin1657m),VelikaKapela(Bjelolasica,1533m), Risnjak(1528m),Svilaja(1508m)andSnjenik(1506m) VelebithasaparticularplaceinCroatianidentity,probablyduetoitssplendidrise,practically fromtheverycoast,andlikewisebecauseitbringstogetherContinentalandMediterranean 3

Mountains

Croatia.ItisseenastheabodeoflegendsandtheNymphofVelebit(vilavelebitska),who inspiredtheCroatpeople. ClimaticallyVelebitdividestheMediterraneanzoneanditsparticularterrainofmacchiafrom theforestedlandscapenorthofthemountain.ThistransformationisevidentinPaklenica NationalPark,locatedinthesouthernpartoftheVelebitchange. VelebitalsoincludesNorthVelebitNationalPark,amosaicforestedandrockyparttherange, withLukasCave(Lukinajama),oneofthedeepestcavesintheworld,reachingadepthof 1392m. FurthernorthfromVelebit,wefindtherangesfirsttheVelikaKapelarangeandthenRisnjak. TheCroatianOlympicCentreislocatedonBjelolasicapeakinVelikaKapela. RisnjakNationalParkincludesthepeaksRisnjak(LynxMountain)andSnjenik(Snow Mountain).Theareaisnotedforitsfloraandfauna.TheriverKupa,whichformspartofthe bordrbetweenCroatiaandSlovenia,islocatedinRisnjak. OutsideoftheDinaricarea,moutainousareascanbefoundalsoinNorthWestCroatia,and inasmallerpartofEastCroatia. IntheNorthWest,themostnotedexamplesareumberak(Sv.Gera,1178m),Ivanica (1061m)andMedvednica(Slijeme1061m),andintheEastPsunj(984m),Papuk(953m) andKrndija(790m).BetweentheNorthWestandEast,therearelowerhillareassuchas Kalnik(643m)andBilogora(309m),andintheextremeEastasmallpartofFrukaGora (FrankishMountain)entersintoCroatia,aroundthetownofIlok. umberakisanareaofsoilcoveredcarst,ontheborderwithSlovenia(inSloveniathe mountainrangeiscalledGorjanci).Itwasextensivelysettledinthe16thcentury(duringthe Turkishwars),butinrecenttimeshassufferedfromseveredepopulation.Thehighestpeak, Sv.Gera,wasoccupiedbytheSlovenearmyin1991,whenittookoveraformerYugoslav militaryinstallationonthissummit. IvanicaisthemajormoutainofCroatianZagorje,ahillyregionintheNorthWest,whereas theMedvednica(BearMountain),locatedimmediatelybehindZagreb,isalsoknownas ZagrebMountain.IthasamicroclimaticeffectonZagreb,sinceitapparentlyprotectsthe cityfromcoldwindsfromthenorth. SeveralriversrunningthroughCroatiaoriginateintheDinariccarst.Inthesouth,the Neretva,Cetina,KrkaandZrmanjaflowfromthecarsthinterlandintotheAdriatric. TheNeretvaisthecentralriverofHerzegovina,butitsdeltaislocatedinCroatia.Theland aroundthedeltaisextensivelycultivated.Herewefindlargeplantationsofcitrusfruits, mainlymandarinsandoranges. TheKrka,initslowercourse,formsanimpressivecomplexwithmanywaterfallsandlakes thattransformintoabroadestuarythatconnectswiththeAdriaticnearthetownofibenik. ThiscomplexmakesuptheKrkaNationalPark. TheZrmanjacutsadeepcanyonthroughthecarst.Todayitsuppercourseservesasanideal locationforsportssuchasrafting. Furthernorth,twosmallsubmergingstreams,theLikaandGackahavegiventheirnamesto thebroaderregionssurroundingthem 4

Rivers

InthenorthDinaricare,wefindtheRjeina,lit.BigRiver,whichenterstheAdriatricin Rijeka,acitywhichtookitsnameafterthisriver(theCroatianRijekaandItalian Fiumearedirecttranslations). ThetwolargestCroatianriversoriginatingintheDinariccarst,theKupaandUna,flow northwardsintotheSavaandhencearepartoftheBlackSeawatershed.Bothserveinpart asborderriverstheKupadesiginatesaportionoftheborderwithSlovenia,andtheUna(in twosections)markstheborderwithBosniaandHerzegovina. ThesourceoftheUnaislocatedinWesternBosnia,inaregionthatoncebelongedtothe Croatianstate.PriortotheTurkishexpansioninthe16thcentury,oneofthemostimportant landroutesfromNorthCroatiatotheAdriaticfollowedthecourseoftheUna.Thisriveris 212kmlongandtodayCroatiashares120kmofitscourse. TheKupaoriginatesintheRisnjakmountainandflowsintotheSavaatSisak.Itis296kmlong, andistheonlymajorriverthatistotallyincludedinCroatia.Itsmostimportanttributaries aretheKorana(linkedwiththeMrenica),theDobraandGlina,whichalloriginateinthe Dinariccarst,andfinallytheOdra,whichreceivestheinflowofseveralsubmergedsteams fromtheumberakmountainarea. Inasectionofitsuppercourse,theKoranadividesinto16smalllakes,linkedbywaterfalls. ThesearethePlitvice,orPlitvicalakes.PlitviceNationalParkisamajortouristattractionin Croatia. Thenorthern(nonDinaric)partofCroatiaisdominatedbytwolongEuropeanrivers,the SavaandDrava,whichbothflowintotheDanube,andbytheDanubeitself.Anotherdirect tributaryoftheDanubeistheVuka,afterwhichVukovarwasnamed. CroatiasharesonlyarelativelysmallpartoftheDanube188kmofatotalof2,857,but connectionwiththeDanubeisveryimportantfortransportationandotherpurposes. TheSavaisCroatiaslongestriver.ItoriginatesinSloveniaandflowsintotheDanubeat Belgrade;562ofits945kmrunthroughCroatia(oraresharedbetweenCroatiaandBosnia andHerzegovina,markingCroatiasborderwiththatcountry.TheSavastributaries(in Croatia)aretheSutla,Krapina,Kupa,Lonja,OrljavaandBosut. ThesecondlongestCroatianriveristheDrava,whichflowsfromtheEasternAlpstothe DanubeeastofOsijek.Itis707kmlong,with505kmofthislengthinCroatia,orshared betweenCroatiaandHungary.TheDravagenerallymarkstheborderbetweenCroatiaand Hungary,butinMeimurje,PrekodravljeandBaranjaCroatianterritorycrossestothenorth oftheriver.TheDravastributariesaretheBednja,MuraandKaraica. TheMuraisarelativelylongriver,438kminlength,butonly53kmaresharedbyCroatia. TheMuraflowsintotheDravanearthetownofLegrad.Thetriangularregionlocated betweentheMuraandDrava,knownasMeimurje,orinLatintextsastheIslandbetween theMuraandDrava(InsulaintraDravametMuram)hadaspecifichistoricalrelationship withCroatiaandHungary. Croatiaisnotacountryoflargenaturallakes.ThelargestnaturallakeisVranskojezero (VranaLake,30,7km2)nearBiogradonthecoast,followedbylakesintheKrkaNationalPark (ProkljanandVisovac,11km2and3,5km2respectively),andbyanotherlakecalledVransko jezeroontheislandofCres(6km2). 5

Lakes

SpecificcarstlakesarethePlitvicegroup,andtheRedandBlueLakesnearImotski.TheRed Lakewasformedbythecollapseofcavern,anditsdepthhasbeenmeasuredto281metres, makingitoneofthedeepestlakesinEurope.TheBlueLake,incontrast,isshallow,anddries sometimesduringthesummer.Insuchcasesthelakebedserveslocalsasanaturalfootball field. Amongartificiallakes,thelargestisPerua(11km2),ahydropowerreservoirconstructedin 1958alongtheCetinariver,nearthetownofSinj,whereasoneofthemostbeautiful examplesisLakeLokva(Lokvarskojezero,2,1km2),builtin1954onthesouthernedgeof Risnjak. Aspecificexampleofanartificiallake,formedforfishing,pleasureandaestheticpurposesis TrakoanLake,underTrakoancastle,whichwascreatedinthe19thcentury. Numerousfishponds,servingeconomicpurposes,werecontructedinthe19thand20th centuriesinvariouspartsofNorthCroatia. InNorthCroatiatherearealsotwosignificantmarshareas,protectedasecologicalhabitats. TheLonjaFieldNatureParkextendsaroundtheinflowoftheLonjaintotheSava,and KopakiRitNatureParkislocatedaroundthejunctionoftheSavaintotheDanube.Both theseparksarerichinspecificfloraandfauna,andrepresentimportantbirdnestinggrounds. FromancienttimeshumansettlementintheDinariccarstareawastypicallyconcentratedin aseriesofcarstvalley,knownasfields.TheCroatianwordpolje,field,hasbecomean internationalgeologicaltermtodescribetheseformationsinthelandscape,whichwere createdbytectonicdepressionprocesses. ThemajorcarstfieldsinCroatia,fromnorthtosouthare:Drenikopolje(<Drenik), Plaansko(<Plaki),Ogulinsko,Gacko,LikoandKrbavskopoljeintheNorthDinaricarea, andKosovskopolje(aroundKnin),Sinjsko,ImotskoandVrgorskopoljeintheSouthDinaric area. SimilarcarstfieldsarelocatedalsoinneighbouringBosniaandHerzegovina.Mostnotedare the"ThreeFields",Tropolje,aroundGlamo,LivnoandDuvno(Tomislavgrad),whichhad importantfunctionsinCroatianhistory. AsopposedtothissystemoffieldsintheDinariccarst,asignificantpartofNorthandEast Croatia,especiallyalongthemajorrivers,ischaracterisedbylowlandsandplains.These areasareesentiallyapartofthegreatPannonianPlain.

CarstFields,LowlandsandPlains

POPULATION Sizeanddensity Accordingtothe2001census,thepopulationofCroatiawas4,437,460,anditisthus: a) the119thcountrybypopulationamong197countriesoftheworld b) the29thcountrybypopulationamong48Europeanstates. ThisdataindicatesthatCroatiasrankinginpopulationsizenearlymatchesitsrankinginland area,althoughithasaslightlyhigherpositioninthisaspectamongallworldcountries(119vs. 126)andaslightlylowerpositionincomparisontootherEuropeancountries(29vs.26). ThelaterisreflectedbythefactthatCroatiapopulationdensityisrelativelylowinEuropean terms:78.4inhabitantsperkm2.Croatiaranks34thinpopulationdensityamong48European 6

countries(lowerdensitiesarepresentonlyinIreland,insomeEastEuropeancountriesandin theBalticandScandinavianstates,excludingDenmark). YetCroatiaspopulationdensityshowslargeregionaldifferences.Themostpopulatedareas haveadensityof115inhabitantsperkm2,whilealargepartoftheDinaricareahasadensity ofonly13inhabitantsperkm2.

SIZERANKINGSOFTHEPOPULATIONSOFEUROPEANCOUNTRIES 1 EuropeanRussia 2 Germany 3 France 4 UnitedKingdom 5 Italy 6 Ukraine 7 Spain 8 Poland 9 Romania 10 Netherlands 11 Greece 12 Belgium 13 Portugal 14 CzechRepublic 15 Hungary 16 Serbia 110.6300.00 82.062.200 65.073.482 62.107.859 60.090.400 46.143.700 45.828.172 38.130.300 21.496.700 16.822.532 11.262.500 10.741.000 10.631.800 10.474.600 10.029.900 9.850.000 17 EuropeanTurkey 18 Belarus 19 Sweden 20 Austria 21 Switzerland 22 Bulgaria 23 Denmark 24 Slovakia 25 Finland 26 Norway 27 Ireland 28 Croatia 29 Georgia 30 BosniaandHerzegovina 31 Moldova 32 Lithuania 9,799,745 9.671.900 9.276.509 8.356.707 7.725.200 7.602.100 5.515.287 5.413.548 5.337.623 4.825.200 4.517.800 4.432.000 4.382.100 3.767.000 3.572.700 3.350.400 33 Armenia 34 Albania 35 Latvia 36 Slovenia 37 Macedonia 38 Estonia 39 Cyprus 40 Montenegro 41 Luxembourg 42 Malta 43 Iceland 44 Andorra 45 Liechtenstein 46 Monaco 47 SanMarino 48 VaticanCity 3.230.100 3.170.000 2.256.400 2.053.355 2.048.900 1.340.341 793,963 624.000 491.700 412.600 319.326 86.000 35.593 33.000 30.800 800

TotalpopulationRussiais145,166,731(2002)andofTurkey71,517,100(2008);intheRussiancase,about76%ofthetotal populationlivesinEurope(thefiguregivenisanestimate).

EthnicandConfessionalStructure Croatiasethnicstructurehaschangedsignificantlyduringthelastcenturiesanddecades, duetoaseriesaimigrationsandemigrationsthataffectedvariousregions.Thedominant tendencyinthelastcenturyhasbeenasteadyincreaseinCroatethnicidentification throughoutthecountry. TodayCroatsmakeup89.6%ofCroatiaspopulation.Thelargestethnicminorityarethe Serbs(4.5%). Nootherethnicgroupsurpasses0.5%ofthepopulation,howevermakingup0,1,5%ofthe populationareasfollows:Bosniaks(0,47),Italians(0.44),Hungarians(0,37),Albanians(0.34), Slovenes(0,3),Czechs(0,24),Roma(0.21),Montenegrins(0.11),Slovaks(0.11),Macedonians (0.1). Accordingtothelastcensus,CroatiaisdefinitelyaCatholiccountry:87,8%ofthepopulation declareditselfasRomanCatholic(withalsoasmallEasternCatholicgroup).Thesecond 7

largestconfessionwasEasternOrthodoxChristian(4,4%),followedbyMuslim(1,3%). Agnostics,atheistsandothersmadeup6,5%ofthepopulation. Cities Croatiahasatotalof39citiesandtownswithpopulationsof10,000ormore,howeveronly fourcitieshavearrivedatover100.000inhabitants(Zagreb,Split,RijekaandOsijek). Severalothercitiesandtowns,generallywithmorethan20.000inhabitantscanbe consideredlocalcentres(Zadar,SlavonskiBrod,Pula,Karlovac,Varadin,ibenik,Sisak, Vinkovci,etc.),andsomealsohaveanexceptionalculturalimportance(akovo,Dubrovnik). Nevertheless,Croatiaischaracterisedtodaybyastrongpolarisationtowardsonlythelargest cities,whichhasresultedinthedepopulationofmanysmalltowns. Themostclearcaseisthecountryscapital,Zagreb,whichaccordingtothecitysstatistical officehadonly704,900peoplein2006.Yetthisfiguredoesnottakeintoconsiderationthat Zagrebissurroundedbysmallercitiesthathavebecomesatellitetowns(DugoSelo,Velika Gorica,Zaprei,andtoacertaindegreeSamobor),andthatitalsohasalargenon registeredpopulation.Thereforetheestimatesofthetotalpopulationvarybetween 1,000,000and1,200,000. Bythepresentdefinition,thetermDalmatiadesignatestheareabetweentheIslandofPag andtheZrmanjariverinthenorth,andtheextremesouthofCroatia,i.e.thesmallKonavli regionsouthofDubrovnik.ThemostsoutherncontinentalpointisPointOtraonthe entrancetotheBayofKotor. ThenameDalmatiaderivesfromtheIllyriantribeDelmatae,andinRomantimesthisterm wasextendedfartothenorth,practicallycoveringalargepartofpresentdayCroatiaand Bosnia.Later,afterthearrivaloftheCroats,asnoted,theconceptodDalmatiareferredonly tothetownsandsomeislandsofthecoast,thathadbecomepartoftheByzantinethemeof Dalmatia.TheMediaevalCroatkingseventuallyestablishedtheirauthorityoverDalmatia, whichledtoitsfusionwithCroatia. ThemajorcitiesofDalmatiaareSplit,Zadar,ibenikandtodayDubrovnik.Smallerregions areKonavli,southofDubrovnik,RavniKotarandBukovicainlandsbehindZadarandibenik, andthewideareaofthehinterland,knownasZagora,withcontainsanumberofcarstfields. ThisareatodayiscentredonRijeka,butinthepastitsmajorcentrewascoastaltownwas SenjontheAdriatic,andtheregionsofLika,GackaandKorduninthecontinentalarea. SmallerregionsinthisareaaretheKvarnarGulfwithitslargeislands(Krka,Cres,Loinj,Rab), Vinodol(alongthecoastsouthofRijeka),GorskiKotar,Gacka,LikaandKorduninthe hinterland. ThisareaformerlyconstitutedWestSlavonia,centeredonZagreb.Itcametobeassociated withtheconceptofCroatiainthe16thcenturyandeventuallybecametotallyidentifiedwith thisconcept. SubregionsinthisareaincludePrigorjearoundZagreb,ZagorjebehindtheMedvednica Mountain,PokupljealongtheKupa,PodravinaalongtheDrava,PosavinaalongtheSava, 8

1)Dalmatia

2)CroatiaProperMountainCroatia

3)CroatiaProperCentralCroatia.

