Topic: DC Circuits Introduction: Electricity it is a natural phenomenon resulting from the interaction of electrical charges.

. In simple terms, it is the flow of electrons. Two Types of Electricity: 1. Static Electricity (electrostatics) - charges are considered to be at rest.

2. Dynamic Electricity (electrodynamics) - charges considered to be in motion. Particles Protons (in the nucleus) Electrons (in the orbital shell) Neutrons (in the nucleus) Discoverer E. Goldstein J.J. Thompson J. Chadwick Charge (in Coulomb) 1.6 x 10 19 C, positive 1.6 x 10 19 C, negative none Mass (in grams) 1.672 x 10 24 g 9.108 x 10 28 g 1.675 x 10 24 g

Electron Theory of Electricity (Atomic Structure) - "All matters whether a gas, liquid or solid is composed of atoms which in turn are made up of the three subatomic particles: protons and neutrons in the nucleus and electrons in the orbits or shell. a. Intranuclear Region (nucleus) The dense central core of the atom where almost all the mass of it is concentrated. It contains the sub atomic particles. 1 Diameter of the nucleus is about 10000 times that of the atom as a whole. b. Extranuclear Region (orbital shell) Electrons surround the atomic nucleus like raisins in a cake. This is known as the plum pudding model. Neils Bohr - developed the atomic structure in 1913. Remember!!! 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Democritus = is a Greek Philosopher who thought that the world must be made up of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms (atomos meaning uncut). Mass of proton = 1837 times the mass of an electron. Atomic Number = number of protons = number of electrons (for neutral atom) Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons Hydrogen atom has a diameter of 1.1 x 10 8 cm, while the diameters of the proton and electron are, 3 x 10 12 cm and 5.6 x 10 12 cm, respectively.

Table 1. Most commonly asked elements and their characteristics: Elements Hydrogen Helium Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Silicon Phosphorus Iron Nickel Copper Zinc Germanium Symbols H He C Ni O Si P Fe Ni Cu Zn Ge Atomic Number 1 2 6 7 8 14 15 26 28 29 30 32

Prepared by: Engr. Divino Fiel A. de Bien, ECE

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Materials are classified according to the number of valence electrons: 1. 2. 3. Conductor materials with less than 4 valence electrons. (primarily metals with very small resistivity) Semiconductor materials with exactly 4 valence electrons. (basic material used for electronic devices and integrated circuits) Insulator materials with more than 4 valence electrons. (rubber, plastics, etc. with very large resistivity so that ordinary voltages produce virtually no current.) Basic Electrical Definitions and Formula 1. Electric Current (I) The motion of electric charges in a conducting material. It is the time rate at which the charge Q passes a given point. Q Coulomb (C) I = t ; Second (s) or Ampere This ampere unit of current is named after Andre M. Ampere (1775 1836). Physiological Effect of Electric Current a. b. c. d. e. 2. Threshold of sensation = 300 A Threshold of pain = 1 mA Cannot let go = 9 25 mA Ventricular fibrillation & possible death= 100 mA 3A Severe burns and shock = above 3A

I.

Voltage / potential difference / electromotive force (EMF) potential difference between two points which causes current flow. W Joule (J) V = Q ; Coulomb (C) or Volt This unit was taken from Alessandro Volta (1745 1827).

3.

Resistance (R) - property of a material to oppose the flow of electric current. Unit was named after George Simon Ohm. L R = A ; ohm Table 2. Resistivities of Selected Materials at 20oC ( - m) Conductors Silver Copper Gold Aluminum Germanium Silicon Rubber Polystyrene 1.64 x 10 8 1.72 x 10 8 2.44 x 10 8 2.8 x 10 0.46 2300 10 15 10
12 -8

( - CM/ft) 9.9 10.37 14 17

Semiconductors

Insulators

R1 R2 (/Tx/ + T1) = (/Tx/ + T2)

The coefficient of temperature () determines the amount of decrease or increase in resistance per unit decrease or increase in temperature. 1 Ref = (/T / + T ) x Ref R2 = R1 [1 + 1(t2 t1)]

