BIOFUELSFROMCOCONUTS

KrishnaRaghavan August2010

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 3 3.1 3.2 4 POTENTIAL FOR BIOFUELS FROM COCONUTS QUANTITYANDENERGYCONTENTOFPARTSOFTHECOCONUTPALM POTENTIALFORPOWERGENERATIONFROMUNUSEDCOCONUTBIOMASS DECENTRALISEDPOWERGENERATIONFROMCOCONUTRESIDUES DIESELSAVINGSANDEMISSIONSREDUCTIONS POST HARVEST TREATMENT AND PROCESSING NUTSTORAGE DEHUSKING NUTTRANSPORTATION CRACKING COPRAMANUFACTURE COCONUT OIL - COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES COMPOSITION FUELRELATEDPROPERTIES OIL PRESSING & REFINING 4.1 DRYPROCESSANDOILREFINING 4.2 WETPROCESS 4.2.1 RamPress 4.2.2 DMEDirectMicroExpelling 5 UTILIZATIONOFLIQUIDBIOFUELS 5.1 COCONUTOILFORDIESELENGINES 5.1.1 InternalCombustionEngines 5.1.2 FuelInjection 5.1.3 QualityStandardsforCoconutoil 5.2 BIODIESEL 5.3 CASESTUDIESINPACIFICANDLESSONSLEARNED 5.3.1 Islandfuel,Vanuatu 5.3.2 Cocogen,Samoa 5.3.3 CoconutoilforpowergenerationinFiji 6 UTILIZATIONOFSOLIDBIOFUELSSHELLS&HUSK 6.1 CHARACTERISTICS 6.2 BASICPRINCIPLESOFCOMBUSTION 6.3 CURRENTUSES 6.4 WASTEHEATUNIT(WHU) 6.4.1 WHUforCopraProduction 6.4.2 ProductRecovery 7 8 REFERENCES ANNEXES 1 1 2 5 6 8 8 9 11 11 11 13 13 13 15 15 17 17 18 20 20 20 20 26 27 30 30 34 40 46 46 46 48 48 51 54 58 61


8.1 THECOCONUTPALM 8.1.1 PartsandUses 8.1.2 OriginandDistribution 8.1.3 WorldProduction 8.1.4 Plantingmaterial,SelectionandBreeding 8.1.5 Plantingpractices 8.1.6 Greenmanuring,OrganicManuring&ChemicalFertilizerapplication 8.2 DRYINGMETHODSOFCOPRA&STORAGE 8.2.1 BasicPrinciplesofCoconutDrying 8.2.2 TypesofDryers 8.2.3 CopraStorage 61 61 62 63 64 67 71 80 80 82 102

LISTOFTABLES

Table1CompositionofonematureCoconutbyWeight ............................................................1 Table2QuantityandEnergyContentofpartsoftheCoconutPalm ..........................................2 Table3PotentialforPowergenerationfromCoconutResidues...............................................4 Table4PowerGenerationPotentialfromUnusedResidues(1,000tonscopraequiv./year) ......5 Table5DieselsavingsandEmissionsReductions.......................................................................6 Table6DieselPriceandSavings................................................................................................. 6 Table7EffectsofStorageTimeonDehuskedNuts....................................................................8 Table8Thechemicalcompositionofcoconutoil..................................................................... 13 Table9Fuelrelatedpropertiesofvegetableoilsandpetroleumdiesel...................................14 Table10DraftQualityStandardsforCoconutOilasaFuelinengines....................................27 Table11PhysicoChemicalpropertiesofCoconutMethylEster(CME)...................................28 Table12ComparisonofMoistureandOilContentfromWHUwithothermethods...............56 Table13Waterholdingcapacityofairinatropicalcountry....................................................80 Table14MaterialsrequiredforconstructionofaSolarDryer.................................................87 Table15PropertiesofLLDandLDPolyEthyleneplasticsheets............................................88 Table16AssumptionsforSolarDrying..................................................................................... 89 Table17QualityStandardforCoprainthePhilippines..........................................................104 Table18GradesofCopraUsedinthePhilippines..................................................................105 Table19ContractTermsfortradingCoprainIndia................................................................105 Table20ClassificationofCopraforexportinPapuaNewGuinea.........................................106

LISTOFFIGURES
Figure1CompositionsofMatureandDryCoconutbyweight...................................................1 Figure2Ratioofweightsofpartsofthecoconutpalm..............................................................2 Figure3EnergyfromUnusedCoconutBiomass......................................................................... 3 Figure4PowerGenerationpotentialofCoconutResidues........................................................3 Figure5Schematicofdryprocessforcoconutoilextraction...................................................15 Figure6DirectIgnitionengine.................................................................................................. 21 Figure7IndirectIgnitionengine............................................................................................... 21 Figure8Effectofchambertemperatureoncombustionofcoconutoil..................................23
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 Figure9A2tanksystemforusingCoconutOilinaDirectinjectionengine...........................25 Figure10Heatcontentsintheconversionofshellstocharcoal..............................................48 Figure11SchematicoftheWasteHeatUnit............................................................................ 51 Figure12TypicalTunnelDrierandLayoutofWHUbasedcopradryingsystem......................54 Figure13DryingCurve.............................................................................................................. 81 Figure14TheSeeSawDrier..................................................................................................... 84 Figure15EnergyFlowsinaSolarDryer.................................................................................... 85 Figure16SolarDryerdesignedbythePhilippineGermanCoconutProject............................86 Figure17DryingCurvesforSunDryingandSolarDrier...........................................................88 Figure18SchematicofTapahandryer ...................................................................................... 92 Figure19SchematicofUPLBdryer........................................................................................... 94 Figure20VISCACopraDrier...................................................................................................... 97 Figure21SchematicofModifiedKukumdryer......................................................................... 98 Figure22SchematicofCocopugonDryer............................................................................... 101

LISTOFPHOTOS
Photo1ManualCoconutDehuskingTool................................................................................... 9 Photo2CoCoMaNdehushingmachine................................................................................ 10 Photo3BreakingcoconutsformakingCopra........................................................................... 11 Photo4EdibleBallcoprawholeandcutintohalves............................................................. 12 Photo5CoconutoilextractionusingtheRamPress................................................................ 17 Photo6Effectsofimpropercombustionofcoconutoilinengine...........................................22 Photo7Heatexchangerusedforconversionofcarstorunoncoconutoil............................22 Photo8Auxiliaryequipmentusedwitha2tanksystem.........................................................25 Photo9IslandFuelFillingStation............................................................................................. 30 Photo10RangeRoverandToyotaRunningonVanuatuCoconutOil......................................32 Photo11CumminsDirectInjection400kWDieselEnginetestedwith10%coconutoil.........35 Photo12FilteringofCoconutOilwithaSheetBeforemixinginthedaytank........................39 .........................................................41 Photo13CoconutOilproductionequipmentatWelangi Photo1445kVAdieselgensetatWelagi.................................................................................. 42 Photo15The90kVAdieselgensetatVanuabalavu.................................................................. 43 Photo16Traditionalmethodofburningcoconutshellsinapit..............................................49 Photo17PrototypeWasteHeatRecoveryUnittestedbyNRI,Culham,UK............................50 Photo18TraditionalCopraDrying............................................................................................ 52 Photo19AWasteHeatUnitinSriLanka.................................................................................. 55 Photo20CoprafromTraditionalsmokedriersandfromtheWHUprocess............................55 Photo21CharcoalproducedbytheWasteHeatUnit.............................................................. 57 Photo22Sundryingcopra........................................................................................................ 83 Photo23DirectSmokeCopraDryer......................................................................................... 92 Photo24SemiDirectSmokeCopraDryer................................................................................ 95 Photo25ModifiedKukumhotairdryer................................................................................... 99 Photo26CocopugonHotAirBrickCopraDryer.....................................................................100 Photo27CopraMoistureMeter............................................................................................. 106
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1
1.1

POTENTIAL FOR BIOFUELS FROM COCONUTS

QuantityandEnergycontentofpartsoftheCoconutPalm

Whenamaturecoconutisharvestedafter11or12months,itisfilledwithcocowaterandits kernel,shellandhuskareinawetcondition.Generally,thecoconutisdehuskedandtheshell splitopensothatthekernelcanbetakenoutanddriedintocopra.Insomecountries, especiallyinthePacific,thewholenutissplitopenwithoutdehusking.Compositionsofboth thematurecoconutwhenharvestedandafterithasbeendriedareshowninFigure1.

Figure 1 Compositions of Mature and Dry Coconut by weight

Note:HusksarecomposedofCoirandCoirdust. The weight of a coconut depends on the cultivar or hybrid. The breakup into its components ofanaveragecoconutthatweighs1.2kgsisgiveninTable1.
Table 1 Composition of one mature Coconut by Weight

Part Whole Coconut 1 2 3 4 4a 4b 4a-1 4a-2 Husks (Coir + Coir dust) Shells Coco water Green Copra Dry Copra Moisture Copra Meal Copra Oil

Weight [kgs] 1.2 0.39 0.17 0.24 0.37 0.2 0.17 0.08 0.12

Note:Averagevaluesfor1,000nuts Source:Cloin,2005

Copra,thedriedkernelthatisusedtoextractcoconutoil,isthemostimportantproductfrom thecoconut,andcoconutproductionisveryoftengivenintonnesofcopraequivalent.The
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 ratioofweightsofthedifferentpartsofacoconutpalmtothedriedkernelisshowninFigure2 andTable2.Thefronds(leaves)havethemaximumweightatover4timestheweightofthe kernel,androughlyonenewleafisproducedandanoldonedropsonceeverymonth.The trunk(stem)isnextat1.45timesthekernel,butthestemcanonlybeharvestedonceatthe endofitslifetime.Theweightofthehusk(coir+coirdust)is1.3timesandoftheshellis0.9 timestheweightofthekernel,allthreebeingproducedtogetherinonenut.Finally,the kernelitselfconsistsoftwoparts: CoconutOilisroughly60%; CoconutMeal(orOilCake)thatremainsaftertheoilisextractedweighsabout40%.

Table 2 Quantity and Energy Content of parts of the Coconut Palm

Dry Kernel Ratio to "Dry" Kernel (%) (@ 4% moisture content) Energy Content (GJ /t) 100% 29.1

CN-Oil 61% 37.7

CN Meal 39% 15.7

Shell 90% 18.2

Coir 39% 16.7

Coir dust 91% 16.7

Fronds 426% 16.7

Trunk 145% 16.7

Combined 991% 16.2

Source:Hagen,1995

Figure 2 Ratio of weights of parts of the coconut palm

Source:DatafromHagen,1995.

1.2

PotentialforPowerGenerationfromUnusedCoconutBiomass

Globalannualproductionofcoconutsin2005wasaround59.6billionnutequivalentor11.9 milliontonnescopraequivalentharvestedfrom1.2billionpalmson12.2millionha(APCC, 2006).Thetotalbiomassproduction(excludingthecocowaterbutincludingthekernel)is 106,100kilotonnes,ofwhich60.5%amountingto64,200kilotonnesisunprocessed.To estimatethepowerthatcanbegeneratedfromunusedcoconut,thefollowingprocedurehas beenfollowed(Hagen,1995): 1. Estimatethequantityofbiomassproducedbythecomponents(CNoil,CNmeal,shell, huskconsistingofcoiranddust,frondsi.e.leaves,andtrunk). 2. Estimatereportedindustrialproductionofcomponents. 3. Theunusedcoconutbiomassfromthepalmsprocessedistakenasindustrialwaste. 4. Estimatethequantitiesusedbysmallholders. 5. TheremainderisAvailableUnprocessedBiomass.
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 6. MultiplyunprocessedportionofeachcomponentwithitsEnergyContenttogivethe GlobalUnusedBiomassEnergy. 7. Estimatethebiomassenergyavailableforelectricitygenerationas70%oftheunprocessed biomass. 8. CalculatetheElectricityGenerationPotentialinGigaWattHours(GWh)basedontheNet Efficiencyofthetechnologyusedforpowergeneration(Steamengines:10%;Gasifier+IC engine:18%) 9. EstimatethetotalcapacityofpowergenerationinMegaWatts(MW)bytakingaLoad Factorof50%.

Figure 3 Energy from Unused Coconut Biomass

Figure 4 Power Generation potential of Coconut Residues
1

AsperSystemeInternational(SI)usage,tonnereferstothemetrictonof1,000kg;PJ=petajoule=1015 Joules.TJ=terajoule=1012J;GJ=gigajoule=109Joules;MJ=megajoule=106Joules.
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 TheresultsaregiveninTable3: TheGlobalUnusedBiomassEnergyis1,125PetaJoules(PJ)ofwhich70%amountingto 788PJisassumedavailableforpowergeneration. Ifthisbiomassisburnedinasteamengine,itcangenerate21,900GWhofelectricity.Ifit isburnedinagasifieritcangenerate39,400GWh. Ata50%LoadFactor(12hoursperday),thetotalpowergenerationcapacityis5,000MW usingefficientsteamengines.However,bygasifyingthebiomassandusingInternal Combustionengines,thetotalcapacityis9,000MW.

Table 3 Potential for Power generation from Coconut Residues

CN PORTION> AirDry Matter/Fresh Weight assumed* Ratio to "Dry" Kernel (@ 4% MC)* Total Global Coconut kt % kt kt kt % % kt % kt % kt Portion % GJ/t Biomass PJ available for PJ Generation GWh GWh NE 10% 18% 65 Electricity Potential 3,256 1,809 2,573 685 1,429 381 5,776 51 14 3,209 2,354 93 73 20 115 1,308 26.8% 29.1 26.8% 37.7 26.8% 15.7 165 47 84.5% 18.2 67 86.6% 16.7 Unprocessed 3,194 Production Industrial "Production" % of Total* Industrial"Production" Commercial Copra DesiccatedCN+CNCream %Commercial/Total* %Commercial/lIndustrial Industrial"Waste" %Industrial"Waste"* Smallholder eating/cooking etc. %Smallholderuse* Available Biomass Global Unprocessed EnergyContent* Global Energy Biomass Electricity@70% Unused 3,574 30.0% 1,948 1,246 Consumption 4,776 323 40.1% 99.1% 46 0.9% 2,180 30.0% 1,394 30.0% 9,060 40.1% 93.0% 221 7.0% 37.9% 87.8% 245 12.2% 536 5.0% 4,023 4,771 80.9% 232 5.0% 10.5% 19.1% 2,167 84.8% 8.4% 15.2% 43% 5,145 2,917 1,761 3,138 2,007 843 43% 43% 5,897 291 55% 2,555 55% % 100% 11,913 7,267 4,646 61% 39% 90% 10,722 4,646 39% % 95% 62% Kernel CNOil Meal Shell Coir

Coir dust 62% 91% 10,841 55% 5,962 5 0.1% 0.1% 5,956 99.9% 542 5.0% 10,288 94.9% 16.7 172 120 3,343 6,018 12,676 9,327 Page4 7,042 5,181 39,408 253 186 21,893 362 266 788 13,854 27.3% 864 5.0% 21,670 15,944 42.7% 16.7 92.3% 16.7 1,125 64,179 60.5% 16.2 12,672 45.4% 9,026 95.0% 19,602 18.5% 11,410 30.0% 54.6% 356 2.7% 5.0% 35,058 61.5% 27,912 9,501 17,377 21.8% 40.0% Fronds 426% Trunk Combined 145% 50,749 17,274 55% 55% 56,972 106,144


PowerGenerationPotential @50%Loadfactor MW 18% 743 MW 10% 413 587 156 326 87 1,319 733 537 299 763 1,374 2,894 2,129 1,608 1,183 8,997 4,998

Table 4 Power Generation Potential from Unused Residues (1,000 tons copra equiv./year)

CN Portion>> EquivalentMassRate @50%Loadfactor EquivalentHeatrate MinimumEnergyAvailable PowerwithGasifierGenset kg/hr kW % kW 18% 228 1,846 15.1% 1,458 15.1% 40 388 15.1% 11 148 Kernel 139 89 1,036 79.4% CNOil Meal 205 412 0.0% Shell 89 Coir

Coir 208 960 99.0% 172

Fronds Trunk Combined 973 4,504 42.7% 347 331 1,535 50.0% 138 855 13,445 37.7% 2,988

dust (Leaves)

Source:AuthorscalculationswithAssumptions(*)fromHagen,1995; Note:(a)NE=NetEfficiency;(b)AsperSystemeInternational(SI)usage,tonnereferstothemetricton of 1,000 kg; PJ = petajoule = 1015 Joules. TJ =terajoule = 1012 J; GJ = gigajoule = 109 Joules; MJ = megajoule=106Joules.

1.3

DecentralisedPowerGenerationfromCoconutResidues

Generally,thefarmerdriesthekernelandsellsthecoprathroughmiddlementothelarge coconutoilmillsthatarelocatedinurbanareasandprocesscopraintococonutoilandmeal (oilcake).Forexample,around100coconutprocessingplantsinthePhilippinesaregenerally verylarge(500,000to5,000,000nuts/dayor30,000to300,000tonscopra/year).However, over90%ofcoconutsaregrownbysmallholdersmanyofwhomdonothavepowersupply. Coconutscanbeprocessedlocallyinsmallerprocessingplants,andtheenergyoftheunused biomasscanbeusedtogeneratepowerforthepopulationresidingnearby. Asmallprocessingplantthatcoverts1000tonnescopraequivalentperyearisanalysedin Table4.Onanaverage,5millionnutsarerequiredtoproduce1000tonnescopra(5nutsper kgcopra).Thiscancomefrom1,000smallholderseachproducinganaverageof1tonnecopra peryear,orfrom2,000smallholderseachproducinganaverageof0.5tonnecopraperyear. If70%oftheunusedbiomassisusedforpowergenerationinaBiomassGasifier+ICengine systemoperatingatanetefficiencyof18%,1,000kWofelectricitycanbegeneratedfor10 hourseveryday(50%loadfactor).If25%oftheworldscoconutproductionisprocessedin thisway,thereisaglobalpotentialfornearly3,000suchdecentralizedpowerplantsof1MW capacity. Evensmallermicroscaleprocessingunitsmaybethemostappropriatesolutioninmany locationsespeciallyonsmalltropicalislandsmostofwhichgrowcoconuts.Thegasifier+IC enginesystemalsoproduceswasteheatthatcanbeusedfordryingthecopra.Forexample,in combinationwithanoilmillprocessing10tonnesofcopra/year,a10kWgasifier+gasengine powerplantcanbeinstalled.Thiswillutilizethecoconutproductionofabout20smallholders andcatertotheirelectricityneedsaswell.Ifonly1%oftheglobalcoconutproductionis processedinsuchmicrooilmills,thereisapotentialfor12,000powerplantsof10kWcapacity thatcanprovidepowerto240,000smallholders.
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 Smallscalepowergenerationintheruralareascanstimulatedevelopmentofsmalland mediumscaleindustriesthataddvaluetolocallyavailablerawmaterials.Byproviding additionalemploymentopportunitiesandincomegenerationitcanalleviatepoverty. 1.4 DieselsavingsandEmissionsReductions

DieselSavings Ifelectricityfromdieselpowerplantsisdisplacedbytheelectricityproducedfromcoconut residues,then11.8billionlitresofdiesel(74millionbarrels)canbesavedinayear.Thiswill leadtoareductioningreenhousegasemissionsof32milliontonnesofCO2(Table2).

Table 5 Diesel savings

ElectricityproducedfromResidues 39,408 GWh/year Dieselsavings 11.8 billionlitres/year = 74 millionbarrels/year

litres/kWh

Assumptions: Dieselusageforelecticitygeneration= 0.30

Thevalueof11.8billionlitresofdieselatvariouscrudeoilpricesisgiveninTable3.Thevalue ofdieselis5.2and10.4billionUS$atacrudeoilpriceof50and100US$/barrelrespectively.
Table 6 Diesel Price and Savings

CrudeOil US$/bbl 50 100 150 200

Diesel US$/litre 0.44 0.88 1.32 1.76

Dieselsavings billionUS$ 5.20 10.41 15.61 20.82

Assumption:DieselPriceis40%morethanCrudeOilprice (Refining&Profit=32%;Distribution&Marketing=8%) Source:EIA,USA

EmissionsReductions Atareductionof2.7kgcarbondioxide(CO2)foreverylitreofdieselsaved,thetotalemissions reductionsfromthedieselsavingsalonewillbe32milliontonnesCO2/year. However, this is not the total CO2 emissions reductions resulting from electricity generation using biofuels from coconut instead of diesel. There are CO2 emissions during the production and processing of coconuts, and usage of coconut biofuels in engines that have to be taken intoaccount.Theseemissionsareduetofossilfuelsusedin: Production of coconuts from fossil fuels used to produce fertilisers used, in farm mechanisation,etc.; Processing coconuts from fossil fuels used for transportation of coconuts and its products,andforproducingheat&electricityatoilmill,etc.;
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 Engine modifications from fossil fuels used in producing biomass gasifiers, componentsusedtomodifyenginestorunoncoconutoil,etc.

Togetafairpictureofcarbonsavingsbyreplacingdieselbycoconuts,afulllifecycleanalysisof the coconut fuel chain has to be carried out in which all these CO2 emissions have been accountedfor.

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2
2.1

POST HARVEST TREATMENT AND PROCESSING

NutStorage

Nutsaregenerallydehuskedsoonafterharvesting,ifpossibleonthesameday.Storageofthe nutsisnotreallyrequiredbeforedehusking,exceptforverygreennutswhichareeasierto dehuskaftersomestorage.Duringperiodsofpeakharvests,notallnutsharvesteddailycanbe dehuskedthesameday,andstoragewillbenecessary.Tomaintainacertainstockmayalsobe necessarytokeepthedehuskingteamconstantlysuppliedwithcoconuts. Storageofnutsshouldbedoneinasdryconditionsaspossible,preferablyunderaroofand closetothedehuskingsite.Toreducetransportationcosts,nutsaresometimesstoredunder thetreesforlocaldehusking,butthisincreasestheriskofnuttheftandrodentattack.Local experienceisthebestindicatorofthepossibilitiesforstorageduringthewetandthedry seasons. Table7givestheeffectsofstoragetimeonthegermination,moisturecontentandformation ofballcopra.
Table 7 Effects of Storage Time on Dehusked Nuts

StorageTime(months) 1 2 3

6 7 8 9 Source:(Ohler,1999) Theadvantagesofstoringorseasoningharvestednutsbeforetheyareprocessedfurtherare: Moisturecontentofthemeatdecreases; Germinationpercentageincreases; Moreuniformcopraquality; Dehuskingbecomeseasierespeciallywiththegreenercoconuts.Trialsindicatedthat whole12montholdnutsdriedsufficientlywithintwomonthstofacilitatehuskingand copraextraction. Shellingbecomeseasierandcleaner; Greatermeatresistancetobacterialslimingduringsundrying; Underverydryconditionsnutsmaydryoutduringstoragewithoutgerminating.Thismay facilitatedehuskingandscoopingoutofthecoprafromtheshell. (Ohler,1999)
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Germination 1% 9% 27% BallCopraFormation 10% 33% 70% 100%

MoistureContent 80% 66% 55%

 2.2

Dehusking

Thesimplestmethodofremovingthekernelfromthenutisbysplittingthenutintotwo halvesorthreepartswiththeuseofaaxewithoutdehusking,andthisisdoneinseveral islandsinthePacific.Thekernelcanthenbescoopedwithaknifeouttobesundriedortaken tothekiln,butmoreoftenitistransporteddirectlytoaprocessingfactorywithhotairdryers forcopramanufacture.Thehuskwiththeshellattachedtoitisusedasfuelforthedryer typicallyabout50%isrequiredfordrying. Thismethodhasseveraldrawbacks: Thewetendospermstickstotheshellandcannotberemovedinhalvesorlargepieces. Thekernelisscoopedoutwithaflatmetalimplementresultinginfingercutkernels. Theincreasedsurfaceofthecutendospermexposedtotheairincreasesdeterioration. Thereisalsoanincreasedriskofcontaminationwithdirtintheplantation. Whentheendospermistransportedinbagsandpoundedtoreduceitsvolume, deteriorationwillbemuchincreased,particularlyifthesebagshavebeenusedbeforefor thesamepurpose. Bothhusksandshellsnotusedasfuelremaininthefield.Theshellwilltakealongtimeto decomposeandmaybecomeanuisance. In most of the coconut growing countries, the first step in the postharvest treatment of coconutsisdehusking,oftendoneintheneighbourhoodofthecoprakiln. Thisishardworkandistraditionallydonemanuallybylabourexperiencedin dehusking. Dehuskingreducestheweightofnutsbyabout40%andthevolumebyabout60%. Thecostofnuttransportationtothekilncanbereducedbydehuskingthenutsunder thetrees,sothatonlytheunopenednutsinshellshavetobetransportedtothekiln. Thehusksremaininthefieldforuseasanorganicmulchandfertilizersinceitisrichin plantnutrientsanddecomposeseasily.Whennutsaredehuskedinthefield,they mustbeshaded,sothattheydonotburstwhenheatedbysunshine. However,ifthehusksarealsotobeusedasfuelfordryingthendehuskingmightas wellbedonenearthekilnsorhotairdryers.
Photo 1 Manual Coconut Dehusking Tool

Source:FAO

Themostfrequentlyuseddehuskingmethodisbytheuseofapointedmetalspike,securedin thegroundinaslightlyslantingposition,withthepointupwards(Photo1).Thenutsare
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 broughtdownwithforceonthespike,followedbytwistingthenutsidewaysagainstthespike, looseningthehusk.Thismovementisrepeatedonceortwiceforthetotalremovalofthehusk. Careistakenthatthepointofthespikeentersthehuskatthestalkendsoastoavoidthe damagingtheshell. Dehuskingishardwork;itislowpayingandnotverypopular,soitisoftendifficulttofind labourforthisoperationeventhoughitcanprovidejobsfortheunemployed.Thenumberof nutsonemancandehuskperdaydependsverymuchonthetypeofthenuts,thethicknessof thehusk,andtheskillandenergyoftheoperator.Anaverageexperiencedworkeriscapable ofdehusking1200to1500nutsperday.AnaverageworkerinMalaysiagenerallymanagesto process1000MalayanTallnuts,1200MAWAhybridsor1500MalayanDwarfnutsperworking day.Inmostcountries,dehuskingandsplittingareperformedbydifferentlabour. Variousmechanizedsystemshavebeendevelopedduringthepastdecades,butnosystem reallymadeanimpactanddehuskingisstilldonemanuallyinmostplaces.Majorproblemsfor mechanicaldehuskingincludedifferentsizesofnutsandshells,andthedifferentstagesof maturityoftheharvestednuts(thiscanbeovercomebystoringthenutsforafewweeks). DevelopmentofdehuskingmachineshasbeencarriedoutinMalaysia,theUK,Indiaand TrinidadandTobagobutusageinlargenumbershasbeenslow.Reasonsforlowacceptability ofthemachinesincludelowprocessingcapacityandhighlabourandotheroperatingcosts. (Ohler,1999) TheCoCoMaNdehushingmachineavailablefromMethodMachineWorksSdnBhdin MalaysiaisshowninFig.(http://www.coconutmachine.com/).FOBcostin6,5007.500 USD.
Photo 2 CoCoMaN dehushing machine

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 Source:http://www.coconutmachine.com/ 2.3 NutTransportation

Thesystemofnuttransportationdependsonthevolumeofnutstobehandledandthe distanceoverwhichthisvolumehastobetransported.Insmallcoconutfarms,thefarmer transportsthenutstohishousehimself.Asthesizeofthefarmsandthenumberofnuts increases,othermodesoftransportationareusedincludinglargebasketsonbicycles,horses ordonkeysandanimaldrawncarts.Inlargeholdingsnutsaretransportedbytractordrawn cartstothedryingkilnwheretheyaresplitanddrainedbeforebeingplacedinthekiln.In somelargeplantations,nutsarebrokenimmediatelyandplacedinbagsholdingabout40 brokennutseach.However,transportationhastobereadilyavailableandwaitinghoursat thekilnmustbelow,otherwiseopenednutswillstartmouldingwithinoneday.Trucksare normallyusedfortransportingnutstoacentralfactoryoutsidetheplantation. 2.4 Cracking

Thesecondsolidbiofuelfromthecoconutistheshell.Theshellisseparatedfromthekernel by: crackingifcopraorvirgincoconutoilistobeproduced;or shellingifdessicatedcoconutistobeproduced. Dehuskedcoconutsarecrackedorsplitintotwohalvesalongtheequatorwithasteelrodor heavyknife.Thisisdoneformakingcopraortofacilitategratingfordomesticusesorfor productionofvirgincoconutoil.Crackingiscarriedoutmanually,andthereisnoneedfor mechanization.