umberakinthemountainstothesoutheastofZagreb,Turpoljeontheothersideofthe SavafromZagreb(centredonVelikaGorica),MoslavinainthedirectionoftheEastand BanovinabetweentheKupaandUnarivers.GraduallytheregionofMeimurjealsocanto beassociatedwithCentralCroatia. 4)Slavonia ThenameSlavoniaoriginallyreferredtoSlavicspeakinglandslocatedintheintermediate zonebetweenMediaevalCroatiaandHungary.Zagrebwasestablishedinthelate11th centuryasadioceseinMediaevalSlavonia,aftertheformercentre,Sisak,hadlost importance. ThepresentgeographicalnotionofSlavoniawasestablishedasanoutcomeoftheTurkish wars,whenthisareawasoccupiedbytheOttomansandlaterliberatedandresettled (betweenthe16thand18thcenturies). SlavoniatodayreferstotheareabetweentheSavaandDravarivers,fromtheIlovariverin thewest,totheVukaandDanubeintheeast.Intheeast,theareasnorthoftheDravaand betweentheVuka,DanubeandSavearenottechnicallypartofSlavonia,butratherformthe regionsofBaranjaandSirmium.Nevertheless,mostofEasternCroatiaisreferredtotodayas Slavonia. OsijekisthemajorcentreofSlavonija,andotherimportantlocationsincludeSlavonskiBrod, akovo(thecentreofthediocese)andPoega. VinkovciandVukovarareoftenassociatedwithSlavonia,althoughtheycanbeconsidereda partofSirmium

4)Sirmium Sirmium,orinCroatiaSrijem,istheregionbetweentheriversVuka,DanubeandSaveinEast Croatia.Inthe19thcenturyallofSirmiumwaspartofCroatia,howevertodayonlyitswestern portionisinCroatia. ThemaintownsareVukovarandVinkovci. ThisareaispartofthePannonianPlain,andmayalsobedescribedasanendpointofthe GreatEurasianSteppe.Itischaracterisedbyricesoil,andhenceisamajoragriculturalarea. Vukovar,locatedontheDanubeisCroatiasmajorriverport. CroatianBaranjaislocatedinthetrianglebetweentheDravaandDanuberiversinthenorth eastofCroatia. Priorto1918CroatianBaranjawaspartoftheBaranycountyinHungary,andafterthatdate wasincorporatedintothefirstSouthSlavState(i.e.theKingdomofSerbs,Croatsand Slovenes).TheareabecamepartoftheSocialistRepublicofCroatiain1945.Itsethnic structure,inwhichCroatsformedarelativemajority,wasreinforcedbyinternal colonisationsafterWWII. IstriaisarelativelylargepeninsulaintheNorthAdriatic.TodayitisdividedbetweenCroatia, SloveniaandItaly,withmostofitsareainCroatia.Yethistorically,until1945,onlythesouth easternpartofIstria(totheRaariver)waspartofCroatia.Untilthisdatethewesternpart 9

5)Baranja

6)Istria

ofIstriawasforcenturiesincorporatedintotheVenetianRepublic,andtheinternalarea werepartoftheHolyRomanEmpire. Ontheother,CroatsandtheirancestorshadbeensettledinIstriasincethe7thcentury,and IstriapreservedmanyimportantdetailspertainingtoCroatianculture.Croatshadbeen dominantinthevillagesoftheinterior,whereasItalianshadlivedmainlyinthecostaltowns. InonesmallerareaasmallgroupofRomanianspeakingiisettledbetweenthe14thand 16thcenturies.TheirancestorshavepreservedtheirIstroromanianlanguage,buttraditionally identifythemselvesasCroats. Istriaisoftendividedintothreeparts:1)RedIstriacoversthewesternlandswereredsoil predominates,2)GreyIstriaappliestotheinternal,wherethesoilcontainsahighclay component,3)WhiteIstriareferstotheareaaroundtheUkamountain,whererocks abound. DubrovnikistodayconsideredtobeapartofDalmatia,howeverhistoricallythepeopleof theRepublicofRagusa(i.e.theRepublicofDubrovnik)distinguishedthemselvesfrom Dalmatia. ThiswasgreatlyduetoVenetianpressureinDalmatia. Intheearly18thcentury,tocreatabufferzonetowardsVenetianterritoriesinDalmatia, DubrovniksoldapartofitsterritorytotheOttomanEmpire.Thislandtodaymakesupthe coastofBosniaandHerzegovina,whichdividesDubrovniksterritoryfromtherestofCroatia. AlthoughDubrovnikisarelativelysmallcity,ithadanexceptionalculturalimportant.

7)Dubrovnik

OTHERDETAILS CroatiatodayisamiddledevelopedcountrywithapercapitaGNPatpruchasingpower parity,accordingtovariouscalculations,between18,500and15,500USdollars. InrecentyearstheCroatianeconomyhasshiftedfromanemphasisonindustrytoincreased developmentofservices.Economicchangesduringthetransitionfromsocialismalso producedarapidincreaseinunemployment(registeredunemploymentwasashighas24% in2002,andfellto14,5in2007,withanestimatethatrealunemploymentwasabout7,1%in 2007). ShipbuildingandtourismhavebeenthemostimportantsingleeconomicactivitiesinCroatia intherecentpast.Theformeratonepointaccountedfor10%ofCroatiasincomehowever todaythefutureofshipbuildingisprecarious.Ontheotherhand,tourismtypicallyis problematicduetohighsensitivitytoworldtrendsanditsoftenmarginalintegrationintothe restoftheeconomy. AtthispointCroatiaseconomicperspectivestillneedstobedeveloped.

10

II.CroatiabeforetheCroats
LowertoMiddlePalaeolithicsettlement TheterritoryofpresentdayCroatiawasfirstsettledbyearlyhumansintheLower Palaeolithic(inCroatiacca800,000200,000BP). andaljaI(Pula) Punikve(Ivanec) SitesinneighbouringareasVrtesszls,(Hungary),IsernialaPineta(Molise,Italy), Ceprano(Lazio,Italy) Krapina(130,000BP) VelikaPeina(Mousteriansite) Vindija(28.000BP) Veternica(Cavebearcult,possibly150100,0000BP) MujinaPeina(45,000BCE) VeliRat(openMousteriansite)

MiddlePalaeolithicNeanderthals(inCroatia,200,00028.000BP)

Krapina,i.e.Hunjakovohill,istheworldslargestNeanderthalsiteThefossilswerefoundin 1899andexcavatedbyDragutinGorjanoviKramberger(8561936).Todatetheremainsof 34individualshavebeenconfirmed,belongingtoveryyoungpersons(someauthorsmention asmanyas70individualswithanaverageageof13).

UpperPalaeolithicsettlement(+45,000BP) Startingfromabout45,000BP,peopleofthemoderntypegraduallybegantoenterEurope fromtheEastandSouthEast NeanderthalswerestilllivinginCroatiauntil28.000BP(Vina) TheterritoryofCroatiawassettledbybothearlierAurignaciangroupsandlatterbythe Gravettianpopulations TheGravettianadvancewasaboutthetimeoftheLastGlacialMaximum,whensealevels wereabout100meterslowerthantodayandmuchoftheAdriaticwasdryland. AccordingtorecentDNAanalysis,thenorthAdriaticareamayhaveservedasarefugium duringthisperiod;DNAanalysisofthemodernpopulationsinislandssuchasHvarandBra indicateacontinuumfromtheperiodofGravettiansettlement. SealevelsduringtheLastGlacialMaximum(20.000BP)were100meterslowerthenthe present);atthistimetheNorthAdriaticmayhaveservedasarefugeeareafordescendents ofearlierGravettianpopulations

Mesolithic,NeolithicandAeneolithiccultures ThelastIceAgeendedandRecentClimaticperiod(Holocene)began;however,afterthe initialwarmingaverycoldperiodfollowed(theYoungerDriyas,13,00011,500BP),before thefinalclimaticchange.

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TheMesolithicculturalperiodwasessentiallyacontinuationofthePalaeolithic,innew climaticandecologicalconditions,withsomeinterestingadaptations.Themostimportant exampleinthegeneralregionofCroatiawastheLepenskiVirculture(70005300BC)inthe erdap(IronGate)areaofSerbia.InCroatiaitselftheMesolithicdidnotleavesignificant traces;neverthelessitmaybeassumedthatthedevelopmentfurtherdowntheDanubedid haveaneffectonthesparsepopulation. IntheNearEast,byabout10,000BPexperimentswiththeproductionoffoodbegan(=the entryintotheNeolithic).

ExpansionofNeolithicCulturesTheBlackSeaFlood TheStarevoKrs/Criculture(7th6thcenturyBC),namedafterasite15kmeastof BelgradeandtheKrs/CririverinHungaryandRomania,markedthebeginningofthe NeolithicinMiddleDanubianlandsandinCroatia.ItmayhavespreadfromAnatoliaorthe AegeanalongtheVardarMoravagaptotheDanubeandfurther.Itwassupersededbythe Vinaculture(6th3thmillenniumBC),alsonamedafteralocalityinNorthSerbia.A significantnaturaleventmayhaveaffectedtheseevents(accordingtoWilliamRyanand WalterPitman). TheleveloftheBlackwasbythistime68123mundertheleveloftheMediterranean; NeolithiccommunitiesweregatheredaroundtheBlackSeaasassourceoffreshwater; about7,500yearsago,adisasterseemedtohaveoccurred(between5600and5500BC);the MediterraneanbrokethroughtheBosporusvastfloodingfollowedaswellthepossible diffusionofancientcultures:VinainSerbia(Croatia,Bulgaria,RomaniaandMacedonia),the DaniloculturealongthecoastinCroatia,LBKinthewiderDanubianandCentralEuropean area,theHalafcultureintheNearEast.Thefloodmayalsohaveaffectedtheexpansionof languagegroups.

OldEurope AccordingtoLithuanianAmericanarchaeologistMarijaGimbutas(19211991),theVina cultureandothersuchassociatedculturesenteredintotheconceptofOldEurope GimbutasfeltthattheseculturesrepresentedthepreIndoEuropeansubstratumofEurope, andthattheywerefemalecentred(matristic),asopposedtotheandrocentricnatureof IndoEuropeancultures ThisschemeissomewhatproblematicyetthereareindicationsthatOld EuropeanculturesdifferedfromIndoEuropeanonesinideologyandgeneralorientation

VuedolTheEndofOldEurope TheVuedolcultureisdatedbetween3000and2200BC,andmarksacrucialturningpointin theprehistoryofEurope OriginallythetermSlavonianculturewasused,andthekeysitewaslocatedinCroatia TheVuedolcultureshowsamovetowardsmetallurgy;metalproductionincludedbothtools and,specifically,weapons Theasymmetriceffectofmetalindicatedsocialstratification,andprobablythe establishmentofchiefdoms

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Linguistically(orethnolinguistically)thepopulationoftheVuedolculturewereprobablya combinationoftheOldEuropeansubstratumandnewgroupscomingfromtheEast probablyearlyIndoeuropeans;theexactIndoeuropeansubgroupisdifficulttoestablish: possiblepreAntolian,Thracian,ProtoGreekorProtoIllyrian,etc. Asignificantdetailistheintroductionofacalendar,basedontheconstellationOrion

BronzeandIronAge TheBronzeAgewasaperiodofincreasingsocialstratification,andofagradualprogression towardstheProtoHistoricalperiod;inCroatiaduringthisperiodthemajorexpansionwas thatofthecentralEuropeanUrnfieldculture,whichsomeearlyanalystslinkedtothe migrationoftheIllyrianpeoples,whomayhavebeenthefactorbehindtheDorian invasionsthatendedMycenaeanGreece,andinitiatedtheGreekDarkAge DuringtheIronAgeinCroatiatheIllyrianandPannonianpopulationhadalreadysettledand newelementsarrived,firstfromtheareaoftheHallstattculture(whichmayalsohavebeen IllyrianinitsEasternarea),andlaterduetoCelticmigrations ThelateIronAge,fromthe4thcenturyonwards,correspondstotheperiodofGreek colonisation,followedultimatelybyRomanexpansion.

IronAgePopulations AlthoughtheGreeksandlaterRomanshadatendencytogeneralizeandlabelallindigenous peoplesoftheEastAdriaticareaasIllyrians,orinthenorthasPannonians(Pannoni),ethnic relationsweremorecomplex. TheIllyriansandPannoniansmayhavebeenrelated,butitseemsthattheLiburnians(inthe northAdriatic),theHistri(inIstria)andtheJapodes(betweentheKupaandUna)were distinct.AtleastthefirsttwomayhavebeenrelatedtotheVenetifurthertotheNorthwest. TheLiburniansonetimedominatedalloftheeastAdriaticfromtheRaariverinIstria(lat. Arsa)toCorfu.AsinthecaseoftheIllyrians,theywerenotedatfirstfortheirpiracy.Their firstmajorsettlementwasScardona(Skadrin)ontheKrka,butbetween800and300BCthey wouldestablishnumberouswalledtowns,amongthemCurycta(Krk),Arba(Rab),Gissa (Novalja),Apsorus(Osor),Aenone(Nin),Asseria(Podgrae)andIadera(Zadar). Fromthe4th3rdcenturiestheGreeksandlaterIllyrianswouldpushtheLiburniansoutof theSouthAdriatic,buttheywouldstillbeknownfortheirfastandefficientwarships,that theRomanswouldadoptunderthenameliburnae. AsfortheJapodes,theGreekgeographerStrabodescribedthemasamixtureofCeltsand Illyrians,butthismayrefermoretotheirculturethantoethnicaffiliationorlanguage.The JapodesbasicallyinhabitedtheareasofpresentLikaandGacka. AlongwiththeLiburnians,itseemsthattheJapodes,ormorepreciselytheRomanised descendantsofboththesegroups,formedthemainindigenousgroupwhichultimately mixedwiththearrivingCroatsintheearlyMiddleAges. Inthenorth,theCeltshadanotableinfluence.TheCeltsthatsettledontheterritoryof presentdayCroatiacamefromthreemaingroups:theTaurisci,theBoiiandtheScordisci. TheCeltswereresponsibleforestablishingtwomajorstrongholdsinthisgeneralarea: SegesticainCroatia(Sisak),andSingidunuminSerbia(Belgrade).

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GreekColonies Greeklegendsandmythsclaimthatin735BCCorinthiansfromCorfudefeatedthe LiburniansontheAdriaticcoast(ofpresentdayCroatia) Inthe4thcenturyBC,theGreektyrantofSyracuse,DionysiustheElderinitiatedthe colonisationofIssa,establishedin387BC,andlaterwiththeaidofcolonistsfromtheisland ofParos,thecolonyofPharos(StarigradonHvar)wasfoundedin385BC;afterthecollapse ofthestateofSyracuse,thesecoloniesbecameindependentcitystates,andbegantheirown colonisation:Issa(withthehelpofDorians)establishedCorcyraNigraonKorula,andonthe mainlandTragurion(laterTrogir),SalonaandEpetion(Stobre) WiththeriseoftheIllyrianstate(establishedbykingAgron,250231BC),allGreekcolonies (by230BC),exceptIssaandsomeofitsfoundations,eventuallyacceptedIllyrianrule GreekcolonistshadaroleintheconflictsbetweentheIllyrianstateandRome,which ultimatelyledtotheRomanIllyrianwars

RomanExpansionintoCroatia Romanexpansionbeganformallyin229BC,withthefirstIllyrianWarneartheendofthe reignofQueenTeuta(231228BC),asaresultofacombinationoffactorsassociatedwith herattempttodriveouttheGreeks,aswellaswithongoingIllyrianpiracyintheAdriatic ThesecondIllyrianWar(229219)wascontinuedbyDemetriusofPharos(d.214BC),who theRomanshadplacedinpowerasopposedtoTeuta,butwhohadlaterconsolidatedhis domainandgainedthesupportoftheHistriinIstria. Yetby177BC(withthefallofNezactium)allofIstriawasalsoinRomanhands,andby167 BCtheRomanshadvirtuallyendedtheindependenceoftheIllyrians. BythattimetheLiburnianshadacceptedRomanprotection,wouldgraduallybecomefully subjecttotheRomans. TheconqueredandsubjectedpartsofthecountrywouldreceivethenameIllyricumbythe timeofJuliusCaesar(59BC). Caesar'sheirOctavian(=AugustusCaesar)laterexpandedRomanruletothenorth,andby 35BCcapturedtheCelticcentreofSegestica,whichwouldbecomeRomanSiscia. InthenextdecadesvirtuallyallthelandsofpresentdayCroatiawereincorporatedintothe RomanEmpire thelastresistanceoccurredin8ADintheswampsbetweenVinkovciandVukovar.

