Chapter 7

Rome and Its Empire

CHAPTER SUMMARY

When the Greek and Hellenistic worlds declined many their political, cultural, and economic traditions were carried on by the Romans in their own distinct society. Rome grew from a minor city-state to become the dominant factor in Mediterranean civilization. Its civilization included much of the Greek and Hellenistic sphere in the eastern Mediterranean and extended beyond it into Europe and North Africa. The Roman empire surpassed the political and commercial organization of the Greeks in durability and organization.. Rome as Heir to Classical Mediterranean Civilization. Roman and Greek societies had many shared elements, but each emphasized different factors. The Romans preserved, and modified, many features of Greek society while developing their own focus. They gave engineering and law more emphasis than philosophy and science. Through mixing old and new factors Rome created a new version of classical Mediterranean civilization. The greater Roman geographical extent spread that civilization to new regions in Europe and North Africa and served as a breeding ground for the development of Christianity. The Development of Romes Republic. Rome established firm political institutions balancing aristocratic and popular interests. Rome also quickly began expanding in Italy and beyond. The tensions between expansion and established political values were a key theme by the 2nd century B.C.E. Etruscan Beginnings and the Early Republic. Rome's people were Indo-European migrants who assimilated agriculture and interacted with indigenous peoples and Greek colonists. They were ruled for a time by Etruscans, securing independence around 510 B.C.E. The Romans created a republic to avoid tyrannical control. They adapted the Greek alphabet to form their Latin version. The early constitution allowed aristocrats to control the most important offices. Lower-class citizens had political and economic rights; they elected tribunes to voice their interests. The Senate was the center of political life, with two annually-elected consuls as chief executives. The system balanced the various interests of society, but gave aristocrats most weight. The early economy resembled that of Greece. Aristocrats controlled large estates, while smaller holdings belonged to free, citizen, farmers. Social strife was minimized by written laws, popular participation in government, and patron-client relationships. Rome, without important citystate rivals, and with fewer societal tensions, went on a different military and diplomatic path than the Greeks. The Expansion of Rome. Rome developed a disciplined army based upon the service of citizen-farmers. Lacking the protection of natural boundaries, the Romans had to defend themselves against neighboring rivals. By the mid-4th century B.C.E. Rome, through alliances and warfare, had won control of central and southern Italy. The success of the aggressive Roman polity was based upon their disciplined legions (infantry units) and the wealth of its prosperous agricultural economy. The granting of citizenship to subjugated elites and the continuation of local governing institutions built loyalty to the developing state. Rivalry in the western Mediterranean with Carthage led to hostilities, the Punic wars, ending in Roman victory in 146 B.C.E. Rome also expanded into the eastern Mediterranean as Hellenistic kingdoms collapsed. The Results of Expansion. The often brutal course of imperial expansion changed Roman society and politics. The wealth gained widened gaps between the rich and poor and weakened the traditional constitutional balance between classes. Aristocrats bought out smaller farmers, and client relationships deteriorated. Large estates producing commercial crops pushed displaced farmers into Rome, swelling the numbers of its impoverished citizens. Slavery greatly increased because of the conquests.