Photo 3 Breaking coconuts for making Copra

Source:Breagetal,1994 2.5 CopraManufacture

Coconut oil is mostly produced made in large mills from the dried kernel called copra. When making mill copra, the objective is to dry the kernel of the freshly opened nut from the 50%
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 moisture level down to 6% as fast as is practically possible. The high moisture content and presenceofproteinandsugarmakesthefreshkernelanidealmediumforthedevelopmentof bacteria and fungi. It is therefore liable to deterioration and very susceptible to attack by microorganisms, with the development of free fatty acids and rancidity that degrade the fuel qualityoftheoil,andalsotheformationofaflatoxinwhichisahighlypoisonouschemical. Since copra is considered as a low value product, it is not economically viable to use sophisticated dryers, or even the use of blowers for a more constant airflow. Therefore, for makingcopra,naturaldraftdryersareused.Commonmethodsofdryingcanbeclassifiedas: 1) UsingHeatfromtheSun a) Sundrying b) Solardrying 2) UsingHeatfromburningBiomass a) KilndryingusingSmokeDirectorSemidirectdrying b) IndirectdryingusingHotair DryingmethodsforproductionofcopraaredescribedinAnnex2. Inadditiontothemillcoprawhichismilledforoilandcake,therearetwoothertypesofcopra producedinmuchsmallerbutsignificantquantitiesforediblepurposes: Ball Copra drying is carried out mainly by storage on the platform under complete shadeforperiodsof68months.Duringtherainyseasonartificialdryingisdone. Edible Copra the fuel used for drying is coconut shell charcoal, which produces an even cleaner direct heat. Sometimes a small amount of sulphur is burnt to obtain an attractivewhitecolour.
Photo 4 Edible Ball copra whole and cut into halves

Source:Rethinametal,2002

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3
3.1

COCONUT OIL - COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES

Composition

Coconutoilisamixtureofchemicalcompoundscalledglyceridescontainingfattyacidsand glycerol.ThedifferentfattyacidspresentincoconutoilrangefromC6C18carbonatom chains.Theoiliscontainedinthekernelormeatofthenut.CoconutnutoilandPalmkernel oilsarecalledlauricoilssincethemaincomponent(over50%)islauricacid.

Table 8 The chemical composition of coconut oil

Component Lauricacid Myristicacid Caprilicacid Palmiticacid Oleicacid Capricacid Stearicacid Linoleicacid

Fraction%(1) 51.0 18.5 9.5 7.5 5.0 4.5 3.0 1.0

ChemicalFormula CH3(CH2)10COOH CH3(CH2)12COOH CH3(CH2)6COOH CH3(CH2)14COOH CH3(CH2)7CH= CH3(CH2)7COOH CH3(CH2)8COOH CH3(CH2)16COOH CH3(CH2)4CH= CHCH2CH= CH(CH2)7COOH

Systematicnamea Dodecanoicacid Tetradecanoicacid Octanoicacid Hexadecanoicacid 9ZOctadecenoicacid Decanoicacid Octadecanoicacid 9Z,12Z Octadecadienoic acid

Acronymb 12:0 14:0 8:0 16:0 18:1 10:0 18:0 18:2

Source:Knotheetal,1997except(1)Hilditch,1956. Note: a) Z denotes cis configuration; b) The numbers denote the number of carbon atoms and double bonds in one molecule. For example, in oleic acid, 18:1 indicates that each molecule contains eighteen carbonatomsandonedoublebond.

3.2

FuelrelatedProperties

Thepropertiesofcoconutoilrelevantforitsuseasadieselsubstituteare: SpecificEnergyindicationofthefuelsenergyreleasedwhenitisburned.Coconutoils energy(38.4MJ/kgor34.9MJ/liter)isalittlelessthanpetrodiesel(46MJ/kgor38.6MJ/liter). Theenergycontentofoneliterofcoconutoilistypically92%ofthatofoneliterofdiesel. CetaneNumber(CN)indicationofthefuelswillingnesstoignitewhenitiscompressed. CoconutoilsCN(60)isthehighest. Viscosityindicationofthefuelsabilitytoatomizeintheinjectorsystem.Coconutoils viscosityiscomparablewithotheroilsbutisseveraltimeshigherthanpetrodiesel.Higher viscositywillcausepoorvolatilizationofthefuelintheinjectorsystemandpoorspraypattern. Theviscosityofplantoilssuchascoconutoilcanbereducedbyheating,blendingortrans esterification. SolidificationPointindicationofthetemperatureatwhichthefuelwillturnsolid.Coconut oilssolidificationpointalsocalledfreezingpointisaround24Csoitfreezesduringwinter
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 timeeveninsometropicalcountries.Solidificationcanbepreventedbyblendingitwith dieselorkerosene.Removingtheresidualwaterandfreefattyacidsfoundinmillrefined coconutoilalsoreducesthefreezingpointtosomeextent. IodineValue(IV)givesthedegreeofunsaturationofafatandisanindicationoftheability ofthefueltopolymerizeduetothefuelsdegreeofbondsavailable.CoconutoilsIV(=10)is thelowestamongalltheplantoilsshowninTable,soitislesslikelytocauseproblems associatedwithpolymerisationofaplantoilintheengine. SaponificationValue(SV)indicationofthefuelsabilitytovaporizeandatomizeduetothe fuelscarbonchains.CoconutoilhasthehighestSV(268),soitwillignitemorequicklythan otherplantoils.SVismeasuredbythenumberofmilligramsofpotassiumhydroxiderequired toconvert1gramoffatintoglycerine/soap.
Table 9 Fuel-related properties of vegetable oils and petroleum diesel

Petroleum Diesel CoconutOil 42.0 PalmOil 39.6 RapeseedOil 39.7 SoybeanOil 39.6 LinseedOil 39.7 Source:Bradley,2004

Specific Cetane Energy,Gross Number (MJ/kg) 4149 4555 60 38 37.9

Kinematic Viscosity@ 40C(cS) 4 20 37 37 33 29

Solidification Point (C) 9 24 35 10 16 24

Iodine Value 10 54 125 130 179

Saponification Value 268 199 175 191 190

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OIL PRESSING & REFINING

Technologiesforproducingcoconutoilfallundertwocategories: DRYPROCESSTheoilisextractedfromthedriedcoconutkernelcalledcopra.Thiscan bedoneinlargeoilmills(1000litresoilperhourormore)orinMinimills(10100litresper hour).Oilmillsaremechanisedandneedtheirownpowersupplytooperatethe equipment. WETPROCESSTheoilisextractedfromthefreshkernelaftergratinginitswetorasemi driedstate.TheRampressandDirectMicroExpeller(DME)havebeenusedtoproduce VirginCoconutOil(VCO)usinghandoperatedpressessuitableforhouseholdor communityscale.However,VCOsellsatapricethatismorethandoublethepriceofoil fromthedryprocess,andisthereforetooexpensivetobeusedasafuel. 4.1 DryProcessandOilRefining Schematicofdryprocessforcoconutoilextraction

Figure 5

Source:CottorInternational DriedCoprafromthefarmisstoredinwarehouses,sometimesupto2to3months,beforeitis processedinamediumorlargescaleoilmillwhereitundergoesthefollowingmainsteps: Cleaning:Copraistransferredfromthewarehousetoamillbyaseriesoffloorconveyors, rotorliftandoverheadconveyors.Copraiscleanedofmetals,dirtandotherforeign mattermanuallybypickingorbymeansofshakingorrevolvingscreens,magnetic separatorsandothersimilardevices. Crushing/Cutting:Copraisbrokenintofineparticlesizesofabout1/16"to1/8"byhigh speedverticalhammermillsorcutterstofacilitateoilextraction; Cooking/Conditioning:Thecrushedcoprathathasabout56percentmoistureispassed throughasteamheatedcooker.Thisbringsthetemperatureofthecopratothe
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 conditioningtemperatureofabout104oC.Attheconditioner,thecopraismaintainedat about104110oCforabout30minutestoinsureuniformheatpenetrationbeforeoil extraction.Moderatelyhightemperaturefacilitatestheexpellingaction.Oilisabletoflow outmoreeasilyduetodecreaseinviscosity.Moisturecontentofcopraisabout3percent whenitleavestheconditioner. Oilextraction:Intheexpeller,themilledcopraissubjectedtohighpressureoilextraction, firstbyaverticalscrew,andfinallybyahorizontalscrew.Tocontrolthetemperature duringextraction,themainshaftisprovidedwithwatercoolingandcooledoilissprayed overthescrewcagebars.Thetemperatureoftheoilshouldbekeptatabout93102oCto producelightcolouredoilandeffectgoodextraction. Screening:Theoilextractedintheexpellerflowsintothescreeningtankstoremovethe entrainedfootsfromtheoil.Thefootssettleatthebottomandarecontinuouslyscooped outbyaseriesofchainmountedscraperswhichliftthefootstothescreenontopofthe tank.Whiletravellingacrossthescreen,oilisdrainedoutofthefoots.Thefilteredoilflows intoasurgetankfromwhereitisfinallypumpedtothecoconutoilstoragetank. Filtration:Preliminaryfiltrationisdoneinoneofmoresettlingtanks.Theoiltakenfrom thetopofthesettlingtankispassedthroughaplateandframefilterpresstofurther removethesolidsintheoil.Maximumfilteringpressuresreachabout60psi.Thefiltered oilflowsintoasurgetankfromwhereitisfinallypumpedtothecoconutoilstoragetank.

Coconutoilrefining Goodqualitycoconutoilislowinfattyacidsandhasagoodaromaitcanonlybeproduced fromgoodqualitycopra.However,afterseveralweeksormonthsinstorageand transportation,copraislikelytobedark,turbid,highinfreefattyacids(FFA),phosphatides andgums,andhaveanunpleasantodour.Theoilfromsuchlowqualitycoprahastoberefined toproduceclear,odourfreeedibleoil.Lossesduringtherefiningprocesscanbe5to7.5 percentoftheweightofthecrudeoil.Themainstepsintherefiningprocessare: Physicalrefining:Aweaksolutionofphosphoricacidisaddedtoremovephosphatides andgumswhichareseparatedfromtheoilbycentrifugationorbydecantation. Neutralisation:Sodiumhydroxideisusedtoconvertfreefattyacidintoanoilinsoluble precipitatecalledsoapstockwhichsettlesdownandisremoved. Bleaching:improvesthecolorofcrudeoilbyheatingedtoremoveexcessmoistureand thenaddingeitheractivatedcarbonorbleachingearthsuchasbentonite.Thebleaching agentsarethenremovedbypassingtheoilthroughafilterpress. Deodorisation:removesvolatileodoursandflavoursaswellasperoxidesthataffectthe stabilityoftheoiltherebyimprovingtheshelflifeoftheoil.Theoilisheatedtoa temperaturebetween150250oCandcontactingwithlivesteamundervacuumconditions. MiniMills Mini Mills can be used to produce coconut oil on a small scale from copra using the Dry process (10 100 litres oil per hour). If good quality copra is used then the refining process is not necessary and only filtration is required to produce fuel grade oil that is low in free fatty acids, moisture and particulates. An excellent discussion on MiniMills is given in the World BankpublicationCoconutOilPowerGenerationahowtoguideforsmallstationaryengines
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 (World Bank, 2009). Details of mills available from manufacturers in China, India and other countries are provided. Indian MiniMills are designed for copra feedstock but the Chinese mills, which are cheaper, are designed for smaller and harder oilseeds and so they have to be modifiedforusewithcopratoavoidjammingtheexpeller.TheWorldBankguideexplainsthe modificationstobecarriedoutontheChineseMinimillssothattheycanbeusedforcopra. 4.2 WetProcess

In the wet process the coconut kernel is grated and dried to a moisture content of around 12 14%onsheetmetalplatesheatedfrombelow.Atthismoisturelevelitispossibletousehand operated presses to extract the oil from the grated coconuts. Two types of equipment have beenused: RamPress DirectMicroExpeller(DME) 4.2.1 RamPress

Rampress(alsocalledBielenbergPress)isamethodofexpellingoilfromarangeofoilseeds includingdriedcoconuteitherintheformofdriedfreshcoconutgratings,copraordried residuefromaqueouscoconutprocesses.Inaqueousprocessescoconutmilkisremovedfrom freshcoconutgratingsleavingbehindcoconutresiduecontaining47%to57%oiland4% moisture.Thisresiduecannormallybesoldatalowprice,andprocessingitintherampressto yieldoilcanprovidehigherreturns.

Photo 5 Coconut oil extraction using the Ram Press

Source:CFC,1998
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 TheRamPressisamanuallyoperated,semicontinuous,lowcostoilpressdesignedtobeused bysmallholderfarmers.Itcanbefabricatedandmaintainedbymostvillageworkshopsand thesmallerversioncaneasilybeoperatedbyindividualwomen. Feedstockpreparation Bothfreshlydriedcoconutgratingsandground/gratedcopracanbeprocessedintheram pressbutthefinancialreturnfromthecoconutresidueishigherthanfromcopra.Thecostof copraismuchhigherthanthatofcoconutresiduefromtheaqueousprocessandthe differenceisnotcompensatedbytheslightlyincreasedoilrecovery. Coconutresiduefromtheaqueousprocessisusuallyallowedtodryoutinheapswithlittle careorattention.Residuedriedinthismannerproducesoilwithahighleveloffreefattyacid thatisnotsuitablefordirectedibleconsumption.Inordertoyieldoilofediblequality,the residuehastobecarefullydriedsoonafterproductionbyspreadingitoutinthinlayersin directsunlight.Athinlayerofcoconutresiduewillrequireaboutfourhoursindirectsunshine tobringthemoisturecontentdowntoasatisfactorylevel. ProductRecovery Typicallyitispossibletoachieveathroughputof4kgcoconutresidueperhour.10kgsof residuecanproduce3.9litresofoiland6.1kgofcake.Abouttwothirdsoftheoiloriginally presentisextractedandapproximately1.65kg(1.8litres)ofoilremainsinthecake. Oilfromgoodqualitycopra,freshlydriedcoconutgratingsorfreshlydriedcoconutresiduecan beusedasfuelorconsumedascookingoilorusedforcosmeticpurposes.Poorqualityoilcan beusedinthemanufactureofsoap.Therampresscakefromcoconutgratings,coconut residueorcopracanbeusedasacomponentofanimalfeeds. FurtherdetailsoftheRamPresscanbefoundintheFACTJatrophaHandbookVol.4(FACT, 2009)andintheWorldBankCoconutGuide(WorldBank,2009). 4.2.2 DMEDirectMicroExpelling TheDMEprocessextractscoconutoilfromfreshlygratedcoconutkernelthathasbeendried toamoisturecontentof912%.ThesemidriedgratedcoconutenterstheDMEequipmentat atemperatureof45600Cforoilextraction.Filtrationisdonebykeepingtheoilinsettling tanksforaweek. TheDMEequipmentconsistsofarackandpinionpresswithinterchangeablestainlesssteel cylindersandpistons,anelectricalorenginepoweredgratingmachineandasurfacedryer. TheAustraliancompanyKokonutPacificwhodevelopedtheDMEprocessistheonlyknown supplierofsmallscaleDMEequipmentandtrainingservices.Typically,KokonutPacificDME equipmentcanprocess3.5kgsofgratedcoconutperbatchtoextractaround1litreofcoconut oilwithanoilextractionefficiencyofaround80%.Undernormalconditions,itispossibleto processupto300600nutsdailywithanoutputof2050liters(L)ofoil.EachDMEunit
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 requires3to5workers.Skillsrequiredtooperatetheequipmentaresimpleandcanbeeasily learned. KokonutPacificisalsotryingtohelpcoconutfarmerssellthevirgincoconutoilfromDMEafter localdemandissatisfied.Theyensurequality,purchasetheoilfromthefarmersandexportit toEuropeanandothercountries,muchofitgoingtothecosmeticsindustry.Furtherdetails canbefoundintheirwebsitewww.kokonutpacific.com.au/.

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 5 5.1

UTILIZATIONOFLIQUIDBIOFUELS
CoconutOilfordieselengines

The use of vegetable oils for engine fuels may seem insignificant today. But such oils may become in the course of time as important as petroleum and the coal tar products of the presenttime.RudolfDiesel(1912) Theuseofplantoilsindieselenginesisasoldasthedieselengineitself.In1896whenthe inventorofthedieselengineRudolfDieselfirstdemonstratedhisengineinParis,heraniton peanutoil.However,thedieselengineasithasevolvedtilltodayisoptimisedandmeantto usedieselfuel,andsoplantoilscoulddamagetheengineifcareisnottaken. 5.1.1 InternalCombustionEngines

Internal combustion engines (IC engines) now power most of our land and sea transport and some of our air transport and power plants as well. IC engines are classified primarily by the methodofignitionused: a) Sparkignition(SI)enginesthatgenerallyusegasoline/petrolasfuel;theseenginesare usedinautomobiles,smallboats,aircraftandsmallelectricitygeneratingsets;naturalgas enginesarealsoSI. b) Compressionignition(CI)enginesthatgenerallyusedieselasfuel;theseenginesareused inmediumandheavydutytrucksandbuses,smallerautomobiles,boatsandships,and dieselpowerplants. Therearetwotypesofliquidfuelsderivedfromplantsthatcansubstitutegasoline/petroland diesel: Ethanolproducedfrom:sugar(sugarcane,sugarbeet),starch(maize,cassava),or cellulose(bagasse,straw,wood). Plantoilssuchasrapeseedoil,sunfloweroil,cottonseedoil,coconutoil,etc.and theirderivativessuchasbiodieselproducedbyesterificationoftheseoils. WhilethetechnologyforusingethanolinbothSIandCIenginesiswelldeveloped,pureplant oilandbiodieselcan,atpresent,beusedonlyinCIengines.Inthissectionwelookattheuse ofcoconutoilinCIengines.Section5.2looksbrieflyatbiodieselproducedfromcoconutoil. Averygooddescriptionofthecomponents,fuelsystemandhowthecompressionignition engineworksisgivenintheWorldBankpublicationCoconutOilPowerGenerationahowto guideforsmallstationaryengines(WorldBank,2009). 5.1.2 FuelInjection While using pure coconut oil in CI engines, it is very important to understand the difference between direct injection and indirect injection engines, and the advantages that an Indirect injectionenginehasoverDirectinjectionsothattheengineisnotdamaged.
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DirectInjectionengine:thefuelisdirectlyinjectedintothecombustionchamber. IndirectInjectionengine:thefuelisinjectedintoaprechamberwhichisconnectedwith thecylinderthroughanarrowpassage.Rapidairtransferfromthemaincylinderintothe prechamberpromotesaveryhighdegreeofairmotionintheprechamberwhichis particularlyconducivetorapidfuelairmixing.Combustionbeginningintheprechamber produceshighpressureandthefuelsaresubjectedtohighshearforces.

Figure6DirectIgnitionengine

(a) PistonHeadCavityCombustion Chamber Source:Kopial,2005 Figure7IndirectIgnitionengine

(b) CylinderHeadCombustionChamber

(a) PreCombustionChamber (b) RotationalSwirlCombustionChamber Source:Kopial,2005 Inordertoavoidenginedamagepropercombustionofcoconutoilinthecombustionchamber hastobeensured.Impropercombustioncanresultincarbondepositsonthenozzlesand valves(Photoa)andmechanicaldamagetothepistonringsandcylinder(Photob). Propercombustionofcoconutoilinthechamberisensuredby: a) Decreasingtheviscosityoftheoilbyheatingittoaround70oC. b) Ensuring good atomisation of the fuel by increasing injection pressure to 180 200 bars
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 c) Ensuring that the temperature in the combustion chamber is high enough (above 500oC).
Photo 6

Effectsofimpropercombustionofcoconutoilinengine

a) Carbondepositsonthenozzleandvalves

b)Mechanicaldamageonpistonringsand cylinder

Source:Vaitilingom,2009 DecreasingViscosityofCoconutOil The viscosity of coconut oil can be decreased by using a simple shellandtube type heat exchanger that takes hot radiator water to warm up the coconut oil. The inner coiled pipe is made of copper to facilitate good heat transfer while the outer cylindrical shell is made of steel. Photo shows the components of the heat exchanger and when it is fitted in a car. (Deamer,2005) Viscocity of coconut oil can also be decreased by blending it with kerosene. Tony Deamer of Vanuatu has found that a blend of 85% coconut oil and 15% kerosene works very well with diesel engines. With this blend which he calls Island Fuel, the heat exchanger is not required, but he still recommends it. The Island Fuel blend also makes sure that coconut oil does not freezeinthefueltankataround20oC.SeeSection5.3.1formoredetails. Photo7Heatexchangerusedforconversionofcarstorunoncoconutoil

(a)ComponentsoftheHeatExchanger Source:TonyDeamer

(b)HeatExchangerfittedinacar

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 CombustionTemperature The temperature in the Combustion Chamber has to be high enough (above 500oC) for the coconut oil to burn fully. Indirect injection engines have temperatures above 500oC irrespective of the load, and so coconut oil can be used safely in these engines even at low loads.
Figure 8 Effect of chamber temperature on combustion of coconut oil

IfTemperatureinCombustionChamberislow (<300oC), e.g.Directinjectionengineatlowloads<50% IfTemperatureinCombustionChamberishigh enough(>500oC) e.g.Directinjectionengineathighloads>50%; Indirectinjectionenginesatanyload

Source:Vaitilingom,2009 2tanksystemforaDirectinjectionengine Since Direct injection engines have temperatures above 500oC only at high loads, to ensure complete combustion of the fuel a 2tank system must be used so that the engine is run on diesel fuel whenever the load is below 50%. Figure9 shows one way of doing this using a solenoidvalveforfuelswitching.
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Figure 9 A 2-tank system for using Coconut Oil in a Direct injection engine

Filter,heatexchangerandpump

Coconutoil
Bypass

Controlmodule

2x3wayssolenoid

Filter

DieselFueltank

engine RPMsensor Exhaustgastempprobe

EXAMPLE OF A 2-TANK SYSTEM

Photo 8 Auxiliary equipment used with a 2-tank system

Solenoid Valve

Heat Exchangers

Control Module

Coconut oil Pump Coconut Oil Filter

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 Source:GillesVaitilingom ApplicationsofDieselengines Dieselenginesareusedmainlyfortwoapplications: 1. Stationerydieselenginescoupledwithgeneratorsforpowergenerationrefertothe WorldBankCoconutGuidefordetails(WorldBank,2009). 2. Automotivedieselenginesfortrucks,buses,carsandshipsrefertoSection5.3.1for details. 5.1.3 QualityStandardsforCoconutoil

The three most important parameters of coconut oil that need to be controlled for use in dieselenginesare: 1) Freefattyacids, 2) Water, 3) Particulatematter. FreeFattyAcids(FFA)andWater: Normal factory produced coconut oil contains around 4% water and 2 to 3% Free Fatty Acids (FFAs). These contaminants cause the oil to solidify when the temperature of the oil drops below 22oC, which is quite common during winter in the South Pacific. One way around this problem is to blend the oil with some diesel fuel to prevent solidification. The presence of the dieselfuelalsoaidscoldstartingwhentheambienttemperatureisbelow20oC. TheotherproblemwithFFAsisthattheyblockthefuelfilterwhenthefuelsystemiscold.This canbeovercomebyfittingasmallheatexchangerinthefuellinetowarmthefuelpriortothe fuel filter. FFAs can also be neutralized with an alkali such as sodium hydroxide (NaOH). The removal of water and FFAs eliminates the solidification of the fuel at 20oC and gives the fuel greater calorific value. Moreover, after the water and FFA have been removed from the oil, it hasbeenfoundthatthefuelpreheaterisnotrequired.(Deamer,2005) ParticulateMatter Particulates choke up the fuel filters. Even though a second fuel filter with a bypass valve is normally added onto a diesel engine that runs on coconut oil, particulates have to be reduced to a manageable level. Since diesel fuel filters normally filter upto 10 microns, a 10 micron filter for coconut oil will prevent the fuel filter on the genset or automobile from clogging rapidly. This can be done by a Bag Filter as shown in Photo (Vaitilingom, ). It can also be donebyusingaultrahighspeedcentrifuge(Deamer,2005). Atpresentthere are no internationally acceptedQualityStandards forCoconut Oil as a Fuel in engines. Some standards proposed by Dr. Gilles Vaitilingom of the French research center CIRAD based on his experience is given in Table . The Fiji Department of Energy and the Fiji InstituteofTechnologyarecarryingoutsometeststoverifytheseDraftStandards.
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Table 10 Draft Quality Standards for Coconut Oil as a Fuel in engines

Quality standard for Coconut oil as fuel (proposal)

Properties/content Unit Min. Max. Test method

Characteristic properties Density at 25C Flash Point Calorific value Viscosity (Kin. @ 40C) Carbon residue Sulphur content Cetane Index Kg/m C MJ/kg mm /s Mass % mg/kg
2 3

0,915 210 37 40 Variable properties

30 0,40 20 -

ASTM D1298 ASTM D93

ASTM D445 ASTM 4530 ASTM D5453 ASTM D4737

Total contamination Acid value Oxidation stability (110C) Phosphorous content Ash content Water content

mg/kg mg KOH/g h mg/kg Mass % Mass %

4 -

25 10

ASTM 5452 ISO 660 ASTM D2274

15 0,02 0,075

ASTM D323 ISO 6245 ISO 12937

Source:Vaitilingom,2008 5.2 Biodiesel

AhighcetanenumberandalowiodinenumbermakescoconutoilwellsuitedforCIengines, butithastwomaindrawbacks:ahighmeltingpointandhighviscosity,bothofwhichcanbe correctedbyesterifyingtheoilintobiodiesel.Biodieselmadefromcoconutoilby transesterification,whichisalsocalledCoconutMethylEster(CME),hasameltingpointthatis belowzerodegreeCanditscetaneandiodinenumbersarenearlythesameascoconutoil. CMEhasotheradvantagesovercoconutoilitsviscosityandotherphysicalpropertiesare similartopetroleumdieselsoitcanbeeasilymixed,transportedanddistributedwithdiesel,

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 anddieselenginesdonotneedanymodificationforusingblendsofbiodiesel.Formore detailsaboutbiodieselreferBiodieselHandlingandUseGuide(NREL,2006) PhilippineshasagovernmentsupportedprogramtoproduceCoconutMethylEster(CME) fromcoconutoilandblenditwithdieselfuel.ThephysicochemicalpropertiesofCME producedinthePhilippinesanditsblendswithdieselhavebeenmeasured.Resultsare comparedinTable11withPhilippineNationalStandardfordieselfuelquality(PNS2020:2003) andbiodieselproducedfromSoyabeanoil.