TheGreatMigrations AftertheVisigothscrossedtheDanubein376AD,whichwasfollowedbytheBattleof Adrianople(378)andultimatelybythesackofRomebyAlaric(410),aforceofmotionwas setoffthatisusuallyreferredtoastheMigrationAgr,ortheGreatMigrationofPeoples. Theeventsandchronologywas,ofcourse,muchmorecompletethaninmanygeneralisation, butitwillbesufficienttosaythatinthisperiodalargenumberofGermanicpeoples,Asian EurasiannomadsandotherseithercrossedtheterritoryofCroatiaorforatimesettledin certainareas. AmongtheGermans,wecanmentiontheVisigoths(orTervingi),theVandals,theOstrogoths (Greuthungi),GepidsandLangobards,andamongthenomads,theSarmatians,Hunsand 14

Avars.ThefirstSlavicgroupsbegantocrossintoRomanlandsfromtheearly6thcentury,at thetimeoftheemperorJustinian. Forarelativeshortperiod,JustinianwouldrestoretheRomanEmpire.

III.OriginsoftheCroats
Whatisanethnie? Varioussociohistoricalschoolshaveofferedvariousdefinitions,andtheimplicationsof ethnicityhavealsochangedthroughhistory,especiallyfromthe19thcenturytotoday. Formerimagesoftheethnieasabiological,cultural,linguisticandpsychologicalunit, virtuallyunchangeableintime,havebeenreplacedbydynamicandrelativistictheories, someofwhichpracticallydenytheexistenceofethnies,consideringthemtobepuresocietal constructs.Suchrelativismhassometimesresultedindenyingtheobvious,i.e.thatethnies, whatevertheirdifferentiaespecifica,showgreatpersistenceintime,ortobeprecise communitiescontinuetobeidentifiedorunitedunderthesameethnonymsoverlong periodsoftime Relatedconcepts:people,nationornationality,"race InSlavictraditionthenotionoflanguage(jzyk)wasastranslationoftheGreekethnos andLatingens,andlanguagewastohaveastrongroleinSlavicethnogenesis Ethnicitycanbeviewedalsoasthecontinuationofacommunityorsenseofcommunity throughtime,regardlessofchangesinthecommunitysmembership,language,political definitionandculturalmarkers

Ethnogenesis Aworkinghypothesisofethnogenesis,wouldincludetwolevels: 1)theprocessthroughwhichpreviouspopulationsorethnicgroupscametogetherand formedthecommunitythatemergedanddefineditself,and 2)theprocesses,shiftsofidentity,etc.thatsubsequentlyexpandedtheethnietoitspresent dayform. Alternativelysaid,ethnogenesiswouldinclude: 1)theinitialemergenceoftheethnie(communityorcommunitynetworkusuallyidentifying itselfunderaspecificname,i.e.anethnonym), 2)second,thefurtherdevelopmentoftheethnie,aslongasthisdevelopmentlasts NomadicElementsinCroatianEthnogenesis EarlyIndoeuropeanstheVuedolculture,etc. ScythsandSarmatiansinperipheralregions(possiblytheIassiinNorthWestCroatia) HunsespeciallyinSrijem(=Sirmium)andEasternSlavonia AvarsapeoplewhohadasignificantroleinEarlyCroathistory BulgarsinNorthCroatiainthe89thcenturies MagyarsintheEast(SrijemandEasternSlavonia).

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TheoriesontheoriginsoftheCroats Thesetheoriesapplynottoestablishingallthepopulationgroupsthatcontributedtothe makeupofthepresentCroatpeople(fromprehistoricremnantstorelativelyrecent immigrants),butrathertotheoriginoftheparticularethnicgrouping,tribe,socialcategory orpeoplethatwasthefirsttoidentifyitselfbytheCroatethnonym,orbysomeprevious phoneticversionofthatethnonym FromtheMediaevalPeriodtothe20thcentury,severalinterpretationsoftheoriginofthe Croatswereputforward,andeachreflectedtheperiodinwhichitproposed,andoften certainpolitical,culturalorotherneeds Notallthesetheoriescanbeconsideredscientificallyexact,yettheydoconveyinformation aboutthetimeinwhichtheyarose.

Theories/InterpretationsoftheOriginoftheCroats Theinitiallegendonthemigrationoffivebrothersandtwosisters(registeredin10thcentury) TheGothictheory(inMediaevalworksinthe12th13thcenturies) TheindigenousSlavictheory(fromthelateMediaevalperiodandtheRenaissance) TheSlavicmigrationtheory(EarlyModerntoModernPeriod) TheTurkoBulgarorAvartheory(late19th20thcentury) TheIraniantheory(late19th20thcentury). I.TheInitialMigrationLegend theCroats()atthattimeweredwellingbeyondBavaria(),wherethe Belocroats()arenow.Fromthemsplitoffafamilyoffivebrothers,Kloukas ()andLobelos()andKosentzis()andMouchlo()and Chrobatos(),andtwosisters,Touga()andBouga(),whocamewiththeir folktoDalmatiaandfoundtheAvarsinpossessionofthatland.Aftertheyhadfoughtone anotherforsomeyears,theCroatsprevailedandkilledsomeoftheAvarsandtheremainder theycompelledtobesubjecttothem. ConstantinePorphyrogenitus,DeAdministrandoImperio,chap.30. 2.TheGothicTheory VenerantdepartibusPoloniae,quiLingonesappellantur,cumTotilla,septemueloctotribus nobilium. SevenoreightnobletribescalledLingonsarrivedfrompartsofPolandledbythe[Gothicleader] Totila ThomastheArchdeacon,HistoriaSalonitana,1266. 3.TheIndigenousSlavicTheory TRILIKUM(19thcentury) Thistriplejugrepresentsthreebrothers,eh.LehandMeh,thesonsofkingCroat,wholived onceinKrapina;accordingtothelegend,whentheRomansattacked,thebrotherswere defeated,duetothebetrayaloftheirsisterwholovedtheRomancommander;theythenleftto

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foundBohemia(eh),Poland(Leh)andRussiaorMoscovy(Meh);thelegendmayhaveits originsinthe14thcentury 5.TheTurkoBulgarorAvarTheory ThisCroatianlegendhasastrongfamilyresemblancetotheBulgarianlegendofKrobat(or Kubrat)andhisfivesons,andIthereforethinkthatweshouldhardlyhesitatetotakeKrobatand HrobatasthesameprehistoricherooftheHunnicpeople... JohnBagnellBury,1889. [=Therearestill someAvarsinCroatia,anditcanbeseenthattheyareAvars] ConstantinePorphyrogenitus,DeAdministrandoImperio,chap.30. 6.TheIranianTheory DuringthereignofkingTiberiusJuliusSauromates[=175211AD]anassemblywasheldby thoseassociatedwiththepriestJuliusSadakhosandthefatheroftheassemblyKhoruat DuringthereignofkingRhescuporis[=210227AD],thesonofthegreatSauromatesand Hophrasmos,thesonofSanarsiusandKhoroath,thesonofSandarziswerearchonsofthe peopleofTanaisIBasileides,thesonofTheonikos,chiefoftheHelens,equippedthemarket squareatmyowncostandreneweditforthecityandmerchants Tanaisinscriptions. However,thenameoftheCroatshasbeenborrowedultimatelyfromtheEast,towhich absolutelytestifiestheformintheinscriptionsfromthefirstcenturiesADfrom Tanais(onthelowerDon!).ItisanothermatterthatthissameevidentlyIranianformrequires afresherinterpretationthanwasknownsofar.IamincreasinglyinclinedtobelievethatIranian *xarva(n)tisnothingelsethananIranianphonetic(phoneticmorphological)hypostasisofthe originalIndoaryan*sarma(n)tfemale,ruledbywomencf.thesustainedancienttraditionof theSarmatiansginokrats,i.e.ruledbywomen(acalque),unlikethecloselyrelatedScythians.. O.N.Trubaev,"":., ,Moscow1987,.859860. PossibleIdeologicalImplicationsofEachTheory 1. Theinitiallegendonthemigrationoffivebrothersandtwosisterswasprobablytheoriginal mythoftheCroatsthemselvesandinessenceitspeaksofheterogenesis(manyelements makingupanewpeople) 2. TheGothictheorywas,asitseems,thedynasticmythoftheearlyCroatkings,developedon thebasisthattheGothswerethebestofthebarbarians" 3. TheindigenousSlavictheorycorrespondedtofinalassimilationbetweentheancestorsofthe previous(Romanised)populationsandtheancestorsoftheoriginalCroatimmigrants 4. TheSlavicmigrationtheorywaslinkedtoPanSlavicandSouthSlavicideologies 5. TheTurkoBulgarorAvartheorywasessentiallyacritiqueoftheSlavicmigrationtheory

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6. TheIraniantheorydevelopedoutofattemptstoexplaintheCroatethnonym,butlater becameacriticismofYugoslavism TheReconstruction Thefollowingmapswillindicatethepossibilitiesofthetime,i.e.whatseemsatthepresent pointtobethemostlikelydevelopmentleadingtotheappearanceoftheCroatsonthe sceneofworldhistory TheIraniantheorymayhaveabasis,butonlyinregardtowhatmaybecalledtheProto Croats,i.e.thefirstpeopletocalledthemselvesCroats,insomepreviousversionofthat ethnonym ThefactoroflanguagehasbeencrucialindeterminingtheidentityoftheCroats;Slavic peoplesaredefinedbytheuseofaspecifictypeoflanguage,withaninheritedlinguistic basisandinthissensethereisnodoubtthatCroatsareaSlavicpeople,althoughthefirst groupstousetheCroatethnonymmaynothavebeenSlavic(asinthecaseoftheTurkic BulgarsandtheGermanicFranks)

AdditionalNote AlthoughtheoriginsoftheCroatscanbetracedfromvariousmigrationflowsdatingfrom lateAntiquitytotheearlyMiddleAges,thesemigrationswereonlyone(althoughstructurally important)componentinCroatianethnogenesis. IntheAdriaticarea,indigenousgroupscontributedmuchtotheethnicmakeupofthefuture Croatpeople,andtheycertainlyhadaverystrongimpactonthedevelopmentofCroatian culture. Ontheotherhand,Croatgroupsthatsettledinotherareas(inapartofmodernCarinthaand insomeWesternSlaviclands),aswellasCroatsthatremainedbehindtheCarpathians, contributedtotheethnogenesisofotherpeoples.Thelatergroup,forexample,isoftento assumedtohaveprovidedthebasisonwhichtheRuthenian(orRusin)ethnicgroup developed.ThesewerethesocalledRussianCroatsthateventuallywereincorporatedinto theKievanstate.

IV.EarlyMediaevalKingdom
Formation SlavicinfiltrationintoSouthEastEuropebeganintheearly6thcentury:thefirstmentionsof Slavs(Sklavenoi)byByzantinemonkPseudoCaesariusareextremelynegative:[theyare] wild,unrestrainedandwithoutchiefs,becausetheyalwayskilltheirchiefsorheadmen eitheratfeastsorontheroad,andtheyeatfoxesandwildcatsandboarsandtheycallto oneanotherlikewolvestheyliketoeatwomensbreasts,becausetheyarefullofmilk,and thentheykillnewborninfants,throwingthemagainstwallslikerats Throughoutthe6thcenturySlavicgroups,mainlyfromtheEast,occupiedmostofSouth EastEurope,fromtheAlpstotheAegeanthefirstandmostimportantfactorinthis migrationwasprobably"JustiniansPlague,whichdepopulatedmanyregionsinthegeneral area;thesecondfactorwasprobablyrelatedtotheroleoftheAvarsinthisperiod TheSlavshadenteredintoageneralalliancewiththeAvars,althoughthisdidnotruleout conflicts. 18

The7thcenturyistraditionallytakenasthetimeofthearrivaloftheCroatsintheirpresent homeland;themajorsourceforthisinformationistheDeAdministrandoImperioofthe ByzantineemperorandhistorianConstantineVIIPorphyrogenitus(905959),writtenbetween 948and952. PorphyrogenitusclaimsthattheCroatsarrivedonordersoftheemperorHeraclius,defeated theAvarsandreceivedthepreviousRomanprovinceofDalmatiainreturnfortheiraid againsttheAvars,who,inalliancewiththePersiansandtheirSlavicconfederateshad attackedConstantinoplein626. Historicalinformationforthe7thandformostofthe8thcenturyis,however,poorandfor themostpartinferredfromlatersources;forthisreasonsomehistorians(LujoMargetiand especiallyNadaKlai)claimedthatthedateoftheCroatmigrationshouldbemovedtothe late8thandearly9thcentury,andthatitwasinsomewayconnectedwiththeFrankish expansionintoSouthEastEurope In799ADErik,theFrankishduxForoiuliensis,attemptedtoadvancealongtheAdriatic coasttowardstheSouthEastandwasambushedandkilledaroundpresentTrsat(Tarsatica, Luburniaecivitas);ithasgenerallybeenassumedthatthiswastheactionofthelocalSlavsor Croats,howevernosourcementionsthisexplicitlyanditmayhavebeenaByzantineaction By803,allofLittoralorDalmatianCroatiarecognisedtheoverlordshipoftheFranks,andthis politicalsituationwouldcontinueto878. IntheNorthofCroatia,thenativeprinceLjudevit(819822),referredtoasduxorrectorof LowerPannoniainCroatiantraditionasLjudevitPosavski(LjudevitofPosavina),organised thelocalpopulationandSlavsfromCarantaniaandtheMiddleDanubeinaresistanceto Frankishadvance;havingbeenrepelledbytheFranksontheDrava,Ljudevitturnedagainst Borna(818821),the"princeofLiburnia",whomhedefeatedontheKupa;theFrankswere repelledin820,butagainattackedwiththreearmiesin821;in822LjudevitfledtoSrbon theUna,andthenextyearwaskilledbyBornasuncleLjudemisl. ConstantinePorphyrogenitusmentionedtheoppositionoftheCroatstotheFranks,but datedittothetimeshortlyafterarrivingontheAdriatic;thedescriptiongivenisprobably exaggeratedandalsofitsmoreintotheperiodofthelate9thcentury: ForanumberofyearstheCroatsofDalmatiaalsoweresubjecttotheFranks,astheyhad formerlybeenintheirowncountry;buttheFrankstreatedthemwithsuchbrutalitythatthey usedtomurderCroatinfantsatthebreastandcastthemtothedogs.TheCroats,unableto enduresuchtreatmentfromtheFranks,revoltedfromthem,andslewthoseofthemwhom theyhadforprinces.Onthis,alargearmyfromFranciamarchedagainstthem,andafterthey hadfoughtoneanotherforsevenyears,atlasttheCroatsmanagedtoprevailanddestroyed alltheFrankswiththeirleader,whowascalledKotzilis.Fromthattimetheyremained independentandautonomous,andtheyrequestedtheholybaptismfromthebishopofRome, andbishopsweresentwhobaptizedtheminthetimeofPorinostheirprince. DeAdministrandoImperio,30

In827theBulgars,underkhanOmurtag,advancedalongtheDanubeintoLowerPannonia, andrepelledtheFrankishprincesintheareaPannoniaCroatiabecamesubjecttothe Bulgarempire,althoughitseemstheirdirectrulewasconfinedtoEastSlavoniaandSrijem, whiletheylefttherestoftheterritorytotheirvassal,princeRatimir(829838) 19

IntheSouth,BornassuccessorVladislav(LadasclavusintheFrankishannals)(821835) seemstohaveremainedafaithfulFrankishvassal;hewassucceededbyMislav(835845), whotogetherwithhisallies,theprincesofPagania(Naranta,onthecoastaroundthe Neretvadelta)successfullyopposedVenetianexpansionalongtheEastAdriatic ItisassumedthethecentreofDalmatianCroatiawasoriginallyNin,andlaterKlis,bythe timeofMislav,althoughtheprincesatthistimeoftenchangedthelocationsoftheircourts.

CyrilandMethodius Thesecondpartofthe9thcenturywasimportinSlavicspeakingcountries,especiallyforthe activitiesofsaintsCyrilandMethodius. In862theMoravianprinceRastislavaskedByzantineemperorMichaeltosendhimbishops andpriestswouldbeconductmassintheSlaviclanguage. ThisledtothefirstMoravianmissionofCyrilandMethodiusin864;afterthreeyearsthe brothersleftforRome,andonthewaystayedinPannoniawithprinceKocel(867868) CyrildiedthefollowingyearinRome(869),andMethodiusreturnedtoPannoniaandthento Moravia.HoweverinMoravia,Rastislavhadbeendeposedin870byhisnephewSvatopluk (870894),whoin884becameaFrankishvassal. ThroughoutthisperiodtheFrankish(German)clergyhadbeenopposedtoSlavicliturgy, basedonthetheoryofonlythreesacredlanguages(Hebrew,GreekandLatin). PoliticalshiftsinMoravialedtoMethodiusimprisonmentin873. In873Methodiuswasletoutofprisiononthepope'sinterventionbuttheSlavonicliturgyis forbidden. In879,MethodiusjustifiestheuseoftheSlaviclanguageintheChurchbeforepopeJohnVIII (872882);in880thepopeconfirmstheSlavicliturgy,andthepatriarchofConstantinople doesthesamein882. YetafterMethodius'deathin885,SvatoplukexpelledhisfollowersfromMoravia MethodiusfollowersfoundrefugeinBulgaria,undertheprotectofBorisI(852889),andit assumedthatsomeofthemreachedalsoCroatia,wheretheruleratthistimewasBranimir (whomwewillmentionlater).