The Crisis of the Republic. The increasing social tensions caused class conflict on a much larger scale than in Greek society. The republic declined as ambitious individuals battled for power. The tribune Tiberius Gracchus attempted to redistribute land, but he was assassinated by conservatives. Gaius, his brother, tried to introduce land reforms and extend citizenship; the Senate ordered his suicide. Then generals intervened in politics. Marius coerced the Senate with his army, composed of permanent paid volunteers instead of citizen conscripts. Sulla sided with the Senate, which he packed with his followers, and drove out Marius. Later Pompey gained power through military success. The succession of generals ended with Caesar taking over the government in 49 B.C.E. He maintained republican forms but dominated through military power. Caesar was assassinated in 44 B.C.E. In the following civil war, Octavian, later called Augustus, emerged as victor in 31 B.C.E. and became the first Roman emperor. Roman Culture. During the years of political crisis a major cultural transformation merged Roman ways with the Greek and Hellenistic heritage. Intellectual life did not match the vibrancy of Athens, but Romans developed their own strengths while carrying forward the Greek heritage. The Range of Roman Art. The Roman cultural foundation was based on Greece. Writers and artists followed Greek models. Romans advanced rhetorical arts,, and gave much attention to ethical philosophy. In architecture engineering advances permitting increases in size were adapted to Greek forms. Roman arches were unsurpassed. Urban planning efforts were made to regulate building safety and living conditions in Rome and other cities. A chief Roman contribution was the dissemination of their culture to the empires regions in the Middle East, North Africa ,and Europe. Major Themes in Roman Literature. The late republic early empire witnessed a literary revival. Horace adapted Greek poetic meters into Latin, while Ovid stressed aristocratic sensuality in the arts of love. Livy composed histories linking the empire to its republican past, while Vergil wrote of the glories of Augustus and his empire. Later intellectual life did not match this attainment. The Institutions of Empire. With the winning of a large empire the importance of military administration and effective laws increased. Rome did not, as China, develop an elaborate bureaucracy or integrating political culture. Imperial Rule of Law. Rome's rule rested on tolerance and cohesion through law. Considerable autonomy was granted to local authorities, thus not requiring the development of an elaborate bureaucracy. Military garrisons kept order where necessary. Rome's greatest contribution to governing was the development of legal codes. Jurists constructed an extensive legal system based upon general principles - natural law - and case precedents. The laws focused upon protection of private property and family stability. They evolved to meet changing conditions, providing firm rules to govern social relationships. Roman willingness to extend citizenship increased access to the law and loyalty to the empire. Augustus and His Successors. Augustus maintained republican forms while securing domination of the government. He consolidated his regime by instituting moral reforms, banning mystery religions in favor of traditional ceremonies, and strengthening family legislation. A building program created new jobs. Augustus reformed provincial control and rewarded the military for loyal service. The basic forms established endured for two centuries. The army was the source of power, a factor causing trouble when unclear succession mechanisms for selecting new emperors brought instability, or when incompetent emperors ruled. Government and Expansion. Efficient administrative and taxation structures allowed the extensive empires long existence. Commerce was regulated to secure vital grain supplies. Public works facilitated both commercial and military needs, and provided amenities - baths, stadiums - for large urban populations. The government supported official religious ceremonies, but did not impose beliefs on its subjects. Worship of local gods was tolerated unless believers - as Jews and Christians - refused primary loyalty to the state. Expansion continued during the early empire. Trajan (101-106 C.E.) brought the empire to its greatest extent, bringing the influences of Mediterranean civilization to much of western

Europe and deeper into the Middle East. The process placed heavy burdens on the economy. By 180 C.E. the empire was in gradual decline. The Evolution of Romes Economic and Social Structure. Rome's basic social structure was based on an agricultural economy composed of an aristocracy and free farmers. A merchant class, both native and foreign, expanded during the late republic. Its societal prestige never matched that of aristocrats, but was higher than among the Greeks. Roman cities had large artisan and property-less classes. Family structure resembled the firm patriarchal pattern of classical Greece. Women were less oppressed than in Greece or China. They freely appeared in public and a few received education. Inequality between the sexes increased during the latter empire. Slavery in Rome. The spread of slavery contributed to the decline of free farmers and to Roman militarism. Displaced farmers sought economic advancement through military careers. Military expansion secured new additions to a slave population that did not reproduce itself. Slavery caused many societal tensions and occasional slave revolts. Slaves were used in all occupations; many were better off economically than poor free individuals. Some were able to buy or secure freedom. Slavery had important consequences for Roman development. From the 2nd century B.C.E. commercialized agriculture and mining industries increasingly utilized slave labor. As in Greece, the dominance of slavery led to stagnant technology in manufacturing and agriculture. Romes Economic Structure. The empire had a varied economic and social structure. In conquered regions Rome established cities inhabited with soldiers and colonists who often married local women.. Estate agriculture spread slowly and incompletely to northern Europe,. There were great cultural gaps between Romans and the indigenous population. In North Africa and Egypt large estates predominated and peasants often were exploited ruthlessly. The agricultural exploitation resulted in lasting harm to the environment. In Greece and western Asia pre-Roman traditions were maintained. In Depth: The Classical Mediterranean in Comparative Perspective. The three great classical civilizations had both striking differences and similarities. Each developed empires, and relied on an agricultural economy. Greece, Rome, and China emphasized secular over religious culture. GrecoRoman political values and institutions were unlike the Confucian emphasis on deference and bureaucratic training. The Greek emphasis on theoretical constructs in science contrasted with the Indian and Chinese approach. Each civilization had a definite social hierarchy and the groups at the top subordinated those beneath them to assure their economic supremacy. Greece and Rome depended upon slave labor. The groups at the top varied in the three civilizations - priests in India, bureaucrats in China, cultivated aristocrats in Greece and Rome. There was limited opportunity for social mobility. Indias caste system kept people in their original social and occupational position. In China only a very few individuals from non-landed aristocratic families managed to gain the education to enter the bureaucracy. Greek and Roman society allowed some opportunity for those gaining wealth to rise in status. The concept of political power for Greek and Roman citizens was unusual. Each civilization held its social hierarchy together in a different manner. Greece and Rome relied on local authorities to work for common goals; they also relied on military force and clear legal regulations. China and India used force and legal rules, but had other structures. Hinduism promised reincarnation as a reward for submission. Confucianism urged cultural values of obedience and self-restraint to legitimize social ranks. All civilizations had bouts of social unrest, but basic patterns remained firm. The Origins of Christianity. The early history of Christianity is an integral part of the Roman experience. The Jews, ruled by Rome , believed in the coming of a messiah. The early stages of what became Christianity focused on reforming aspects of Jewish practices and had little to do with Roman culture. Life and Death of Jesus. Jesus, a Jewish prophet and teacher, was regarded as the son of god by his disciples. He urged purification of Jewish religion and taught a moral code based upon love, charity, an humility. Jesus won many followers among the poor, but roused suspicion among the leaders of the Jewish community. They helped to convince the Roman authorities that he was a danger to the state. Jesus was crucified in 30 C.E. His followers believed he rose from the dead three days later. The religion