Table 11 Physico-Chemical properties of Coconut Methyl Ester (CME)

Source:AllemanandMcCormick,2006 Themainfindingsofthesetestswere: CMEaswellasCMEblends(1%and5%byvolume)metthecurrentPhilippineNational Standardfordieselfuelquality. The5%blendofCMEindieselfuelincreasedthecetanenumberslightlyforeach blend. ThedieselfuelsandtheCMEdieselblendsdidnottakeupsignificantamountsof water,norwerestableemulsionsformedforanyofthefuelsorfuelblendstested. TheCMEsample,thedieselfuelsamples,andthe5%CMEdieselblendsexhibiteda similarlevelofstability.Thetestresultsshowedfewinsolublesweregeneratedduring thetests,whichunderstorageconditions,maycontributetopoorengineperformance duetopluggedfuelfiltersorcloggedinjectors.

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 Sixteenindicatorsofmicrobialdegradationweremeasured.Theresultsshowedthat theCMEsampleandtheneatdieselfuelsampleshavesimilarresistancetomicrobial degradation,althoughthemechanismsfordegradationmayvary. AFourierTransforminfraredtechniquewasfoundtobehighlylinearandcanbeused toquantitativelydeterminethepercentageofCMEinadieselfuelsample. (AllemanandMcCormick,2006).

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 5.3 5.3.1 CasestudiesinPacificandlessonslearned Islandfuel,Vanuatu

OneofthepioneersinusingcoconutoilindieselvehiclesisTonyDeamer,anAustralianwho livesinVanuatuinthesouthPacific.Fornearlytenyearshehasbeenexperimentingwith usageofcoconutoiltorundieselautomobilesandhasnowarrivedatamixthathesellsunder thenameofIslandFuelwhichcanbeusedindieselengineswithoutanymodifications (Deameretal,2005).Hestartedbyusingnormalfactoryproducedcoconutoilthatcontains around4%waterand2%to3%FFAs(FreeFattyAcids).Hefoundthatthesecontaminants causetheoiltosolidifywhenthetemperatureoftheoildropsbelow22oC,whichisquite commonduringwinterintheSouthPacific.Onewayaroundthisproblemistoblendtheoil withsomedieselfueltopreventsolidification.Thepresenceofthedieselfuelalsoaidscold startingwhentheambienttemperatureisbelow20oC.TheotherproblemwasthattheFFAs blockedthefuelfilterwhenthefuelsystemwascold.Thiswasovercomebyfittingasmallheat exchangerinthefuellinetowarmthefuelpriortothefuelfilter.Thewaterfortheheat exchangerwastakenfromthethermostatbypasscircuitsothatitwaswarmwithinaminute orsooftheenginestarting.Thiseliminatedthefuelfilterblockages. TonyDeamernowusesaproprietaryprocessthatremovesboththewaterandtheFFAsfrom thecoconutoil.Thefuelisthenfilteredthrougha3micronfilter.Theremovalofwaterand FFAslowersthesolidificationtemperatureofthefuelandraisesthecalorificvalueofthefuel. Moreover,afterthewaterandFFAshavebeenremovedfromtheoil,ithasbeenfoundthat thefuelpreheaterisnotrequired. Photo9IslandFuelFillingStation

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 Source:TonyDeamer Deamerhasbeenoperatinghisfleetofvehiclesonvariousblendsofcoconutoilanddieselin severalratios,andalsoonacoconutoilandkerosenemix.Heeventried5%methanolfora timebutfounditevaporatedouttooquickly,sointheendhedecidedtostickwiththeproven 15%keroseneblend.TonyDeamersIslandFuelmadeinVanuatucontains85%ofthe purifiedandfilteredcoconutoilblendedwith15%kerosene.Nomodificationsarerequiredin thedieselenginesthatuseIslandFuel;however,enginepreheatersarerecommendedfor colderareas. TonyDeamersaysthatthisfuelhasbeentriedandtestedovermanyyearsandisnowready forretailsale.Unfortunately,thelawsofVanuatudonotallowthesaleofIslandFuel,sohe sellsonlythecoconutoiltointerestedcarowners.TheminibusfleetownersinPortaVilahave beenblendingtheirownIslandFuelsince1995.Thebusoperatorsarecompletelysatisfied withusingitandtheyarereportinganincreaseinkilometersperlitrewhenoperatingwiththe IslandFuel. Basedonhisexperiencewithproducingfuelgradecoconutoilandblends,andinusingthem asfuelsinallhisvehicles,TonyDeamerhasfoundthat: a) Coconutoilhasbetterlubricatingqualitiesthanotherfuelsfordieselenginessoitcauses lesswearoninternalenginepartsandprolongsenginelife. b) Coconutoilburnsslowerthanotherdieselfuelssoitpushesthepistonallthewaydown thecylinderinsteadofarapidexplosionatthetopofthestroke,resultinginaneven powerrelease,lessfueluse,lessenginewearandaquieterrunningengine. c) Coconutoilfuelleddieselenginesruncoolerduetolessinternalfrictionandtheslower burnrate. d) Coconutoilisnotanidealsubtropicalfuelasitwillsolidifyovernightiftemperaturesdrop below24degreesCelsius.However,thegelpoint(thepointatwhichitbecomessolid)can begreatlyreducedbymixingthecoconutoilwithkeroseneorbykeepingthefuelheated usingheatingaccessoriescommonlyfoundongenerators,boatsandtransportvehicles. e) Coconutoilbasedfuelsyieldover10%morekilometersperlitre(km/l)usedthan petroleumdiesel.Datacollectedovera20,000km,6monthtestonanIsuzuDirect injection2.5ltr4JAIdieselmotorinapickupthatwasgivinglessthan12km/ldiesel, showedthatithadimprovedtoapprox13.5km/Ion"IslandFuel60". f) AnoticeabletorqueincreaseisfeltwithIslandFuel.Itwasnoticedthat,whiledriving uphill,achangedowntothenextgearwasoftennotrequiredastheenginekeeppullingat thelowerRPM.Thisiseasilyexplainedbythefactthatthecoconutoilburnsslowerthan diesel. g) Theexhaustfumesfromcoconutoilarelessharmfulthanmineralbasedfuels.When burntinadieselengine,cocodieselemits50%lessparticlematter(blacksmoke)andless sulfurdioxide(SO2).Exhaustfromcoconutoilcontainsnopolyacrylichydrocarbons (PAH's)themaincancercausingcomponentofmineraldieselfuelexhaust. h) Coconutoilisnontoxicandfullybiodegradable.Itissafetostoreandtotransport.Oil spillsonlandorwaterareharmlessandthereisareducedriskoffire.Nochemicalsare requiredtoproducethefuelsotherearenoharmfulbyproducts.
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Theentireprocessofmakingcoconutbasedfuelfordieselenginescanbedoneinthe islandscreatingjobsandstimulatingtheeconomy.Alltheincomefromtheproduction andsaleofcoconutoilstaysintheislandsinsteadofgoingoverseas.Ahighpercentageof theincomefromcoconutbasedfuelswillgotothelocalfarmersinruralareas. j) Allthestepsintheproductionofcoconutoilcanbefuelledbycoconutoilorcoconut residuessothereisnoadditiontogreenhousegasesduringtheproductionofthefuel product. k) Onthenegativeside,somedriversandpassengersofthecoconutoilblendpowered vehicleshavereportedheadachesiftheexhaustgasleaksintothepassenger compartment.TheMotorTradersfleethavemadechangestotheexhaustsystemtoclear theexhaustgasesfromthevehicle.Thenatureoftheheadachecausingagentneedstobe determinedandifagreaternumberofvehiclesareoperatinginanurbanareaitwillneed tobedeterminedifthisagentwillcauseproblemsforthegeneralpublic. [Deameretal,2005] Photo10RangeRoverandToyotaRunningonVanuatuCoconutOil

i)

Source:TonyDeamer SomeoftheadvantagesofIslandFuelare: EnvironmentalAdvantages 1) Coconutoildoesnotcontributetothegreenhouseeffect.Whenburnedinadiesel engine,coconutoilreleasesthesameamountofcarbondioxide(CO2)thatwillbe consumedbythenextbatchofcoconuts.Inthisway,thecocodieselcyclescarbon throughtheatmospherefromplanttotheairandbacktotheplant. 2) WhenburntinaDieselengine,cocodieselemitslesssulfurdioxideSO2(theprimary contributortotropicalplantandrainforestdepletion). 3) Coconutoilemits50%lessparticlematter(blacksmoke)thanconventionaldiesel. 4) Nochemicalsarerequiredtoproducethefuelsotherearenoharmfulbyproducts. 5) Allthestepsintheproductionofcoconutoilcanbefuelledbycoconutoilfuelsothere isnoadditiontogreenhousegasesduringtheproductionofthefuelproduct. 6) Coconutoilisbiodegradable. EconomicAdvantages
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 1) CoconutoilbasedfuelsyieldmoreKmperlitreusedthanotherfuelsfordiesel engines. 2) Thecostofcoconutoilispresentlyloweronthanthecostofotherfuelsfordiesel enginesinVanuatu. 3) Theentireprocessofmakingcoconutbasedfuelfordieselenginescanbedonein Vanuatucreatingjobsandstimulatingtheeconomy. 4) AlltheincomefromtheproductionandsaleofcoconutoilstaysinVanuatu,insteadof goingoverseas.SothetaxreceivedfromVATeachtimethemoneyisspentlocally willexceedtheincomederivedfromthedutyontheimportedproduct. 5) Ahighpercentageoftheincomefromcoconutbasedfuelswillgotothelocalfarmers inruralareas. MechanicalAdvantages 1) Coconutoilhasbetterlubricatingqualitiesthanotherfuelsfordieselenginessoit causeslesswearoninternalenginepartsandprolongsenginelife. 2) Coconutoilburnsslowerthanotherdieselfuelssoitpushesthepistonalltheway downthecylinderinsteadofarapidexplosionatthetopofthestrokeresultinginan evenpowerrelease,lessfueluse,lessenginewearandaquieterrunningengine. 3) CoconutoilfuelledDieselsruncoolerduetolessinternalfrictionandtheslowerburn rate. SafetyAdvantages 1) Theexhaustfumesfromcoconutarelessharmfulthanmineralbasedfuels.Exhaust fromcoconutoilcontainsnoPolyAcrylicHydrocarbons(PAH's)themaincancer causingcomponentofmineraldieselfuelexhaust. 2) Coconutoilissafetostoreandtotransport.Oilspillsonlandorwaterareharmless andthereisareducedriskoffire. 3) Coconutoilisnontoxicandfullybiodegradable.Afterall,whatotherfuelcanyouboth cookyourfishandchipsinandrunyourtruckon?? Disadvantages Coconut oil is not an ideal sub tropical fuel as it will solidify overnight if temperatures drop below14degreesCelsius.However,thegelpoint(thepointatwhichitbecomessolid)canbe greatlyreducedbymixingthecoconutoilwithKeroseneorbykeepingthefuelheatedusing heatingaccessoriescommonlyfoundongenerators,boatsandtransportvehicles. Commentsonmotorperformance DatacollectedontheIsuzuDirectinjection2.5ltr4JAIdieselmotorinapickupovera 20,000km6monthtestshowedanaverageof12.75kmperlitreon"CocoDiesel".This hasimprovedon"IslandFuel60"toapprox13.5Km/I.OnDieselthevehiclewas achievinglessthan12Km/I.(AFullsheetofallfuelusedandKmdrivenwithcomentsis available.) TheTwoToyota"L"and"2L"2.2and2.4ltrenginesonlyaveraged7.5Km/l.onCoco dieselandabout8Km/lon"IslandFuel60".Topendhorsepowerwasslightlydown.
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 i.e.accelerationwasnotsobriskon"CocoDiesel60/70butalmostnormalon"Island Fuel60".Anoticeabletorqueincreasewasfelt.Itwasnoticedthatachangedownto thenextgearwasoftennotrequiredastheenginekeeppullingatthelowerRPM. ThisiseasilyexplainedbythefactthattheCoconutoilburnsslowerthantheDiesel (i.e.moreora"WhooshandlessofaBang"). After12monthsofuseonUnprocessedCocoDiesel(NotIslandFuel)aNissanLD28 2.8ltrnaturallyaspirateddieselengineoperatingwithinaRangeRoverwasstripped. Thepistons,rings,bearings,valvesandinjectorswereremovedforexamination.All wereinmuchcleanerandbettershapethanexpectedfromadieselengine.Thebore marksstillshowedthecrosshatchhonemarks,thevalvesandcamgearwasallclean andinperfectorder.Theonlyproblemwasthattheenginewaspurchasedsome10 yearsagosecondhandsoTonydoesnotknowhowitwasusedinthepast.Buthe guessesthatithadatleast100,000Kmbeforehegotitandapprox30,000Kmfromthe timehehadittothetimehestartedusingCocoDieselinit.Themotorwasputback togetherwithnewpistons,ringsbearingsandinjectorsnozzlesandanewtimingbelt. Itisnowusing"IslandFuel60"inwinterand"IslandFuel70"duringwarmerweather inthesummermonths.

At the start of 2003 Deamer ordered his own Processing Equipment and continued to make and supply processed coconut oil only, to anyone wanting it, and left it to them to mix their ownpetroleumproductwithit. InhisownUnitshetriedmixingMethanolat5%foratimebutfounditevaporatedouttoo quickly.Sointheendhedecidedtostickwiththeproven15%keroandsosince2003the RangeRoverandallourotherUnitshavebeenrunningonthismixaswastheVolvofrom thestartoftheexperimentin2001. In2005ColdpressedCrudecoconutoilwassellinginSantofor65Vatualitre(approx US$0.59perltr).Dieselwas132VatuatthepumpsCNOrefinedsoldforabout90Vatua ltr.andtheKerowasat120VatusoaBlendedfuelcostapprox95Vatuperltr. DeamersvehicleshavenotexperiencedanyCNOrelatedproblemsinthepastfewyears. TheydidreplaceaHeadGasketontheVolvoduetoanoverheatingproblemthatresulted intheenginerunningdryofwaterforalongperiod,butitdidnotseizeup. BothVolvoandRangeRoverarerunninganLD28NissanenginewithPercombustion chambersandtheyarenotDirectinjection. TheIsuzuwithDirectinjectionengine2/5ltrisnowonthe15%keromixandtheyareno longerhavingtheboreglazingproblemstheywerehavingwhendrivenlightlyonthe 60/40CNO/Dieselmixinthefirstyearoftheexperiments. 5.3.2 Cocogen,Samoa

TheSamoanElectricPowerCorporation(EPC)hasbeenlookingintoalternativesfordieselfuel electricitygenerationincludingbiofuels,solarandwind.Intheearly1980s,EPChadcarried outtrialsonusingcoconutoilfordieselengineoperationoveraperiodofsixmonths,butno recordsorresultsofthesetestsareavailabletoday.Becauseofthetechnicalrisksassociated

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 withusingfuelsthatarenotrecommendedbythemanufacturerofthegeneratingunits,these trialswerenotcontinued. From20022005EPChasgeneratedalittleover120GWh/yrofwhichroughlyhalfisfrom hydropowerandtheotherhalffromdieselpowerplants.Thecurrentbaseloaddeliveredby thedieselpowerstationisapproximately8MW,withamorningpeakof13andanevening peakof17MW. Throughacombinationofcostsavingsandenvironmentalconsiderations,EPCaimstoutilise alternativefuelsfromdieselwillbeapart.Inaddition,theincreasingdependenceonimported fossilfuelsisanothermainreasontocarryoutafeasibilitystudyintotheuseofalternative fuelsintheEPCgenerators.Byaimingforapartialdisplacementofdieselfuel,EPCcangain valuableexperiencebasedonwhichfurthersubstitutioncanbeconsidered.Thepricevolatility onboththecoconutoilmarketandthefossilfuelmarketdonotsupportthecompleteswitch tococonutoilfuel. Dr.GillesVaitilingom,theBiofuelSpecialistintheCOCOGENteamfoundthatnoneofthe gensetscurrentlyrunningatTanugamanonoorSalelologaPowerStationscouldusestraight coconutoilasfuelwithoutchemicaltransformationsoftheoilormechanicalmodificationsof engines.However,basedonhisexperiencewithrunningdieselgensetswithpureplantoils includingcoconutoil,hepredictedthattherewerehighchancesofsuccessforusinga10% blendofcoconutoilwithdieselfuel,iftheloadonthegensetiskeptover50%ofitsrated load.Incasebadcombustionoccurs(misfiringorcyclicaldispersion)theamountofunburnt fuel(blendofcoconutoilanddiesel)wouldbehigherthan1/1000.Thatmeans,outofthe 10,000litresoftheblendusedinthetest,10litreswouldremainunburnt,andthis10litres wouldcontain1litreofcoconutoil.Inasumpofaroundthan100litresoflubricantcapacity, thiswillleadtoapollutionofthelubebytriglyceridesandfattyacidsof1%,andthislevelof contaminationiseasytodetectaccurately.Iftheanalysisofthelubesamplesrevealthatthe levelofcontaminationbyunburntcoconutoilislessthan1%,itcanbeconcludedthatthe combustionwasgoodand,thatforthisgenset,underthecurrentoperatingconditions,a10% blendofcoconutoilcanbeusedsafely. Photo 11 CumminsDirectInjection400kWDieselEnginetestedwith10%coconutoil

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Source:SOPAC,2005 SpecificationsoftheDieselGeneratingSet Usage(Feb05) 179hrs PercentofProduction 4% EngineMaker Cummins EngineModel KTTA19G2 EngineSerial# 37155000 SONo 62222 CPL 1170 HP/RPM 1500rpm ManufacturingDate 8/11/94 RatedSpeed 1500 IdleSpeed 800(low) #ofCylinders 6 Bore[mm] 158.75 Stroke[mm] 158.75 4cycleverticalinlinecylinder Type CoolingSystem WaterRadiator CompressionRatio 13:8:1 Aspiration Turbo/cooled Displacement[l] 18.7 Rotation(flywheel) CCW InjectionMethod CommonRailHVT TypeofNozzle DirectInjectionHoleType TypeofFuel BS2869A1 Governor Electric StartingMethod Electric24V Maker ONAN
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 GeneratorModel SerialNumber Rating Spec KVA Amps KW KW(derated) Volts 450DFFB A92A001721 Standby 5673G 563 783 400 250 415

AfterconsultationwiththeGeneralManager,itwasagreedthattestswith10,000litresofa 10%blendpilotwouldbecarriedoutwithengine#2A,comprisingof1,000litresofcoconutoil blendedwith9,000litresofdieselfuel.Forthepilot,thefollowingrisks(andriskreduction strategies)wereidentified: NoCoconutoilavailable; ContactedandvisitedCOPStorequestthedeliveryofoilfrom currentproduction. BadQualityCOPSoil;Prefilteringofoilwithexistingfuelfilterstoavoidparticlesinthe fueltank. CarbonDeposits; Themachineshavetoberunabove50%oftheirratedcapacityto avoidexcessivecarbondeposits.Withthederatingofthemachines,thismeansthey shouldrunatmaximumpower. Filterclogging;Ifcoconutoilismixedwithwaterbyaccident,theresultingmixturecan leadtocloggingoffilters,therefore,goodworkinghygieneisrequired. Blendpercentagenotright;Asthepilotisdesignedtominimisetheriskforthe machines,itisimperativethattheoperatorstickstothe10%blendofcoconutoiland90% regulardiesel.Forhigherpercentagesofcoconutoilinthefuel,engineadaptationsmaybe required. Lubeoilsamplenotright; Itisimperativethatthesampleofthelubeoilafterthetestis takenaccordingtoinstructionssothattheanalysiscanbecarriedoutcorrectly.

In order to reduce these risks, the technical consultant was present to instruct the operators on the first day of the pilot test. Secondly, clear working instructions for the pilot test were provided: WorkingInstructionsfortheCoconutOilPilotTest Engine:Lubricantandoilfiltersmustbeneworhavinglessthan250runninghours. Fuel:Atotalvolumeof10,000litreswillfeedengine2A.Itiscomposedof1,000litresof coconutoiland9,000litresofdieselfuel.Themixturewillthenbepreparedas1volumeof coconutoilplus9volumesofdiesel.Thiswillrequirethefollowingsteps: 1) Pour1volumeofcoconutoilinthedailytank; 2) Pour9volumesofdieselfuelinthedailytank; 3) Stirthedailytankfor2minuteswithastick.
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Lubricant: 1) Thesamelubricantwillbeusedduringthedurationofthetest. 2) Addedvolumeoflubricantmustbeloggedexactly. 3) Twosamplesoflubeoilwillbecollectedinthesumpofthetestengineandsentto SOPAC/Fiji:(a)onesamplebeforestartingthetest,and(b)thesecondsampleafter completionofthetest. Operationofthetestgenset:TheGeneratorSetbeingtestedmustnotbeusedunder 50%ofitsoriginalrating,i.e.200kW.Thegensetcanonlybeallowedtorunforuptoone houronaloadbelow200kW,afterwhichitmustbeshutdown. Mechanical:Incaseofamechanicalinterventionontheengine,collectasampleoflube oilbeforestartingagain.Thissamplewillbejoinedwiththesampletakenattheendofthe test. DatarequiredTheLogbookmustcontain: AttheStartofthetest: 1) Typeoflubricant; 2) Gradeoflubricant; 3) #ofrunninghoursofthelubricantinthesump; 4) Collectofthesampleoflubeoil. Daily: 1) Date; 2) #ofkWh; 3) #ofrunninghours; 4) Volumeofblendused; 5) Volumeofaddedlubricant; 6) #ofstartsduringtheday; 7) Observation/troubleshooting. AttheEndofthetest: 1) Collectofthesampleoflubeoil; 2) Indicatethenumberofrunninghours; 3) Completethedailylogbook; 4) SendthesampleandthelogdatasheettoSOPACinFiji.

Immediatelyafterthefieldwork,lubeoilsamplesbeforeandafterthepilotweresentthrough tothelaboratoryoftheUniversityoftheSouthPacificinFijiandtoaspecialisedlaboratoryin France.Thelubeoilanalysespointedthatnoharmfullevelofcontaminationof(unburnt) coconutoilcouldbedetectedinthelubricant.Therefore,thetestcanbedescribedas successfulandtherecommendationsoftheSalelogaPowerStationmanagercanbefollowed tocontinuethepilot.TheCocogenteamproposescontinuationoflubeoilanalysisatregular operationintervals.

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 Photo12FilteringofCoconutOilwithaSheetBeforemixinginthedaytank

Source:SOPAC,2005 Testingofa10,000litresBlendof10%CoconutOil+90%DieselFuelinGenset2A Test: TheteststartedonSaturday2ndofApril2005inthepresenceofDrVaitilingom.He recommendedstronglythattheloadoftheengineshouldnotbebelow80%ofnormalload. Forthisengine,thenormalloadis200kWandthereforetheloadshouldbeabove150kWat anytime.Iftheloadisbelow150kW,thentheenginemustbeshutdowntoavoidanysignof unforeseenfailure.Thetesttookabout3weekstocomplete6x44gallonsofcoconutoilthat isonApril23,2005. ResultsoftheTests BetweenApril2andApril232005,atotalof1,018litresofcoconutoilwasblendedwith9,167 litresofdieselinthedaytankofengine#2inSalelogaPowerStation.Theoverallfuelusage forthetrialengineforthewholemonthofAprilwas17,162litres.Totally10,185litresofblend wasusedduringthetest. ThelubeoilsamplesafterthetestweresenttolabsinFijiandtoFranceforanalysis.Thelevel ofcontaminationofthelubeoilbyunburntcoconutoilindicatedthatitwasadvisableto continueusingacoconutoilblendinmachine#2. Statistics: Durationoftest(days): 22 Amountofcoconutfuelused: 1,000Litresapproximately Amountofhoursduringtest: 245
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 Averagehourperday: TopupOilduringtest: TotalkWh: 11 26litres 46,278kWh

Comments: Thesuccessfulcompletionofthe testrevealspositivedirection ofcoconutoil as an alternative fuel, provided that it is less expensive that diesel fuel. Mechanically speaking, there was no signofanydefectduringthetest. Recommendations: 1) Thetestisnotlongenoughtofindouttheimpactofthetesttoenginecomponents.It issuggestedofatleast1,000hrsofrunningisappropriate. 2) After1000hrsoftest,theengineshouldbeinspectedwiththoroughchecksonits cylinderheads,injectors,liners,pistons,pistonrings,andfuelpumpetcforany abnormalsignsordefects. 3) Theexhaustgasduringthistestwasnotsatisfactoryandthereforesuggestedstrongly thattherecommendedsulphurcontentofthefuelshouldbebetween0.25and0.50 percentagebyweight. Thefinancial,economicandenvironmentalimpactsoftheCocogenprojectaregiveninthe FinalReport(SOPAC,2005).ThisreportalsocontainsdetailsoftheGISstudy(Geographical InformationSystem)usedtoassesstheCoconutResourcesofSamoa. 5.3.3 CoconutoilforpowergenerationinFiji

CoconutsaregrownonalltheFijianislands.Coconutoilisalocalresourcethatisabundantly availableespeciallyintheruralcoastalcommunities.Aprojecttousecoconutoilforvillage electrificationwasplannedin199899jointlybyFijiDepartmentofEnergy,theSecretariatof thePacificCommunity(SPC)andCIRAD.Thetechnicalexpertiseandtechnologywere providedbyCIRADFrancethroughFrenchGovernmentfunding.TheMinistryofAgriculture (TaveuniCoconutCentre)andPublicWorksDepartment(Electrical)werevitalpartnersinthe projectimplementationwhichcoveredfourvillages. Theprojectinvolvedthemodificationoftwodieselgensetsofcapacities45kVAand90kVAso thattheycouldrunonpurecoconutoil.Twositeswerechosenfortheproject: 1) Lomaloma,NaqaraandSawanavillagesinVanuaBalavuand 2) WelagivillageinTauveni. CIRAD had already successfully installed three diesel gensets modified for coconut oil on the islandofOuvainNewCaledonia: 1. In 1995 a 90 KVA genset to provide electricity for a copra mill with a capacity of 350 kgcopraperhour. 2. In 1999 one 180 KVA and one 45 KVA genset to provide electricity for a desalination plant.
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 The coconut oil gensets that CIRAD provided for Fiji were identical to the ones that CIRAD installedinNewCaledonia: These gensets were designed for fully automatic operation after a push button start evenattemperaturesbelow24oCwhenthecoconutoilisfrozen. Thereweretwofueltanksonefordieselandtheotherforcoconutoil. Thegensetisstartedandstoppedondieselfuelfor10to15minutes. The coconut oil tank had electric heaters below the tank to melt the coconut oil and also an electric heater in the well of the tank where the outlet pipe emerged. Once the coconut oil had been heated to the required temperature the control system switchesthefuelsupplytococonutoilbymeansofasolenoidvalve. Coconutoilisutilizedastheprimaryfuelsourcefor90%95%ofthetotalrunning timeofthegenerator. Asecondextrafuelfilterisfittedwithabypassvalve. Alargerfuelpumpisfitted. Yearlyinspectionsarecarriedoutontheprojectsitesforrepairsandtrainingof technicianstorunthegenerators. Welagi The45kVAWelagiCopraBiofuelProjectwascommisisionedinJuly2001,anditrantrouble freeforafewyearsafteritsimplementation.Thisprojectservesavillagewith58households andoilproductionisthroughasmalloilmillthatwasbuildaspartoftheproject.Thevillage hasaspecialcommitteethatlooksaftertheaffairsofthecopraproductionandsubsequentoil productionthatareusedtogenerateelectricityinthebiofuelgenerator. Photo9showstheequipmentinstalledinWelangiforproducingfuelgradecoconutoil.Copra cutintosmallpiecesbytthecopracutter(notinpicture)isfedintotheoilexpellerontheleft ofthephoto.Theprefilteredcoconutoil(drumontheleft)ispumpedbyanelectricaldriven pump(betweendrumandfilter)andpushedthroughaflowlinebagfilter(ontheright).The hoseatthebottomrightisconnectedtothecoconutoilmaintankofthegenerator.
Photo 13 Coconut Oil production equipment at Welangi