Christianisation ChristianityarrivedamongtheCroatsfromboththeWestandEast,withtheFranksasthe mainagentinthefirstcaseandByzantiuminthesecondcase PopeJohnVIIIsconfirmationoftheSlavicliturgyin880shouldbeplacedincontextwithhis generalEastpoliticsandhiseffectiveconfirmationofCroatiasindepedencefromthe Franksandfromthe"FrankishChurch"inthesamegeneralperiod ThequestionofSlavicpriestsandthestatusofthe"BishopoftheCroats"(atNin)wouldbe akeyissuesattheChurchSynodsinSplitin925and928 AspecificcontinuationofthetraditionofSaintCyrilandMethodiuswastheuseofthe GlagoliticscriptinpartsCroatia,untilrecenttimes;in1248popeInnocentIVwould expresslyauthorisetheuseoftheSlavicliturgyandoftheGlagoliticscriptinCroatia

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ChristianityprogressedmoreslowlyinNorthCroatia(i.e.MediaevalSlavonia);theapparent persistenceofpaganismwasstatedasthemainreasonfortheestablishmentofthediocese ofZagrebin1087 Inotherregionsoftheinterior,andespeciallyinBosnia,theBosnianChurch,whichhad possiblelinkswithdualisticheresies,i.e.withtheBogumilsofBulgariaandlaterwiththe Patarenes,CatharsandAlbigensiansofItalyandFrance,developedmaybefromasearlyas the11thcenturyonwards WhetherornottheBosnianChurchinfactpursuedadualisticheresyhasbeenquestioned bysomescholars Allinall,intheMiddleAgesthereligiousandecclesiasticalsituationinCroatiawasopento manyvariousinfluences,anddominantCatholicismwastheresultofanumberoflatershifts, especiallyfromtheperiodoftheOttomanadvanceinthe1516thcentury

PreRomanesqueArtandArchitecture TheearlyMediaevalperiodinCroatiaisnotedforitsPreRomanesquestyleinartand Architecture;thisstyleisultimatelybasedonearlyChristianmodels,butitisalsomarkedby strongdecorativism St.DonatiusChurchinZadar(originallytheChurchoftheHolyTrinity),datingfromthe9th century,isthelargestPreRomanesquebuildingintheworld(27metersinheight);itwas builtmainlyunderByzantineinfluence,butalsoshowssignsofFrankishinfluence,indicating theperiodofoverlappingByzantineandFrankishinfluencesinDalmatianCroatia TheChurchoftheHolyCrossinNindatesfromthe11thcentury,andisknownasthe smallestcathedralintheworld;thesmallChurchofSaintNicolas(12thcentury),alsolocated nearNin,alreadyshowssignsofearlyRomanesquearchitecture AtypicalPreRomanesquefeatureistheuseofwattleorweavingpattern,pleter,presenton ornamentsfromthe8thtothe11thcentury;thismotivehaspracticallybecomeasymbolof Croatianidentity.

The9thCentury Thethreemostimportantprincesofthe9thcenturywereTrpimir(846864),Domagoj(864 876)andBranimir(879892) TRPIMIRisgenerallyconsideredtohavebeenthefounderoftheTrpimirovidynastythat wastoruleCroatiauntilthe11thcentury,althoughDomagojandBranimirwerenotofthe samedynasty TrpimirwasstillaFrankishvassal,buthecalledhimselfbythegraceofGod,princeofthe Croats(iuvatusmuneredivinoduxChroatorum)andalsoreferredtohislandasregnum Chroatorum;hedidbattlewiththepeopleoftheGreeks,i.e.withtheByzantinecitiesin Dalmatia,builtseveralBenedictinemonasteriesandgaverefugetothefugativemonkand priestGottshalk(Gotteschalchus,c.808867),whomentionedhiminhiswritingasrex Sclavorum. Sometimebetween854and860,duringTrpimirsreign,princeBorisIofBulgaria(852889) attackedCroatiaandwasdefeated

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DOMAGOJaidedtheFrankishking,LouisIIduringhisreconquestofBarifromtheArabs (869871),butheismostnotedforhisattacksonVenetianshipping,andforaletterfrom popeJohnVIIIinwhichthepopeaskshimtoputastoptopiracyintheAdriatic BRANIMIRisnotedasthefirsttotallyindependentCroatprince;popeJohnVIIIwrotetohis belovedsonBranimiron7thJuly879inwhichheconfirmedthathecanforeverafterwards happilyandcertainlyruleoverhisearthlykingdom;inthetermsoftheday,thismeant recognitionofindependence BranimirsalliesthePaganiorNarantanidefeatedtheVenetianin887nearmodern Makarska;thisdayiscelebratedtodayasthedayoftheCroatiannavy

NoteontheEthnicName Ininscriptionsfromthe9thcenturyonwards,theoriginalCroatianethnonymHrvat,orasit firstappearshrvat(whichwouldbemorepreciseas*hrvat),wasrenderedasChroat, Croat,etc. Latin/ch/,simplifiedas/c/undertheinfluenceoflateVulgarLatin,wasanattemptto transmittheSlavicsound/h/(kh); /ro/wasusedtorecord/r/or/r/,substitutingthejers,i.e.theveryshortvowelsthat existedinOldSlavic,(transcribedasand). /v/wastraditionallyveryweakinLatin,andthuswasusuallylost. Theresultwasthat*hrvatevolvedintoCroat.

ArrivaloftheMagyars In896theMagyars,ledbyrpd,crossedtheCarpathiansintothePannonian,whichwas followedbysixdecadesofMagyarraidsthroughoutEurope(untiltherirdefeatin955atthe Lechfield,bytheHolyRomanEmperorOttoI) TheMagyarinvasionwasprobablyhelpedbyongoingconflictsbetweentheEastFranksand GreatMoravia,inwhichprinceBraslavofPosavina(880887)hadreceivedthePannonian PrincipalityasarewardforhisaidetotheFranks. GreatMoraviadisappearedaftertheMagyarinvasion,asdidBraslavsprincipality,atleastits territoriesnorthoftheDrava. ThesituationinpresentdayNorthCroatiaaftertheMagyarmigrationisnotclearbutby 925itwasincorporatedintotheCroatianstate.

The10thCentury Themostimportantrulersofthe10thcenturywereTomislav(910928),Helena(=Jelena Slavna,d.976)andStephanDrislav(969997) TOMISLAVisexplicitlymentionedinaletterin925bypopeJohnXasrexChroatorum,i.e. kingoftheCroats,andheisthereforeheldtobethefirstCroatianking AtthestartofhisreignitseemsthatTomislavmanagedtostoptheHungarianexpansion southoftheDrava,andinformationfromtheSplitChurchsynodsin925and928indicates thatTomislavhadexpandedCroatiaintoPannonia In926TomislavdefeatedanarmysendagainstCroatiabytheBulgariantsarSimeon; PorphyrogenitusmentionsthatattimeCroatiahad60.000horsemenand100.000foot soldiers,aswellas80largeships(sagenas)and100smallships(conduras) 22

HELENAismostimportantduetoherinscriptiononhertomb,whichwasessentialin establishingthedynasticorderofthekingsofthe10thcentury;shealsomentionsinher inscriptionthatshegovernedthekingdomherself,afterthedeathofherhusbandMichael KreimirII(949969) DRISLAVwasapparentlythefirstCroatiankingtoreceiveacrownandsymbolsofpower fromanemperor;i.e.ThomastheArchdeaconwrotethatDrislavreceivedtheCroatian crownfromtheByzantineemperor DrislavwasingoodrelationswithByzantiumduringtheconflictwiththeBulgarian MacedonianrulerSamuilo;thereisalsoastrongpossibilitythatDrislavhadclosetieswith theRussianprinceSviatoslavofKiev(942972)

The11thCentury Themostimportantrulersofthe11thcenturywerePetarKreimirIV(10581074)and DemetriusZvonimir(10761089) PetarKREIMIRIVtookcontroloftheByzantineDalmatiaandassumedthetitleKingof DalmatiaandCroatia;thiswasajointtitle,andthestatebecamefromthispointknownas theKingdomofDalmatianandCroatia(laterDalmatia,CroatiaandSlavonia,andfinally Croatia,SlavoniaandDalmatia) ItisoftenassumedthatCroatiawasatitspeakduringthereignofPetarKreimirIV,however certaindetails(e.g.inhisdepictiononthebasreliefinSplit)indicatedeepproblems ZVONIMIRwasprobablynotamemberoftheTrpimirovidynasty,butrathercamefrom NorthCroatia(i.e.)Slavonia;inChurchmattershesidedwiththeGregorianreform;heallied himselfpoliticallybymarriagewithHelena,thesisterofHungariankingLadislaus(Saint Ladislaus=Ladislav,Lszlo)

ThelegendofZvonimirsdeath Inthefollowingcenturies,Zvonimirsreignwasseenasagoldenage.Inthatperiod,a legenddevelopedclaimingthatZvonimirhadbeenkilledbyhisownpeople,whenheasked themtofollowhimonacrusadeinsomeforeignland.Thenwhiledying,thekingcursedthe Croatsthattheywouldneveragainhavearuler"oftheirownlanguage"

Andjustas whendogsbarkatwolves sotheyfellongoodkingZvonimir notlettinghimutteraword butwithclamourandweapons advancedonhim andwoundedhisbody andspiltthebloodofthegoodkingandlord wholyinginblood greatlywounded thencursedtheunfaithfulCroats andtheresttoGod andhissaints

Thelegendwasprobablynotbasedonfact.ZvonimirwasnotthelastnativerulerofCroatia, butratherStephanII(10891091),whodiedinashorttime;afterhisdeaththenobility dividedinregardtochoosinganewruler;apartofthenoblessidedwithZvonimirswidow, whowantedherbrotherLadislaustoassumetheCroatiancrown 23

LadislausinstalledhisnephewAlmosastheCroatiankingin1091,butareactionfollowed andtheCroatschosePetarSnai(oftencalledSvai),asking PetarmanagedtouniteCroatiaandexpelAlmos,butLadislausintervenedandagain occupiedSlavonia Eitherafter1087(theyearofZvonimirsdeath),orin1094(asstatedinthehistoricalrecord) LadislausfoundedthedioceseofZagreb;thefirstbiskopwastheCzechmonkDuh,whomay havebeenasupporteroftheSlavicliturgy. Ladislausdiedin1095;in1097hisnephewandsuccessorColoman(Koloman,Klman) attackedCroatiaandPetarSnaiwaskilledatthebattleonGvozdMountain,nowknownas PetrovaGora(=PetarsMountain) ColomanofHungarybegannegotiationswiththeCroatnobility;anaccordwasfinallyreach in1102(Pactconventa);inthatyearColomanwascrownedwiththeCroatiancrownin BiogradontheSea ThiswasthebeginningofthepersonalunionbetweenHungaryandCroatia;bothcountries hadthesameruler,althoughheheldhistitleseparately,andatleastinthefirstperiod wascrownedseparatelyHungaryandinCroatia ThePactaConventa Thistext,apparentlyfromthe12thcentury,waspreservedonlyinaversionfromthe14th century,whichprovidedareasonforsometodoubtitsauthenticity.However,more importantthanthetextitselfisthefactthattherpdkingsdid(foratime)behavein accordancetowhatthisagreementwassupposedtostipulate.

V.CroatianHungarianState(11021526)
TherpdDynasty Hadbeenfoundedinthe9th10thcenturybytheMagyarchieftainrpd(890917),sonof lmos,fromtheclanoftheTurul(themythicalbirdthatwastiedtothedynastyandits Hunnictradition). ThedynastysmostimportantearlymemberwasSt.Stephen,bornVajk,firstkingofHungary (10001038),whobroughtChristianitytothecountry

TheArpdPeriodinCroatia(11021301) ThefirstrpadrulercrownedasKingofCroatiawasColoman(11021116). TheconceptoftheLandsoftheCrownofSt.Stephendevelopedonlylater. ThefirstrpdkingsofCroatiawerecrownedseparately,apparentlywiththetraditional Croatiancrown(referredtoinlatertimesas"Zvonimirscrown"). OnseveraloccasionstherpdsinstalledtheireldestsonsinCroatiaasjuniorrulers,priorto theirsuccessiontothejointthrone.

Theroleoftheban Intheentireperiodafter1102,theroleofthebanincreasedinimportanceintheCroatian lands;thistitleexistedsincethe10thcentury,andmaybepossiblylinkedtotheremnantsof

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theAvarsmentionedbyConstantinePorphyrogenitus(i.e.tothenameofthe6thcentury AvarrulerBayan);after1102itbecameequivalenttotheroleofviceroy. FromthetimeofAndrewII(12051205)to1345thereweretwobans:oneforDalmatiaand Croatia(banusmaritimus)andonefor"EntireSlavonia(banustotiusSlavoniae);from1345 to1918,therewasonlyonebanofDalmatia,CroatiaandSlavonia TherpdkingswererelativelyweakinDalmatianCroatia;theyhadfeudalpossessionsonly inSlavonia,notinthesouth;intheDalmatianCroatiankingdomtheycouldnotcollecttaxes andweredependentonthesupportoflocalnoblelineages HermanDalmatin,bornincentralIstriaaround1100,wasthefirstknownCroatian philosopher(sinceIstriawasatthetimewithintheCarinthianDuchy,heissometimesknown asHermanofCarinthia).InSpainhetranslatedastrologicandmatematicalworksfromGreek andArabicintoLatin.TogetherwithRobertofKettonhealsoproducedthefirstEuropean translationoftheKuran(intoLatin). Itwasalsointhe12thcenturythatthePriestofDioclea,wrotehischronicle,whichhe calledLibellusGothorumorRegnumSlavorum.Accordingtohisclaim,hetranslateditfrom SlavicintoLatin.Thetextisdifficulttocorrelatewithmanyknownhistoricalfactstothe pointthatitisconsideredbysomecriticstobemerefiction.Yetitdoescontainvaluable allusionsthatcouldbebasedonrealevents,andcanalsobeinterpretatedasanindicationof thecontinuationofMediaevalhistoricalawareness.Inthissense,inthe14thcenturya Croatiantranslationwouldappear(theworkofanunknownauthor),whichcontainsthe legendofZvonimirsviolentdeath.Historianshaveinterpretedthistomeanthatmemoriesof Zvonimirwerestillveryvividatthistime. VeniceandtheCrusades In1126theVenetiansdestroyedBiograd,theCroatiancoronationalcity TheDalmatiancitieswhowereatthistimealreadybeginningtodevelopintocommunes foundthemselvesbetweenVeniceandtheHungarianCroatianking. ZadarhadfallentoVenicein1116,butin1181wasabletofreeitselfandgainalargedegree ofautonomyunderkingBelaIII.

TheFourthCrusade In1202dogeEnricoDandolo(11981205)managed,inlieuofpaymentforshipsand transport,todirectthecrusaderarmyagainstZadar.Thecitywastakenandplunderedand thepopulationmovedtoBiograd,whichbecameknowinItalianasOldZadar(Zaravecchia). Asaresult,popeInnocentIII(11611216)excommunicatedtheentirecrusaderarmy althoughhelateraskedforonlyapromisenottoattackotherChristianlands;thiswasnot respected;in1204thecrusaderstookandsackedConstantinople,sealingtheGreatSchism.

Towns InDalmatia,the1213thcenturywasaperiodofgrowingcommunalawarenessinthecities; townwallsdeterminedidentity InMediaevalSlavonia,Zagrebwastheecclesiasticcentrefrom1087(or1094),yetwasfirst mentionedasasettlement(Gradec)onlyin1187;

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DatesofroyalprivilegesinMediaevalSlavonia:1209/1220Varadin,1225Perna,1231Volko (Vukovar),1234Virovitica,1240Petrinja,Samobor,1242Zagreb(Gradec),1252Krievci, 1257Jastrebarsko ThepopulationofZagrebconsistedofLatins,Gauls,Slavsand"Hungarians";Vukovarwas inhabitedbyTeutons,Saxons,HungariansandSlavs,andalsothefirstgroupofGerman traderssettledinVaradinatthistime.

