56

CHAPTER 2. 1 DEGREE OF FREEDOM VIBRATIONS

Figure 2.22: Half a cycle of oscillation with Coulomb damping. Lecture 6

2.3

Harmonically forced vibrations

In this section we study one of the most important phenomena in science and technology: that or resonance. If it was not for resonance, you would not have stadium rock concerts (might be for the better, I prefer smaller venues myself). Resonance can also cause a lot of trouble, as you could see in the Millenium bridge video shown in class, and of course the Tacoma bridge disaster that I mentioned in the introductory lecture. I will explain the physics of the Tacoma bridge disaster towards the end of this lecture. Bit rst, let us derive the equation of motion for the system shown in gure (2.23). Let us consider the case when the external force is harmonic, with zero phase. Remark 6 There is no loss of generality when we do this: remember that harmonic force can be written as F (t) = F0 sin( t + ), for some constant phase and constant force amplitude F0 . If we now let = t + / , then the harmonic force becomes F ( ) = F0 sin( ),

2.3. HARMONICALLY FORCED VIBRATIONS

57

Figure 2.23: A mass-spring-damper system acted upon by a time-dependent force F (t). and since d = dt, we have dx/dt = dx/d and d2 /dt2 = d2 /d 2 . What we have done with this transformation is equivalent to looking at the process at an initial time t0 = / instead of t = 0. Taking into account the spring, damping and external harmonic forcing, the equation of motion reads mx + cx + kx = F0 sin( t) (2.56)

From lecture 4, we know the solution to the homogeneous part mx + cx +kx = 0, is c xh (t) = x(t) = e 2m t sin(d t + ), and that solution decays exponentially fast in time to equilibrium xh = 0. Given the harmonic nature of the forcing, we assume the particular solution has the same form (i.e. is harmonic):
) = ( Xei(tp + 2 )) = (i Xei(tp ) ) 2 x = 2 X sin( t p ) = 2 Xsin( t p + ) = ( 2 Xei(tp ) )

x = X sin( t p ) = (Xei(tp ) )

x = X cos( t p ) = X sin( t p +

(2.57)

where denotes the imaginary part of the complex number. Of course, F0 sin( t) = (F0 ei(t) ) Writing the equation m 2 Xei(tp ) + ic Xei(tp ) + kXei(tp ) = F0 eit , (2.58)

from previously derived formulas it is easy to see that, by taking the imaginary part of (2.58) we obtain the relationship (2.56). Note that F0 and X (the amplitude of the harmonic response) are real numbers.

58

CHAPTER 2. 1 DEGREE OF FREEDOM VIBRATIONS

Using (2.58), there is an easy way to nd the dependence of the amplitude X on the forcing function magnitude F0 : if you think of ploting the complex numbers F0 eit , Xei(tp ) and so on as vectors in the complex plane as shown in gure 2.24, and note the orthogonality of vectors iei(tp ) and ei(tp ) , Pythagoras tells you that

")# !"# &!%# $%#

&!%#

$%'(!2%#

'(!2%#

Figure 2.24: The phasor vectors in the complex plane.

2 F0 = (k 2 m)2 X 2 + c2 2 X 2

and thus the amplitude of the response X depends on the amplitude of forcing F0 as F0 X= 2 ( k m) 2 + 2 c 2 also, the phase p is obtained as tan p = c X c = kX 2 mX k 2m

2.3. HARMONICALLY FORCED VIBRATIONS

59

By a bit of rearrangement of the above equations we obtain the nondimensional amplitude and phase. The non-dimensional amplitude is Xn = 1 Xk = , 2 2 2 F0 ) ) + (2 ) (1 ( n n

the physical meaning of Xn being the ratio of the amplitude of forced motion X and the static sag = F0 /k that would occur if we were applying the peak amplitude force statically. Note that in the case of no damping, the nondimensional amplitude is innity when the frequency ratio = /n = 1. This is called resonance. In a system that is not damped the energy is pumped into the mass in every cycle and becomes bigger and bigger. When damping is present, some of that energy is dissipated in the way we will learn in the next lecture, but for suciently small damping, the amplitude of response is still large compared to the static sag . The change of behavior of the nondimensional amplitude Xn with changing is shown in gure 2.25 on the left. As the damping factor increase, the peak amplitude shifts to the left and becomes smaller. In fact, for the damping factor value of = 1 the amplitude of response is always smaller or equal to one (i.e. always smaller or equal to the sag in the static case). For /n = 0, the response is equal to that in the static case. This seems a bit strange at rst, since the force F0 sin( t) should be zero in that case. But it is really not, the limit as becomes smaller and smaller: in fact, when becomes very small, the force is applied very slowly, and the response becomes more similar to the static case, except that is still oscillatory, for every non-zero value of . For very large natural frequencies, the response amplitude decays to zero. Observing that c/k = cc /k = 2 m/k = 2 /n , we get tan p =
2 1 ( ) n 2 n

On the right of gure 2.25 we show the change of phase of the asymptotic oscillation, p with the change in forcing frequency. For the damping factor = 0, the phase is 0 provided the forcing frequency is smaller than natural frequency. the phase abruptly becomes 90 degrees as the forcing frequency becomes bigger than the natural frequency. Similar, although smoother changing behavior is present for small values of , while for large values of - those at or above = 1, the change in phase is quite smooth. Note that the curves of phase vs. frequency ratio always pass through p = 1/2 at = 1.

60

CHAPTER 2. 1 DEGREE OF FREEDOM VIBRATIONS

Figure 2.25: Left: Change of behavior of the nondimensional amplitude Xn with changing = /n = f /fn . Right:Change of behavior of the phase p with changing = /n = f /fn Now we see that in the case of forced vibration, there are two nondimensional parameters that determine the phase and amplitude: the damping factor and the ratio of frequencies = /n The canonical equation describing harmonically forced vibrations of a one-degree of freedom mass-spring-damper system is given by F0 sin t m Combining all the work we have done above to determine the amplitude and phase of the asymptotic motion (the particular solution) and the homogeneous solution, we obtain sin( t p ) F0 x ( t) = + en t sin( 1 2 n t + ) 2 2 2 k (1 ( ) ) + (2 ) n n
2 x + 2n x + n x=

Note how the solution consists of two parts: the rst term, which is an asymptotic part, that does not depend at all on initial conditions, and the second term, which is the decaying part and goes to zero as time goes to innity. In gure 2.3 we show displacement vs time and position vs. time curves for forced k = 9.3 N/m, F0 = vibration with parameters m = .4kg, 2.2 N, n = (k/m) = 4.28 rad/s, = 4 rad/s, cc = 2 (km) = 3.875 N s/m, c = 0.2 N s/m

2.3. HARMONICALLY FORCED VIBRATIONS

61

1.5

displacement

0.5

0.5

1.5 0

10 time

15

20

25

(a) Position vs. time for forced vibration.

0 velocity 2 4 6 8 0

10 time

15

20

25

(b) Velocity vs. time for forced vibration.