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Source:GillesVaitilingom Photo 14 45kVAdieselgensetatWelagi

Source:GillesVaitilingom VanuaBalavu TheLomalomaCopraBiofuelProjectwascommissionedinApril2000.The90kVALomaloma CopraBiofuelProjectservesthreevillages(Naqara,SawanaandLomaloma).Sincethisisthe administrativeheartofVanuaBalavu,electricityisalsosuppliedtotwogovernmentschools, theLomalomaHospitalandthePostOfficealongwith200customers. AnElectricityCommitteeformedbythethreevillagesandotherconsumersintheprojects overseestheprojectmanagement.Apowerhouseoperatorandhisassistantarebeingpaidto maintainthegeneratorwhileameterreaderhasthetaskofbillingconsumersthrough readingsofindividualkWhmetersandanotherpersoncollectsthesebills.Thusfourvillagers areemployedbytheElectricityCommitteeandtheirwagesarepaidthroughthebillscollected monthly.
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 ThecoconutoilmillonVanuaBalavucloseddownshortlybeforethisprojectwas commissionedandallcopraproducedwassentoutsidetheislandforprocessing.Leftover coconutoilfromtheoilmilllastedabout8monthsafterwhichoilforthegensetwas purchasedfromtheSavusavuoilmillonVanuaLevu. Photo 15 The90kVAdieselgensetatVanuabalavu

Source:GillesVaitilingom InMarch2005the90kVAcommunitygensetfacedseriousmechanicalproblemsandwas shutdown.SubsequentlythisgensetwassenttoSuvaforrepairsbutnothingwasdoneabout itforseveralyears.ItwasrustingawayattheWaluBayworkshoptill2008whentheBiofuel AdvisorattheDeptofEnergy,KrishnaRaghavan,arrangedfortheFrenchengineerGilles VaitilingomtocometoFijiandhelprepairthisgenset.SincethisisheavydutyDeutzindirect injectiongensetitcanbeoperatedatevenlowloadsoncoconutoil.Sotheoperating procedurewaschangedtoamuchsimpler,manualoperationwithonlyonefueltank containingcoconutoil.Theheatersbelowthefueltanktomeltcoconutoilinwintercanstill beusedifrequiredbymanuallyoperatinganonoffswitch.Meanwhilethethreevillageson VanuaBalavuhavegottheirownseparategensets,sotherepaired90kVAcoconutoilgenset willbeinstalledatanotherlocationwherecoconutoilisavailable. A SOPAC study team visited the two sites in 2005 to evaluate these two projects for the Fiji DepartmentofEnergy.Theirconclusionsaregivenbelow: ThebiofuelprojectsinTaveuniandVanuabalavuhavesuccessfullydemonstratedthe technicalpossibilitytousecoconutoilasafuelforruralelectrification.Theyhavehowever notresultedintheexpectedsocioeconomicdevelopmentasanticipated. Provisionofreliableandaffordableelectricityservicestotheremotecommunitiesof TaveuniandVanuabalavuisahighlyvaluedservicetoimprovestandardofliving. Dieselhasbeenfoundthemostappropriateandlowestcostfueloptionfortheprovisionof electricityatbothsitesresearched.
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Eventhoughthoroughfeasibilitystudiesontechnology,socioeconomicsandhavebeen carriedoutbeforetheimplementationoftheprojects,theexpectationsofthevillagersand theresultsoftheprojectshavenotbeeninlinewitheachother. IftheautomaticfuelswitchontheTaveunigeneratorisrepaired,thevillagershavethe optiononwhethertouse(commerciallyproduced)coconutoilordieselasfuel.For Vanuabalavutoutilisecoconutoilasafuel,anoilmillwouldhavetobeboughtandoil millingorganisedasitdoesnotappeartobeeconomicallyattractivetoimportcoconutoil fromotherislands. TheevaluationfindingsandsocialsurveyconductedbyPCDFclearlyoutlinesthesocial constraintsandnoncooperativenessbetweenthe3villagesparticularly,thatofLomaloma andSawana.Theideaofhavinganelectricitycommitteecomprisingofmembersfromthe 3villagesisnotpractical.Thus,itisunlikelythatacommongeneratorforthevillagesis suitable. Thecurrenttariffstructureisnotsustainableasrealcostsareneithercovered,nor equitablebecauseallhouseholdspaythesameamountirrespectiveoftheirusage. Generally,newtechnologycansurviveandoperateasdesignedprovideditisused accordingtoitsspecifications.Theabsenceoftechnologyinacommunitywillonlyhinder (wo)menseffortstodevelopsocially,economicallyandsustainably; (SOPAC,2006) Fijiscoconutindustryrevivalprogram Fijiscoconutindustryhasbeendecliningoverthelast40yearsbecauseoflowproductivity, lowpricesandcompetitionfromotheredibleoilssoldontheworldmarket.Althoughthere havebeensomeeffortsinthelastfourdecadestorevivetheindustry,thelackofasustained longtermnationalpolicyfordevelopmentofthecoconutsectorhasmadeitdifficultto reversethedecline.Intheearly1960scopraproductionwasover40,000tons/yr;nowitis lessthan15,000tons/yr.Moreover,abouttwothirdsofthetreeswillgooutofproduction overthenext20years.Theoldertreesneedtobereplacedsoonotherwisetheindustrywill declinefurtherandtheruralpeopledependentontheindustrywillmigratetourbanareas lookingforalternativelivelihoodsaddingmorepressureonthelimitedresourcesoftheurban centers.Inresponsetothisproblem,theFijianGovernmentcreatedtheCoconutIndustry DevelopmentAuthority(CIDA)underanActofparliamentinNovember1998,withamandate torevitalizetheindustry.However,CIDAhasnotbeenabletotakeovertheentire administrationoftheindustryfromtheMinistryofAgriculturebecauseofthelackof budgetarysupport.From2005onwards,theGovernmenthasagreedtohandovertoCIDAthe fullresponsibilitytoadministerallaspectsoftheindustrywithadequatefundingtoenable CIDAtoperformitsfullroleasrequiredundertheAct. CIDAhasdrawnupa25yearCoconutIndustryMasterDevelopmentPlanthatincludesa NationwideCoconutIndustryPromotionsProgram(NCIPP).CIDAaimstorestructurethe coconutindustry,register20,000coconutgrowersandestablishanetworkofCoconutPlanters Associationsthroughoutthecoconutgrowingareas.ThiswillassisttheExtensionand Research&DevelopmentDivisionstoachievetheirtargetsfortheplantingof6milliontrees
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 andtherehabilitationofanother2milliontrees.TheTaveuniCoconutCenterwithitsfour seedgardenswillbeprovidedfinancial,manpowerandlogisticalsupporttoplayakeyrolein thiscampaign.Amanpowerdevelopmentplanandraisingofpublicawarenessthrough postersinschools,restaurants,hotels,publicmarketsandgovernmentoffices,etc.arealso beingplanned. CIDAaimstoincreasetheproductionofcoprato50,000tons/yr,ofcoconutoilto24,000tons /yrandoftendernutsforthelocalandexportmarketto40millionnuts/yr.Product diversification,intercroppingpractices,wholenutpurchasecentersandacentralizedcopra dryingfacilityareenvisagedtogetherwithalargenumberofminimillsandtwobigcoconutoil (CNO)mills.CIDAwantstoimprovethelifestyleof100,000ruralpeopleinvolvedinthe coconutsector,empowerwomen,reducepovertyandimprovetheeducationofruralchildren. OtherambitioustargetsofCIDAincludeearningsofF$15m/yrinforeignexchangethrough salesofcoconuttimber,over$100m/yrfromsaleofCNO,tendercoconutsandproducts madefromCNO,$10m/yrfrombiodieseltoreplace10%ofimporteddiesel,and$34m annuallyfromsalesofcoconutmeal.[CIDA,2004]

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 6 UTILIZATIONOFSOLIDBIOFUELSSHELLS&HUSK

6.1

Characteristics

Thehuskofthematurecoconutconsistsofnumerousfibersembeddedinasoftcorklikegroundtissue usuallyreferredtoaspith.Thefibresare15to35cm.Long,haveahightensilestrengthunaffectedby moisture,andconsistmainlyofligninandcellulosewithabout10percentpectins,tanninsandother watersolubleandinsolublesubstances.Thepithontheotherhandismostlymadeupofpectins, tanninsandotherwatersolublesubstancesandhemicelluloses.Theenergycontentofcoconuthuskis 16.7GigaJoules/Tonne. Theshellofthematurecoconutisauniformlydensemateriallikehardwoodthatconsistsmainlyof ligninandcellulose.Theenergycontentofcoconutshellis18.2GigaJoules/Tonne. 6.2 BasicPrinciplesofCombustion

Thereare4differentwaysofburningcoconutshells: 1) CombustionCoconutShellsareburntcompletelywithexcessairinafurnaceto provideprocessheat.Dischargeofcharandtarismoderateifproperlycontrolled.

2) GasificationCoconutShellsarecompletelyburntwithlimitedairinagasifiertogive producergaswhichisthenburntforprocessheat.Dischargeofcharandtartothe atmosphereisverylightifproperlycontrolled.

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 3) Carbonisation(Traditional)Coconutshellsarepartiallyburntwithlimitedairinapit toproducecharcoal.Dischargeofcharandtartotheatmosphereisveryheavy.

4) CarbonisationwithWasteHeatRecoveryCoconutshellsarepartiallyburntwith limitedairinaCarbonisertogivecharcoal.Alltheemittedgasesarecollectedand burntinaFurnacetorecoverthewasteheat.Dischargeofcharandtartothe atmosphereisverylight.

Coconutshelltypicallycontainsabout21,000kJ/kg(kiloJouleperkilogram)ofdrymatter. Duringcarbonizationbythetraditionalmethod,approximately60%ofthisenergyislosttothe surroundings.ByuseofthewasteheatrecoverytechnologydevelopedbyNRIthisheatis recoveredasusefulenergyforusebytheindustry. DuringthecarbonizationprocessusingtheWHU,approximately59%oftheheatintheshellis evolvedandtheremaining41%isretainedinthecharcoalproduced.Ofthe59%oftheheat generated,75%isrecoveredinthecombustedgas/airmixturewhichcanthenbeusedto provideheatfordryingapplicationsinthecoconutandotherindustries.(Figure)

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 Figure10Heatcontentsintheconversionofshellstocharcoal

Source:Breagetal,1984 6.3 CurrentUses

Presentlythetwomainusesofcoconutshellsandhuskasafuelarefor 1) Smallholderdomesticusesuchascooking,etc. 2) Copradrying Besidesbeingusedasafuel,shellsandhuskhavenumerousotherusesthatprovideadditional incometofarmers.Oneoftheseotherusesofthecoconutshellistoproduceshellcharcoal thatisoneofthebestrawmaterialsforproductionofactivatecarbon.Onemethodofusing coconutshellstoproducebothafuelgasandalsoshellcharcoalisbymeansoftheWasteHeat Unitthatisdescribedinthenextsection. 6.4 WasteHeatUnit(WHU)

Traditionally,charcoalisproducedfromcoconutshellusingthedrumorpitmethods (Photo16).Thesemethodsarequiteinefficientandresultinalotofnoxioussmokeemissions totheatmosphere.Becausetheseoperationspollutethesurroundingareas,charcoalmaking isbannedinurbanareasandneartovillages.Moreover,thetraditionalmethodsproduce charcoalofvariablequalitywhichischarcoaloftencontaminatedwithextraneousmattersuch asearth,leavesandtwigs. Toaddresstheseproblemsandalsotorecoverthesubstantialamountofenergythatislostin thesmokeemissions(about60%oftheenergyintheshell),theNaturalResourcesInstitute (NRI)whichisfundedbytheBritishGovernment'sOverseasDevelopmentAdministration, beganthedevelopmentofcoconutshellcarbonizationwithwasteheatrecoveryunit(WHU)in
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 theearly1980s.ThefirstprototypewasbuiltandtestedbyNRIintheUK(Photo17).Pilot demonstrationunitswereinstalledatthecoconutindustryinSriLanka,andNRIalsoimparted traininginoperationandmaintenanceandcloselymonitoreditsperformance.Local workshopswereprovidedwithdetailedtechnicalknowhowtomanufacturetheunits.Twenty WHUunitswereinstalledbetween1983and1989fifteenatDessicatedCoconutprocessing plants,twoforcopradrying,twofordryingcoconutparings,andoneforaoilmill/sterilizer unit.Allunitsexceptonewerestandardcapacityof1.5tonnesofcoconutshell;oneunitused ascaledupwasteheatrecoveryunit(SWHU)thatcouldprocess3.5tonnesofcoconutshell. (Adair,1989;BreagandJoseph,1989;Tillekaratne,1989) Photo16Traditionalmethodofburningcoconutshellsinapit

Source:Breagetal,1994 ThedevelopmentoftheWHU,theSriLankapilotandthetransferoftechnologywasasuccess, andalluserswereverysatisfiedwiththeperformanceoftheWHUs.Financialappraisalofthe standardWHUandthescaledupSWHUindicatedverygoodreturnoninvestmentforboth units.CapitalrecoveryperiodfortheWHUwas7monthsandfortheSWHU15months. Breakevencapacitywas13%ofthecapacityfortheWHUand22%ofthecapacityforthe SWHU.Forbothunits,InternalRateofReturn(IRR)wascalculatedtobeover500% (Tillekaratne,1989). Inthe1990s,NRIbegantransferringtheWHUtechnologytothecoconutprocessingindustry inIndonesiaunderaProjectpartfundedbytheCommonFundforCommodities(CFC)ofthe UnitedNationsinAmsterdamandtheInstituteforResearchandDevelopmentofAgroBased Industry(IRDABI)inBogor.UnlikeSriLankawherethedessicatedcoconutindustrywasthe majoruserofWHU,theIndonesiancoconutindustrywasmoreinterestedinusingthewaste heatfordryingcopra.Oneoftheoutputsofthisprojectwasthepublicationofa comprehensiveProject/CountryManualforIndonesiaonWHUTechnologyforCopra Production(Setiawanetal,1997)
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 Photo17PrototypeWasteHeatRecoveryUnittestedbyNRI,Culham,UK.

Source:Breagetal,1994 TheWasteHeatUnit(WHU) TheWHUconsistsofaverticalkilnconnectedtoaburnerandfurnacesystem(Figure11).The kiln(1)iscylindricalandisapproximately8m3capacity.Twohatches,(2)and(3),areprovided: oneontopofthekilnloadingthecoconutshellcharge,andtheothernearthebaseofthekiln fordischargingthecharcoal.Thecharcoalissupportedbyremovablerods(4)thatformagrid overthegasoutletport.Sixports(12)areequallyspacedaroundthecircumferenceofthekiln forlightingthecharge. Theseflangedportsarehingedsothatrightangledbends(5),fittedwithdamperstocontrol finelytheflowofairintothekiln,canbeswungintopositionafterlighting.Metalmeshcages (6)arealsofittedattheinletofthebends.Thebendsdirectany"blowbacks"downwardsand themeshcagescontaintheflameorhotcharwhichmaybeejected. Thegasoutlet(7)islocatedatthebaseofthekilnconnectedbyapipe(8)totheburnerviaa damper(9),acondensationtrap(10)andflametrap(11).Thedamper'sfunction(9)isto controltheflowofkilngasintothefurnace.Thekilngasisignitedbythethimbles(14)of burningcharcoalinsertedthroughtheroofofthefurnace. Combustionairisdrawnintothefurnacethroughtheslots(15)onthefrontofthefurnace. Eachslotisfittedwithslidingplatestocontroltheincreaseofair.Thedrawofthecombusted gasesisadjustedbymeansofthedamper(16)locatedintheoutletoftheexhaustgaspipe linefromthefurnace.Thisgaspipelineisconnectedtoacentrifugalexhaustfan(17)which providesaninduceddraughtthroughthekiln/furnacesystem.(Breagetal,1994)
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 Figure11SchematicoftheWasteHeatUnit

Source:Breagetal,1994 SafetyFeatures The following special safety features have been incorporated into the design of the WHU's to ensurethesafeoperationoftheunit. Aflametrap(11)isfittedinthegaspipelineextendingfromthebaseofthekiln,and istohelppreventthepassageofaflamebackfromthefurnace. Aspringreliefvalveishousedonthetopofthekilnandisdesignedtoventgases shouldthepressureinsidethekilnexceedapredeterminedlimit14kg/m2. Avent(2)issituatedadjacenttothereliefvalveandisdesignedtoburstandsafely releasethecontentsofthekilnintheeventofanexplosion.Twootherventsare incorporated,oneinthefurnaceandtheotherattheheatexchangertoprovide explosionprotection. 6.4.1 WHUforCopraProduction ThemainequipmentrequiredforusingaWHUforcopradryingare: 1. Kiln,8m3 2. Kilngasfan,0.75Hp 3. Inducedraughtfan,11Ho 4. Furnace 5. Heatexchanger,80tube,diameter2" 6. Blower,20HP 7. Tunneldryer 8. Trolley,12units 9. Genset50kW
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 10. Thermometer Photo18TraditionalCopraDrying

Source:Breagetal,1994 Thecoconutshellcarbonizationwithwasteheatrecoveryunit(WHU)isproducedintwosizes: 8m3and16m3.Astandardkilnwithacapacityof8m3isdesignedtoproduceapproximately 0.450.5tonnesofcharcoalfrom1.5tonnesofshellper10to12houroperation.TheWHU systemforcopradryingconsistsoftwoWHUskilnsoperatedalternatelyonasemicontinuous basis,aheatexchanger/furnacesystem,adryerfanandtunnelcopradryeritiscapableofa producingapproximately0.9tonnesofgoodqualitycharcoaland3tonnesofcopraperday. (Figure12) Eventhoughthesystemdescribedbelowisforcopraproduction,theWHUsystemcanbe adaptedandusedforprovidingprocessheatforotheroperationssuchasdualfiring(kilngas plussolidfuel)boilersforraisingsteam,forprovidingheatforhotoilimmersiondrying(fry dryingkernels),orfordryingotherproductsandcrops. ThetwinWHUsusedforcopraproductionrequiresatotalelectricalloadof25kW,consisting of0.50kWforrunningthekilngasfan,8.25kWfortheinduceddraughtfanand15kWfor drivingthedryerfan.Theremainderisforlightingandminorpowerpoints. TooperatethecoprafactorywithtwinWHUsfor250daysoperationwithathroughputof3 tonnescopraperdayrequiresapproximately750haofcoconutarea.ItisassumedthatIha coconutplantationcanproduce5,000nuts/year.ThecapacityoftwinkilnWHUis15,000 wholecoconutshells/day. Thecoconutshellcarbonizationwithwasteheatrecoverysystemvirtuallyeliminatesthe smokeproblemandsimultaneouslyenablestheheatgeneratedintheprocessingtobeusedin copradrying.Thegasevolvedduringthecarbonizationofthecoconutshellsconsistsofcarbon
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 monoxide,hydrogen,methane,carbondioxideandnitrogen.Thisgashasacalorificvalueof approximately3.5MJ/m3andisreadilycombustible.Sincethetechnologyinvolvesburningof combustiblegases,caremustbeexercisedandsafeoperationproceduresmustbefollowed. TunnelDrier Thesystemconsistsofaforcedconvectiontunneldryer(size.2.5x2.5x18m)equippedwith 12trolleys(Figure12).Thedryer,constructedofwood,isconnectedtotwowasteheat recoveryunitseachwithashellcapacityofapproximately1.5tonnes.TheWHUsprovideheat toatubularheatexchangerwhichindirectlyheatsdryingairtoaround65to80C.TheWHUs areoperatedalternatelytoenablesemicontinuousoperationofthedryer.Thecoprashould bedrieddowntoatleast8to10%moisturecontent;itwillthendrydownfurtherwhenitis storedindryconditions. Theoperationofthissystemrequiressemiskilledworkerswhoaretrainedinthesafe operationoftheunit.Theoperationrequiresatotalof10personsfor: LoadingandpreparationofWHUkilnandcopradryer. Startupandoperationofthekilnandintandemwiththecopradryingprocess. ShuttingdowntheWHUkiln. Unloadingthecharcoal,andstorageandbaggingofcopra. CopraDrying 1) 5tonnes(equivalentcoprainhalfshells)areloadedinthefirstsixtrolleysofthedryer. Afterapproximately8hoursofdryingthehalfcoconutsareunloadedfromthefirstsection ofthedryersonetrolleyatatimethusmaximizing'thetimeofdryingofthefreshly loadednuts. 2) Thekernelisscoopedoutoftheshellandloadedintothreetrolleys.Thetrolleysarethen wheeledintothefrontsectionofthesecondhalfofthecopradryerreplacingthreeofthe sixtrolleyshousedtherein. 3) Thefirststageofthedryerthereforealwayscontains1.5tonnesoffreshlyloadedkernels inshell;andthesecondhalfofthedryerholdsatotalof3tonnesofkernelshalfofwhich hasbeendriedforoneWHUheatingcycleandtheotherhalffortwodryingcycles. 4) Thecopraremovedfromthedryerforsubsequentstorageandbaggingthereforeis subjectedtothreeWHUfiringcycleswhichcanvaryfrom8to10hours.Thecyclethus continuesproducingapproximately3tonnesofcopraeverytwentyfourhours. TheWHUkilnrequiresapproximately1.5tonnesofdryshellperbatch.Thisshellmustbedry fortheunittoworkeffectively.Halfcupsofcoconutshellandbrokenshellfromcoprakiln maybeused.Coprashellneedsnofurtherdrying.Howeveritshouldbestoredundercoverin sacks.Acoconutshellstorageareaofatleast100m2isrecommendedwitheachWHU installed.

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 Freshcoconutswhichhavebeendehuskedandsplitintohalfcupsareused.Tomakegood qualityofcopraitisimportanttousematurenuts.Dehuskedfreshcoconutsshouldnotbe splitunlessdryingcanproceedshortlythereafter.Ifthereismorethanfourhoursbetween splittingthenutsandapplyingtheheat,thequalitywilldeteriorate. Figure12TypicalTunnelDrierandLayoutofWHUbasedcopradryingsystem

Source: Breag et al, 1994

ThetotallandareaneededtoestablishacoprafactoryusingtheWHUtechnologyis approximately450m2.Approximately150m2isrequiredforanareawheretheworkers preparetherawmaterialwhichisfreshsplitcoconutsandseparationofdryshellfromthe kernelforcarbonization.Theremainderoftheland(300m2)isforprocessing,productstorage, byproductstorageandanoffice. 6.4.2

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ProductRecovery

 Copra Approximately48005100nutswillproduce1tonneofcopra.Thequalityofcopraproduced comparedwithtraditionalcopraisshowninFigures(a)and(b).Tthecopraproducedbythe WHUsystemissuperiortotraditionalcopraincolour,aromaandappearance.Incontrastitis importanttonotethattraditionallypreparedcopratendstobeasmokybrownincolour,often mouldy,withvariablemoisturecontentandhighfreefattyacidcontent.Thequalityofcoprais affectedbyseveralfactorsuchasmaturitycoconut(oilcontent),efficiencyofdryerandvariety ofcoconut. Photo19AWasteHeatUnitinSriLanka

Source:Breagetal,1994 Coprawhenremovedfromthedryershouldhaveamoisturecontentbelow8%ifitistobe storedwithoutbecomingmouldy.Copramustbewelldriedbeforeitisbagged.Acopradryer initselfisnotsufficienttomaintaingoodcopraqualityaccordingtothebestgradestandard: Oncecoprahasleftthedryeritmustbeallowedtocoolinbulkinawellroofedandventilated storageshedwitheitheraraisedconcreteorwoodenfloor. Thecopraproducedisofgoodqualityandmuchsuperiortothatproducedlocally.Inthe Palembangareasamplesofthecopraweretakentoseveralcompanies.Thesurveyrevealed thatonly1to1.5%premiumcouldbeobtainforthecopra.InWestJavatradersand producers,inspiteofthemuchimprovedqualitydidnotofferapricepremIUm. Photo20CoprafromTraditionalsmokedriersandfromtheWHUprocess

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(a)CoprafromSmokeDrier (b)CoprausingWHU Source:Breagetal,1994 Iflargepremiumsaretoberealized,coprawouldneedtobemadeavailableinsufficiently largequantitiestohavesignificantimpactontheoilmilloutputs.Thisraisesthequestionof whethercopraproductionbytheWHUwouldeverrealizeapremiumsunlesslargequantities weresold,exceptinsitespecificcasewheremarketforediblecoprawereestablished. Table12ComparisonofMoistureandOilContentfromWHUwithothermethods Criteria Copra

WHU Traditional Traditional WHU& indirectfired directfired Traditional indirectfired Moisture(%) 4.5 6.01 7.5 5.6 Oilcontent(%) 70.85 66.03 59.5 66.1 Source:Setiawanetal,1997 Charcoal Twokilns(about3tonnesofshellforcarbonization)canbeusedtoproduceapproximately2.8 3tonnesofcopra.TheWHUcharcoalkilnstypicallyyielded380to400kgofcharcoalper1.4 tonnesshell. Twocarbonizationcyclesareconductedevery24hoursallowingtimeforthecharcoalwithin thekilnfromthepreviouscarbonizationcycletocooldownandbeunloaded.Thecharcoal makingcycleshouldthereforebestartedevery12hoursalternatingbetweenthekilns.The bulkdensityofhybridshellsarelowerandhavethinnershellsthanthatofthetallvarietyof coconutandgiveacharcoalyieldof26to28%. Charcoalproducedwilltypicallyhaveafixedcarboncontentof68.5%andacalorificvalueof 30MJ/kg.Approximately400kgofcharcoalisproducedperbatch.Whenfirstunloadedthe charcoalmayieigniteanditshouldbeheldforatleast24hoursinsealedairtightdrums. Thereafter,thecharcoalmaybesievedandbagged.Dustmasksshouldbeusedforthese operations.Itshouldalsobenotedthatathighconcentrationsofcharcoaldustintheairthere
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 isapotentialexplosionhazard.Therefore,forbothhealthandsafetyreasons,operating proceduresshouldbeplannedtominimizedustlevelsandworkshouldonlybecarriedoutin wellventilatedareas.Acoveredstorageareaforcharcoalof40m2isrecommendedwitheach WHUinstalled.Fireprecautionsshouldbetakenincludingtheprovisionofwatertypefire extinguishers. Charcoalmadefromtheprocessisparticularlygoodfeedstockforthemanufactureof activatedcarbon.InIndonesiapricesforcharcoalvaryconsiderablyfrom.regiontoregion.In addition,withtheincreasingpriceoffirewoodanddemandforcharcoalinthemoredensely populatedarea,thepriceofcharcoalishigherthanintheouterislands. (Breagetal,1994) Photo21CharcoalproducedbytheWasteHeatUnit

Source:Breagetal,1994

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REFERENCES

Alleman T.L. and McCormick R.L. (2006), Analysis of CoconutDerived Biodiesel and ConventionalDieselFuelSamplesfrom thePhilippines,National RenewableEnergyLaboratory ReportNo.NREL/MP54038643,January2006 Bradley,WL(2004),InvolvingStudentsinAppropriateTechnologyProjectsintheUniversity, EngineeringDepartment,BaylorUniversity,Waco,Texas Breag G.R, Harker A.P, Paddon A.R. and Robinson A.P. (1984), The design, construction and operation of a unit for the carbonization of coconut shell wioth recovery of waste heat, TropicalDevelopmentandResearchInstitute,London,April1984. Breag G. R, Harker A. P. and Smith, A. E. (1985) A case study of the TDRI Carbonization and Waste Heat Recovery Unit: technoeconomic evaluation of the use of a prototype for the carbonizationofcoconutshellinSriLanka.TropicalScience,1985,24,pp167187. Breag G.R, Hollingdale A.C, Lipscombe R.J.. and Robinson A.P. (1994), Waste Heat Recovery Unit(WHU)forCarbonizationofCoconutShells,AsiaPacificCoconutCommunity Castro M.M. and Thampan P.K. (1996), Coconut Harvesting and Copra Making, Asia Pacific CoconutCommunity,CoconutProcessingTechnologyInformationDocument CFC(1998),CommonFundforCommodities,CFCReportNo.107. CIDA(2004),CoconutIndustryDevelopmentAuthority,CorporatePlan20042008,FijiIslands. Cloin,Jan(2005),CoconutoilasafuelinthePacificIslands,SOPAC DeamerT,NewellR,DeamerZ,DeamerE,WhiteJ(2005),IssuesinusingCoconutOilasa FuelinVanuatu,NationalWorkshopTowardsincreaseduseofliquidBiofuelsintheFiji Islands,Suva,Fiji,16th17thMarch,2005. Dippon, K. and Villaruel, R. (1996). CopraDriers andCopraDryingTechnology,Proceedings oftheXXXIIICOCOTECHMeeting, FACT(2009),JatrophaHandbookVol.4,FACTFoundation,Netherlands Foale, M (2003). The Coconut Odyssey. Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research.Canberra,Australia. Hagen, D. (1995). Coconut Biomass Energy Resources: Overview, from Proceedings of the UNIDO APCC interregional workshop on The Use of Coconut Industry Waste for Energy, Bali,Indonesia.619November1995.
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 Hilditch T.P. (1956), The Chemical Constitution of Natural Fats, 3rd ed., Chapman & Hall, London, Knothe G, Robert O.D. and Bagby M.O. (1997), Biodiesel: The Use of Vegetable Oils and Their Derivatives as Alternative Diesel Fuels, National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, AgriculturalResearchService,U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture. NREL(2009),BiodieselHandlingandUseGuideFourthEdition,NationalRenewableEnergy LaboratoryReportNo.NREL/TP54043672,December2009. http://www.nrel.gov/vehiclesandfuels/npbf/feature_guidelines.html Ohler, J.G. (1999), Modern coconut management: palm cultivation and products. Ohler, J.G. (ed.),IntermediateTechnologyPub.,London Rajagopal V. and Arulraj, S. (2003). Towards Helping Farming Community, CPCRI, Kasargod, India.. Setiawan,Y.Y.andBreag,G.(1996).TheProjectsofHotOilImmersionDryingTechnologyin Indonesia.ProceedingsoftheXXXIIICOCOTECHMeeting.AsianandPacificCoconut Community(APCC).Jakarta,Indonesia. Setiawan Y.Y, Breag G.R, Pohan H.G. and Rohaman M.M. (1997), WHU Technology for Copra ProductionProject/CountryManualIndonesia,IRDABIIndonesiaandNRI,UK. SOPAC (2005), Feasibility Study into the use of Coconut Oil Fuel in EPC Power Generation, SOPACCocogenTeam,October2005 http://www.sopac.org/tikidownload_file.php?fileId=708 SOPAC (2006), An Evaluation of the Biofuel Projects in Taveuni and Vanuabalavu, Fiji Islands, SOPACTechnicalReport,February2006 Swetman,T.(1996).UseoftheRamPresstoExtractOilfromDriedCoconut.Proceedingsof theXXXIIICOCOTECHMeeting.AsianandPacificCoconutCommunity(APCC).Jakarta, Indonesia.