BanovacMonetaregisp(ro)Sclavnia ThiswasthefirstCroatian,i.e.Slavoniancoin,mintedbetween1235and1384;from1256 thetownofPakrachadaprivilegedstatusinmintingcoins;after1260mintingbeganin Zagreb Thefacesidethecoindepictedarunningmarten(kunainCroatian);the reversedepictedadoublecross

TatarMongolInvasion OnMay31st1223,theRussianprinceswereroutedbytheTatarsontheKalkariver(still duringGenghisKhanslifetime). Between1237and1240(whenKievfell)mostRussiancitiesweresubjectedtotheTatars. In1241theMongolsenteredPolandandonearmyalsomovedagainstHungaryand CroatiaonApril11th,intheBattleofMohi(ontheriverSaj),theHungarianCroatianarmy wastotallydefeatedbyBatuKhansgeneralSubutai;thiswasalsothefirsttimethatfirearms wereusedinaEuropeanbattle. KingBelaIVfledsouth,toZagrebandeventuallytoTrogir;therewassomesuccessful defence(e.g.atKalnik),yetonlythedeathoftheGreatKhaninMongolia,gedei,finally stoppedtheconquest. TheMongolsburnedZagrebbutasrewardforthetownshelp,onNovember16th1242 BelaIVissuedtheGoldenBull,whichmadeZagreb(Gradec)afreeandroyalcity. AftertheTatarinvasionpopeInnocentIV(12431254)providedsupportforthebuildingof fortificationsagainstthepossibilityofanotherattack;onesuchfortificationwasMedvedgrad onZagrebMountain(=Medvednica,ZagrebakaGora),builtin1254;Medvedgradlasted untilitwasdestroyedbyastrongearthquakein1590. InnocentIVisalsoresponsibleforauthorisingtheuseofSlavicliturgyandtheGlagolitic scriptalongtheNorthcoastofCroatia(inalettertoPhillip,bishopofSenjin1248.andlater inalettertotheBenedictinesinOmialj)

FeudalLineages InDalmatiaCroatiathepoliticalhistoryofthe1214thcenturywasmarkedbystruggles betweenfeudallineages:theprincesofKrk,theKaifamily,theubilineageofBribir,the princesofKrbavaandothersfromthearea(Guii,etc.). ThesituationwassimilarinSlavonia,werethemaincontendersweretheGsing(= Gisingovci),Pektari,theprincesofMoslavinabetweentheSavaandDrava,andtheBaboneg orBaboniibetweentheSavaiGvozd(PetrovaGora),whoeventuallytriumphed.

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TheMongolinvasionhadinfluencedthepowerstructuree.g.theprincesofKrkandthe Baboniihadexpandedtheirinfluenceandpossessionsasaresultoftheirdefensiverole duringtheinvasion. Towardstheendoftherpdperiod,thekingbecameatoyinthehandsofmagnates,both inCroatiaandSlavoniaandinHungary IntheAngevinperiodtherewouldbeattemptstochangethesituation,andcreatealesser nobilitymorecloselytiedtotheruler.

ThePrincesofKrk(Krki)/Frankopani Thefirstmentionedrepresentative(inaGlagolitictext)wasDujam,whoin1118concluded anagreementwiththeVenetianstoadministertheislandofKrk Inthefirstpartofthe13thcenturyVenicevirtuallyleftKrktothefamily,whichby1260 receivedKrkasahereditarypossession DuringtheMongolinvasion,thePrincesofKrkaidedtheHungarianCroatiankingand receivedfiefsonthemainland,firstalongtheNortherncoast(toVindol)andlaterinthe landsfromGackatoSlunj,CetingradandPounje,aswellasinpartsofDalmatia(Vrlika, Ostrovica,Skradin) In1288,inthepresenceofprinceLeonardofKrk,theVinodolLaw(Vinodolskizakon)was writtenincursiveGlagoliticscript In1406,afteravisittoRome,Nikola(Nikolaus)ofKrktooktheRomanpatricianname Frangipane,inCroatianFrankopan(orFrankapan),andchangedthearmsofthefamilyto twoVenetianlionsbreakingaloafofbread

PrincesofBribir/ubii OriginallyfromtheubiiofJoaniinLika,theyprobablybecamecountsofBribirinthe11th centuryandbegantheirascentinthe12thcentury,inaperiodwhentherewasnoeffective ruler In1223.kingAndrewIIgaveGregoryofBribirthelandsofthepreviouspreviouscountof ibenikandSidraga,betweentheKrkariverandZadar;in1227Gregorybecametheprinceof SplitandhisbrotherStephenbecametheprinceofTrogir;bothbrothersdisappearedfrom historybeforetheMongolinvasion Attheturnofthe1314thcenturyPavao(=Paul)ubiandhisbrothersJuraj(=George)and MladinmanagedtotakeoverthelandsoftheKaiiofOmi,andtoreducetheprincesof Krbava,theprincesoftheCetina,theNelipiiofKninandotherfeudallords,tovassalstatus In1293Pavaoubi(12451312),byhisowninitiative,changedthetitleandsignificanceof theroleofban;insteadoftheearliertermbanusmaritimus,hestyledhimselfbanus Croatorum,andlaterusedthetitlesbanustotiusSclavonieandbanustotiusChroaciefinally addingdominusBosne Atthesametime,PavaosbrotherJurajwasbringinganewrulertothethrone,fromthe NeapolitanbranchofAnjou. Bymintingofhisownsilvercoinsbetween1301and1312,Pavaoexpressedhisintentto establishhimselfasanindependentruler

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Bosnia PavaoalliedhimselfwithprinceHrvatinofDonjiKraji,whowithPavaoshelpmadeDonji Krajianewprincipality,recognisedbytheNeapolitanAngevins.Hrvatinhadcountedon PavaosaidtopresstheKotromanilineageoutofBosnia,butwhenthisdidnotensue,he returnedtotheKotromaniside,whereasPavaostrengthenedhispositioninBosniaby addingTropolje(=Hlijevno,Duvno,Glamo)toBosnia,sincetheKotromaniididnothave anypreviousclaimsinthisarea. Romanesque,GothicandRenaissanceArchitecture ExamplesoftheRomanesquestyleinCroatiainclude: 1) TheChurchofSaintSt.Grysogonous(Sv.Krevan)inZadar,consacratedin1175 2) TheCathedralofSaintAnastasia,builtinthe12thcenturyonearlierfoundations,rebuilt afterthedestructionofZadarin1202,andlaterextendedinthe14thcenturywithGothic stylisticelements 3) Theentrance(portal)oftheTrogirCathedral,builtbymasterRadovan 4) TheLotrakTowerinZagreb(13thcentury) TheGothicstyleembodiedtheknightlycultureoftheHightMiddleAgesandcanbeseen alsoinmanyfortificationsfromDubrovnik,tothehilltownsofIstriatothecastlesofNorth WesternCroatia(e.g.Medvedgrad,VelikiTabor,etc.) AparticularexampleoftransitionfromGothictoRenaissancestyleistheSaintJacobs Cathedralinibenik,whichhasbeenincludedintheUNESCOWorldHeritagelist.

TheAngevinPeriodinCroatia(13011382) CharlesIRobert(1301,13081342)oftheNeapolitanAngevinlinewasrelatedtotherpds throughhisgrandmother,whohadbeenthedaughterofkingStephenVoftheHouseof rpd(12701272) In1301,afterthedeathofAndrewIII(lastrpdrulerinthemaleline),CharlesRobertwas broughttothethronewiththehelpofJurajubi. TheHungarianmagnatesopposedhisruleandforcedhimtoabdicate;intheintervalto1308 CharlesfoundsupportmostlyamongtheSlavonianlords,whiletheHungarianscontinuedto sidewithhisopponents(WenceslausofBohemiaandlaterOttoofBavaria) In1308CharleswasagaincrownedKingofHungaryandCroatia,whichmarkedthebeginning oftheAngevinperiod Inattemptingtoconsolidatehisrule,CharlesIclashedwithMladinIIubi,whomhe defeatedin1322inthebattleofBliska(Blizna)inBosnia. TheresultwastotalanarchyinCroatia. Insuchasituation,theDalmatiancitiesaskedforandreceivedVenetianprotection:ibenik (1322),Trogir(1322),Split(1327),Nin(1329). CharlesIsmajorachievementwashisarrangementofapersonalunionbetweenHungary, CroatiaandPolandin1339,whichwaseffectuatedin1370,duringthereignofhisson,Louis I(13421382).

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Zrinskifamily TheubilineageofBribirbegantodistintegrateinthefirsthalfofthe14thcentury;in1347 GregoryIIIubireceivedthecastleofZrininSlavonia,whichledtotheriseofanew magnatebranch,theZrinskifamily,whichwouldhaveamajorroleinlaterCroatianaswellas Hungarianhistory LouisIofAnjou(13421382) Louis(Ludovik,Lajos)attemptedeverywheretocreatealessernobilityandestablishthe foundationsofamodernstate. Itseemsthattheideaof12nobletribeswasconfirmedduringhisreign,anditissignificant thattheoldestmanuscriptofthePactaconventadatesfromthistime;thelessernobility articulatedthenotionofhomeland In1346.LouiswasdefeatedbytheVenetians;thiseventuallyledtoanewwarwithVenicein 1356,whichendedonFebruary18th1358withthePeaceofZadar;Venicelostallher territoriesinDalmatiaandtheDogerenouncedhisassumedtitleduxDalmacieetCroacie ...ThefusionofDalmatiaandCroatiaintooneculturalcommunityinthesecondhalfofthe 14thcenturywasultimatelythegiftoftheAngevinstotheCroatsandtoDalmatia(Nada Klai).

DynasticShifts(13821526) OnLouissdeath,hisoldestdaughterMary(13821395)wascrowned,butquicklyallpower wasassumedbytheQueenmother,ElisabethofBosnia(ElisabethKotromani) MaryandElisabethwereopposedbytheSlavonianmagnates,ledbyPavaoHorvatthe BishopofZagreb,hisbrotherIvani,theformerbanStjepanLackovi(Lackovich,Lackfi)and NikolaSe(Szechy) WhenMarysfuturehusband,SigismundofLuxemburg,invadedthecountry,PavaoHorvat broughtCharlesIIIofDurazzofromNaplesandhadhimcrownedaskingin1385. WhenCharleswassoonassassinated,PavaoHorvatandThomasandIvanPalinawentto NaplestosubmittohissonLadislausofNaples,whileinthemeantimeSigismundtookthe titlelordanddefenderoftheKingdomofHungary MaryandElisabethwerecapturedin1386bytheiropponentsinSlavoniaandimprisonedin NovigradinDalmatia;thenextyearElisabethwasstrangled,buttheVenetianfleetrescued Mary TheNeapolitanAnjousidewassupportedbykingStjepanTvrtkoIKotromaniofBosnia (13771391)aswellasbytheSerbianprinceLazarHlebljanovi(13291389),whoperished in1389attheBattleofKosovo. Tvrtko,whosemotherhadbeenoftheCroatubilineageandpaternalgrandmotherofthe SerbNemanjilineage,tookthetitledeigratiaRassie,Bosne,Dalmatie,CroatieMartimeque rex,andappointedVukVuki,brotherofthepowerfullordHrvojeVukiHrvatiniashis baninDalmatia. ThelastCroatiansupportersoftheHouseofAnjouweredefeatedin1394atDoborincentral Bosnia,afterwhichSigismundorderedtheexecutionoftheprisoners,includingIvaniHorvat.

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NicopolisandtheDietinKrievci Inthemeantime,theOttomanTurkshadconqueredmostoftheBalkansandin1384pope BonifaceIXproclaimedacrusade,whichfinallyledtothedisasterousBattleofNicopolison September251396;ChristianforceshadbeenheadedbySigismund;twoCroatianSlavonian bansalsohadamajorroleinthebattle:StephenLackovi(Lacfi)andNicolasIIGorjanski(of Gora) SigismundwassavedfromdeathonlybythehelpofHermanIIofCelje(13601435),whom herewardedlaterwithlandsinSlavoniaandthepertualtitleofbanofDalmatia,Croatiaand Slavonia OnFebruary27th1397SigismundcalledadietinthetownofKrievci,onthepretenseof resolvingconflicts;banLackoviarrivedwithhisarmy,butthesoldiershadtoremainoutside thetown,andtheCroatiandelegatesweredisarmedbeforethedebatebegan;intheensuing events,SigismundsretainerstookouttheirconcealedweaponsandkilledLackoviandhis supportersthiseventisknowninCroatianhistoryastheBloodyDietofKrievci(Krvavi saborkrievaki)

LadislausofNaples In1403HrvojeVukiHrvatinibroughtLadislausofNaples,thesonofCharlesIII,toZadar andcrownedhimastheHungarianandCroatianking LadislausnamedHrvojetheprinceofSplit,butin1408Hrvojepassedovertothesideof Sigismund In1409,LadislausofNaplessoldhisrightstoDalmatiatotheVenetiansfor100.000ducats; thiseventwastohaveacrucialsignificanceinthefuturedevelopmentofCroatianhistory.

TheCountsofCelje OriginallytheyhadlandsintheSavinjavalleyinSlovenia;thefirstmember,GerhardIwas mentionedin1130and1140 TheHabsburgsassignedthemtheadministrationofthemarksofCarniolaandStyria,and gavethemtheformerlyunimportanttownofCelje(Cilli),whichtheyusedintheirtitlefrom 1341onwards;withthehelpoftheHabsburgstheybecamecountsoftherealmandelectors oftheHolyRomanemperors ThecountsofCeljebegantogetinvolvedineventsinCroatiafrom1345,whencountUlrichI (133031360)andhisbrotherHermanI(d.1385)participatedinthewarforZadaras mercenariesofkingLouisI.

HermanIIofCelje(13601435) HewasthesonofHermanIandCatherineKotromani.AttheBattleofNicopolis(1396)he savedSigismundofLuxemburg,whopromisedtomarryhisdaughterBarbara;in1399 HermanbecametheCountofZagorje(NWCroatia),andin1403hisdaughtermarried Sigismund. HermanIIwasbanofDalmatia,CroatiaandSlavoniafrom1423to1435andthetitleofban becamehereditaryamongthecountsofCelje,untilthefamiliesextinguishmentin1456 In1397HermanIIreceivedthefortressesofVelikiTaborandVrbovecinZagorje,aswellas thetownofVaradin;whenhebecameCountofZagorjein1299hewasgiventhetownof Krapina,andthecastles:Medvedgrad,Lepoglava,Lobor,Otrc,Belec,theOldCastleof 30

Krapina,Cesargrad,Kostel,TrakoanandBela.EventuallythecountsofCeljeheldthetowns ofakovec,KoprivnicaandSamobor,andthecastlesKalnik,Susjedgrad,GornjaRekanear Krievci,GariinMoslavinaandSteninjaknearKarlovac.Thissituationlasteduntil1456. FreidrichIIofCelje(d.1454) TheoldestsonofHermanII;hewasmarriedtoElisabethFrankopan,withwhomhehadthe sonUlrichII(thelastofthelineage) FriedrichIIofCeljewasaprotagonistintheromanticlegendofVeronikaofDesini VeronikawasapeasantgirlwholivedinthevillageofDesiniunderthecastleVelikiTabor, whereHermanII,Friedrichsfather,ruledasthebanofDalmatia,CroatiaandSlavonia; Friedrichfellinlovewithherandagainsthisfatherswishesranawaywithherto FriedrichsteinnearKoevjewherehisfatherhadahuntinglodge;eventually,despiteefforts toescapeandhide,Friedrichwascapturedbyhisfatherandwalledupforfouryearsina towerinthefamilycastleinCelje;HermanIIalsocapturedVeronika,andattemptedto convictherofwitchcraft;theinquisitors,however,repliedthatsheisnotguiltyofanything exceptforlovingHermansson;Hermanthenhadtworetainersdrownherinapailofwater, andwallherbodyupinoneofthetowersofVelikiTabor;thelegendsaysthatsometimes onecanhearVeronikascriesduringstormynightsaroundthecastle In1982,whencleaningVelikiTabor,afemaleskullwasfound,whichsomebelievetobethe skullofVeronikaofDesini

BarbaraofCelje(13921451) ThedaughterofHermanII,shewasthesecondwifeofkingSigismundandthemotherof SigismundsdaughterElisabeth,wholatermarriedAlbertIIHabsburg;in1414shewas crownedQueenofGermany;in1419shequarrelledwithSigismund,butin1420relations werereestablishedandshebecametheQueenofBohemiaandin1433theHolyRoman Empress;shediedofplagueinMelnikinBohemia ThehumanistEneaSilvioPiccolomini(laterpopePiusII)describedBarbaraslifeaslecherous andfullofvice,andshewastermedtheMessalinaofGermany,yetherpoliticalactions indicateasharpmindandskill;shewasinstrumentalinSigismundsdecisiontofoundthe OrderoftheDragon

TheBlackQueen BarbaraofCeljeisidentifiedwiththelegendaryBLACKQUEENwhoruledfromMedvedgrad onZagrebMountain. Onelegendsaysthatwhenadroughthitthecountry,sheinvokedagreatrain,whichcreated thePlitvicalakes,butinotherlegendssheisevil. Shealwaysdressedinblackanditissaidthatshethrewherloversforthetowersofher castles;shewascrueltoherservantsandothers,andhadaravenwhowouldattackher enemies,peckouttheireyesandteartheirskin. Thus,whentheTurksattackedMedvedgrad,theBlackQueencouldfindnohelpfromanyone, andsotosavethecastleshecalledontheDevil:shesaid,hitthemDevilandIwillgiveyou MedvedgradtheDevildidnotdorespond,untilshesaidthatshewouldgivehimboth Medvedgradandhersoul;thentheDevilexpelledtheTurks

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LatertheBlackQueenregrettedherdecisionandtriedtotricktheDevil,butshediedcursed andbecametheQueenofSnakes ItwassaidthatsheburiedagreattreasureunderMedvedgrad,thatisguardedbysnakes; andthatonceayoungmanfoundthetreasure,butdidnottakeit,becausetodothishe wouldhavetokissthelargestsnakethatguardedit,whichwouldendthecurseand transformthesnakeintothebeautifulBlackQueen. JANUSPANNONIUS(14341472),orIvanesmiki,wasborninSlavonianearazmaor Bjelovar;hewastheonlymajorrenaissancepoetintheKingdomofCroatiaandHungary;he studiedinPadovaandreturnedtoCroatiaHungaryin1458whenMathiasCorvinwas crownedking;helaterbecamethebishopofPcs.HediedinMedvedgradin1472

MatthiasCorvinus(14431490) ThesuccessionfollowingtheruleofSigismundwascomplex:firstthethronewasheldby AlbertIIHabsburg(142739),husbandofSigismundsdaughterElisabeth,thenbyVladislavI JagiellonofVarna(14401444),whoserulewascontendedbyAlbertHabsburgsonlyson, LadislausPosthumous(14401457),andfinallyin1458,thefeudalDietelectedthesonof JohnHunyadiasthekingofHungaryandCroatia Corvinsreignwasmarkedbothbyculturaladvancementsandbycontinuousresistenceto theTurkishadvance;oneofhisinventionswasthesocalledBlackLegionwhichfoughtthe TurksinpresentdayBosnia InCroatiantradition,MatthiasCorvinisrememberedasajustruler,afterwhosedeath justicedisappearedfromthekingdom;theactualmeaningofthisallusionisbestseenfrom theperspectiveofthegraduallostofterritoryandtheconstanttreatsfromtheOttomans Duringhisreign,theTurkishsultanMehmedIItheConqueror(14441446;14511481) capturedConstantinople

TheFallofBosnia In1463MehmedIImovedagainstBosnia.TheBosniankingatthetime,StjepanTomaevi, lefttheroyalstrongholdBobovacandmovedtoWestBosnia(firsttoJajce,thentoKlju), expectedhelpfromVeniceandotherChristianstates. Whenhelpdidnotarrive,aftertheTurkishcommanderswornanoathtosparehislife,the kingsurrenderedtotheOttomans.However,MehmetIIlaterdeclaredthisoathvoidand beheadedhimonJune5th1463.BosniawassoonorganisedintoaOttomansanjak. Thekingswidow,CatherineKosaaKotromani,fledtoDubrovnikandthentoRome,where shediedin1478. ThefallofBosniainitiatedaseriesofmigrationsoftheChristianpopulationtoCroatia.