Prepared by: Engr. Divino Fiel A. de Bien, ECE

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Table 3. Inferred Absolute Temperature of Some Materials Material Silver Copper Gold Aluminum Tungsten Nickel Iron Nichrome Constantan Inferred Absolute Zero (Tx), C - 243 - 234.5 - 274 - 236 - 204 - 147 - 162 - 2,250 - 125,000
o

Table 4. Temperature Resistance Coefficients at 20 oC Material Silver Copper Gold Aluminum Tungsten Nickel Iron Nichrome Constantan Remember!!! 1. 2. 3. 4. Absolute Zero Temperature (0 K and 273OC) the point of conductivity. Conductors are positive temperature coefficient. An increase in temeperature will produce a corresponding increase in resistance. Electrolytes / Carbon / Insulators are negative temperature coefficient materials. An increase in temperature will produce a corresponding decrease in resistance. Alloys have a very low positive temperature coefficient of resistance. An increase in temperature will produce a negligible increase in resistance. Temperature Resistance, 20 C 0.0038 0.00393 0.0034 0.00391 0.005 0.006 0.0055 0.000008 0.00044
o

II.

Energy and Power Energy (E) is defined as the ability to do work. Therefore, electrical energy is the ability to do electrical work. The unit of electrical energy is joule. 1 joule is the energy required to move 1 Coulomb of electrical charge between 2 points having a difference of potential of 1 volt.

Electrical Power (P) is the rate at which electrical energy is used. The unit of electrical power is watt. 1 watt of electrical power is the electrical energy used at the rate of 1 joule per second. E V2 P = t = V I = I2 R = R Where: P = power in watts, W E = energy in joules, J t = time in seconds, s V = voltage in volts, V I = current in amperes, A R = resistance in ohms,

Prepared by: Engr. Divino Fiel A. de Bien, ECE

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Problem 1. A resistor has a potential difference of 50 V across its terminal and 120 C of charge per minute passes a fixed point. Under these conditions at what rate is electric energy converted to heat? Problem 2. Electrical energy is converted to heat at a rate of 7.56 kJ/min in a resistor which has 270 C/min passing through. What is the voltage difference across the resistor terminals? Problem 3. The unit of energy commonly used by electric utility companies is the kilowatt hour (kWh). a. How many joules are in 1 kWh? b. A color television set rated at 75 W is operated from 7:00 p.m. to 11:30 p.m. What total energy does this represent in kilowatt hours and in mega-joules? Problem 4. How many electrons pass a fixed point in a 100 watt light bulb in 1 hour if the applied constant voltage is 120 V? Problem 5. A typical 12 V auto battery is rated according to its battery life at ampere hours unit. A 70 Ah battery, for example, at a discharge rate of 3.5 amperes has a life of 20 h. Assuming the voltage remains constant, obtain the energy and power delivered in a complete discharge of the preceeding battery. III. Direct Current Circuits Definition and Components 1. 2. 3. direct current sometimes called a continuous current, an electric current that flows in one direction. cell fundamental source of electric energy developed through the conversion of chemical or solar energy. battery combination of two or more similar cells. Division of Cells: a. b. 4. Primary can not be recharged or irreversible cell. Secondary can be recharge or can be reversed to restore its capacity.

Resistor = a circuit component manufactured to provide a specific value of resistance. Types of Resistors: a. b. c. Carbon Resistor = a resistor made of carbon, blended with fillers and binders to control the ohmic value. Wire wound Resistor = resistance of which is determined by the metal content of the wire and the wires length. Variable Resistor = employ a mechanical slider or arm which rides over the resistance elements.

Problem 6. If a charge Q moves at a rate of 10 C every 2.5 seconds past a given point, what is the value of the current in amperes? Problem 7. What is the value of a carbon composition resistor with the following colors from left: Red Brown Red Gold? Problem 8. What is the resistance of a gauge 10 copper wire whose length is 15 m? Note: AWG # 10: A = 5.26 mm2 AWG # 12: A = 3.31 mm2 (it is used for baseboard heater wiring) AWG # 14: A = 2.08 mm2 (it is used for standard house wiring) AWG # 18: A = 0.821 mm2 (it is used for speaker wire) IV. Ohms Law & Delta to Wye Transformation 1. Ohms Law V volts I = R ; ohms or amperes

Prepared by: Engr. Divino Fiel A. de Bien, ECE

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2.