Thampan,P.K.(1993).ProcessingofCoconutProductsinIndia.AsianandPacificCoconut Community(APCC).Jakarta,Indonesia.

Thampan,P.K.(1996).CoconutforProsperity.PeekayTreeCropsDevelopmentFoundation. Kerala,India.

Tillekaratne,H.A.(1995).ProcessingofCoconutProductsinSriLanka.AsianandPacific CoconutCommunity(APCC).Jakarta,Indonesia.
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 Vaitilingom, Gilles (2008), Pacific Regional Workshop on Biofuels: Opportunities and implicationsforSustainableLivelihoodsinPacificislandcountries,Nadi,Fiji,Nov2008 Vaitilingom, Gilles (2009), Presentation at Biofuels Seminar organized by Fiji Department of EnergyandFijiInstituteofTechnology,Suva,15June2009.FIT. World Bank (2009), Coconut Oil Power Generation a howto guide for small stationary engines.

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8
8.1 8.1.1

ANNEXES
TheCoconutPalm PartsandUses

Thecoconutpalm(Cocosnucifera)hasbeencalledKalpaVrikshawhichmeansTreeofLife intheancientIndianlanguageofSanscrit,TreeofHeaven,"TreeofAbundance"and "Nature'sSupermarket.".Itisthemostimportantpalmandthemostextensivelygrownnutin theworld.ThemainpartsofthecoconutpalmareshowninFig.Thecoconutpalmhasa singletrunk,2030metrestall,itsbarkissmoothandgrey,markedbyringedscarsleftby fallenleafbases.Theleavesandflowersthatturnintococonutsgrowatthetopofthepalm; Thefrondsinamaturehealthypalmdescribeaspherewiththefrondsevenlydistributedinall directionsfromthegrowingtip.Fruitsmatureinabout12monthsandanormalhealthytall coconutpalmproducesonematurebunchofcoconutspermonthonaverage.Thelengthofa leafcanbeupto7metresintallpalms,withaleafareaofuptoabout10m2,andweighingup to20kgwhengreen.Meanannualleafproductionisabout1416formaturetallpalmsand21 fordwarfpalms.
Figure 13 The Coconut Palm

Source:Kohler'sMedicinalPlants Thecoconutpalmisunsurpassableinitsbeautyanditsutilitybecause,onsmallislandswhere landbasednaturalresourcesarescarce,itprovidesalmostallthenecessitiesoflifefood, drink,fuel,cookingandcosmeticoil,domesticutensils,medicine,timberandthatchfor

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 buildinghouses,coirfiberformakingropesandmats,andothers.Inmanytropicalcountries, coconutisanimportantpartofthedailydiet.Itsmainproductistheoilextractedfromthe kernel.Theresidueisanimportantanimalfeed.Thecoconutwaterfromtheyoungnutsisa popularbeverage.Thejellylikekerneloftheyoungcoconutisconsideredadelicacy.The shreddedkernelissoldasdesiccatedcoconutusedinfoodandconfectionary.Thehuskofthe nutprovidescoirwhichisanimportantfiberthatcanbeusedforropes,carpets,brushes,etc. Theshellofthenutisusedforhouseholdutensilsandthecharcoalmadefromitisanexcellent basicmaterialforactivatedcarbon.Insteadofbeingusedfornutproduction,the inflorescencescanbetapped,yieldingsapwithhighsugarcontent,fromwhichsugar,alcoholic beveragesandvinegarcanbemade.Theleavesareusedforroofthatching.Themidribsofthe leavesareusedforbrooms.Coconutwoodismoreandmorebeingusedforhousebuilding andotherusessuchasfurnitureortoolhandles.Allthepartsofthecoconutpalm,exceptthe roots,areusedinapeasant'shousehold,soitisnowonderthatthistreehasalsobeencalled 'Treeoflife'. 8.1.2 OriginandDistribution

Themajorcoconutareasliebetween20oNand20oSonbothsidesoftheequator.Thoughitis foundbeyondthisregionasfaras27oNand27oS,cultivationintheseextremeregionshasnot beensuccessfulandthepalmdoesnotfruitincoolerclimates(referFigure).

Figure 14 Zones of latitude in which moist coastal regions support the growth of coconuts. Zones 1, 2 and 3 support high, medium and low potential productivity, respectively. Productivity falls with an increase in the duration of the cool season which is nil in Zone 1 and 6 months at the extreme of Zone 3.

Source:MikeFoale,2003.

Itisnowwidelyacceptedthat,millionsofyearsago,thewildcoconutprobablyreachedmost oftheSouthEastAsiancoastalareasandPacificislandsthoughitsfloatingseedscarriedby oceancurrents.ThecoconutheartlandisthethreegreatarchipelagosofIndonesia,the PhilippinesandMelanesia.Around4000yearsago,Polynesianmarinersmovedeastwards fromthecoastofSouthEastAsiatotheislandsoftheSouthPacificextending10,000 kilometersfromNewGuineatoTahiti,carryingwiththemcoconutfruitsforfoodanddrinkon thevoyage,andforplantingintheirnewhomes.Morethan2000yearsago,thecoconut spreadwestwardsfromitsheartlandtotheIndiansubcontinentcarriedbytradersreturning homefromtheIndonesianislands.Perhapsaroundthesametime,peoplefromBorneo (accordingtolinguisticevidence),tookthecoconutacrosstheIndianOceantoMadagascar, fromwhereitwastakenontoEastAfrica.Inthe15thcentury,Portuguesemarinerstookthe coconutfromIndiaandEastAfricatotheCapeVerdeIslandsintheeasternAtlantic.From herethecoconutwastakenwestwardsonslavetradingshipstotheCaribbeanandeastwards totheWestAfricancoastallthewayfromSenegaltoAngola.Thecoconuthadalready reachedthewesternshoresofSouthAmericamuchearlieroverthePacificfromPolynesia.So,
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 whenthecoconutpalmspreadfromtheCaribbeantothecoastsofMexico,CentralandSouth Americainthe16thcentury,ithadcompleteditsencirclementoftheglobe.(Foale,2003) 8.1.3 WorldProduction

Totalworldcoconutareain2005wasestimatedat12.2millionhectares,ofwhichover89 percentisfoundintheAsiaandPacificregions.75%ofcoconutareasareinthethreelargest producingcountries:Indonesia(3.9millionha),Philippines(3.2millionha)andIndia(1.9 millionha).AmongsttheSouthPacificcountries,PapuaNewGuinea(0.26millionha)isthe leadingproducer.InAfrica,Tanzania(0.31millionha)isthelargestproducerandinLatin Americanearly43%ofthecoconutareaisinBrazil(0.28millionha)(referTableandFigure). Tablealsogivestheproductionofcoconutsinthemajorproducingcountriesfor2005inboth nutequivalentandcopraequivalent2,andtheproductivityperhectare.During2005an estimatedtotalof59.6billionnutsor11.9milliontonnescopraequivalentwereproduced worldwideon12.2millionhectaresataworldaverageproductivityof0.98tonnescopra equivalentperhectare. 73%oftheproductioncomesfromthethreemajorproducingcountries:Indonesiaproduces 27.7%,Phillipinesproduces23.6%andIndiaproduces21.5%(referFigure).While productivityinbothIndonesiaandthePhillipinesisaround0.85tonnescopraequivalentper hectare,productivitiesinsomeotherAsiancountriesarehigherwithIndiaat1.33,SriLankaat 1.12andVietnamat1.03.IntheAmericasBrazilat2.70andMexicoat1.58tonnescopra equivalentperhectarehavethehighestproductivitiesnotonlyintheirregion,butalsointhe world(referFigure).
Table 13 World Production of Coconuts, Area and Productivity in 2005

Production Production NutEquivalent CopraEquivalent (milliontonnes) (billionnuts) Indonesia 16.49 3.30 Philippines 14.06 2.81 India 12.83 2.57 Brazil 3.79 0.76 SriLanka 2.22 0.44 Thailand 1.20 0.24 Mexico 1.19 0.24 PapuaNewGuinea 0.81 0.16 Vietnam 0.68 0.14 Malaysia 0.39 0.08 80OtherCountries 5.91 1.18 TOTAL/AVERAGE 59.57 11.91 COUNTRY
coconut.

%ofTotal World Production 27.7% 23.6% 21.5% 6.4% 3.7% 2.0% 2.0% 1.4% 1.1% 0.7% 9.9% 100%

Areaunder Coconuts (millionha) 3.89 3.24 1.94 0.28 0.40 0.34 0.15 0.26 0.13 0.13 1.40 12.17

Productivity (tonnescopra equiv/ha) 0.85 0.87 1.33 2.70 1.12 0.70 1.58 0.63 1.03 0.60 0.84 0.98

Note: Data refer to total production of coconut, whether consumed fresh, processed into copra or desiccated Source: APCC Coconut Statistical Yearbook 2005 (Compiled from information provided by APCC member countries and FAO Production Yearbooks; Estimate for nonAPCC Countries was calculated by converting the nut weight into

2 5Nutsarerequiredtoproduce1kgofCopra

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whole nuts given in the FAO Production Yearbooks, by using a conversion factor of one ton of husked nuts = 1,250 wholenuts.)

Coconut production has increased steadily in Indonesia, India and Brazil whereas in the Phillipines,severecyclonesinsomeyearshascausedadipintheproduction.
Figure 15 Area under Coconuts in 2005 and Productivity of major producing countries

8.1.4 Plantingmaterial,SelectionandBreeding

Thecoconutpalm(CocosnuciferaL.)isamonotypicspeciesinwhichthereareonlytwo varieties3: 1. theTallvariety:CocosnuciferaL.var.typica,and 2. theDwarfvariety:CocosnuciferaL.var.nana. BothTallandtheDwarfpalmsarefoundinallthecoconutgrowingcountries,althoughthe dwarfpalmsaccountforonlyaround5%ofthecoconutpopulationworldwide. TallVariety Tallpalmsarecharacterisedbyarapidgrowthinheightandstrongstems.Theyare crosspollinatedandareslowtomature.Tallpalmsinclude: treesthatbearmanynutswhichareofmediumsizeandwithalowcoprayield. ExamplesaretheWestAfricanTallandtheVanuatuTall; treesthatbearanaveragenumberoflargenutswithahighcoprayield. ExamplesaretheRennellTall,ThailandTallandthePolynesiaTall.

3 Variety is a group within the species that posseses certain distinguishing features within the groupbutdistinctlydifferingfromothergroups.

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 Ayoung,goodtallplantproduces5to7bunchesand25to45fruitspertreeannually.The bunchandfruitproductionofyoungtallsisalittlelessthanhalfofthatofdwarfs,onaverage. Underresearchstation(best)conditions,amature,wellperformingtallplantannually produces13or14bunchesand80to100fruitspertree.Onaverage,thefruitproductionof maturetallsisaboutninetenthsthatofdwarfs.Theeffectoftheenvironmentcanmakefruit productionofthesameecotypeatmaturityvaryby5080%.

Photo 22 A Tall cultivar and Tall nuts

Source:CoconutVarietiesandCultivars Ecotypesproducingthehighestnumberoffruitsarethosethatproducethesmallestfruits: SolomonTall,VanuatuTall,LacadivesMicroTall,etc.Ecotypesproducingthelowestnumberof fruitsarethosethatproducethebiggest,roundfruits:PanamaTall,MalayanTall,Cambodia BattambangTall.Noecotypemonitoreduntil18yearsofagehasshownadeclineinyield. DwarfVariety Dwarfpalmshaveshorterandthinnerstems.Theyarenormallyselfpollinated,are earlybearingandhaveahighannualbunchyield.Dwarfpalmsarethereforeimportant inbreedingprograms.InflorescenceandfruitcolourssuchasGreen,Yellow,Red, OrangeandBrownareusedforclassificationpurposes. ADwarfcultivarandDwarfnuts

Source:CoconutVarietiesandCultivars
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 Fortheperiodof38yearsofage,adwarfplantationofagoodgenotypegrownunder favourableenvironmentalconditionsannuallyproduces10or11bunchesand50to70fruits. TheleastproductiveecotypesareNiuLekaDwarf,TahitiRed,KinabalanGreenandAromatic Green,withlessthan25fruitsperyear.Ontheotherhand,PumillaGreenDwarfandPilipog GreenDwarfareclassifiedasproducingthegreatestnumberoffruitspertree,followedby GhanaYellowDwarfandMYD.Whenmature,awellperformingplantationofdwarfsannually produces14to16bunchesand80to130fruitspertree.Classificationaccordingtoproduction ofbunchesandfruitsismoreorlessthesameasatayoungage,withhighernumbersforthe MadangBrownDwarf.Theecotypesfolloweduntil17yearsofagehavenotshownany productiondeclineduetoage. ThemaindifferencesbetweenthetallanddwarfvarietiesaresummarizedintheTablebelow.
Table 14 Comparison of the Tall and Dwarf varieties

Dwarf and Less widely distributed and generally of noncommercially value Stemcircumference Enlarged and with a Thin. with a cylindrical or bulbousbase(bole) taperingbase Modeofpollination Mostlycrosspollinated Mostlyselfpollinated i.e.allogamous i.e.autogamous Pigmentation of nuts and Most are mixtures of Either pure greens, or petioleofleaves greensandbrowns browns.yellowsandreds Height increment per Greaterthan50cm Lessthan50cm year Years to beginning of Late(57years) Early(34years) reproductivematurity Usefullifespan 6080years 4050years Nutsize(whole) Verysmalltolarge Verysmalltomedium Phenotypicvariation withincultivar High Low betweencultivar High High Rootdistribution Generally more dense and Lessdenseandfew plentiful Reaction to adverse Generallylesssensitive Sensitivetohypersensitive conditions Culturalrequirements Average Highinputsrequired Leaf and bunch Verystrong Fragile attachment Source:Taffin,1998Coconut,TheTropicalAgriculturist Terminology Acultivarisabotanicalvarietycharacteristicofaparticularregionwhereithasbeenplanted andcultivatedbyman..However,todistinguishtraditionalcultivarsfrommorerecentones, thetermsecotypeandhybridarealsoused.Theecotypeisdefinedbyagroupof individualsfromthesameenvironmentshowingmorphologicsimilarities.Thetermscultivar andecotypethereforemeanessentiallythesame.Thehybrid,initswidestsenseisdefinedas
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Traits Geographicaldistribution

Tall Widely distributed commerciallygrown

 acrossbetweentwostructuresbelongingtodifferentecotypes.Thetermstructurehere meansapopulation,afamily,oranindividual. Withinthetwomaingroups(tallanddwarf)therearealargenumberofecotypes/cultivars. ThemostwidelyknowncultivarsamongsttheTallsareWestCoastTallandEastCoastTallin India,CeylonTall,MalayanTall,FijiTall,JamaicaTall,WestAfricanTall,andamongstthe DwarfswefindChowghatDwarfinIndia,MalayanDwarf,FijiDwarf,etc.Withinacultivar certainmemberscandifferfromothersinasinglecharacter(asinthecaseofLaccadiveTallin whichtheLaccadiveMicrodiffersonlyinnutsizefromtheLaccadiveOrdinary)ormembers coulddifferfromothersinaconstellationofcharacters(asintheChowghatDwarfcultivarthe ChowghatOrangeDwarfdiffersfromtheChowghatGreenDwarfinawholerangeof characters).Thesecultivarsarereferredtoasforms.Typesrefertothosewhichexhibit somespecialcharacteristicslikethesweethuskedones,Kelapawangiinwhichthewaterand kernelemitapleasantsmelletc.Thesetypesoccurinverylimitednumbersandarenotunder regularcultivation. SelectionCriteria Toincreaseyieldsandmaintainthemataneconomiclevel,coconutplantingmaterial needssomeformofregularselection.Allsmallcoconutgrowerspractiseselectionby collectinggerminatednutsfromunderhighyieldingtreesandbychoosingthemost vigorousseedlingsforplanting.Thecommercialgrowermay,however,prefertouse plantingmaterialthathasbeenselectedandisrecommendedbyresearchinstitutes, whocanalsoadviseonthechoiceofplantingmaterialforspecificsoilandclimatic conditions. Ifthemainaimistosellcopra,theninadditiontomaximumyieldofcopra/hectare,the selectioncriteriawillalsoincludeadaptabilitytotheenvironment,sturdinessand resistancetopestsanddiseases.Ontheotherhand,ifthenutsaretobesoldforeating, thenmarketpreferencesareanimportantconsiderationparticularlythenutsize.In eithercase,theuseofearlybearing,highyieldinghybridsthatmeettheabovecriteria isthebestwayofmaximisingthereturnsfromacoconutgrove. Forlargerplantations,itisbesttoprotectagainstpestsordiseasesbyusingseveral differenthybrids.Forsmallholders,localcultivarsarelikelytobemoreimportantsince theyareoftenpreferredeitherfortheirtasteorfortheirtraditionaluses,buthybrids shouldalsobeconsidered.Localcultivarsareoftenusedingardenplots,alongside smallcommercialplantationsinwhichtheproductionofcopraisthemainobjective. 8.1.5 Plantingpractices

PlantingHoles 1) Digtheplantingholesafterthepreparationofthedrainagesystemandtheroads, preferablyafewmonthsbeforeplanting,exceptinsandysoilswheretheholesmaycave in. 2) Thedimensionsoftheplantingholesdependonsoilconditionsandthedepthofthewater table,andalsoonthefarmtype. 3) Onlargeestateswherelargenumbersofseedlingswillbeplantedespeciallyonlightsoils, theholesmaybeonlyslightlybiggerthanthepolybagcontainingtheseedling,for economicreasons.

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 4) Inheavysoils,andespeciallyinsoilswithahighcontentoflateriticgravel,largeholes, subsequentlyfilledwithlightsoilareanadvantageforpalmdevelopment.Resultsoftrials haveshownthatplantingat60and90cmdepthsresultedin10monthsearlierbearing andincreasedannualyieldsby10and7nutsperpalmrespectively.Italsoincreasedthe rootnumbersby100%and104%respectively,ascomparedtothecontrol.Deepplanting alsoprovidesresistancetocyclones. 5) OnKiritimati(ChristmasIsland)ithasbeenfoundthatcoconutsunderconditionsoflow andirregularrainfallcanbesuccessfullyestablishedbydiggingplantingholesdowntothe watertable(upto2.5mdeep),refillingto30cmabovethewatertablewithtopsoiland planting36montholdseedlings. 6) InIndia,coconutsaresometimesplantedinholesasdeepas1.5m,particularlyinareas withalongdryseasonandinsoilswithadeepwatertable.Asthecoconutstemsgrow, theseholesaregraduallyfilledwithorganicwasteandsoil.Careshouldbetakentokeep thesoillevelbelowthegrowingpoint,otherwisethepalmmaybekilled.Therefore,the plantingholeshouldbewideenoughtopermitkeepingthesoilawayfromtheseedling collar.Inthisway,theboleisnearertothewatertablewherethesoilwillnotdryoutso quickly,andtherootingsurfaceofthepalmismuchlargerthanthatofpalmsplantedat shallowdepths. 7) Usually,seedlingsaretransplantedtothefieldwhentheyhaveabout3or4leaves. Plantingatalaterstageincreasesthetransplantingshock,withtheexceptionofseedlings raisedinpolybags. 8) Seedlingsselectedforplantingshouldbetakenoutofthenurserybedwiththeuseofa shovel,cuttingalltherootsbeforeliftingthem.Allfurtherhandlingshouldbedone carefullytoavoiddamage.Seedlingsshouldnotbeliftedbythesprout.Thisisparticularly importantfordwarfseedlings,asthesproutcanbecomeeasilydetachedfromthenut. 9) Onlyseedlingsthancanbeplantedwithinonedayshouldbelifted.Thetransplantingage shouldbedeterminedbeforehandtoalloweffectiveplanningoftheplantingschedulein thenurseryandinthefield.Theliftedoutseedlingsshouldbekeptintheshadeasmuch aspossibleuntilplanted. 10) Thebesttimeforplantingseedlingsinthefieldisatthebeginningoftherainyseason, aftertherainshavestartedtofallregularly.Seedlingsplantedlateintherainyseasonmay notbeabletodeveloparootsystemlargeenoughtosurvivethedryseason. 11) Seedlingsinpolybagsshouldbewateredthedaybeforetransplanting,tokeepthesoilfirm attransplanting.Handlingoftheseedlingshouldbedonebymeansoftheplasticbag. Holdingtheseedlingbythecollarwhenattachedtothebagheavywithwetsoilis dangerous,astheplantmaybreakawayfromthenut. 12) Beforeplacingthebaginthehole,thetwolowercornersofthebagarecutwithasharp knifeandthebottomisslit.Afterplantingthebaginthehole,theholeispartlyfilledwith soilandthesidesofthebagarecutandthebagisremoved. 13) Includingthediggingoftheplantholes,onemancanplant6080seedlingsperday.Having dugtheholesearlier,onemanshouldbeabletoplantabout150seedlingsperday. 14) Wheretermitesmaybeexpectedtocausedamage,theplantingholeshouldbetreated withanappropriateinsecticide(BHC,Endrin)beforetheseedlingisplanted. 15) Theplantingholemaybefilledwithtopsoilfromthesurroundingarea,mixedwiththe recommendedquantityoffertilizerormanure.Organicmanuringisverybeneficialtothe seedlings,duetoitsgreatwaterholdingcapacityandthemicronutrientsthatwillbecome availablewithitsdecomposition. 16) Twolayersofcoconuthusksmaybeplaced,concavesideup,atthebottomoftheplanting hole,astheycontainafairamountofnutrientsandofwater.Huskscanalsobeusedfor mulchingaroundtheyoungpalmtokeepthesoilmoistandreduceweedgrowth.
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 17) Optimaltreatmentofseedlingswillpaydividendsthroughoutthelonglifeofthecoconut palm.Adequatefertilizingandweedingandirrigationwhereneededmayacceleratethe onsetoffloweringbyoneormoreyears. 18) Weedingtheareaaroundtheseedlingisveryimportanttoavoidcompetitionforwater andsmotheringofseedlingsbyweeds.Thecircletobekeptfreeofweedsshouldbeabout 1.50mindiameter.Thesecirclesshouldbewidenedwiththedevelopmentofthe seedling. PlantingDensity The three planting layout systems used are Square, Triangular and Rectangular. These are shown in Table with the number of palms per ha for the generally used spacings. Several factorscomeintoplaywhentheplantingdensityischanged: Plantingdensityinfluencesindividualpalmdevelopmentandyieldaswellasyield,per hectare,maintenanceandharvestingcosts. Generally,plantingdensityhaslittleinfluenceonstemgirth,numberofleaves producedortheageoffirstflowering. Bylowdensityplanting,alargersoilvolumeisavailabletoeachpalm,whichisoneof thereasonsforhighyieldsperpalm. Fewerpalms/haalsomeanslessproduction/haoftotalbiomass,andlessfertilizermay beneededtoincreasenutproductionbecauselessnutritiouselementswillbeusedfor theproductionofbiomass. Fewerpalmstobeclimbedforharvestingalsoreducestheharvestingcost. Widerspacingfavoursweedgrowth,increasingweedingcost. Factorssuchasfungusdiseasemaybeareasonforadoptingaspacingbelow optimum,especiallyinveryhumidareas.
Table 15 The Square, Triangular and Rectagular planting systems