TheBattleofKrbava(September9th1493) AfterthedefeatoftheSerbsandtheiralliesinKosovoin1389,theOttomanTurksbegan plunderingraidsinBosniaandCroatia In1463theBosnianKingdomfelltotheTurks,anditskingStephenTomaevi(14611463) wasbeheaded In1491,duringoneraid,thearmyoftheCroatianbandefeatedtheTurkishraiders(akincilar), andfreed10.000Christianprisoners 32

In1493,thesamesituationdevelopedwhenJakubPashaattackedStyriaandZagorje; CroatianbanEmerikDereinintendedtoblocktheTurkishraidersontheirreturnrouteon theKrbavaplain;mostoftheCroatiannobilitygatheredatKrbava,sothatJakubPasha attemptedtoavoidtheconflict,andalsokilledallhiscaptivesthatwerecapableof resistence TheTurksmanagedtoluretheCroatsfromthefavourablepositiontheyheldatUdbinainto theopenplain,andthentheTurkishlightcavalrytotallydefeatedtheCroatianfeudalarmy;a largepartoftheoldnobilityperished,andabout7,000Croatsoldierswerkilled

PriestMartinac Between1493and1495,aftertheBattleofKrbava,thePriestMartinac,ofthetribeLapani, describedtheOttomanadvanceandthetragedyofCroatiaandSlavonia;hewroteinthe GlagoliticscriptandhislanguagehasmanyOldChurchSlavonicelements HementionedthataftertheTurkstookGreeceandBulgaria,BosniaandAlbania,theyfell upontheCroatiantongue(jazykhrvatski),destroyingpracticallytheentireCroatgentry.

Inthe1519.popeLeonXgaveCroatiathetitleAntemuralechristianitatisalthoughthishad beenmentionedalsoearlier Neverthelessin1526,HungarianandCroatianforcesweredefeatedbytheOttomansat Mohcs,whichledto"twocenturiesofcryingforCroatia(duepolorantesseaculaCroatiae) Thetwentyyearoldking,LouisIIJagiellon(16151526)alsoperishedonthefieldofMohcs

VI.HabsburgPeriod(15271918) EarlyModernPeriod FacedwiththecontinuousOttomanthreatandthedeathofkingLouisatMohcsthe CroatianDietconvenedatCetinonJanuary1st1527andelectedFerdinandIHabsburg, ArchdukeofAustria,asthekingofCroatia;theelectionwasconfirmedwiththesealsofsix CroatianmagnatesandfourAustrianplenipotentiaries;thedecisionwasbasedonthe estimatethatFerdinandcouldofferthebestpossibilitiesforthedefenceofthecountry InSlavonia,however,thenoblessidedwithanotherruler,theTransylvaniadukeandprince JohnofZapolya(15261540),whowasbyoriginfromSlavonia;Ferdinandwasacceptedin Slavoniaonlyin1540,afterthedeathofZapolya

Keytrends ThemostimportantdevelopmentthatoccuredaftertheCetinelectionofFerdinand Habsburg,andhislateracceptanceinSlavonia,wastheMIGRATIONOFTHECROATIAN NAMETOTHENORTH;inthenextcenturies,theconceptofCroatiaexpandedtowhatwas previouslyNorthWestSlavonia,andultimatelyZagrebbecamethecapitalofCroatia;the modernconceptofSlavoniaasapartofCroatiawoulddevelopafteritsliberationfromthe Ottomans MILITARYFRONTIER:inthesecondhalfofthe16thcenturylargepartsofCroatiaand Slavonia,alongtheOttomanborderwerereorganisedasaMilitaryfrontier(Vojnakrajina), whichwasdirectlyunderthecommandoftheMilitarychamberinGraz;atthesametime, 33

largenumbersofrefugeesfromtheOttomanborder,bothCroatsandVlachs(whowould latertakeonCroatandSerbnationalidentities,dependingontheirconfession),weresettled intheborderzone Uskoks SincethefallofBosniainthe15thcentury,groupsofChristianrefugeeshadbeenentering Croatianlands,wheretheyreceivedthenameuskok,derivedfromtheverbuskoiti,to jumpinto. OnegroupsettledfirstaroundBiha,andintheearly16thcenturymovedtotheumberak mountains. AnothergroupconcentratedaroundthefortressKlis,whichwasdefendedbyPetarKrui, whombanBerislavihadmadecaptainodKlisin1518(1519),andlatercaptainofSenj (1521). KlisfelltotheOttomansin1537,andKruidiedintheevacuation. TheUskoksthenmovedtoSenj,whereforthenext70yearstheywouldcontinuefighting boththeTurksandtheVenetians;thisledtowarbetweentheHabsburgsandVenicein1612, afterwhichtheUskokswereresettledintheinterior(1617). YettheactivitiesoftheUskoksatSenjweretoprovidethebasisforthedevelopmentofthe MilitaryFrontier.

TheSiegeofSiget(=Szigetvr) In1566,sultanSuleimantheMagnificent,already72,aidedbyhisgrandvizierSokullu MehmedPasha,movedwithanarmyofover100.000mentowardCentralEurope,withthe intenttotakeVienna AtSigethewasmetbyCroatianbanNikolaubiZrinski(15081566),whoheldthefortress withabout2,500soldiers;ultimatelySigetwastakenbutSuleimandiedduringtheseize, andthearrivalofbadweatherstoppedtheOttomanadvancetowardsVienna Atthetime,CardinalRichelieuapparentlyclaimedthatthebattlehadsavedcivilisation; latertheepicalsoproducedworksofliterature:asearlyas1573BrneKarnarutifromZadar wrotetheConquestofSziget(VazetjeSigetagrada),andin1647Zrinskisgreatgrandson NikolaZrinski(16201664)producedThePerilofSziget(Szigetiveszedelem),oneofthefirst majorpoeticworksintheHungarianlanguageitwaslatertranslatedintoCroatianas OpsidaSigeckabyNikolassbrotherPetarZrinski(16211671);furthermore,in19thcentury IvanZajc(18321914)composedtheoperaNikolaubiZrinskiwhichachievedspecial nationalstatus

MatijaGubecandthePeasantUprising(1573) InthedifficultsituationcausedbytheTurkishwars,theeconomyintheNorthWestCroatia, i.e.inZagorje,wasunderseverestrain MismanagementbythefeudallordFerencTahy(15261573)inDonjaStubicaeventually sparkedalargescalerevoltbytheserfsandpeasants,ledbyMatijaGubec Therevoltwascrushedinonly12daysandabout3000peasantsdiedinbattle;nevertheless itleftastrongimprintonthepopularimagination;MatijaGubecwasequatedwiththejust kingMatija,whoinallprobabilitywasinfactMatthiasCorvinus 34

MuchofhowCroatstodayimaginethepeasantuprisingistheresultoftheworkofthe19th centuryCroatnovelistAugustenoa(18381881),whosebookSeljakabuna(1877)was extremelypopular;theBalladsofPetricaKerempuh(1936)byMiroslavKrlea(18931981), writtenintheKajkaviandialectofNorthCroatia,alsowereinspiredbytheuprising;Petrica KerempuhwasaCroatianversionofthetricksterTillEulenspiegel

JurajDrakovi(15251587)andhisDescendents ThebanofCroatiaatthetimeofthepeasantuprisinghadbeenJurajIIDrakovi,awell educatedtheologanandpolitican,bishopandlatercardinal;hehadbeenborninKninin 1525andtheDrakovilineagehadbeenimportantsinceatleastthe13thcentury In1570JurajDrakovireceivedthecastleofTrakoan,whichhadoncebelongedtothe countsofCelje,fromkingMaximillianII TrakoanwouldremainthehereditaryresidenceoftheDrakovifamilyuntil1944, althoughitwasabandonedforatimeinthe18thcenturyandlaterrenewedinNeoGothic styleinthe19thcentury,asaruralmanor Karlovac WasfoundedonJuly13th1579,onthejunctionoftheKupaandKoranarivers,byorderof archdukeCharlesIIofAustria,(15401590)whosenameitstillcarries(cf.theGermanform Carlstadt). ThepurposeofthecitywastoserveasastrongholdinthemiddleoftheMilitaryFrontier. Itwasdesignedasasixpointedstar,almostidenticallytoNovZamkyinSlovakia(157381), andverysimilartotheVenetianfortressPalmanovainFriuli(1593).

TheTurnoftheTide ThefallofBihain1592markedthelowestpointintheperiodoftearsthecountrywas reducedtowhatwasalreadyknownastheRelictsofrelictsoftheoncegreatandextensive KingdomofCroatia(ReliquiaereliquiarumoliminclytiregniCroatiae) Yetinthenextyear,thetidebegantochangeonJune22nd1593banThomasBaka ErddyandHabsburggeneralsAndrewAuerspergandRuprechtvonEggenbergdefeatedthe OttomanforcesledbyHasanPashaPredojeviatSisak;HasanPasha,whohadearlier threatenedZagreb,drownedintheKupariverduringhisflight ProtestanismandtheCatholicCounterreformation TheProtestantreformationdidhaveaneffectonCroatia,andatleastoneCroat,Mathias FlaciusIllyricuswassignificantlyinfluentialindevelopingProtestanttheology. ProtestantismwasespeciallystrongatonetimeintheMeimurjearea,whereitwas supportedbytheZrinskifeudallords,especiallybyJuraj(George)IVZrinski(15491603),who alsoopenedaprintingpressinNedelietopublishProtestantmaterial. HissonJurajV(15991626),however,revertedtoCatholicism,andreestablishedtheCatholic parishesinMeimurje IncontrasttothesituationinHungary,wheremanymembersofthenobilityaccepted Protestantism,themajorityofCroatiasmagnatsremainedCatholicandinfact,Croatiasoon becameabastionoftheCatholicConterReformationorRevival.

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In1609banThomasErddyeventhreatenedbreakingtheunionwithHungary,soonerthan hewouldacceptLutheransinCroatia;headdedthatCroatiahadthreerivers(theSava,Drava andKupa)inwhichto"givedrinktothosenewguests. Inthiscontext,theCroatianParliamentdeclared(1609)thatonlytheCatholicreligionwould berecognisedinCroatiaandSlavonia,whichalsoservedtopreventProtestantHungarian magnatesfromgaininglandinCroatia. ThearrivaloftheJesuitsinCroatiaaroundtheturnofthe17thcentury,additionallyhelped maintaintheCatholicismofthecountry. TheJesuitssetupgymnasiumsinRijeka(1627),Varadin(1636)andDubrovnik(1662),andin 1669,bydecreeoftheemperorLeopoldI(16401705)establishedtheJesuitAcademyof Zagreb,whichwouldeventuallydevelopintotheUniversityofZagreb. MostacademicandscientificworkbyCroatiansinthisperiodwasconductedinthecontext oftheCatholicChurch. Thisappliestopersonsinthelate16thandin17thcentury,suchasFaustVrani(1551 1617),BartolKai(15751650),IvanBelostenec(15941675),IvanLui(16041679),and JurajHabdeli(16091678). Finally,thestrongaffirmationoftheBaroquestyleinmanyCroatiantownsduringthe17th and18thcenturyisanotherindicationoftheeffectsoftheCatholicCounterReformation.

TheThirtyYearsWar(16181648) DuringtheThirtyYearsWar,whosecauseswerecomplex,andincludedbothreligiousand politicalmotives,Croatsservedonbothsidesoftheconflict. BesidesfightingonthesideoftheHabsburgEmperor,numberousCroatswereenlistedas mercenariesalsointheFrenchlightcavalry.Aspartoftheirmilitarydress,theyworeaform ofscarf,whichinenteredintofashioninFrance,andwascalled,fromtheCroatethnonym,a cravate.

ZrinskiFrankopanConspiracy(16641670) ThemagnatefamiliesZrinskiandFrankopan,hadplayedamajorroleinCroatianhistoryfor severalcenturies,oftenasbansofCroatiaorSlavonia. TheZrinskifamilywasalsoimportantinHungaryhistory,andinHungarianliteratureaswell. Inthe17thcenturythisespeciallyappliedtoNikolaZrinski(16201664),inHungarianZrny Mikls,whoisconsideredtobeoneofthemajorearlyHungarianpoets,aswellasaleading intellectualandpoliticianofhistime.In1651,hacomposedanepiconthefallofSzigervr, SyreneoftheAdriaticSea(AzAdriaitengernekSyrenja),intheHungarianlanguage,which hisbrotherPetarlatertranslatedintoCroatian(Adrianszkogamorasyrena). Nikolahadacomplexculturalidentity,butwasalsoveryawarethathewasaCroat,whichhe emphasisedinonefamousstatement:Egomihiconsciusalitersum,etenimnondegenerem, meCroatametquidemZriniumessescio(IamawareandshallnotdenythatIamaCroat, andIknow,moreover,thatIamaZrinski). InCroatiaduringthe17thcenturyaparticularliteraryschoolhaddevelopedcentredaround theOzaljcastle,wherethethreemajorprotagonistshadbeenNikolasyoungerbrotherPetar Zrinski(16211671),PetarswifeAnaKatarina(16251673)andherbrotherFranKrsto

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Frankopan(16431671);thisschoolalsoinitiatedatypeofstandardisationoftheCroatian languagebasedontheakavian,Kajkavianandtokaviandialects. In1664,asareactiontoincreasingcentralisttendenciesfromVienna,PetarsbrotherNikola, beganaconspiracyinalliancewithpalatinofHungary,askingfortheaidofFrance,Poland andeventheOttomanstosecuretheprotectionofwhathesawashisnoblerights.The JesuitpriestJurajHabdeliwouldlaterlabelthisasfalsevanityofthenobility. Whateverthecase,whenNikolawaskilledbyaboarinahuntingaccident(althoughtheboar mayhavebeenpolitical),PetarZrinskisteppedinhisplace. However,theshemehadbeenpoorlyprepared. In1670LeopoldIinvitedtheCroatianmagnatestoVienna,underthepretenceofconciliation; theywerecondemnedtodeathforoffencestothekingandtreasononApril18th1671and executedonApril30th1671inWienerNeustadt

EmperorLeopoldHabsburg(b.1640,r.16581705) MorethanadecadeaftertheexecutionofZrinskiandFrankopan,duringthegreatAustro Turkishwarof16831699,LeopoldsarmyhadpenetratedintoSerbia,whereitwas supportedbytheSerbs,undertheirpatriarchArsenijeIIIrnojevi(16331706). Whenin1690thetideofwarturnedagainsttheHabsburgs,60.0070.000ofCrnojevis SerbsacceptedtheAustrianoffertomigrateintotheEmpire. Inthefollowingyears,duetotheirservicestotheHabsburgs(includingtheirsupportin crushingtheRkczirebellion(1703),theSerbsweregivenaseriesofprivileges,including separatejudicialrightsandrightsofprotectionandpriorityinmatteroftheEasternrite.