Delta () Wye (tee or Star) Transform Product of adjascent R in R in

Rx =

3.

Wye Delta Transform RA = Summation of Product of adjascent in Y Opposite R in Y

Problem 9. Two resistors in series draw a 5A from a 30V source. If the value of the second resistor is doubled, the current drops to 3A. Determine the resistances. Problem 10. If all star connected resistors are identical, what is the equivalent value of the resistors in connection? Problem 11. Solve for the value of IT. Given the figure.

V.

Network Laws and Network Theorems A. Kirchhoffs Law (Gustav Robert Kirchhoff) 1. Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL) Junction Rule or Branch Point Rule In any electrical network, the algebraic sum of the currents meeting at a point (or junction) is zero. 2. Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL) Loop Rule The algebraic sum of the products of currents and resistances in each of the conductors in any closed path (or mesh) in a network plus the algebraic sum of the emfs in that path is zero. B. Mesh Analysis (Maxwells Method James Clerk Maxwell ) In any planar circuit contains M number of meshes, there are M independent equations that can be formed. Mesh - simplest form of a loop with no loop with in it. A property of a planar circuit and is not defined for non - planar circuit. Mesh Current - Current flowing with in a perimeter of a mesh; does not exhibit current division. Planar Circuit - circuit diagram that can be drawn on a plane surface such that no branch passes over or under any other branch.

Prepared by: Engr. Divino Fiel A. de Bien, ECE

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C. Maximum Power Transfer Maximum Power Theorem states that an independent voltage source in series with a resistance Rs, or an independent current source in parallel with a resistance Rs, delivers maximum power to the load resistance RL when Rs = RL. D. Source Transformation In source transformation, practical current and voltages sources are considered and not the ideal sources. In this method of circuit analysis, practical current and voltage sources are interchanged (to simply the circuit) without affecting the remainder of the circuit. Such sources are equivalent devices. In transforming the practical voltage source into a practical current source, Ohm's law is again applied using the same resistance connected in series with the voltage source (which is equal to the resistance previously connected to the practical current source). E. Superposition Theorem The superposition theorem states that in any linear resistive network, containing several sources, the voltage across or the current through any resistor or source may be calculated by adding algebraically all the individual voltages or currents caused by the separate independent sources acting alone, with all other independent voltage sources replaced by short circuits and all other independent current sources replaced by open circuits. F. Nodal Analysis The summation of current source(s) entering or leaving a node is equal to the summation of the quotient of the nodal voltage and resistor(s) in that node minus the summation of the quotient of the nodal voltage and resistor(s) common to another node. If there are in a network, there are (n - 1) number of equations. G. Thevenin's and Norton's Theorem Thevenin's Theorem = Any active network having a pair of output terminates may be reduced to its equivalent voltage source in series with a resistance. Norton's Theorem = Any active network with two output terminals may be reduced to its equivalent current source in parallel with a resistance. Vth Rth = RN = I N where: Vth = Thevenin's equivalent voltage source. Open Circuit voltage (Voc) Rth = Thevenin's equivalent resistance. Resistance measured across the two terminals when all independent sources are made inactive. IN = Norton's equivalent current source. Short Circuit Current (Isc) RN = Norton's Equivalent resistance H. Millman's Theorem When different values of voltage sources are connected in parallel, the voltage seen across the parallel combination is the summation of the current flowing in each branch divided by the summation of the reciprocal of the internal resistances of each source. Problem 12. Solve for the value of I, using the a. b. Source Transformation Theorem Superposition Theorem

Prepared by: Engr. Divino Fiel A. de Bien, ECE

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Problem 13. Solve for the value of I1, I2 and I3. Use any method.

Prepared by: Engr. Divino Fiel A. de Bien, ECE

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