Method Square: 7.5 m x 7.5 m 8.0m x 8.0m 8.5m x 8.5m 9.0m x 9.0m 10m x 10m

Palms per ha

177 156 138 134 100

Triangular: 8mx8m 8.5 m x 8.5 m 9mx9m 10mx10m

180 160 143 115

Rectangular: 6.5m x 9.0m

170

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 Optimum planting density for coconut monoculture differs for different ecological conditions, and depends primarily on the farming system and the coconut variety / hybrid selected. A reviewofvariouscoconutgrowingcountriesindicatesthat: Mostcoconutsincommercialplantingshavebeenplantedatspacingsvarying between8x8mto9x9m,eitherinatriangular,arectangularorasquaresystem. Dwarfsareplantedatcloserspacingsof6.5x6.5mor7x7m. Plantingonthetriangleisdonemostlyincoconutmonocroppingwiththeobjectiveof maximumcoprayieldperha. Plantingonthesquareorrectangleissometimesusedinmonocropping,butmostly whencoconutisintercroppedorundergrazed,especiallywherecultivationhasbeen mechanized. Forintercropping,plantinginavenuesisevenbetter,asitwillprovidespaceandlight forintercropsthroughouttheentirecoconutgrowingperiod.Wherewideinterrows arepreferred,suchasinmixedfarmingsystems,singleordoublehedgeplanting systemshavesometimesbeenused,inwhichthespacingwithintherowisnarrowand betweentherowswide. InIvoryCoast,optimumdensityforMAWAhybridwasfoundtobearound150palms perha,thelimitingfactormainlybeingwaterdeficit. ResearchinJamaicafoundthattheoptimumspacingsfortalls,hybridsanddwarfs were7.9,6.7,and5.5m,correspondingwithdensitiesof185,257and381palms/ha, respectively.Thecurverepresentingtheyields/hawithincreasingdensityisflat topped,indicatingthatundertheconditionsinJamaicathereisaratherwiderange whereincreasingdensitiesproducealmostequalyields. ResultsoflargescaleresearchprogrammesinthePhilippinesandIndonesiahave shownthattherearenosignificantdifferencesinproductionperhectarewithina rangeof115180treesperha.Thisisbecausewithincreasingplantingdensity:(a) nutproductionperpalmdecreases;(b)nutproductionperhaincreasesbecauseofthe highernumberofpalmsperha;(c)thesizeofthenutsdecreasesduetocompetition forthesamenutrients;therefore(d)thetotalyieldofcopraperhaincreasesinitially andthenlevelsoff. Wherecoconutsaregrownasamonocrop,plantingcanbecarriedoutatdensitiesat thehigherlimitofthiscurve.Theheavyshadewouldreduceweedingcosts considerably.Lossesofpalmsduetolightning,etc.wouldnotreduceyieldsaslongas thenumberofpalmscorrespondwiththeflattopofthecurve.Highdensitieswillalso producehighinitialyields. Lowerplantingdensitiesgivesmorespaceforintercropsandmulticroppingsystems withoutdecreasingthecoconutyields. (NucedeLamothe,1990;Ohler,1993) Lowdensityplanting: Betweenplantingdensitiesof100180palmsperha,theyieldcurvefordifferentdensitiesis ratherflat.Therefore,awiderspacingispreferredwheremultiplecroppingisplanned becauseitwillprovidemoreland,lightandwaterforintercrops.Plantinginasquareor rectangularsystemwillfacilitatemechanizedcultivationandcropmanagement.Inclimates withlongdryseasons,spacingat9x9inatriangularsystem,or10x10inasquaresystemwill notgiveverydifferentyields,butthelattermayimprovelightconditionsfortheintercrop considerably.Theselectionofthecoconutvarietytobeplantedisalsoofimportancewhen intercroppingisconsidered.Whenhighyieldinghybridsarepreferred,tallxtallhybridsmay
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 beselectedinsteadofdwarfxtallhybrids. Hedgerowordoublehedgerowplanting: Thehedgerowsystemisbasedonnarrowspacingbetweenpalmsintherow,andlarge spacingbetweenrows.Thedoublehedgerowsystemisbasedonalternationofanarrow spacingbetweentworowswithaverywidespacing.Alldeadleavesandotherorganicdebris canbecollectedwithintherow,andtheinterrowbekeptcleanforcultivation.Thenarrower thespacingintherow,themorethepalmswilltendtobendoutwards,reducingtheeffectof wideinterrowspacing.Withahedgesystem,intercroppingispossibleduringtheentirelife timeofthepalms,withareductionofspacewhenthepalmsareyoung,andlowleavesmay hampercultivationofothercropsclosetothepalm.Thesystemtobechosendependsvery muchonthecrop(s)plannedforintercropping. 8.1.6 Greenmanuring,OrganicManuring&ChemicalFertilizerapplication

Thereare3differentwaysofimprovingnutrientavailabilityinthesoil: 1. GreenManuring; 2. ApplicationofOrganicManures;and 3. ApplicationofChemicalFertilizers. Organicfertilizinghassomeadvantagesoverchemicalfertilizing,becauseofseveralreasonsall ofwhichareveryimportantfortheregulationofmineralsupplytotheplant: itinvolvesmacroaswellasmicroelements; itimprovessoiltexture; itimprovessoilmoistureholdingcapacity; itimprovesconditionsforsoilmicrobiologicallife;and itimprovesthesoil'scationexchangecapacity. Therefore, the use of manure and/or compost, or just green leaves cut off from some source outsidethecoconutgrove,shouldalwaysbegivenpreference. GreenManuring The same crops are frequently used for cover crops and green manuring. Cover crops are a culturalpracticetoreduceweedgrowthandevaporationfromthesoil.Greenmanures,which have the ability to fix nitrogen in symbiosis with soil microorganisms will mainly add nitrogen tothesoilinadditiontotheorganicmatter. InanexperimentconductedinIvoryCoastbyinsoilwherenitrogenwastheessential productionfactor,yieldsinallplotsdeclinedafterNfertilizertreatmentswere discontinued,exceptinplotscoveredwithlegumecovercrops.TheNcontentofthesoils whereleguminouscovercropswereplantedwasmuchhigherthaninotherplots. Insomesoils,RhizobiuminoculationandseedpelletingcanenhancethenodulationandN fixationofgreenmanures. WhenpelletingwasdoneonRhizobiuminoculatedseedssowninanacidiccoconutsoil, significantlymoreresponseinnodulationbehaviour,drymatteryieldandnitrogen concentrationwasobserved.Thedifferenceinresponseduetotheuseofdifferent pelletingmaterials(rockphosphate,calciumcarbonate,charcoal,anddolomite)wasnot significant. Ifthelegumesproduceedibleproducts,suchasbeansandpods,harvestingtheseproducts willalsoremovethatpartofthenitrogenusedbytheplanttoproducethesebeansand pods.
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Legumes have very deep roots by which they can take up minerals that have already leached to depths below the dense root zone of coconut palms. These minerals will be returnedtothetopsoilwhenthegreenmanureisincorporatedintothesoil.However,this cannot be regarded as additional fertilizer. It is rather a recycling of minerals that otherwisewouldhavebeenleachedoutandlost. Often,soilsaresopoorthatgreenmanuresalsogrowveryslowly,andarebarely beneficial.Insuchacase,thegrowthofthegreenmanurecropscouldbeimprovedby applyingchemicalfertilizers.Thecoconutswouldbenefitfromthefertilizers. Inplantationswithpoorsoilsitcanoftenbeobservedthatgreenmanurecropsgrowmuch betterinplaceswheresomeorganicdebrishasbeenburnedbeforeplantingthelegume. Alternategrowingofgreenmanuresandannualintercrops,usingchemicalfertilizers,may beaneffectivesystemofmaintainingsoilfertility. Thedensemassofvegetation,especiallywhereamixturewithwindingcovercropsare plantedcanhindermovementintheplantationandhampernutcollection.Asimple devicetomanagethisvegetationisalowcostrollerthatcanbemadeatvillagelevel.It consistsofaroundedtreetrunkof50cmdiameterand1minlength,inwhichsix lengthwisesawcutshavebeenmadeatregularspacing.Steelbladesareinsertedinto thesecuts.Therollercanbedrawnbyapairofoxen.Thecapacityoftherollingequipment isabout0.80.9haperday,withoutexhaustingtheanimalsortheoperator.Sucharoller crushesthecovercropwithoutcuttinganduprootingit;thecovercropisnot incorporatedintothesoilbutfunctionsasamulchontopofthesoil.Theuseofdisk harrowscouldaffecttheregrowthofthecovercrop.Asimilarrollerwithoutthesteel bladeshasbeenfoundtobeequallyeffective. (Fernando,1989;PomierandTaffin,1982) OrganicManuring When fertilizing with organic material, recycling of plantation material is the most obvious choice.Thisincludeshusk,coirpith,leavesandstem. RecyclingHusk Thehuskshaveahighmineralcontent,50huskscontainabout0.5kgpotashequalto about1kgmuriateofpotash.Husksmayrepresenttheequivalentof200to300kgKCl perhaperyr.Thisshouldbetakenintoconsiderationwhencalculatingtheprofitabilityof alternativeindustrialusesofhusks(fibres,energy). Huskscanabsorbandretainaboutsixtimestheirowndryweightofwater. Ittakesabout34yearsforhuskstodecompose. Dehuskingthecoconutsandleavingthehusksinthefieldaregenerallyrecommended practices. Huskscanbeplacedaroundthepalmasamulch,buttheycanalsobeburied.When buried,theywillimprovesoilconditions,andthesoilwaterholdingcapacitywillbe increased.Husksshouldbeplacedwiththeirconvexsideupwards,incirclesaroundthe stemofthepalm. InoculationwiththecellulolyticfungusTrichodermahasbeenfoundtoacceleratethe decompositionofhusks.Twomonthsaftertreatedanduntreatedhuskswereburiedin thesoil,distinctareasofdecompositioninthetreatedhuskswerenotedwherefibres werereducedtotinypieces.TheoriginalsoilKcontentwas190ppm.Aftertwomonths, soilwithuntreatedhusksandsoilwithtreatedhuskscontained517593ppmand700747 ppmextractableKrespectively. Leavingthehusksinthefieldmayattracttermites. (Liyanage,1987;Nunezetal,1991)
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 CoirPithorCoirDust Coirpithisanexcellentproducttobereturnedtothesoil,eitherasamulchorasan organicfertilizer.Duetoitsfibrousandloosenature,incorporationofcoirpithintothe soilimprovesthephysicalpropertiesandwaterholdingcapacityofthesoilconsiderably. Theword'coir'isderivedfrom'kayar'intheMalayanlanguage. CoirPithrepresentsabout45%ofthecoconuthusk.Itcontainsabout2530%ligninand 33%cellulose. CoirPithcanabsorbandretainabouttentimesitsowndryweightofwater. AgreatvariationofC:Nratioshavebeenreported,rangingfrom58:1to112:1. Thequalityofcoirpithdependsonthefibreextractionprocess.Coirpithobtainedafter mechanicalfibreextractionisricherinnutrientscomparedtocoirpithobtainedafter retting,asitlosesmuchofitsoriginalmineralcontentduringthiswetprocess. Thecoirpithobtainedfromthefullymatureandoldernutscontainsahigheramountof ligninandcelluloseandfewerwatersolublesaltscomparedtoyoungernuts. Useofcoirpithasmulchororganicfertilizerwillsolveanenvironmentalproblemnear processingcentreswherelargenumbersofcoconutarehusked.Thehugeamountsofcoir pithdumpedaswasteoozetanninsduringtherainyseason.Sometimesthepithisseton fire,butitburnsveryslowly,duetoitshighmoisturecontent. Coirpithcanbeappliedasamulch,usedaslitter(afterdrying)instablesorpoultrypens beforeapplyingittothesoil,orapplieddirectlytothesoil.Usingcoirpithasalitterwill enrichthematerialwithmineralsandreducetheC:Nratio,improvingitsqualityasa manure. InatrialconductedinIndia,acoirpithmulch,10cmthickaroundseedlingsresultedina higherseedlingsurvivalandhighersoilmoisturecontentthanothertreatments,suchas mulchingwithricehuskorblackpolythene,andearthenpitchandpotwateringatarateof 10perweek. Decompositionofcoirpithusessoilnitrogen,andthismayresultintemporarynitrogen deficiencyofthepalm.ReductionoftheC:Nratio(e.g.byusingaslitter)beforeapplying thecoirpithtothesoilisrecommended.Resultsoflaboratoryexperimentsontheeffect ofblendingrettedcoirdustwithfertilizerssuggestanitrificationinhibitionpropertyofcoir dust,andindicatetheusefulnessofblendingureawithcoirdustforcontrolledandgradual releaseofureanitrogen.Thisfindingisimportantforsoilspronetoheavyleachinglosses, wherecontrolledreleaseofNcanbeachievedintherootzoneofperennialcrops. Aftertreating1tonofcoirpithwithanediblebasidiomycetousfungus(Pleurotussajor caju)and5kgurea,andkeepingthemixtureasaheaptodecomposeinanopenyardfor 30days,itwasobservedthat:(a)lignincontentdroppedfrom30%to4.8%;(b)cellulose contentreducedfrom26.5%to10.1%;and(c)C:Nratiowentdownfrom112:1to24:1, whichiscomparabletofarmyardmanureandcompostwhenappliedtothesoil. Forcompostingcoirpith,anareaof3x5misrequiredinashadyplace.About100kgof coirpithisspreadoutina2cmthicklayeroverwhichonebottleofspawn(300g)of Pleurotussajorcajuisuniformlyspread.Thenthelayeriscoveredwithanother2cmthick layerofcoirpith,overwhich1kgofureaisuniformlyspread.Thisprocesscanberepeated untiltheheapreachesaheightofabout1metre.Foreachtonofcoir,5kgofureaand5 spawnbottlesarerequired.Themoisturecontentintheheapismaintainedatabout200% bysprinkling. InatrialconductedinthePhilippineswithseveralfungi,includingPleurotussajorcaju,it wasobservedthatPhanerochaetechrysosporiumUPCC4003wasthemosteffective fungusfordegradingthelignocellulosecomponentsofcoirdustatoptimumconditions. However,thedegradationprocesswascarriedonwithminimalnitrogenconcentration.
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Trichodermaspisamongthenativemicrofloraobservedintherawcoirpith.Anadditional advantageassociatedwithTrichodermasp.isitsabilityasabiocontrolagentofsoilborne fungaldiseases,suchasGanoderma,thecausalagentofBasalStemRot. Stablemanureaddsnutrientstothesoil,butifitisproducedfromvegetationgrowing underthecoconutpalmsonly,itdoesnotaddanythingnewtothesoil;ratheritisa systemofrecyclingnutrientelementsinanorganicform.Mineralstakenupbyanimal bodiesarelosttotheland;nitrogenthatmayevaporateduringproductionandapplication ofstablemanureisalsolosttotheland. Wastematerialscansometimesbeobtainedfromagroindustries,suchasricebran,straw, ortheresiduefrombeerbreweries.Suchmaterials,ifavailableatareasonableprice,can becompostedintheplantation,orspreadoutinstables,tobemixedwiththeanimal excrement. (SavithriandKhan,1994;Uthaiahetal.,1989;UyencoandOchoa,1984) CPCRIrecommendsaslightlydifferentmethodforcompostingcoirpithtoIndianfarmers: Largescalecompostingofcoirpithcanbedoneeitherbytheheapmethodinashaded placeorincementtanks. Coirpithobtainedfromcoirprocessingunitsaretreatedwithlime(0.5%),urea(0.5%), rockphosphate(0.5%)andlegumebiomass(Glyricidialeaves)orcowdungorcompost frompreviousbatch(10%)andmoistened. Thetreatedcoirpithissprayedwith1%jaggerysolutionandmixedwithfungalinoculum at0.2%level,15daysaftertheamendment. Regularwateringisdonetokeeptheheapmoist. TherawcoirpithwithaC:Nratioof108:1wouldturnintocomposthavingaC:Nratio15:1 andhighmicrobialpopulationwithinaperiodof4050days. Marasmiellustroyanus,anefficientproducerofIigninolyticandcellulolyticenzymes,isolated fromdecomposingcoconutwastehasbeenfoundtobeeffectiveincompostingofcoir pith.AlocalisolateofTn'chodermaspecieswasalsoeffectivetocompostcoirpith. Microbialenrichmentwithnitrogenfixingbacteriaandphosphatesolubilisersenables productionofgoodqualitycompostwithbettermanurialvalue. Forcompostingcoirpithusingearthworms,theCPCRIrecommendationsare: Coirpithistreatedwithlimeandrockphosphate@0.5%eachandincubatedforthree weeks. Itisthenmixedwithcowdung@10%,freshvermicompost@10%. Thismixtureislayeredwithuncutcoconutleaves@20%tofacilitateaerationinthebed. TheearthwormEudrilusspp.isintroducedattherateof1000numbers/tonneoforganic materials. Thebedshouldbemulchedandprotectedfromdirectsunlight. Moisturelevelistobemaintainedat50%byregularirrigation. Earthwormsformburrowsinthebedandvermicastingsappearassurfacecasts. Agranularvermicompostwith1.2%nitrogenandC:Nratioof16.7:1canbeobtainedin twomonths. InanexperimentcarriedoutbyCPCRIonsubstitutionofchemicalfertilizersbycompostedcoir pithincoconut,thetreatmentNPK(50%)+compostedcoirpith(50%)gavethehighestyieldof 104 nuts /palm /year followed by the treatment 100% NPK as inorganic fertilizer (82 nuts/palm/year). The lowest yield of 66 nuts/palm/year was recorded in the control. Foliar analysisforN,PandKdidnotshowsignificantdifferences.Organiccarboncontentofsoilat0 25 cm depth was found to be the highest in the treatment, 50% composted coir pith + 50%
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 NPK. Available K content in the soil at 025 cm depth differed significantly and chemical fertilizerrecorded significantlyhigheraverageK.The highestnetreturnsofRs.18,124/hawas obtainedinthetreatmentNPK(50%)+compostedcoirpith(50%). (RajagopalandArulraj,2003) VermicompostingofCoconutPalmWastes Lignocellulosic materials like coconut palm wastes decompose rather slowly, and vermicomposting is a good technique to convert them to a form that can be utilized by the coconut palm more quickly. Vermicomposting is a process of composting organic matter usingearthworms,andtheendproductisknownasvermicompost.Themainstepsinvolvedin vermicompostingare: 1) multiplicationofearthworms, 2) preparationofbasematerialsforvermicomposting, 3) introductionofearthwormtothebasematerial, 4) managementofvermicompostingbed, 5) separationofvermicompostfromundecomposedmaterials. Waste materials from coconut plantation can be converted into brown, nonodourous, granular vermicompost using earthworms. CPCRI in India has isolated a local earthworm closelyrelatedtotheAfricannightcrawler(Eudrilus sp.)thathasbeenfoundtobeeffectivein vermicompostingofcoconutpalmwastes. Eudrilussp.canbemultipliedinamixtureofcowdunganddecayedleavesin1:1ratio takenincementtub,woodenboxorplasticbucketwithdrainagefacilities. Wormsshouldbeintroducedattherateof50numbersper10kgoforganicwastes. Within23months,theearthwormmultiplies300times,whichcanbeusedforlargescale composting. Organicwastesweatheredinrainsfor34monthscanbedirectlyusedforvermicomposting. Compostingcanbedoneinpitsofconvenientsize,withdepthlessthan1metredugin coconutplantationorincementtanks. Cowdungmaybeaddedtothewastesattherateof10%byweightandtheheapshould bewateredandallowedtoundergopreliminarydecompositionfor12weeks. Thenearthwormsmaybeaddedattherateof1kgpertonneoforganicwastes. Thebedshouldbemulchedandwateredregularlytomaintainsufficientmoistureandthe compostingwillbeoverinabout70days. Wateringshouldbeavoidedforoneweekbeforetheremovalofcompost.Wormswill movetodeepermoistareaandcompostcanbecollected,sievedanddried. Therecoveryofcompostcouldbeashighas70%.Thewastematerialcanbeconverted intobrown,nonodourous,granularvermicastings. Fromonehectarecoconutgarden,onecouldget4,000kgofvermicompostfromleaves alone. Thefinalproductwillcontain1.21.8%Nitrogen,0.10.2%Phosphorousand0.20.4% Potassium. Themanagementofvermicompostingrequiresregularwateringtokeepthebedmoist. Directsunlightisharmfultowormsandthebedshouldbemulchedwithdrygrassesor moistgunnybags. Ittakesnearly60daystocompostmostofthematerials.Harvestingofvermicompost requiresseparationofworms(adultandjuveniles)andcocoonsbysievingfromthe compost.Thegranularvermicastingssoobtainedcanbedriedandstoredforfield application.
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 (RajagopalandArulraj,2003) OtherOrganicMaterials Organic material for the manuring of coconut can also be obtained by interplanting coconut withothertreesorshrubsthatcanbeprunedregularly. InamixedcroppingtrialinSriLanka,GliricidiasepiumandLeucaenaleucocephala wereplantedindoublerowsinthecoconutavenuesataspacingof2x0.9m.They yielded710tonsand1216tonsofgreenmatterperharespectivelyand1420tper haoffreshfirewoodduringthefirstandsecondyearsHarvestingstartedoneyear afterplantingthetreesbyloppingtheplantsatonemetreabovethegroundat3 monthintervals. Insomecountries,coconutsaremanuredwithleavesandbranchesofothertrees growingoutsidetheplantation.Thisispossibleonlyonverysmallholdings,asthe practiceislabourintensive.Forlargeplantationsitmaybeverydifficulttoobtain sufficientquantitiesofsuchmaterialfromoutsidetheplantation. ExperimentsinIndiainvestigatedorganicmaterialfertilizingincombinationwitha systemofrootrejuvenation.Atrenchwasopened30cmfromthebole,formingone quarterofacircle.Thistrenchwasfilledwithorganicmaterialandcoveredwithsoilto preventthebreedingofrhinocerosbeetles.Aftertwoyearsanotherquarterofthe circlewasfilled,etc.Thismethodinducesnewrootformationfromthebole.Inthese experimentsusing30kgofGliricidiaorLeucaenaleavestofillthetrenches,aftertwo yearsoftreatmentnutyieldincreasesof1520nutsperpalmperyearto5060nuts perpalmperyearwereobservedafter2yearsoftreatment. (Gunasekera,1989;LiyangeandWijeratne,1987) ChemicalFertilisers Mostcultivatedlandsneedregularsuppliesofmineralnutrients,especiallyafterhaving beencultivatedforsometime. Whenplantingorreplantingcoconutonlandpreviouslycultivated,fertilizerapplicationto theseedlingsisveryimportanttoguaranteegooddevelopmentofthebole,whichisvery importantfortheproductivityofthetree,asitincreasestherootingsurface. Withgoodnutrition,thestemwillalsoattainitsmaximumwidth.Nutrientdeficienciesata laterstagemaycauseanarrowingofthestem,whichmaydecreasethepalm's productivity.Fertilizingaftersuchaperiodmayagainallowthestemtoattainitsoriginal width,butnotinthenarrowsection,asthestemhasnocambium.Suchnarrowstem sectionsmayalsobecausedbydroughtandotherunfavourablegrowingconditions,and showsomethingofthepalm'shistory. Adequatefertilizingofyoungpalmslowerstheprebearingage.Dependingonsoil conditions,adequatelyfertilizedyoungpalmsmaystartbearingoneormoreyearsearlier thanpalmsgrowingwithoutfertilizers. Highyieldingcultivarsneedmoremineralnutrientsfortheproductionofagreaternumber ofnutsthanlowyieldingpalms.Ontheotherhand,highyieldingvarietiescanalso respondmuchmorestronglytofertilizerapplication.Resultsofafertilizerexperimentin Thailandsuggestedthat,intheabsenceoffertilizer,hybridsdidasbadlyaslocalvarieties, butnoworse. Whenrecommendingfertilizerapplication,itshouldbeverifiedwhethertheplanting materialisofadequatequalityandnottoooldandseniletorespondeconomicallyto fertilizerapplication.Wherethisisdoubtful,improvementmightbetterbeachieved throughrenovationoftheplantationandbuildingupsoilfertilitywithfertilizersandgreen manures.
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Whendeficiencysymptomsbecomevisible,thepalmsmayhavesufferedfromashortage foralongtimeandtheplantationhasbeenproducingatsuboptimallevel.Monitoringof mineralcontentsinthepalmisthereforeimperativeforgoodmanagement.

The three main systems used to determine fertilizer needs are leaf analysis, soil analysis and fertilizerexperiments. Leafanalysisisaratheraccuratesystemtodeterminethenutritionalsituationoftheplant. Soilanalysisnotonlydeterminesthesoilavailabilityofcertainnutrients,butitalso providesinformationonotherchemicalsoilcharacteristics,suchaspHandnutrient fixation.Alsoothersoilcharacteristics,suchascationexchangecapacity,textureand depth,mayallbeimportanttodeterminethesystemoffertilizerapplicationandthedoses tobeused. Fertilizerexperimentsprovidethefinalanswerofplantreactiontocertainfertilizer applications,theinfluenceonthenutrientlevelsinleaves,theinteractionsbetweenthe variousnutrients,andthepotentialyieldresponseswithinlocalecologicalconditions. Fertilizerexperimentsalsogiveinformationoncostsandonthemosteconomiclevelof fertilizeruse. ThemostwidelyusedsystemforleafanalysisistheonedevelopedbyIRHO: Thebesttimeforsamplingisatthestartofthedryseason.Afterrainfall,atleast36hours shouldpassbeforesampling,asnutrientsmayhaveleachedfromtheleaves. Sampledtreesmaybemarked,tobesampledagainlatertoinvestigatetheresultsof treatmentsappliedonthebasisofsamplingresults. Asleavesofdifferentageshavevaryingmineralcontents,onlyoneleafpositionisused. Foryoungseedlings,leafno.4isused;assoonasitisavailable,leafno.9isusedfor somewhatolderpalmsandforfullygrownpalmsleafno14isused. Thepositionofthecorrespondingspatheindicatestheturningdirectionoftheleafspiral. Ifitspositionisslightlytotheleftoftheleaf,thespiralturnsleft,ifitisontheright,the spiralturnsright.Leafno.1istheyoungestleafjustdetachedfromthecentralspear. Usually,leafno.9supportsthelargestunopenedspatheandleafno.14generallysupports aninflorescencewithnutsthesizeofafist. Withoutcuttingtheleaf,6leafletsarecut,3oneitherside,fromthecentralpartofthe lamina.Ofeachleaflet,onlythecentral10cmportionisused.Theedgesofeachleaflet (about2mm)andthecentralveinareremoved.Ofeachleafletfragment,onesideisused foranalysis,theotheriskeptasaduplicate. Theleafletsarecleanedwithcottonwoolanddistilledwater,thencarefullydried. Duplicatesarewrappedandstoredinadryplace. Samplesshouldbeadequatelylabelled,givingallnecessaryinformationondate,site,and conditions,aswellasontheconditionoftheplotatthetimeofsampling. Afterlabelling,thesamplesaredriedinanovenat7080Cforabout10hours.Whereno ovenisavailable,a250Welectricbulbcanbeusedfordrying.Thesamplebatchescanbe sentinsealedplasticbagstothelaboratoryforanalysis. Thesamplecovers2530trees.Forlargeareas,onesampleisusedforevery50or100ha, andasystemisoftenusedtofacilitatefollowupwork.Insmallholderareas,onesampleis takenperholding,andthetreesarerandomlyselected.Abnormaltreesshouldbe excluded. CPCRIrecommendations

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 For the west coast of India where planting is done just before the monsoon rains which fall mainly during July and August, CPCRI recommendations to farmers for fertilizer application are: Onetenthoftheadultpalmdosageofnutrientsshouldbeappliedafterthreemonths,one thirdaftertwoyearsofgrowth,twothirdsafterthreeyearsandfulldosagefromfourth yearonwards(Table). Table16CPCRIrecommendationsforChemicalFertiliserapplication Fertilizer application is MayJune SeptemberOctober Firstyear Secondyear Thirdyear Fourthyearonwards N 50 110 170 P20S 40 80 120 K20 135 270 400 N 50 110 220 330 P20S 40 80 160 200 K20 135 270 540 800