LukaIbriimovi(16201698) WasaFrancescanfriar,whoduringtheAustroTurkishwarorganisedapopularuprisingto liberateSlavoniafromtheTurks. In1683,afteraverylargeOttomanarmyhadalmostmanagedtoreachVienna,onthe popesiniciative,theHabsburgMonarchy,VeniceandPolandorganisedtheHolyLeague, tofinallyliberateoccupiedareasfromtheOttomans. SincetheEmperorsarmywasbusyatthetimeinHungaryandtheCroatianbansarmywas engagedinNorthwestCroatia,Ibrainovicalledthelocalpopulationtoarms,andonMarch 12th1689defeatedtheOttomansonSokolovacmountainatPoega. By1691IbraimovihadliberatedallofSlavonia.

MarkoMesi(16401713) JustasIbrainovihadtakentheiniciativetoexpelltheTurksfromSlavonia,theparishpriest MarkoMesimovedagainstthemintheareaofLikaandKrbava. HebeganhisinsurrectedonJune15th1689,andwithinlittlemorethanamonth,byJuly 21st1689,hadmanagedtodrivetheOttomansfromthearea. MesiconvertedtoCatholicismtheMuslimpopulationthathadchosentoremaininapartof LikaaroundPerui(historicaltextslaterrefertothemasNeochristiani).

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CroatiaRedivivaandNationalRevival Intheyear1700,afterthepeaceofSrijemskiKarlovci(1699)inwhichmostofSlavoniahad beenliberated,PavaoRitterVitezovi(16521713)publishedtheworkCroatiarediviva regnanteLeopokloMagnocaesare,inwhichheenvisionedtherebirthofCroatia Intruththeextentofthecountryhadbeengreatlyincreased,butitspoliticalpositionwas weak,andtheautonomyofthekingdom,moreorlesspreservedthroughouttheprevious centuries,facedincreasingpressurefrommodernistcentralisationschemes Ontheotherhand,thebeginningofthemodernerawasalsomarkedbyeventssuchasthe witchtrialsinZagrebinthefirsthalfofthe18thcentury,whichendedduringthereignof MariaTheresa(17171780)

BaronFranzvonderTrenck(16111749) HewasofPrussianorigin,borninReggioCalabria,buthadAustriancitizenshipandlarge estatesnearPoegainSlavonia. HebeganamilitarycarreerintheAustrianarmyin1728,butwasdisgracefullydischarges, afterwhichhesettledforatimeinPoegaandmarried. Afterhiswifediedin1737,hebegantoorganizehisirregulartroops,thepandursandalso servedasamercenaryforatimeintheRussianarmy.Duetohisbehaviorhewassentenced todeathbutlateronlydegraded. DuringthewarofAustrianSuccessionhewouldbecomefamous,butagainduetohis conductreceivefirstadeathsentence,thenalifelongprisonterm(inthefortressSpielberg nearBrno). Trenckcandefinitelynotbeconsideredaparticularlypositiveperson,howeverhedid managetoinstillenthusiasmamongthepeasantsofSlavonia,andbecameatypeofpopular hero. HealsocontributedtocreatingtheimageoftheCroatianpandur,thatinspiredmixed emotions. Ineffect,muchoftheparticularityhehadgiventhepandurs(theywayofdress,behaviour, militarymusic),hadbeenborrowedfromtheTurks. PandursandCroatsbecametobecomepracticallysynonyms,aftertheexpression:Wirsind Kroaten,wirsindpanduren.

Modernisation ModernisationreceivedanewturnunderJosephII(17801790),characterisedbythe introductionofacentralbeaurocracy,butalsobythetemporaryeliminationofCroatianand HungarianmunicipalrightsandanattempttoGermanisethepopulation TheFrenchRevolution,andlatertheNapoleonicwarsprofoundlyeffectedCroatia NapoleonendedtheVenetianRepublicin1797andthusalsoVenetianruleoverDalmatia;in 1808hisgeneralsalsoendedtheindependenceofDubrovnik,whichhadcontinuedfromthe ageofMediaevalcommunes In1809,aftertheTreatyofSchnbraum,Dalmatia,Dubrovnik,Istriaandsurroundingpartsof SloveniaandCroatiaweredirectlyattachedtotheFrenchEmpire,asitsIllyrianProvinces, withtheircapitalinLjubljana. 38

NapoleonsdefeatbroughtalltheseareasintotheHabsburgempire(1813),whichmight haveimpliedalsoreunificationofDalmatiaandCroatiayetalthoughthisunitywas recogniseddeiureitwasneverrealiseduntilafterthefalloftheEmpire

NationalRevival TheCroatianNationalRevival,underthenameoftheIllyrianMovement,beganinthe1830s, andformostofitsearlyphasewasfocusedmoreonissuesoflanguageandculture,thanon politicalissues;thenameIllyrianwaschosentoencompassalltheSouthSlavs,andatleast someoftheIllyrians,suchasLjudevitGaj,imaginedacontinuumfromtheAlpstotheBlack Sea WhentheIllyriannamewasbannedbyimperialorderonJanuary17th1843,theresultwas increasedintegration,onceagainundertheCroatianethnonym TheRevolutionsof1848,andparticularlybanJelaisinterventionagainsttheHungarians, furtherincreasedCroatianselfawareness;Jelaiabolishedserfdom,convenedthefirstnon feudalDiet,supportedthebuildingofaCroatiantheatre,introducedtheCroatiantricolour, andmanagedtobringabouttheelevationoftheDioceseofZagrebtothelevelofan Archdiocese

TheSecondhalfofthe19thcentury Aftertherevolutionsby1849,theemperorFranzJosephimplementedanewperiodof absolutism,inwhichtheCroatianandHungarianDietsweresuspended,aswellasthe autonomyofthecounties,andGermanwasintroducedastheofficiallanguage. OnemajorexceptiontothetrendwastheelevationofZagrebdiocesetotherankod archdiocese(bytheemperorsdecreeonAugust12th1850). However,absolutismdidnotsucceed;firstin1867,acompromisewasmadebetween AustriaandHungaryproducingthenewDualMonarchy;inthenextyear,1868,Croatia SlavoniamanagedtosecureacertainrenewalofautonomythroughtheCroatianHungarian accord. Financialandotherkeyissueswerestillnotresolved,andthustheentireperiodfrom1868 toWWIwasatimeoftension,inwhichnewpoliticalpartiescameintoexistencee.g.the CroatianPartyofRightsofAnteStarevi,andlatertheCroatianPeasantPartyofthe brothersAntunandStjepanRadi. In1871,EugenKvarternik,whowasaffiliatedwiththePartyofRights,wouldattemptan armedinsurrection. In1880therewasamajorearthquakeinZagreb,whichdestroyedtheoldcathedral. OnemajorchangefromtheCroatianviewpoint,wasthereincorporationoftheMilitary frontierintoCroatiain1881,whichwasaneffectoftheAustroHungaryoccupationofBosnia andHerzegovinain1878. AttemptstopacifyCroatia,i.e.tomakeitamereHungarianprovince,werepursued especiallyduringthetimewhenKrolyKhuenHdervry(18491918)wasbanofCroatia (18831903); TheeventsassociatedwiththeburningoftheHungarianflaginZagrebin1903endedthis phase,althoughdemandsformorenationalautonomywerenotsatisfied;andthegeneral

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stateofthecountryseconomywasalarmingintheseyears(partiallyasaresultofproblems duringindustrialisationandthedemographictransition). Finally,itshouldbenotedthatmostCroatianpoliticalfactorsattheendofthe19thcentury andintheyearsbeforeWWIhadmoreorlessaPanSlavicorSouthSlavicorientation,which ultimatelybroughtaboutthewithdrawalofCroatiafromtheHabsburgEmpire.

TheTurnoftheCentury AttemptstopacifyCroatia,i.e.tomakeitamereHungarianprovince,werepursued especiallyduringthetimewhenKrolyKhuenHdervry(18491918)wasbanofCroatia (18831903); TheeventsassociatedwiththeburningoftheHungarianflaginZagrebin1903endedthis phase,althoughdemandsformorenationalautonomywerenotsatisfied;andthegeneral stateofthecountryseconomywasalarmingintheseyears(partiallyasaresultofproblems duringindustrialisationandthedemographictransition) Finally,itshouldbenotedthatmostCroatianpoliticalfactorsattheendofthe19thcentury andintheyearsbeforeWWIhadmoreorlessaPanSlavicorSouthSlavicorientation,which ultimatelybroughtaboutthewithdrawalofCroatiafromtheHabsburgEmpire FranzFerdinand(18631914),successortotheHabsburgthronefrom1883,hadfavoured reorganisationoftheMonarchyandthecreationofathirdunit,consistingofCroatia, Slovenia,BosniaHerzegovinaandVojvodina;hisassassinationonJune28th1914inSarajevo bySerbnationalistswastoleadtotheoutbreakofWWI TheStateofSlovenes,CroatsandSerbs,headedbythepreviousformedNationalCouncilof Slovenes,CroatsandSerbs(Narodnovijee),declareditsindependencefromtheHabsburg EmpireonOctober29th1918(theterritoryofthestateessentiallyconsistedofareaswhich hadbeenproposedasathirdSouthSlavicentityinthetrialistplantoreformtheMonarchy); however,nothavingbeenabletogaininternationalrecognitionandunderpoliticalpressure, thestatewasunitedwithSerbiaandMontenegroonDecember1st1918toformthe KingdomofSerbs,CroatsandSlovenes,i.e.thefirstYugoslavia

VII.Dubrovnik(7thcentury1808)
Earlyperiod AccordingtolegendthecitywasfoundedbyrefugeesfromtheRomancolonyEpidaurum (Cavtat),whichwasdestroyedeitherbytheGothsin265AD,orduringtheAvarandSlav invasionsofthe6th/7thcentury Thelocationofthenewcitywasonthetheprecipice,i.e.Laus,whichultimatelygavethe LatinnameofthetownRagusa(Laus>Rausia,etc.) In866and867thecitywasbesiegedbytheSaracensandrescuedbytheByzantineemperor BasilI(967886) In948Veniceattackedthetown,butwasrepelled(aswasbelieved)bytheinterventionof SaintBlaise(SvetiVlaho),whobecamethepatronsaintofthecity(SaintBlaisewasanearly ChristianmartyrwhichperishedinthereignofDiocletian)

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In1191theEmperorgavethecityfreetraderightsinByzantium,andsimilarrightswere giventothecitizensofDubrovnikbySerbiain1186andbytheBosnianbanKulinin1189 Duringthe4thcrusade(12021205)VenicetookDalmatiawiththehelpofthecrusades,and alsoestablishedsuzeraintyoverDubrovnik However,thecitysterritoryexpandedinthe14thcentury,withtheacquisitionofPeljeec (1333)andtheislandofMljet(1345) In1348,theBlackdeathkilledabout7,000inhabitantstheresultwasthatin1377 Dubrovniksetupthefirstquarantineintheworld(shipsarrivingfromplagueinfestedareas, locispestiferis,wererequiredtospendamonthontheislandsintheDubrovnikParish/upa dubrovaka(Supetar,MrkanorBobara) In1358thePeaceofZadar,endedVenetianruleinDalmatia;Dubrovnikacceptedthe suzeraintyoftheCroatianHungarianking(LouisIofAnjou)

RepublicofRagusa Inthe14thcentury,thepreviousMediaevalcommune,CommunitasRagusina,tookthe nameRespublicaRagusina. 1395,thefirstlawonmaritimeinsuranceinEuropewaspassedinDubrovnik Territorialexpansion:1399thecoastbetweenthecityandPeljeacpeninsulawas incorporated,andbetween1419and1426theKonavleregionandCavtat September27th1416DubrovnikwasthefirstEuropeanstatetoabolishslavery The1516thcenturymarksthehighpointoftherepublic;seafaringandmaritimetrade(raw materialsfromtheBalkans)developedandexpandedthroughouttheMediterraneanand alsointheAtlanticandIndianocean Politicalorganisation:theGrandCouncil(ConsiliumMaior)enactedlawsandtheSmall Council(Consiliumminus)representedtheexecutivepower;therectorwaselectedevery month In1458theRepublicagreetobecometributarytotheOttomansultanandtopayatribute in1481,whenthecitywasunderOttomanprotection,thistributeamountedto12,500 ducatsayear;thisprovedanadvantagetotradeintheeast;attheendofthe16thcentury DubrovnikputitsmerchantfleetatthedispenseoftheSpanishEmpire,onconditionthat thiswouldnotreflectonOttomaninterests OnApril6th1667thecitywashitbyapowerfulearthquake,causing5,000deaths In1684DubrovnikrecognisedthesovereigntyoftheHabsburgemperor,astheCroatianking, payingapriceof500ducatsayear,yetitcontinuedalsotorecognisetheOttomans;in1699, aftertheTreatyofKarlowitz(SrijemskiKarlovci),inordertogainabufferzonetowards VenetianDalmatia,DubrovniksoldtwopiecesoflandtotheOttomans:NeumintheNorth, andSutorinaintheSouth;theformerisnowpartofBosniaandHerzegovinaandthelateris inMontenegro DuringtheRussianTurkishwarof17681775,Dubrovnikofferedtoprovidelogisticsupport totheOttomanshoweveraRussianconsulatewasopenedinthetownin1775,afterthe Russianfleetsailedintotheharbour

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In1806,duringtheNapoleonicwars,aMontenegrinRussianforceattackedthetownand bombardeditforseveralmonths,January31th1808Napoleonsarmyenteredthecityand endedtheRepublic AttheCongressofViennain1815DubrovnikwasattachedtotheKingdomofDalmatia,and wouldremainunderHabsburgauthorityuntilthebreakupoftheEmpirein1918

DevelopmentofCroatianidentity Dubrovnikhadaspecificdevelopment,asaninitiallyLatintownthatgraduallybecameSlavic andCroatian Asearlyasthe11thcenturytheArabgeographercalleditthemostSoutherntownofCroatia In1358,afterthepieceofZadar,theRepublicofDubrovniktookanoathtoflyCroatianflags fromitsships Thelanguagesituationremainedcomplex,andthelocationRomanicdialectseemstohave surviveduntilthe14thcentury,althoughtherewasincreasinguseofSlavicinthecity's councils In1698,whenvisitingthecityonamissionforPeterIofRussia,countPeterAleksejevi TolstojconfirmedthatInDalmatiathepeopleofDubrovnikcalledthemselvesCroats Inthelate19thcenturytheywasamovementofSerbCatholicsinDubrovnik,basically presentonlyinthenobilityandaimedatdistancingthecityfromtherestofDalmatia;this ephemeralpoliticalcoursequicklydisappearedinthe20thcentury

VIII.CroatsinBosniaandHerzegovina
Basictendencies BosniaHerzegovinaisverycloselytiedgeographicallytotheareaofCroatiaandSlavonia, andthroughouthistorytherehavebeenmanytransfersofpopulationinthisdirection OriginallyBosniawasasmallcountryalongtheuppervalleyoftheriverBosniamanyofthe areastothewestwereintegralpartsofeitherCroatiaorSlavonia;thefirstknownbanof Bosnia(Bori,12thcentury)andpossiblyalsotheKotromanidynastyhadbeenofSlavonian origin AfterthegradualconquestofpresentdayWestBosniainthe1516th,Croatianidentitywas preservedintheareabytheOttomans,anditwascommonforthenewlyconvertedMuslim populationtoidentifyasCroats;thisidentificationofBosnianMuslimsasCroatslasted,more orless,tothe1920thcenturies,whenitgavewaytoBosniakidentification Inthemeantime,CroatidentificationwasmainlypreservedbytheCatholicChurch,and especiallybytheFranciscans In1463FraAneloZvizdovireceivedacharterforsultanMehmedII,whichguaranteed freedomfortheCatholicconfessioninBosnia Herzegovina,inthemeantime,hadbeenthecreationoftheKosaadynasty,intheformer landsofHumandPrimorje(theLittoral) inthemid15thcentury,StjepanVukiKosaatookthetitleduke(i.e.herzog=herceg)of SaintSava,whichwastogivethenameHerzegovina;inaletterdatedJanuary20th1448the emperorFriedrichIIIcongratulatedStjepanonhisnewtitle

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CroatsinBosniaandHerzegovinaoftenidentifywiththelastCatholicrulersofBosnia,and forinstanceKatarinaKosaaKotromani,thewifeofthelastBosniankingStjepanTomaevi, whowentintoexileafterhismurderin1463isseenbythemasaCroatianqueen Developmentsinthe20thcenturyincreasedthelinkbetweenCatholicismandBosnianCroat identity,justasIslamicidentitybecamethebasisforBosniakidentity