based on his thought initially spread among Jews, but hostility and persecution from unconvinced Jews caused disciples to leave Israel for other locations in western Asia. Christianity Gains Converts and Religious Structure. By the 4th century C.E. Christians comprised about 10% of the population of the Roman Empire. Christianity appealed to the poor because of the social grievances suffered by farmers, city dwellers, and slaves. The new religion answered spiritual needs unfilled by Rome's state religion. Christianity also benefited from the political stability and communications systems of the empire. The early Christians modeled their church organization after Roman forms, with bishops as local leaders. Under Paul's leadership the religion moved away from Jewish law to become open to all. He used the Greek language and explained Christianity in terms understandable to Greco-Roman culture. He emphasized female subordination to men and the dangers of sexuality. Relations with the Roman Empire. By the 4th century C.E. Christian writings were the most creative cultural expressions within the empire. Theologians related Christian thought to Greek philosophy and Roman ethics, redirecting Roman culture into new paths and preserving earlier intellectual achievements. Christians clashed with Roman authorities when they refused to honor the emperor as a divinity. Some emperors persecuted Christians as scapegoats for political problems, but the persecution was not constant. Roman influence in time reshaped Christianity to accept the state as a legitimate, but separate, sphere of authority. Conclusion Decline. The empire was in decline before Christianity became important. The government lacked the resources necessary for continuing expansion. Economic disruptions reduced prosperity and tax revenues. Slavery declined and economic and political units focused on their own regions, not the larger empire. Epidemics seriously reduced population size. The Mediterranean Heritage. Classical Mediterranean civilization left an important legacy that survived the collapse of the Roman empire. Greek and Roman science, philosophy, political theory, and definitions of citizenship are part of todays Western civilization. Their attitudes to the role of women had a less beneficent influence. Greco-Roman religion did not survive. KEY TERMS Etruscans: culture that ruled Rome prior to the republic; ruled through powerful kings and well organized armies; Romans won independence ca. 510 B.C.E. plebians: ordinary citizens; originally Roman families that could not trace relationships to one of the major Roman clans. consuls: two chief executives of the Roman republic; elected annually by the assembly dominated by the aristocracy. clientage: the social relationship whereby wealthy Roman landholders offered protection and financial aid to lesser citizens in return for political and labor support. legions: the basic infantry unit of the Roman military; developed during the republic. Carthage: founded by the Phoenicians in Tunisia; became a major empire in the western Mediterranean; fought the three Punic wars with Rome for Mediterranean dominance; defeated and destroyed by the Romans. Hannibal: Carthaginian general during the 2nd Punic War; invaded Italy but failed to conquer Rome; finally defeated in Africa at battle of Zama.