Generalrequirementoffertilizerelementsforpalmsyieldinganaverageof50nuts/palm/ yearis500gN,320gPP5and1200gKppalm/year. Inacidsoilsthenutrientsshouldbeappliedintheformofurea,rockphosphateand muriateofpotash,whereasinalkalinesoilsurea,singlesuperphosphateandmuriateof potashshouldbeapplied. Adequatequantityofbulkyorganicmanures(50kg/palm/year)shouldalsobeapplied.It providessomeofthemicronutrientsneededbythepalmsandalsoimprovesthesoil physicalconditionsincludingwaterholdingcapacity. Borondeficiencycausescharacteristicmalformationofleaveslikehookleaves,nut cracking,dryingofthefemaleflowersetc.SoilapplicationofBorax@50g/palmtwiceat monthlyintervalsaftertheappearanceofthefirstsymptomcorrectsthedeficiency.In root(wilt)diseaseaffectedareas,applyBorax@300g/seedlingandBorax@500g/adult palm. ApplicationofMagnesium@500gMgOperpalmisadvantageousforthemanagementof root(wilt)diseasedpalmstorestorepalmvigourandsustaintheproductivity. HybridpalmsdonotrequirehigherN,PandKinputsforhigherproductivityascompared toTallcultivars. Soilswith1%organiccarbonstatusisidealforcoconutcultivation. 70to80ppmofmineralizablenitrogeninsoiland10to12ppmBrayextractable'P'can sustainsufficientlevelsincoconut. IfsoilavailablePislessthan10ppm,fullrecommendeddoseof320gP205/palm/year maybeappliedandforasoiltestvalueof10to20ppm,50percentofthesamemaybe applied.Forsoiltestvaluesofmorethan20ppm,Papplicationcanbeskipped. ThecontentofacertainelementinLeaf14,belowwhichtheapplicationofthiselementas afertilizermayresultinaneconomicalyieldimprovement,iscalledthecriticallevelofthis element.Criticallevelsforcoconutare: N1.71.8% P0.110.12% K0.81.0% Ca0.3% Mg0.2% TheresultsoftheexperimentsundertakenintheAllIndiaCoordinatedResearchProject onPalmsindicatedthathighyieldingcoconutvarietiesandhybridshaverespondedwellto theintegratednutrientmanagementpractices.
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 Higher pressure on land might become beneficial to coconut production when intercrops are incorporated into the Coconut Based Farming System (CBFS) and when these intercrops are fertilized. In an intercropping trial conducted in the Philippines, coconut production increased more than twofold within a period of 7 years. A substantial increase was observed in coconut production, especially in the last years of the experiment, which was attributed to the impact of improved cultivation and more absorption of nutrients from the soil. (Ditablan and Astete, 1986)

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 8.2 8.2.1 Dryingmethodsofcopra&storage BasicPrinciplesofCoconutDrying

Dryingisaprocessforreducingthemoisturecontentofmaterialsbybringingthewatertothe surfaceandevaporatingit.Evenunderambientconditions,evaporationwilltakeplaceaslong astheactualmoisturecontentoftheproductisaboveitsequilibriummoisturecontent(EMC). TheEMCdependsonthepropertiesoftheproductandambientaircharacteristicssuchas temperature,humidityandpressure.Oncethemoisturecontentoftheproductreachesthe EMC,itwillnotloseanymoremoisturetotheambientairanditsweightwillnotchange anymore.ProductswhosemoisturecontentislowerthantheEMCwillabsorbmoisturefrom theambientairtillithasattainedamoisturecontentequaltoitsEMC.Underprevailing weatherconditionsinthecoconutgrowingareasinthetropicsEMCforcopraisgenerally around6%to7%.Thismeansthatdryingdowntoalowermoisturecontentiswastingtime andmoney,sincecoprawillabsorbwateruntiltheEMCisreached. Therateofdryingdependsmainlyonthetemperatureandhumidityofthedryingair.Drying startswiththeevaporationofsurfacewaterfollowedbythediffusionofmoisturefrominner layerstowardsthesurface.Aslongasthemoisturemigrationishigherthantheevaporationon thesurface,therateofdryingwillremainconstant.Higherdryingairtemperatureswill increasetherateofdrying,butthehighestdryingairtemperaturethatcanbeusedis restrictedbythequalityrequirementsontheproduct.Humidity,temperatureandambient pressuredefinethewaterholdingcapacityofair.Table1showstheeffectofchangesin temperatureandhumidityonthewaterholdingcapacityofairinatropicalcountry.The dryingairpressurecanbeconsideredconstantat1barforthedryingofcoconutsinnatural draughtdriers. Table17Waterholdingcapacityofairinatropicalcountry MaximumWater Temperature Relative x Humidity Absorbtion o (g/kgdryair) ( C) (%) (g /kg dry air) 30 80 22.9 1.0 40 50 60 70 80 90 46 29 17.5 10.9 6.5 4.1 26.4 29.6 32.9 36.2 39.6 43.6 4.5 7.7 11.0 14.3 17.7 21.7

100 3.0 46.4 24.5 Note:Fortropicalcountryx=21.9g/kgdryairat30oCand80%RH Source:DipponandVillaruel,1996 Therateofdryingatagiventemperatureandhumidityisfastestimmediatelyaftersplitting thecoconuts.Thelowerthemoisturecontentthemoredifficultitgetstofurtherdrydown.

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 Figure18showsadryingcurve(timeisplottedagainstmoisturecontent)forcoconutmeatata dryingtemperatureof95C.Inthiscase2.5hoursareneededtobringdownthemoisture contentfrom45%to35%(adecreaseinmoisturecontentof10%).Ontheotherhand,todry thecoconutmeatfrom20%moisturedownto10%(againadecreaseof10%),8.5hoursare neededwhichismorethanthreetimeslonger.Coconutgrowersthereforeprefertodrydown toamoisturecontentthatisacceptabletothebuyerevenifapricedeductionisappliedfor highmoisturecontent. Figure16DryingCurve

Source:DipponandVillaruel,1996 Evaporationhastobefollowedbytheremovalofthemoisturefromthecoconutkernel.This requiresacertainairvelocitytotransporttheevaporatedwatertotheoutside.Themost importantfactorsaffectingtheperformanceofacoconutdryerare: propertiesoftheproduct(size.age.initialmoisturecontent.etc.) dryingmanagement(nutsarrangement.pileheight.timelagfromsplittingtostartof drying) physicalpropertiesofthedryingair(humidity.temperatureandvelocity) Size.ageandinitialmoisturecontentallvary.Theaveragediameterofnutsofdifferent varietiesmayvaryfrom10to20cm.Thehigherthedifferenceindiameterinabatch,the higherthepercentageofoverlappednuts,whichresultsinahigherpercentageofwetcopra. Youngnuts(lessthan11monthsold)aremoredifficulttodrythanoldermaturenuts(13to14 monthsold).Ifthenutsarenotproperlydrainedaftersplittingand/orifsplittingandloading aredoneonarainyday,morewaterhastobeevaporated.Inthiscasethedryingtimehasto *beextendedandthisresultsinalowerefficiency. Thegeneralpracticeistoarrangethenutsinadryerwiththefirst(lowest)layerfacingupand allotherlayersfacingdown.However,dryingtrialsinthePhillipineshaveshownthatthe arrangementofthenutsdoesnotsignificantlyaffectthequalityofcopraproduced.Arranging nutsrequiresanadditionalfourhoursper2000nuts.
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 Loadingshouldbedoneimmediatelyaftersplittingthenutsanddrainingthewateroff.Drying trialshaveshownaslightdiscolorationofnutsloadedmorethanfourhoursaftersplitting.The moredryingisdelayedthehigherthepercentageofdiscoloration. Thehigherthepileofcoconutsloaded,themoredifficultitisforthedryingairtopassthrough thenuts.Thiswillberesultinthebottomlayergettingoverdriedwhilethetoplayerstillhasa highmoisturecontent.Thisisusuallytakencareofbyshufflingthelayersonceduringthe dryingprocessthetoplayerisplacedatthebottom,andthebottomlayeristakentothe top.Recommendationsfortheoptimumbedheightvaryfrom2050cm. Similarly,awiderangeoftemperatureshavebeenrecommendedbyvariousresearchers,from 35Ctoover90C.Quiteoften,atwostagedryingprocessisrecommended.Ahigh temperatureinitialstageisfollowedbyaperiodoflowertemperature.Thefirststagecouldbe for816hoursfollowedbythenextphaseuntilafinalmoisturecontentof8to10%is reached.Pileheights,temperaturesandtimeperiodsforthestagesofdryingaregivenforthe differenttypesofdryersinthefollowingsections. Averageairflowratesinnaturaldraughtdryersarebelow1.0m/s.Forhigherairvelocities additionalblowers(orventilators)arenecessaryandthishasbeendoneforresearch experiments,buttheinitialandoperatingcostsofblowerscannotbejustifiedforcopradriers usedbysmallholders. 8.2.2 TypesofDryers

Sincecopraisconsideredasalowvalueproduct,itisnoteconomicallyviabletouse sophisticateddryers,oreventheuseofblowersforamoreconstantairflow.Therefore,for makingcopra,naturaldraftdryersareused.Commonmethodsofdryingcanbeclassifiedas: 3) UsingHeatfromtheSun c) Sundrying d) Solardrying 4) UsingHeatfromburningBiomass c) KilndryingusingSmoke Directdrying Semidirectdrying d) IndirectdryingusingHotair Thesunisthesourceofenergyforbothsundryingandsolardrying.Thedryingmethodsvary fromthatwhichisconsideredprimitiveandtraditionaltoonethatadherestocertainscientific principlesofdrying.ASolardryerisastructure(verysimpletohighlysophisticated)thatis usedtotrapthesun'sheatandtherebyenhancetheeffectofsolarradiation. Heateddryersusuallyburncoconutshellsandhusk:

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 DirectDryers: Fuelisburntunderthecopraandcombustiongasescomeincontact withthecoconutmeatbyrisingupthroughthecoprabed. SemidirectDryers: Fuelisburnttothesideofthepileofcoconutmeatandthe combustiongasesaresentthroughatunneltothespacebelowthedryingchamberto riseupthroughthecopra. IndirectDryers: Combustiongasesaresentthroughaheatexchangerthatheatsup ambientair,andthehotairdriesthecoconutmeat. SunDrying When copra is spread out under direct sunlight for drying, it is called Sun Drying. If the weatherisrightthensundryingcanproducegoodqualitycopra. Thismethodisusedonlyduringthedryseasonandwhendryingonlysmallquantities ofnuts. Sundryingcopraisthesimplestandcheapestmethodavailable.Overalldryingcostis verylowcomparedtoothercopradryingmethodsthatusebiomassfuelleddryers. Itrequiresupto5consecutivedaysofsunshineandamoderatelyhumidatmosphere (6080%relativehumidity)tofacilitateevaporationofmoisture. Excellentqualitycopraismadeundergoodconditionswhichexistincertainpartsof theworld,suchasAllepeyinKeralaStateinIndia,andCebuinthePhilippines. Sundryingiscapableofproducingclean,whiteandediblecopra,andsuchcopra usuallycommandsapremiumpricelocallyandisasuperiorqualityexportproduct. Unfortunately,mostsundriedcopraisproducedunderunfavourableconditions, whereintermittentrainsorveryhumidairproducebadlydeterioratedcopra. Fuelsavedisadditionalfarmincomewhenitissoldortransformedintohighvalue productslikecoconutshellcharcoal,activatedcarbon,coir,etc. Photo 23 Sundryingcopra

Source:Foale,2003
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 SeeSawDrier Theseesawdrierisanimprovedmethodofsundryingthatwasconceptualizedatthe InstituteforTropicalAgriculturalProductsTechnologyandIndustrializationofAbidjan,Ivory Coast.ThedesignwasfurtherimprovedinGhanawhereitwasintroducedtodryleafy vegetables,rootcrops,fruitsandspices.In197576,thisdryerwastestedtodrycoconut meatatthePhilippineCoconutAuthorityDavaoResearchCenter,BagoOshiro,DavaoCity. Testsshowedthatseesawproducedcoprahasnosignificantdifferenceonthedurationof dryingtimeaswellasinthelevelofmoisturecontentcomparedtotraditionalsundrying. Nonetheless,advantagesintheuseofthedryerarethelaborrequirementreductionincopra handlingduringthedryingprocessandtheproductionofcleancoprawhichisfreefromdust anddirtcontamination.Sincethecopraiscoveredwithaplasticsheet,itismuchbetterthan opensundryingondayswhenitispartlyclearandsunny,butwithintermittentshowers. Figure17TheSeeSawDrier

(a)HorizontalLoadingPosition (b)MorningandAfternoonPositions Source:CastroandThampan,1996 The frameof the seesaw drierismounted freely onthetrestle onitstransversecenterline, to givea"seesaw"action. Heatabsorbingbandsareprovidedateachandacrossthecenteroftheframe, transverseretainingbarsdemarcatingtheareasbetweenthem.Thesebandsandall otherinternalpartsarecoatedwithadurablemattblackpaint. Producetobedriedisloadeduptotheretainingbarsoneachchanneloftherack, betweenthebands,leavingclearanceundertheblindtopermitairflow. TheloadingisdoneinthehorizontalpositionshowninFigure20a. Thecoverisstretchedoverthetopoftheframe.Itconsistsofatransparentsheetof plasticmaterialsintheformofablind,whichprovidesasubstantialscreeningeffect againstultravioletlightthus,reducingphotooxidation. Airflowsfromoneendtotheotherthroughgapateachendoftheframe. TheloadedframeisfixedinapositiontofacethesunontheEastinthemorningand intheWestintheafternoon(Figure20b).Tomaximisethecollectionofsunlightfor drying,theframepositioncanbeadjustedonceevery3hourstofollowthesun.
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 SolarDrying PrincipleofSolardryers Solardryersmakeuseofthegreenhouseeffectinwhichsolarheatistrappedinsidea transparentenclosure.TheenergyflowsinasolardryerisshowninFigure21.Solardryers cangeneratehigherairtemperaturesatalowerrelativehumidity,thansundrying,thereby improvingthedryingratesandenablinglowerfinalmoisturecontents.Inaddition,the negativeeffectsofrainfall,insects,dustandmoldsonthequalityofcopraproducedbysun dryingcanbeminimized. Figure18EnergyFlowsinaSolarDryer

Source:DipponandVillaruel,1996 DevelopmentofaSolarDryer In the early 1990s, the Philippine German Coconut Project studied and tested the existing coconutdryersandcameupwithseveralinnovativedryerdesignsforsmallscaleandmedium scale coconut farms. Based on the output of about 80 drying trials on different dryers as well as additional information from farmers meetings, visits of farmers to the project and personal experience,theprojectdrewupthemaincriteriaforwhatanidealcoconutdryershouldbe: 1. Durability:lifespanoftheessentialdryercomponentsshouldbeatleastfiveyears; 2. EaseofOperation; 3. Costs:thetotalcostsshouldnotbehigherthananyalternativeindirectdryer; 4. EaseofConstruction:constructionshouldnotrequireanyspecialtools; 5. WorkingPerformance:minimumrequirementswere: notmorethantwodryingdays lessthan10%finalmoisturecontentanduniformdried lessthan20ppbaflatoxincontent fuelusagelowerthan90%ofthehusksofnutsloaded
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 To meet these criteria and performance requirements, two dryers were designed, developed andtested: (a) ASolarDryertocatertothedryingneedsofindividualcoconutfarmersowning2to5 haoflandproducing10,000to25,000nuts/year; (b) AnIndirectDryercalledtheCOCOPUGONforcoconutgrowingcooperativesand/or biggerplantationshavingaround40haofcoconutsproducingaround200,000 coconuts/year.Theindirectdryertypewaschosenbecauseofthedisadvantagesof directdryerslikesoot(PAH)contaminationandscorchedcopra. Inthedevelopmentofasolardryerthemainaimswereto: 1. Providethesmallcoconutfarmeranalternativetosundryingatthelowestcost possible; 2. Utiliselocallyavailablematerials; 3. Keepthelaborrequirementforcoconutdryinglesserthansundrying;and 4. Makethedryersmallandtransportable,preferablyoperablebyoneman. Atthestartoftheprojecttheeffectivenessofsolardryerswasestablished.Basedonthe findingsoftheseinitialtrials,severaldesignsusingdifferentmaterialswerebuilt,testedand analyzed.Thepricesofthedesignsbasedondifferentmaterialswere: 1. Bamboo 0.75US$persquaremeter 2. Rattan/Bamboo 1.8US$/squaremeter 3. Rattan 2.3US$/squaremeter 4. Waterpipe 6.9US$/squaremeter Sincetheresultswerequitesimilar,themaincriterionforselectingthebestdryerwas minimumcost,andthereforethebamboobaseddesignwaschosen.Thebambootypesolar dryerisshowninFigure22,andacompletelistofmaterialsisgiveninTable14.Themainparts arethebambooframeandtheplasticsheet.Atalengthof3mandawidthof1.75m,anarea ofabout5.25m2iscovered,andthisisenoughtodry200250nutsperbatch. Figure19SolarDryerdesignedbythePhilippineGermanCoconutProject

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Source:DipponandVillaruel,1996 Farmerscaneasilymaketheirowndryerssincebamboopolesareavailableinmosttropical areaswherecoconutsaregrown.Theonlyothermaterialsrequiredareahandsaw,nailsor woodglue,andtheplasticsheetfortheconstruction. Table18MaterialsrequiredforconstructionofaSolarDryer Material Bamboopoles"Tinik","Tunukon" Nails(3x65) Nails(3x80) Woodglue(waterresistant) Gasoline Sandpaper Canvasstrips LDPEplasticfilmUVprotected (0.125mmx55") Unit pole kg kg litre litre piece m 2 m 2 Quantity 2 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.5 2 0.04 5.7 Total Cost(US$) 2.00 0.25 0.25 0.80 0.18 0.80 0.12 2.20 6.60

Source:DipponandVillaruel,1996 Theplasticsheetisthemostessentialpartofthedryer,soitrequirescarefulselection.In generalthefollowingstandardsforplasticsheetsusedascoverinsolardryersshouldbe followed: 1. Lifespan:minimumtwoyears(UVprotectionneeded) 2. Gauge:min.0.004(0.10mm) 3. Width:min.50"(tubetype) 4. Transparency:min.80% 5. Price:lessthan1USSperm2. 6. Ecologicallyfriendly
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 SincePVC(PolyVinylChloride)isexpensiveandnotenvironmentfriendly(softingagentsand dioxinareemittedwhendisposed),PE(PolyEthylene)waschosenbecauseofitslowpriceand availabilitythroughoutthecountry.OtherslikePTFE(PolyTetraFlouroEthylene)wouldgive thebestopticalandmechanicalproperties,butwerenotproducedinthePhilippines. Inordertogetalifespanofatleasttwoyears,theplasticsheethastobeUVstabilized, meaninglightstabilizersareaddedtopreventphotooxidativedamage.Unprotectedplastic sheetswillbedestroyedwithinweeksdependingontheregionandlevelofsolarradiation. ForthesolardryerablendofLLOPE(linearlowdensityPS)andLOPE(lowdensityPS)ataratio of40:60wasused.Mixingthesetwomaterialswillresultinahighertensilestrengthandtear dilation.Tablecontainsthemostimportantpropertiesofthesetwomaterials.Thesheetwas extrudedinOavao,Philippines,withthespecificationofalifespannotlessthantwoyears. Table19PropertiesofLLDandLDPolyEthyleneplasticsheets PEtype Meltingpoint Molecularstructure Gauge Tensilestrength(lengthwise) Tensilestrength(crosswise) Teardilation(lengthwise) Teardilation(crosswise) [0C] [(mm)] [N/mm2] [[N/mm2] [%] [%] LLD 120130 linear 0.006(0.15) 33.1 34.7 1360 760 LD 105I15 branched 0.006(0.15) 22.3 19.7 510 1480

Source:DipponandVillaruel,1996 ComparisonofSunDryingandSolarDrying Figure20DryingCurvesforSunDryingandSolarDrier

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Source:DipponandVillaruel,1996 Table20AssumptionsforSolarDrying Dryingcycles/year Dryingcapacity[nuts/sq.m.] Depreciationtime Maintenance/repair kgcopra/nut 52 33 2 0 0.2 Workingtime(per1000nuts) arranging 10 loading/unloading 15 Laborcost[US$] 0.32

Source:DipponandVillaruel,1996 Withthissheetattachedtodifferentdesigns,aseriesofdryingtrialswereconductedto comparesunandsolardrying.Weatherdata(rainfall,temperature,humidity,windspeedand radiation),temperaturesandhumiditiesinsidethesolardryersaswellascopraqualityrelated parameterswererecordedandanalyzed.Thedryerisoperatedinsuchawaythatafter splitting.thenutsarespreadonthegroundandcoveredwiththedryer.Sincethedryerweighs lessthan20kgs,oneworkercandothejob.Oncethenutsarecovered.thenextworkthathas tobedoneareunloadingandscooping.Theresultsareasfollows: Comparedtosundrying,amaximumtemperatureofupto65Ccanbereachedinthe solardryerduringnoontime,about30Kelvinmorethantheambienttemperature. However,dryingtimeforsundriedcoconutsunderoptimumweatherconditionsis slightlylonger,becausetheuncoveredcoconutmeatalsoabsorbsthesolarradiation, thusincreasingmeattemperaturewhichinturnacceleratesdrying.Theresultsshow, thatthedifferenceinaveragemeattemperaturebetweensolarandsundried coconutsonsunnydayswasintherangeofonly3to6Kelvin.

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 Onaverage,dryingtimeiscutdownbyabout2daysto4.5dayswhenusingsolar dryers.Thisistheresultofcomparativedryingtrialsdoneforabouthalfayear. However,havingthreetofourstraightsunnydayswithoutrainfall,sundryingcouldbe finishedinalmostthesametime. Theaverageradiationperdaywasmeasuredat5.1kWh/m2.Basedonanaverage dryingtimeof4.5daysabout23.4kWh/m2areneededtobringthemoisturecontent downto10%. Dryingtrialsdonethroughouttheyearshowedthatthecolorofalmost50%ofthe solardriedcoconutswerewhiteafterreachingthefinalmoisturecontentoflessthan 10%comparedto18%ofsimultaneouslysundriedcoconutswhileabout71%were moldy. Toobtaingoodqualitycopra,thefirstdryingdayshouldbesunny.Thisisamajor disadvantageespeciallyinthewetseason. Underweatherconditionsfavorableforthegrowthofaflatoxinproducingmolds,the averageaflatoxincontentinsolardriedcoconutswas1/10thofsundriedcoconuts. Formerwasabout10ppbwhilethelaterresultedinaflatoxincontentofmorethan 100ppb. SolardryingwillreducetheredcolorandTFAcontentby28%and32%,respectively.

ConstructionandUsageoftheSolarDryer Rattanisnotasdurableasbamboo.Thatiswhyonlygoodbambooshouldbeusedas materialfortheframe. Theattachmentoftheplasticsheetisdonewithnailscushionedwithcanvas (tarpaulin).Sofarnoproblemswerenoticedexcepttheattachmentwithdouble seamedloopswheretheplasticwastornapartalongtheseamsafterfivetosix months. Afterlessthanayearsomeofthejointsmadeofsplicerattanwerebroken.Ifbamboo isused,holescanbedrilledinthepolestofitintheendsofthearc.Thejointsshould besealedwithwoodglue. Exceptgrass,anysurfacecanbeusedaslongastheundergroundisslightlytiltedto preventwateraccumulationinsidethedryer. Animalsshouldbekeptawayfromthedryers,sincetheplasticsheetcanbeeasily destroyedbysteppingonit. Frontandbacksidehavetobekeptopentoallowasteadyairflowtoremovethe moisturefrominside. Thedryershouldbealignedtothemainwinddirectiontomaximizeairflow. UndertheexistingweatherconditionsattheDavaoResearchCenter(Southern Mindanao)thetheoreticalwaterabsorptioncapacityofthisdryerisabout100kgper day. Assumingadryingtimeof4.5daysandaloadof100kgcoconuts(meatshellratio: 1.8)tobedrieddownfromamoisturecontentof50to10%,about6.6kgwaterhasto beevaporatedperday.Thisindicates,thateveninareaswithalowerairvelocitythe dryercanbeused.
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 Sincethehalfcupsareusuallyturnedupsidedownintheeveningorwhenrainis anticipated,morelaborisrequiredforsundrying. Whenplacedonacleansurfaceorpavedarea,thecostfordrying(Bambootype)were determinedtobeUS$0.014perkilogramcopra(asof5/95).Theassumptionforthis calculationarelistedintableII. Theaveragefarmsizeofthreehectaresneedstwosolardryerstodrythecoconut produceannually. ThiswillcostthefarmerlessthanUS$30. Tomaintainagoodperformancetheplasticsheetshouldbecleanedoccasionallyand replacedeverytwoyears. AnewsheetwillcostaboutUS$3perdryer.Replacementcanbeeasilydonebythe farmersthemselves. Asidefromcoconuts,thedryercanalsobeutilizedfordryingotherproductslike mango,riceetc.