IX.TwentiethCentury
TheStateofSlovenes,CroatsandSerbs OnOctober29th1918,theCroatianDiet(Parliament)inZagrebproclaimedtheformationof theStateofSlovenes,CroatsandSerbs OnOctober31sttheemperorKarlsignedadecreeinwhichtheAustroHungariannavyand allfortificationsandportsontheterritoryofthenewstateweretobehandedovertothe NationalAssembly(Narodnovijee)inZagreb At17hoursonthesameday,theAustroHungarianflagwasloweredfromthebattleship ViribusUnitisinPulaandtheCroatiantricolourwasraised;thatsamenightsaboteursfrom anItaliandestroyerinthevicinityminedtheshipandcausedanexplosionwhichvirtually splitit;thecommanderJankoVukoviPodkapelskiand400sailorsperished OnDecember1st1918theNationalCouncilbroughtadecisiontojointhestatewiththe KingdomofSerbia(withhadjustjoinedwithMontenegro),tocreatetheKingdomofSerbs, CroatsandSlovenes

KingdomofSerbs,CroatsandSlovenes OnDecember1st1918,theregentAlexanderKaraoreviproclaimedthecreationofthe KingdomofSerbs,CroatsandSlovenes Thenewstatewascontradictoryfromthebeginning,poorlydemocratic(electionrigging) andcorrupttothecore;inCroatia,themajoroppositiontotheregimewascarriedoutby StjepanRadiandhisCroatianPeasantParty,whichessentiallyamountedtointroducingthe peasantryintopolitics ThegrowingpoliticalcrisisinthecountryarrivedsurfacedinJune20th1928whenaSerb deputyfromMontenegroopenedfireonStjepanRadiandtwootherCroatdeputiesinthe Parliament(PavaoRadianduroBasariek),killingthelatterandmortallywoundingRadi, whodiedonAugust8th1928 Asaresultofthesituation,onJanuary6th1929,kingAlexanderproclaimedadictatorship andrenamedthecountrytoYugoslavia,underthemottoofonepeople,oneking,one state"

KingdomofYugoslavia Yugoslaviawasofficiallyborn,in1929,asadictatorship SocalledintegralYugoslavismpursuedbytheking,ultimatelyamountedtofavouringSerb interests(whichwasveryvisibleineconomicterms)

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In1932theCroatianPeasantParty,nowledbyVladkoMaek(18791964)issuedtheZagreb Manifesto,inprotesttotheSerbhegemonyandthedictatorialpowersofthekingthe CroatianquestionbecameacrucialissueinYugoslavia Radicalalternativeswerealsodeveloping;,andfinallyonOctober9th1934kingAlexander wasassassinatedinMarseillebyaMacedonianrevolutionary,incooperationwiththeCroat extremistorganisation,theUstashaorganisedbyAntePaveli(18891959) Alexandersoldestson,PeterII(19231970,reign19341945),wasdeclaredkinghowever duetohisminority,theregencywasmaintainedbyAlexanderscousin,princePaul Karaorevi(18931976) PrincePaulattemptedtomanagethecountryintheverytenseinternationalsituationcaused bytheincreasingpressuresofItalyandGermanyinEurope AnattempttoresolvetheCroatianproblemwasmadein1939,whentheYugoslavprime ministerofthetime,DragiaCvetkovi(18931969),reachedanaccordwithMaekon August26th,whichprovidedfortheestablishmentofanautonomousBanovinaofCroatia, withitsownparliament TheBanovinaofCroatiawastohaveautonomyinregardtotrade,industry,education, agriculture,jurisdictionandsocialpolicy;planswerealsomadefortheintroductionofa separateCroatiancurrency,thekuna,butwerenotrealisedbeforethedownfallof Yugoslavia OnMarch25th1941,princePaulsignedtheTripartitePact(Germany,Italy,Japan),which meantsupportfortheAxisforcesintheoncomingwar;twodayslateracoupd'tat occurred,princePaulsgovernmentwasoverturnedandkingPeterwasdeclaredofage OnApril6th1941NaziGermanyattackedtheKingdomofYugoslavia,whichsurrenderedin 11days,onApril17th;inthemeantimekingPeterIIfledfromthecountry AftertheAprilwar,partsofYugoslaviawereincorporatedintoItaly,theGermanReich, Hungary,BulgariaandAlbania,muchofCroatiaandallofBosniaHerzegovinabecamethe IndependentStateofCroatia,anAxisalley,andpuppetstatesweresetupalsoinSerbia andMontenegro

WWII
NDH TheIndependentStateofCroatia,abbreviatedNDH(=NezavisnaDravaHrvatska),was formedonApril10th1941,duetotheeffortsoftheCroatnationalistgroup,theUstasha,and itsleaderAntePaveli(18891959),whotookthenameofpoglavnik(=headman) Inprinciple,thenotionofCroatianindependentreceivedsupport,butveryquicklyitbecame apparentthatNDHwasnotinrealityanindependentstate,butratherdependentonNazi GermanyandFascistItaly,andalsoconcessionsgiventoItalyinDalmatiaalienatedmany Croats Theformoftheregimewastotalitaristic,basicallycopiedfromitsGermanandItalian mentors,andincludedraciallaws,concentrationcampsandmobilemartialcourts,which causedthedeathoftensofthousandsofJews,Gypsies,Serbs,Croats,etc.

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ApartfromtheatrocitiescommittedbytheUstasha,therewerealsomassacresconducted bySerbnationalists,i.e.Chetniks,andbyotherparties,includingtheCommunistled Partisans Estimatesvaryastototalnumberofcasualties,howeverBogoljubKoovicalculatedthat theyamountedtoabout1,014,000inthewholeofYugoslavia,andVladimirerjavi estimatedthisnumberas1,027,000;Kooviconcludedthat487,000ofthisnumberwere Serbs,207,000Croatsand86,000BosnianMuslims;erjavigaveahigherestimateforSerbs, 530,000,aslightlylowerestimateforCroats,192,000,andahigherestimateforMuslims, 103,000. SERBDEATHS:consideringonlytheterritoryofNDH,KooviestimatedSerbdeathsat 370.000.erjavicalculatedthisnumbertobe335,000,i.e.13,000killedabroadand 322,000inNDH,ofwhich125.000combatantdeathsand197,000civiliansdeaths(78,000 killedbytheUstasha,45.000killedbyGermans,15,000killedbyItalians,25,000victimsof typhoidand34,000killedinclashesbetweentheUstasha,ChetniksandPartisans)

TitosPartisanMovement OppositiontotheNazisandFascists,andalsototheirallies,concretelythegovernmentof NDH,beganpracticallyimmediately,primarilyorganisedbytheCommunistsledbyJosipBroz Tito(1891980) ThefirstPartisanmovementinCroatia(andinallofformerYugoslavia)tooktothefieldon April22nd1941,fromthecityofSisak TitoandhissupporterswereawareofthereasonsforthedownfallofthepreviousYugoslav state;therefore,duringthesecondsessionoftheAntiFascistCouncilofNationalLiberation ofYugoslavia(inthelastweekofNovember1943)theyproclaimedthatthenewYugoslav statewouldbefederationofnationalrepublics,establishedontheprincipleofself determinationoftheSouthSlavicpeoples Thefinaloperationsofthewarweremarkedbyretaliations,the"Bleiburgmassacres"in 1945andtheDeathmarchesofmembersofthearmedforcesofNDH(45,00055,000 victimsaccordingtoerjavi),aswellastheexpulsionsofethnicGermansandlaterethnic Italians

AlojzijeStepinac(18981960) Ordainedasapriestin1930,StepinacbecamearchbishopofZagrebin1937. AftertheproclamationofNDH,hegavehisapprovaltothenewstate,butsoonopenly criticiseitspoliticiestowardsSerbs,Jewsandothers,andcondemnedrasistideologiesand policies. WhenthepartisansarrivedinZagrebinMay1945,Stepinacwasarrested,butreleasedthe nextday;inautumn1946hewasarrestedagain,andsentencedto16yearsofprison,which hebegantoserveinLepoglava. In1951,hissentencewascommutedtohousearrestinhishomevillage,Krai,andthenext yeartheVaticanproclaimedhimcardinal. Stepinacdied,afteralongillness,in1960. HewasdeclaredblessedbypopeJohnPaulIIin1998.

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SecondYugoslavia(SocialistFederalRepublic)
ThevictoryofthePartisansin1945ledtothecreationoftheSocialistFederalRepublicof Yugoslavia,withsixconstituentsocialistrepublics ThisfederalmodelwasclearlycopiedfromtheSovietUnion:thestatewasdominatedbythe CommunistParty,andinthefirstpostwaryearsitsmethodologywasverysimilartoSoviet practicesduringtheStalinistera;finallyatrademakewouldbecomealsosocialistself management,especiallyafterthe1974constitution However,basicallytwokeyfactorsheldthecountrytogether: 1)thehegemonyoftheCommunistParty,renamedin1952theLeagueofCommunists,and 2)thespecificpositionthatYugoslaviahadassumedintheInternationalcommunityafter TitosbreakwithStalinin1948. Thesecondfactorhadtwofurtheraspects: fromtheoutside,Yugoslaviasinternationalposition,eventuallyarticulatedinthenon alignedmovement,seemedtobeusefulduringtheColdWarbothtotheUnitedStatesand totheSovietUnion; fromtheinside,theimageoftheColdWarandofexternalenemiesfromboththeEastand WesthelpedsustaintheimagethatYugoslaviawasnecessaryfortheprotectionofits constituentpeoples OncetheLeagueofYugoslavCommunistsfellapartin1990,leadingthewaytothefirst democraticelectionsin1991,andoncetheColdWarended,Yugoslaviasspecificreasonfor existingdisappeared. Thiswascompoundedbythefactthatthecountryhadexperiencedalmostadecadeof economiccrisisafterTitosdeathin1980 Dissolutionwastobeexpected,anddidnothavetoimplyanythingnegative;ifapeaceful disbandingcouldhavebeenachieved,asinthecaseofCzechoslovakia,onecouldhave imaginedevenanimprovementofrelationsbetweenformerYugoslavrepublics,insteadof theterriblepostYugoslavwarsthatactuallyoccurred.

IndependenceRenewed(1991)
Althoughitiscertainthatduetothechangeoftheinternationalsituation,Croatiaandother formerYugoslavrepublicswouldhavedeclaredtheirindependenceatanyrate,theroot causeofthepostYugoslavwarshastobesoughtintheaggressiveGreaterSerbian movementthatdevelopedinthedecadeafterTitosdeath,andwhichwasessentially orchestratedbytheSerbleaderSlobodanMiloevi(19412006) MiloeviinstrumentalisedSerbfrustrationsandpretensionstohisownends;thisliberated manypentupfeelings;overtChetnikgroupsbegantoappear,andnonSerbssenseddanger InJanuary1990duringthe14thCongressoftheLeagueofCommunists,Miloeviattempted toforcethroughhissolutionstotheongoingcrisisoftheYugoslavstate,whichledtoawalk outfirstbytheSlovenianandthenbytheCroatianCommunists ThreemonthsafterwardsSloveniaheldthefirstmultipartyelectionsinformerYugoslavia, andattheendofthesameyear,Sloveniaheldareferendumwhichconfirmedthecountrys intenttoleaveYugoslavia(26.12.1990). 46

ThisprogressionwasrepeatedshortlyinCroatia:inMay1990thefirstmultipartyelections wereheld,withavictorybytheCroatianDemocraticUnion,ledbyFranjoTuman(1922 1999);onMay19th1991areferendumonindependencewasheldinCroatiawithsimilar overwhelmingresultsasthereferenduminSlovenia. OnJune25th1991,bothSloveniaandCroatiaofficiallydeclaredtheirindependencefrom Yugoslavia InJanuary1990duringthe14thCongressoftheLeagueofCommunists,Miloeviattempted toforcethroughhissolutionstotheongoingcrisisoftheYugoslavstate,whichledtoawalk outfirstbytheSlovenianandthenbytheCroatianCommunists ThreemonthsafterwardsSloveniaheldthefirstmultipartyelectionsinformerYugoslavia, andattheendofthesameyear),Sloveniaheldareferendumwhichconfirmedthecountrys intenttoleaveYugoslavia(26.12.1990). ThisprogressionwasrepeatedshortlyinCroatia:inMay1990thefirstmultipartyelections wereheld,withavictorybytheCroatianDemocraticUnion,ledbyFranjoTuman(1922 1999) OnMay19th1991areferendumonindependencewasheldinCroatiawithsimilar overwhelmingresultsasthereferenduminSlovenia. OnJune25th1991,bothSloveniaandCroatiadeclaredtheirindependencefromYugoslavia

TheHomelandWar ItisdifficulttodetermineexactlywhenthewarinCroatiabegan;certainleadersoftheSerb ethnicminorityinCroatiahadproclaimedtheSerbAutonomousRegionofKrajinaasearly asOctober1990,evenbeforetheCroatianreferendumonindependence;thishadledto conflictswithCroatiasregularpoliceforces. DuringonesuchincidentatPlitviceLakesonEasterSunday1991(March28th1991),a Croatianpolicemanwaskilled,andheisgenerallyconsideredthefirstCroatiancasualtyof theIndependenceWar. Bythistime,militantleadersoftheSerbminorityinCroatia,withincreasingsupportfromthe Yugoslavarmy,beguntoorganisetheirinsurrectionagainstthenewlyelectedCroatian government;theybegantoregularlyequateCroatswithUstasha,andtoprovokean atmosphereoffearamonglocalSerbsinCroatia;memoriesofUstashacrimesduringWorld WarIIwereusedasjustificationsfortheSerbinsurrectionandforrefusaltoacceptany independentCroatia Inthecourseofevents,theYugoslavArmywasrapidlybecomingaSerbarmy;Chetnik irregulars,expresslyclaimingtobefightingforGreatSerbia,wereoftenseennextto Yugoslavsoldiers. SocalledSerbKrajinaextendeditselfoveralargepartofCroatiasterritory,resultingin massrefugeeflowstogovernmentheldpartsofCroatia ThecityofVukovarheldoutagainsttheYugoslavArmyandSerbirregularsfromovera hundreddays,butfinallyfellinNovember1991. Inthemeantime,theYugoslavArmyandtheMontenegrinterritorialforcesbegana wholesaleattackonthehistoricalcityofDubrovnik

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AllthisoccurredwhileCroatiawasnotyetinternationallyrecognised;yetinJanuary1992 CroatiaandSloveniawererecognisedbyallmemberstatesoftheEU(byIceland,theVatican andSanMarinoevenearlier);inFebruarytheywererecognisedbyRussia,andinAprilbythe UnitedStates;bythenBosniaandHerzegovinahadalsoheldareferendumonindependence (inOctober1991),andwasrecognisedbytheUnitedStatesonthesamedaythattheUS recognisedCroatia. IntheperiodfromtheinternationalrecognitionofCroatiainearly1992tothevictorious operationsof1995,Croatiamanagedtoconsolidateitsresourcesandtomoreorless function;yetitwasdifficulttolivenormally;thecountrywasfragmentedandinsomeparts almostsplitinhalfbythelossofareasoccupiedbytheinsurgentSerbs. TheUNProtectionforce(UNPROFOR),establishedinFebruary1992,onlyconsolidatedthese Serbconquests;thisperiodwasmarkedbyacontinuousseriesofnegotiatedceasefiresand violationsofceasefires. FinallyonMay1st1995,theCroatianArmyconductedoperationFlash,whichquickly,with minimalcausalities,endedtheSerbinsurgentoccupationofWesternSlavonia;thiswas followedinAugust1995bythemuchmoreextensiveoperationStorm,whichinafewdays totallyeliminatedallSerbinsurgentformationsinCroatia,exceptintheregionofEast SlavoniaandWesternSirmium.ThisregionwaspeacefullyreintegratedintoCroatia,withthe helpoftheUN,in1998.

TheMostRecentPeriod
ThelasttenyearshavebeenaperiodduringwhichCroatiahasbeentryingtodefineanew roleforitselfintheinternationalcommunity Relationswithothercountriesintheregion,especiallywithBosniaandHerzegovina, MontenegroandSerbiahavegenerallyimproved,andtodaythereisanovisaregime betweenallformerYugoslavrepublics Ontheotherhand,majoreconomicproblemshaveoftensurfaced,sincetheyhadbeenmore orlessbeenovershadowedduringthewaryearsbydefensenecessities;thequestionof democraticrightsandfreedomofthemediaisalsooftenemphasised Finally,allCroatiangovernments,from2000onwardshavestressedintegrationintothe EuropeanUnionasastrategicorientation,andmostoftenastheonlyalternative(although supportforEUentryistodayatalowpoint,withonly30%ofthepopulationexpressly desiringmembership) TodaytherearemanyseriouschallengesfacingmodernCroatiaanditssociety;many previouslyheldidealshavenotturnedoutasexpected,andsomeideologiessuchasthe smallcountryideology,inheritedfromthepast,haveinfacthadacripplingeffect Croatiahasmuchpotentialfordevelopmentanextremelylongcoastline,excellent agriculturallandsinSlavoniaandecologicallycleanareasinthemountainzonesbetweenthe seaandtheplains;atthesametimethesubjective"patrioticfactorhadproveditselfduring thewar,andcouldhavebeenusedasafactorofdevelopment;unfortunately,globalisation processeshaveweakenedmuchofthelanthatexistedinthecountryonlyadecadeago

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AtpresentCroatiarequiresanewstrategyofdevelopment,onewhichwillidentifyits relativestrengthsandsomehowmanagetotransformitsrelativeweaknessesinto advantages.

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