republic: the balanced political system of Rome from ca. 510 to 47 B.C.E.; featured an aristocratic senate, a panel of magistrates, and popular assemblies. tribunes: plebeian officials elected annually during the Roman republic. Tiberius and Galus Gracchus: tribunes who attempted to introduce land and citizenship reform under the late Roman republic; both killed by order of the Senate. Marius: Roman general during the last century B.C.E.; introduced the use of paid volunteers in the army rather than citizen conscripts; became a military force with personal loyalty to its commander. Sulla: conservative military commander during the last century B.C.E.; attempted to reinforce powers of the Senate and to counter the influence of Marius. Julius Caesar: general responsible for the conquest of Gaul; brought army back to Rome and overthrew republic; assassinated in 44 B.C.E. by conservative senators. Octavian: later took name of Augustus; Julius Caesar's grandnephew and adopted son; defeated conservative senators after Caesar's assassination; became first Roman emperor. Cicero: conservative senator and Stoic philosopher; one of the great orators of his day. Vergil: a great Roman epic poet during the Golden Age of Latin literature; author of the Aeneid. Horace: poet who adapted Greek poetic meters to Latin; author of lyrical poetry laudatory of the empire. Ovid: poet exiled by Augustus for sensual poetry considered out of touch with imperial policies stressing family virtues. Livy: historian who linked the Roman empire to the traditions of the republican past; stressed the virtues thought to be popular during the early empire. natural law: general principles of law applicable to all societies; became a fundamental concept of the Roman empire's legal system; related to Stoic ethical theory. Trajan: emperor (101-106 B.C.E.); instituted a more aggressive imperial foreign policy resulting in expansion of the empire to its greatest limits. Jesus of Nazareth: Jewish teacher and prophet; believed by his followers to be the Messiah; executed by the Romans ca. 30 C.E. bishops: heads of regional Christian churches. Paul: early Christian leader; moved away from the insistence that adherents of the new religion follow Jewish law; used Greek as the language of the church. LECTURE SUGGESTIONS 1. Compare and contrast the political and social organization of Rome, Gupta India, and Han China. In political organization all three developed imperial forms. The Gupta were the least centralized; they basically were a tribute-collecting network of otherwise independent petty states. The Romans also allowed substantial local autonomy in government, but exercised centralization through legal codes applicable to all residents of the empire. The Han, with its professionalized bureaucracy working in the emperor's name, was the most centralized. In social organization all three had rigid social classifications based on principles of social inequality. Each had different elites: brahmans in India, scholar-gentry in China, land-owning aristocracy in Rome. Social mobility varied greatly. In India there was virtually

none; in Rome acquired wealth was recognized; in China the examination system allowed advancement. The lowest classes in India, the untouchables, performed polluting occupations. The Romans had slavery as a major institution. 2. Discuss whether Rome was simply a continuation of Greek civilization or an innovator in the Mediterranean world. Rome served primarily to maintain the cultural accomplishments of the Greeks, especially in science, art, literature, and philosophy. The Roman developed significant innovations in engineering. In politics the Roman republic began in the Greek tradition with a balanced constitution typical of a city-state. The Roman empire was something new in Mediterranean civilization; its most innovative aspect was the formation of a universal legal code. The empire also presided over the development of Christianity, a major world religion. CLASS DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. Compare and contrast Roman civilization to Greek civilization. 2. Describe the republican constitution of Rome. 3. How did the territorial expansion of the republic affect the society and politics of Rome? 4. Compare and contrast Greek and Roman culture. 5. Describe the constitution of the Roman empire. 6. Compare and contrast Greek and Roman social organization. 7. Why did Christianity spread within the Roman empire? 8. How did the status of women in the Roman empire compare with women's position in other contemporary empires? 9. What was the legacy of the Roman empire to successor Western civilizations? THE INSTRUCTOR'S TOOL KIT Map References Danzer, Discovering World History Through Maps and Views. Source Maps: S14-16. Reference Maps: R18, R25-R27 Audio Cassettes Soundtape Resources from Caedmon G. Valerius Catullus, Selected Poetry, translated by Horace Gregory Classics of Latin Poetry and Prose (in Latin) Documents Excerpts from Cicero, The Laws Virgil, The Aeneid Juvenal, Satires Plutarch, Life of Cato the Elder Suetonius, The Life of Augustus From Mark A. Kishlansky, Sources of the West: Readings for Western Civilization (New York: HarperCollins, 1991).

Video/Film The Etruscans. Vedo Films The Romans: Life, Laughter, and Law. Learning Corporation of America The Legacy of Rome. 2 parts. McGraw-Hill films Julius Caesar: Rise of the Roman Empire. Encyclopedia Britannica Carthage. Films for the Humanities and Sciences Pompeii. Films for the Humanities and Sciences Caesar's Nightmare: An Ambush in the Forest. Films for the Humanities and Sciences Intimate Details of Roman Life. Films for the Humanities and Sciences Early Christianity and the Rise of the Church. Insight Media #WN179