KilnDrying There are two types of smoke dryers commonly used by coconut farmers: the direct and semidirect types. Primarily, both types have the same heating principle but differ only in designandmanneroffiringorchargingfuel. Thedirectdryerisdesignedinsuchawaythatthefirebedisdirectlylocatedbelow thecoprabed. Ontheotherhand,thedesignofsemidirectdryerissuperiortothedirecttype.The hearthwherefuelcharging/feedingisdoneislocatedononesideofthedryer, connectedtothedryingbedbyatunnellikeflue. DirectSmokeCopraDryer Thedirectsmokedryerisacommonlyusedbycoconutfarmersinmanycoconutproducing countriesintheworld.Thesmokedryerhasagrillplatformusuallyofsplitbamboowhich constitutesthedryingarea.Halvednutsintheshellareplacedonthisgrill.Underneaththe platformisafirehearthwherecoconutshellsandhusksareburnedslowlytoprovidetheheat forvaporisingthewaterfromthecoconutmeat.Generally,thereisnochimney.Thecoconut meatshrinksupondryingandmayberemovedorscoopedoutfromtheshell.Themeatis thenfurtherdriedinthesmokedryer. TapahanDryer ThisdirectsmokedryerisoneofthecommonlyuseddirectdryersinthePhilippines.Itcomes indifferentversions.startingwithanopenpitfilledwithhusksandcoveredbyabamboo flooringuptomoreadvanceddryerswherethedryingplatformisprovidedwithawall(hollow blocks.plywood,etc.)ThecapacityofastandardTapahandryeris2000nutsandthevolumeof thedryingbedis2.69m3.Themaincomponentsandtheair/heatflowareshowninFigure24.
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 Figure21SchematicofTapahandryer

Source:DipponandVillaruel,1996 TestscarriedoutwiththeTapahandryerbythePhillipinesGermanCoconutProjectfound: Afairlydistributedtemperaturewithinthedryingbed. Averagetemperaturesof86,95and88Cweremeasuredfromfront,middleandback sectionsrespectively. Highertemperaturesinthemiddlesectionarecausedbythefuelconcentrationatthe middle,andthisleadstoalowermoisturecontentinthisarea. Quiteoftenscorchedcoprawasfoundinthebottomlayer,themiddlelayerwasbetter incolor,andpartsofthetoplayerstillhadwetnuts,especiallyatthefrontandback. Thefuelfeedrateusedwas: o firstfiring:40husks o after35minutesanother25husks o followedby15husksevery15minutesuntildryingwasfinished. Thereisnowaytocontroltemperatureexcepttochangethefuelfeedrate,and temperatureswerefoundtofluctuate.Ahigherfuelfeedrateisnotrecommended becauseofthehighriskofburningthedryerandcopra. Onaverage,about20hoursfiringareneededtoreachafinalmoisturecontentof about10%.Sincethefuel(husks)isburnedinsideapitunderneaththedryingbed,the dryerhastobeattendedtowheninoperationtopreventthedryerfromburning.This means,thatinmostcasesdryinghastobedoneontwodays. Basedonafiringtimeof20hours,theamountofenergyconsumed(input)wasfound tobe94kWh. Thethermalefficiency,thatistheratiobetweenoutput(evaporatedwater)andinput (fuelused),isbetween12and13%. SmokedryingisalsoknownasasourceofPAHs(polycyclicaromatichydrocarbons). ResultsofTapahandriedcoprashowedPAHfiguresashighas79.8g/kg. However,becauseofthepreservativepropertiesofsmoke,lessaflatoxinproducing moldswillgrow,andthisisonebigadvantageofsmokedryingonthestoragequality. Photo 24 DirectSmokeCopraDryer
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Source:FAO Thebasicfeatureswhichmakethedirectsmokedryerpreferredbyfarmersare: Highthermalefficiencyofthedryer(thecoconutmeatisdirectlyheated), Lowcostofconstruction(thecomponentpartsareavailableonthefarm), Simplicityofthedesign, Lowcostoffuel. However,thedirectsmokedryerhastwodisadvantages: Copraproducedfromthisdryerisusuallydark,sootywithsmokeandattimes scorched. Sincethefuelisburnedinsideapitunderneaththedryingbed,thedryerhastobe attendedwhenitisinoperationtopreventthedryerincludingcoprafromburning. DirectHeatDryersUsingOnlyShellsforFuel InSriLanka,India,MalaysiaandPapuaNewGuinea(largeplantations),directheatdryersusing onlycoconutshellsasafuel,providinggreatheatandlittlesmoke,produceexcellentquality copra.Thesekilnsareoperatedcentrally,eitherbyspecializedcopramanufacturersorby plantationownerswithhighlevelsofmanagement.Dryingtakesabout4or5dayswithabout 6or7fires,reducingthemoisturecontenttothedesiredlevelofabout6%.Twodriersofthis typearedescribedbelow: UPLBdrierusedinthePhilippines SriLankacoprakilnalsocalledtheCeylonDrier. UPLBDryer ThisdryerwasdevelopedattheUniversityofPhilippinesatLosBanos(UPLB).TheUPLBdryer hasacapacityofabout1.000nuts.ThebodyoftheUPLBDryeriscubicalinform(length= 1.91m,width=1.83m,height=1.77m)andthevolumeofdryingbed=1.47m3.Lumber measuring1.5"x2"and1.5"x1"isusedforthebasicstructure.Thewoodenstructureislined withGIsheettoformthedryingbedandheatingchamber.Atthefrontsideaswingingdoor andtwotrailsallowtheplacementofoneburnerinsideatatime(seeFigure25).Aheat dissipator(madeofGlsheet)betweenburneranddryingbedhelpsprovideauniform temperaturedistribution.Fourairinlets(18x8cm)locatedateachsidebetweendryingbed andGISheetgiveasteadyairflowthatisessentialforconvectionaldrying.
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 Figure22SchematicofUPLBdryer

Source:DipponandVillaruel,1996 TestsontheUPLBdryerfoundthetemperatureinthebottomlayerwasfluctuating anduneven.Insomelocationsamaximumtemperatureofmorethan180oCwas recorded,butthecentershowedarelativelylowtemperature.Evenafterseven burners(morethan20hoursdrying),thecenterportioninthedryingbedwasstillwet, whilethenutsinthebottomlayerinotherlocationsofthedryingbedwerescorched. Theaveragefuelcapacity(crackedcoconutshells)perburneris15kgs.Ittakes2.5to 3.3hourstoconsumeoneburner. Forthisdryertheworkingtime(includingdehuskingandsplitting)toproduceonekilo coprawascomputedat5.44minutes.About24%ofthistimeisneededtobreakthe shellsusedasfuel. Thethermalefficiencywasmeasuredtobe24.5%ataspecificenergyconsumptionof lessthan10MJperkgevaporatedwater. TheaveragePAHcontentwasmeasuredat60.7microg/kg Sincethedryeriscollapsibleitcaneasilybemovedtoanotherlocation SriLankaCopraKiln(CeylonDrier) InSriLanka,theopenednutsaresundriedonthefirstdayforafewhoursonacemented barbeque(weatherpermitting)asthisimprovesthecopracolour.Theyarethendriedfurther downto6%moisturecontentusingtheCeylondrierwhichburnscoconutshellsdirectlyunder thecopradryingplatform.ThedesignofaCeylondrierissimple.Thefryingplatformisawire meshplacedabout2.52.7metresaboveadirtfloor.Concreteblocksorgalvainsedironwalls enclosethefiringpitandthedryingplatform.Aroofisplacedovertheplatformandtheroof maybeslidingtoenablesundrying.Airventsareplacedneargroundleveltoallowoxygento enterthefiringpit. Huskedandsplitnutsareloadedontothedryingplatformtoadepthofabout30cms.Inthe firingpit,emptyshellsarenestedagainsteachotherinsinglerowsontheground.Oneendof eachrowislitanditburnsslowlytotheend.Afterthefirehasburnedout,newrowsarelaid
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 outandsetafire.Firingiscontinuousforaboutfourdaysafterwhichthecoprahasdriedand canbeeasilyseparatedfromtheshell. Ceylondriersarewidelyusedbecause: capitalcostsarerelativelylow, constructionissimple, therearenofuelcostsbecauseitburnsemptyshells, copraproducedisofamuchhigherqualitythanthesmokedriersbecauseshells produceverylittlesmoke, thereareemptyshellsleftoverwhichcanbeusedtodryothercropssuchascocoa(in akilndrier), theshellsburnatafairlyconstantratesoitiseasytotimethefiringbycountingthe shells. TheonlydisadvantageofCeylondriersisthattheycanburndowneasilyifleftunattended becausethehighlyflammablecopraisdirectlyoverthefire. SemiDirectCopraDryer Thedesignofsemidirectdryerissuperiortothedirecttypebecauseitretainsthebest featuresofthedirectdrier(simplestructuraldesignandoperation,lowcost,easytobuildwith materialslocallyavailable)whileproducingcopraofamuchbetterquality.Thisisbecausethe hearthwherefuelcharging/feedingisdoneislocatedononesideofthedryer,connectedto thedryingbedbyatunnellikeflue.Itissociallyandeconomicallyidealforsmallcoconut farmers. Thecombustionpitislocatedabout1metreawayfromthedryingbed.Thehotcombustion productischannelledtothedryingbedviaanundergroundtunnelthatcanbemadeusing emptyoildrums.Theexcavationpitisroughly4mlong,2mwideand1mdeep.Thepitfloorof thefiringchamberisslightlyinclinedupwardtowardtheendportion,whichisdesignedto directtheflowofheatedair.Drycoconuthusksareusedforfuel.Ithasacapacityof2,000 nutswhicharedriedafter20to25dryinghourswithresultantmoistureof6percent. (Photo25). Photo25SemiDirectSmokeCopraDryer

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Source:FAO TheVISCAcopradrier TheVISCAdryer(Figure26)isasemidirect,excavatedtypewithdimensionsanddesignas describedabove.ThedesignofthisdrieroriginatedfromtheVisayasStateCollegeof Agriculture(VISCA)inLeyteoneoftheVisayanislandsofthePhilippines.Thecopraproduced bythisdrierissimilarinqualitytocoprafromsmokedryers,anditisusedprimarilyforoil millingpurpose.TheVISCAdryerusesmainlycheapandlocallyavailableconstruction materialssuchascoconuttrunkandlumber,bambooandnipashingles,anditissimplein structuraldesign,cheapandeasytobuild.Moreover,thedrierneedsonly50%ofthehusk,so theremaining50%huskandtheshellscanprovideadditionalincometothefarmer. Drycoconuthusksareusedforfuel.Ithasacapacityof2,000nutswhicharedriedafter20to 24dryinghourswitharesultantmoisturecontentof10%.Toensureproductionofgood qualitycoprausingtheVISCACopradryer,thefollowingoperatingprocedureshouldbe followed: 1) Harvestonlymaturednuts(1213monthsold). 2) Dothedehuskinginashadyareaandpreventthedehuskednutsfrombeingexposed totheheatofthesuntoavoidcracking. 3) Splitthenutsearlyinthemorningandimmediatelyloadthemintothedryer. 4) Arrangethehalfnutsinthedryerinabricklikeformationwiththefirstbottomlayer havingthekernelsfacingupandallsucceedinglayerswithkernelsfacingdown. 5) Startthedryingprocesswithinfour(4)hoursaftersplittingsoastoavoiddeterioration ofthefreshmeat.Dothefirstdryingstageforten(10)continuoushours. 6) Carryoutthedryingprocessovertwo(2)dayswithaninbetweencoolingperiod duringnighttime.

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 7) Inthesecondday,rearrangethehalfnutsbyinterchangingthenutsintheupper layerswiththenutsinthelowerlayers.Thisensuresevendryingforthewholebatch ofcopra.Continuethedryingprocessforanotherfourteen(14)hours. 8) Itisveryimportantthatonlydryhusksareusedasfuel. 9) Controlandregulatethedryertemperaturebyusingtherightfuelfeedrate.Listed belowistherecommendedfuelfeedrateusingdrycoconuthusksasfuel. o 1stdaydryingperiod(10hrs):78husks/10min o 2nddaydryingperiod(14hrs):67husks/10min 10) Removethecoprafromtheshell,separatehalfdriedcopraandredry.Airdrythe copraandstoreitincleanandwellventilatedbodega. Figure23VISCACopraDrier

(a)EmptyoildrumusedasTunnel (b)ThecompletedVISCAdrier Source:CastroandThampan,1996 HotAirDryers Themainadvantageofhotairdryersisthathighquality,cleanandwhitecoprawith6% moisturecanbeproduced.Thisisbecausethesmokedoesnotcomeincontactwiththe kernel.Thesmokeheatsairinaheatexchangerandtheuncontaminatedhotairpasses throughthecoprabed.Twodesignsofhotairdrierswillbedescribed: ModifiedKukumHotAirDryer CocopugonBrickHotAirDryer. ModifiedKukumDryer
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 ThemodifiedKukumDryerisanindirectnaturaldraughtdryerthatcandryaround2000nuts ofaveragesizeatatime(volumeofdryingbed=2.8m3).Themeasurementsofthedryerare: length=3.66m,width=1.83m,andheight=2.13m.Itsheatexchangerismadeupofthree standard200litreoildrumsweldedtogetherwithfivesemicircularbafflesinstalled alternatelyinsidethedrumsatdistanceof0.46m.Thefurnacemeasures90cmsinlengthand 60cmsinwidth,andismadeofsteelplasteredwith6cmthickcementashmixtureinside.The furnaceisprovidedwithaslantinggrateanddoortoregulateairentry.Abutterflyvalveisalso providedatthechimneytocontrolthetemperature. Figure24SchematicofModifiedKukumdryer

Source:DipponandVillaruel,1996 TestsconductedbythePhillipinesGermanCoconutProjectfoundthat: Thetemperatureisquiteevenbetweenleft,middleandrightside.Thelengthwise distributionismoreuneven. Highesttemperaturesweremeasuredatthefrontsection,whilelowestattheback. Thedifferenceintemperaturebetweenfrontandbacksectionofthedryingbedis about20to25oC. Coldspotswereobservedatthebacksectionwithinthetoplayer. ThefuelfeedrateusedinoperatingtheKukumdryerwasbetween6and10husksper 10minutes.However,ahigherfuelfeedratewasusedfortheinitialstage(firstdrying day). About30hoursareneededtodryonebatchdowntolessthan10%.Basedona10 hoursoperationtimeperday,dryingwilltakethreedays. About8.7minutesareneededtoproduceonekilocoprawiththemodifiedKukum dryer. QualityofcoprafromtheKukumdryerisverygood,ascanbeexpectedfromawell designedandoperatedindirectfireddryer. However,maintenanceandrepaircostsarehighbecausethemetalpartsofthedryer starttocorrodesoonafterconstructionduetoexposuretohightemperatures, aggressivefumesandwater.Frequentuseofthedryerwillreducecorrosion,butwill
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 neverstopit.Sincecopraisalowvalueproduct,stainlesssteelistooexpensiveto consider. SimilartotheTapahandryer.athermalefficiencyof12.7%wascomputed.

Photo26ModifiedKukumhotairdryer

Photo:FAO COCOPUGONDryer Thisdryerwasdevelopedintheearly1990sunderthePhilippineGermanCoconutProject whichstudiedandtestedtheexistingcoconutdryersandcameupwithseveralinnovative dryerdesignsforsmallscaleandmediumscalecoconutfarms.Themaincriteriaforwhatan idealcoconutdryerwereidentifiedtobe: 6. Durability:lifespanoftheessentialdryercomponentsshouldbeatleastfiveyears; 7. EaseofOperation; 8. Costs:thetotalcostsshouldnotbehigherthananyalternativeindirectdryer; 9. EaseofConstruction:constructionshouldnotrequireanyspecialtools; 10. WorkingPerformance:minimumrequirementswere: notmorethantwodryingdays lessthan10%finalmoisturecontentanduniformdried lessthan20ppbaflatoxincontent fuelusagelowerthan90%ofthehusksofnutsloaded Tomeetthesecriteriaandperformancerequirements,anIndirectDryercalledthe COCOPUGONwasdesignedandtestedforcoconutgrowingcooperativesand/orbigger plantationshavingaround40haofcoconutsproducingaround200,000coconuts/year. Theindirectdryertypewaschosenbecauseofthedisadvantagesofdirectdryerslike soot(PAH)contaminationandscorchedcopra.

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 BecauseHeatExchangersmadeofmetaltendtocorrodeatthehightemperaturesin whichtheyoperatetheprojectexploredtheuseofbricksinstead,sincebricksare knownfortheirhighstrength(fireandweatherresistance),durability(longservicelife) anddimensionalstability.Duringpreliminarytrials,brickswerefoundtobeavery promisingreplacementformetal.Standardfirebrickswereusedforthechimneyand 2.5"crownbricksfortheheatexchanger.

Photo27CocopugonHotAirBrickCopraDryer

Source:FAO Severalprototypeswereconstructedtooptimizeshapeandsizeoftheburnerandto determinetheappropriatethicknessofthebricks.Thefinalversionofthisbrickdryer wascalledCOCOPUGON(FigureandPhoto). Thedimensionsofthedryerare:length=360cm,width=260cm,andheight=200 cm,givingadryingbedvolume=3.33m3. Thedryercanaccommodate2500averagesizednutsperbatch. Tomakeloadingandunloadingeasy,therightsideofthedryingbedwallisremovable andaonestepstairandplatformisprovided. OperationofDryer: Firingshouldbedonefirstbeforeloadingthesplittednuts.Unlikedryerswithmetal heatexchangers,preheatingisneededforthisdryerbecausebricksgetheatedmore slowlythatmetal.. Theburnercanaccommodateabout200to300husks. Huskshavetobeaddedevery3to5hours.Theheatstoredinthebrickswillbe releasedslowlyafterthelastfiringonthefirstdryingdaybecausebricksalsoretain heatandreleaseitmoreslowlythanmetal.Dryingwillthereforecontinueforseveral hourswithoutaddingmorehuskstotheburner. Afterapreheatingtimeof3.5hoursandaloadingtimeoftwohours,theaverage temperatureinthebottomlayeris66.3C.
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 Theburnerthenhastobefedfivetoseventimesforthewholedryingperiod. Unloadingcouldbedoneafterthedryerhascooleddownonthesecondday. Ifoperatedonatwodayschedule,fivefiringsareneededonthefirstdayandanother twotothreefiringsonthesecondday.Unloadingwillbedonethenextmorningto utilizetheheatstoredinthebricks. Ifthebaffleinthechimneyisclosedduringnighttime,hotemberscanstillbefound insidetheburneronthefollowingmorningmakingiteasytocontinuefiring. Figure25SchematicofCocopugonDryer

Source:DipponandVillaruel,1996 Thedryerhasanalmostconstantdryingtemperature,eventhoughthetemperature curvefortheburnerhasseveralsmallpeaksindicatingthemaximumtemperatureper feedinginterval.Sincetheheatexchangerortheburnercoveralmostthewholearea insidethedryerbody,thetemperaturedistributionisveryuniform.Thedifferencein temperaturebetweenthehighestandlowestvalueislessthan5Kelvin.Astandard deviationof3Kelvinindicatesaveryconstanttemperature. Eveniftheburnerisfullyloaded,theresultingtemperatureinthedryingbedwont exceed90to95C.thuseliminatingtheriskofproducingscorchedcopra. Duringoperation,thedryeroperatorspendstwohoursperbatchatthedryer, meaningthelaborrequirementswerecutdownbymorethan50%to4.1minutesper kilogramcopracomparedwiththemodifiedKukumdryer.Theoperatorcanleavethe dryerinbetweenfuelfeedingsandusehistimeforotheractivities. Thethermalefficiencywasveryconstantwithanaverageofabout15%. Thedryingcostperkgofcopra(seetable8)wasdeterminedtobe2.6Cents(pesos: 0.66). Thecopraqualitywasfoundtobefarbetterthantheminimumrequirementssetfor goodqualitycoprafordomesticuse,i.e.,14%moisturecontent.5%freefattyacid contentofoil(aslauric);10%moldinfection;and20ppbaflatoxincontent.Theculm
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 ofoilisnotmuchofconcern.however,a9redand50yellowcolorisrequiredfor exportormerchantablequality. Thequalityofcopraproducedalsometthecriteriasetforthedryer.Goodquality copraproductionwasattributedtotheappropriateprocedureofdrying,i.e.,fast; smokefree,andpropertemperatures.Brownishcoprawasproducedfromthebottom layer.Thisisduetohighertemperatureexposureforalongerperiod.Duetodelayed dryingsomebrowncoloredcoprawasalsoproducedfromthetoplayer.Onaverage, about80%perbatchwaswhite.About1%ofthetotalcopraproducedwaswetat optimumdryingsetup.Theaverageffacontentofmorethan20dryingtrialsstoodat 0.21. Averagefuelconsumptionisabout80%ofthehusksfromthetotalnutsloaded.

SamoanDrier ThisisanindirectlyheateddriercommonlyusedinthePacifictodryfingercutcopraandalso cocoawhichcannotbedriedonthedirectandsemidirectdriersbecauseofthelikelytransfer ofodorstothecocoa.ThedryingplatformofaSamoandrierisawiremeshwhichisplacedon topoffourwallswhichareabout1.52.0metershigh.Arooforslidingroofisplacedoverthe dryingbed.Thewallsaremadeofgalvanizedironorconcreteblocks.Insidethewallsand undertheplatformonthegroundisafluerunningfromoneendoftheplatformtotheother. Oneendoftheflueisopenforstokingwithcoconutshellsandhuskorfirewood.Theother endisconnectedtoachimneywithasmallcowloverit.Theopeningatthefiringendofthe fluemaybepartiallyclosedtomanageairflowandtemperature.Samoandriersusuallydry coprafilledtoabout20cmsdeepontheplatform.Thecopraisindirectlyheatedanddrying timeisabouttwotothreedays. 8.2.3 CopraStorage Themainobjectiveofcoprastorageistoprovideabufferstocktotakecareofdifferencesof receiptsandissuestothemill.Technically,storageperformstwoimportantfunctionsforoil extraction: todryanyexcessmoistureinthecopra,and toequalizethemoisturecontentintheentirecoprastockpriortoprocessing. Duringstorage,copra must beprotected fromtheelements and pests.Properventilation,and properrotationofstockswhenissuesaremade,shouldbepractised. Proper storage of copra after manufacture and during shipment is important, as even good coprawilldeteriorateifbadlystored.Coprawarehousesshouldhave: cementedfloorselevatedabout0.5mabovetheoutsidegroundleveltominimize dampnessduringrainyweather; goodventilationatroofleveltobreatheoutevaporatedmoisture;and

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 anairgapbetweenthefloorandbaggedcoprawiththeuseofpalletsorwoodenlogs. Theairgapprovidesventilationforremovingmoisturesweatingonthefloorduring rainyweather.

Goodcopra,whenstoredunderpoorconditions,andbadcopraevenundergoodstorage conditions,deterioratewithconsequentlossesinbothqualityandquantity.Lossofquantity throughdryingofexcessmoistureisdesirable,asthecopraqualityimproves.Lossestobe avoidedarethoseduetodecompositionandattackbyfungi,bacteria,insectpestsandrats.In caseofinsectpests,itisimportanttofumigatewarehousesandreturnableemptybags. TheAflatoxinProblem Poorlydriedcoprahasoccasionallybeenfoundtobecontaminatedwithaflatoxins,whichare agroupoftoxicchemicalsproducedbytheAspergillusmould,particularlyAspergillusflavus andAspergillusparasiticus.Althoughgroundnutandmaizearemostsusceptibletoaflatoxin contamination,copra,cottonseedandcassavaarecontaminatedatlowerlevels.Aflatoxins foundinthesehavebeennamedB1,B2,andG1andG2.AflatoxinB1,whichisthemost abundant,isextremelypoisonousandisaverypowerfulcarcinogenicchemical.Itcausedliver cancerinalltestanimalsandisalmostcertainlyoneofthecausesofcancerinhumans. Animalsvaryintheirsusceptibilitytotheeffectsofaflatoxins,buttheyoungandmalesareat greaterrisk.Aflatoxinscausedeathwhenpresentinhighconcentration.Investigations revealedthatin1880,100,000youngturkeysdiedintheUKduetothepresenceof10ppmof aflatoxininthefeed.Atlowerlevels,itcausesstuntedgrowthandpoorfeedefficiency. RecentworkundertakeninthePhilippinesbytheNaturalResourcesInstituteoftheUKfound thatthesafemoisturelevelforhotairdriedcopraisbelow8%,andforsmokedriedcopraitis below11%.Thehigherlevelofmoisturetolerableforsmokedriedcopraisduetosmoke particlesinhibitingmouldgrowth,asinsmokedmeatorfish.Whencontaminatedcoprais milledforoil,theaflatoxinpassesintotheoil.Ediblecoconutoilisusuallychemicallyrefined, whichremovesallcontamination.However,theaflatoxinremaininginthecopracakehas causedproblemsforitsuseasaningredientinblendinganimalfeeds.Copracakeisvaluedfor itseffectinenhancingbutterfatcontentandincreasingyieldsofmilkinlactatingcows.If contaminatedcakeisusedforfeedinglactatingcows,theaflatoxinreappearsinthemilkas aflatoxinM1,whichisalsounacceptable. TheEuropeanUnionintroducedregulationsonlimitsofaflatoxinlevelsinfeedingredientsand feedingstuffsin1976.TheseregulationswerefurthertightenedbytheECCommission directiveof13February1991,whichforcopracakeis50ppm.Preventionofaflatoxin contaminationisbestcarriedoutbydryingcoprarapidlydowntosafelevels.Properstorage, handling,packingandtransportofwelldriedcopraisequallyimportanttopreventgrowthof mouldsporesduringcondensationofmoisture,etc.Althoughexperimentshasbeen conductedindetoxification,nonehavebeencommerciallyacceptabletodate. CopraQuality,GradeandStandards
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 Mostcopraproducingcountrieshavequalityspecifications.Generalrequirements(non technical)forgoodqualitymillcoprastipulatewhitecolouredcups,excludingwrinkled (immature),germinated,mouldy,charred(black)orbrokencups.Technicalspecificationslimit moisturecontentto6%(sometimesupto10%),minimumoilcontentof68%onadrybasis, andamaximumfreefattyacidcontentof1%fortheexpelledoil.Onlycopramanufacturedby thedirectheatofcoconutshellsorindirectheathotairdryersunderproperconditionscould conformtothesespecifications. Generally,copraproducedinSriLanka,India,Malaysia,PapuaNewGuineaandPacific countrieswithhotairdryersconformtothesespecifications.Inthesecountriesgrading practicesexist,withapricepremiumforgoodquality.InthePhilippines,Indonesiaandother areaswherecopraissmokedried,goodwhitecolouredcopracannotbeproduced,andthe moisturecontentrangesbetween8and15%,andthefreefattyacidcontentoftheexpelledoil variesbetween1and5%.Theoilcontent,thecolourandappearance,andthemoisture contentarevariable.Thesecharacteristicsaredemonstratedinthegradesandstandardsused forcopra. Philippines InthePhilippinestherearefourrecognisedclassesofcopradesignatedA,B,CandD.The classificationisbasedonthemethodofdrying.Undereachclassaresevengrades,from1to7, basedonmoisturecontent.TheclassesaregiveninTableandthegradesinTable.These tablesshowthe3typesofcopradryinginexistence:sundrying,smokedtapahandryingand hotairdrying.Itisalsoindicatesamongthegrades,ashighas22percentmoisturecontent (Corriente)istraded.Thebestgradecopracontainsnomorethan6percentmoisture. Table21QualityStandardforCoprainthePhilippines Class A. B. C. D. Name/Designation Hotair,kilnormechanicallydried Sundried Smokedortapahan Mixed Requirement(Appearance) Clean, whitish or pale; free of smoke, mouldsanddirt Dull white; low in dirt, mould and decay;freeofsmoke Tinged withsoot;lowin mould,dirtand decay;notundulycharredorburned Lowinmould,dirt,sootanddecay

Source:FAO It must be noted however, that trading of copra is essentially based on moisture content. In the Philippines where roughly 9095 % of total production is sold to the village trader, copra with 2025 percent moisture content are bought at a discounted price. This is referred to as the "pasa system" of copra buying where a discount on the copra price is based on moisture. Thus, copra is classified according to its moisture content even at the first point of sale. (See
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 Table 4). Since moisture meters are not readily available in the villages, moisture content determination is done visually or by cracking or splitting the copra by hand and feeling. Experiencedandhighlyskilledcoprabuyersdothis. Table22GradesofCopraUsedinthePhilippines Grade Name/Designation 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ResecadaBodega Resecada SemiResecada BuenCorrienteMejorado BuenCorriente CorrienteMejorado Corriente MoistureContent Requirements 6.0% 7.5% 9.0% 12.0 % 15.0% 20.0% 22.0% Free from noticeable mixture of coprafromunripenednuts Free from noticeable mixture of foreignmaterials Free from noticeable mixture of foreignmatter Reasonably free ofvermin Reasonably free of weevils and other insects No objectionable putrefaction No objectionable putrefaction odour odour or or

Source:FAO India In India standard contract terms for milling copra were specified in as early as 1949. Since then,theseformthebasisoftransactionsinthedomesticmarket.Thetermsapplytosundried and smoke dried copra, but the smoked copra cannot be tendered against a contract for sundriedcopra.Thefollowingarethedetailsofcontracttermsformillingcopra. Table23ContractTermsfortradingCoprainIndia Basis 6 percent Below6to5percent with mutual allowance allowance to seller equal to 1.5 timeslessmoisture allowance to seller at the rate of 1.25 percent for every 1 percent lessofmoisture rebate to buyer equal to 1.25 timestheexcess rejectionatbuyer'soption with mutual allowance proportionate allowancetoseller
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1.Moisture

Below5percent

Over6to8percent Over10percent 2.DirtandForeignMatter Basis 0.5 percent Below 0.5 percent

 Over0.5to2.0percent Over2.0percent 3.Mouldy 5percentfree rebate to buyer equal to 1.25 timestheexcess rejectionatbuyer'soption

Source:FAO PapuaNewGuinea Table24ClassificationofCopraforexportinPapuaNewGuinea Grade GeneralAppearance Clean; of good colour; free from smoke, excess mould or insect infestation, charred pieces or foreign matter; free from an unreasonable admixture of copra from germinated nuts; not exceeding 6 percent moisture content (MC) ; not exceeding 3 percent free fatty acid (FFA)content. Clean and of uniform colour, not burned or tarry; free fromexcessmouldorinsectinfestation,charredpiecesor foreign matter; free from an unreasonable admixture of copra from germinated nuts; not exceeding 6 percent MC;notexceeding3percentFFA. Copra of exportable quality which cannot be reconditioned to a higher grade; not exceeding 7 percent MCandnotexceeding4percentFFA.

A.(HotAirDriedCopra)

C.(SmokeDriedCopra)

D.(MixedCopra)

Source:FAO MeasuringMoistureContent A copra moisture meter has been developed by CPCRI that can determine the moisture content of copra quickly and accurately. The meter works on the principle of electrical conductivity, and can read moisture contents between 5% and 40%. The instrument is handy andusefultocopraprocessors,buyersandmarketingsocieties. Photo28CopraMoistureMeter

Source:RajagopalandArulraj,2003
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