Advanced NDT

Impact echo (IE), impulse response (IR) and ground penetrating radar (GPR) are advanced NonDestructive Test (NDT) methods for evaluation of concrete structures. In each case, stress waves or electromagnetic waves are introduced into the concrete and reflected waves or structure responses are measured. These methods have seen rapid development and acceptance in many countries in Europe, North America and Singapore. BCRC recently recruited Tony Zheng, one of the leading experts in Asia in advanced NDTs, to introduce these methods in Australia. This brochure outlines the methods and their applications.

Impact Echo
Elastic, low frequency transient stress waves are produced at a test point by tapping a small weight against the test elements surface. The waves travels through the concrete and are reflected by any discontinuities. A transducer held on the surface adjacent to the impact point measures voltage with time. Voltage represents the cumulative energy of the reflected waves as they rebound between the surface and discontinuities (Figure 1).

The voltage with time plot is chaotic and difficult to interpret. Hence, a complex mathematical formula (Fast Fourier Transform or FFT) is applied by computer to the voltage with time response to give a plot of Amplitude vs Frequencies. Each Frequency represented a reflected wave bouncing between the surface and a discontinuity. Amplitude is the strength of the reflected sound wave at that Frequency. As the Frequency (F) of the reflected wave for each discontinuity is 1/t (where t is the time taken to travel from the surface to the discontinuity and back) and t = 2d/v (where d is the distance from impact point to discontinuity and v is the velocity of sound in concrete) F= v/2d or d = v/2F. Hence, the distance from the impact point to each discontinuity can be calculated from the Frequency for that discontinuity. Major discontinuities reflect the most energy and in plate elements (e.g. slabs and walls) with no defects the most significant discontinuity is the rear face of the element. ASTM C1383 - 98a refers to the measurements of thickness in concrete slabs and plates using the impact-echo method. Where defects (e.g. voids or delaminations) provide a significant barrier to the sound wave, reflections of the wave energy cause an amplitude peak at the corresponding frequency and the distance to the defect can be calculated. Advanced operating systems (Figure 2) have been developed that have a hand held device that apply the impact and measure the response; a hand held computer that stores the data, converts the voltage time plot to a Frequencies vs Amplitude plot and displays the distance to the major discontinuity.

There are many factors that can affect the Frequencies vs Amplitude plot and these can give clues to the type or location of defects. For example a decrease in Frequency (increase in distance) for the rear surface can indicate the wave traveling around a discontinuity. Hence, an expert is generally required to interpret the data in sophisticated applications. Unlike ultrasonic methods (e.g. pulse velocity and pulse echo) IE utilizes lower frequency waves. This allows IE to overcome the high signal attenuation and noise frequently encountered with ultrasonic methods. Impact Echo is ideal for locating features, flaws and defects that cause major discontinuities e.g.:

rear surface of plate structures, i.e. wall, slab thickness voids and delaminations voids in grouted post-tensioning tendon duct poor bond at internal interfaces

Impulse Response
Originally the impulse response (IR) method was developed for deep foundation evaluation but it is now widely used in the Unites States, Europe and Singapore to diagnose the integrity of concrete structural elements. In this test a low-strain hammer (rubber mallet) sends a stress wave into the test element. Plate-like structures respond to the impact in a bending mode, i.e. the structure vibrates at low frequency (0800Hz for plate structures). The force of the hammer impact is measured by the hammers built-in load cell as a force vs time plot. The concretes surface vibration is measured as a velocity vs time plot by a geophone (otherwise known as velocity transducer or accelerometer). The geophone measures the vibration at low frequencies and the higher frequency reflected waves (impact echo type waves) are not recorded. The FFT algorithm is used to process both signals to give force vs frequency for the hammer impact (force spectrum as shown in Figure 3a) and velocity vs frequency for the geophone respo nses (velocity spectrum as shown in Figure 3b). The frequency for the geophone is the actual structural vibration frequency at the test point in response to the impact. As the response is dependent on the impact force a transfer function is derived by dividing the velocity spectrum (structure response) by the force spectrum (hammer input). This transfer function, known as Mobility, has units of m/s/N. For each test point Mobility vs. Frequency is obtained (Figure 3c). Average Mobility which is the averaged reading between 0 to 800 kHz is generally used for analysis.

3 : Display of Impulse Response Test Dynamic stiffness , the inverse of the initial slope of the mobility plot, is also used in the analysis in some cases. For large structures tests are conducted on a grid pattern to cover the area of concern. Sound concrete in plate structures (slabs, walls, bridge decks and arches) typically gives constant values of impulse response across the element. Average Mobility, is indirectly proportional to the concrete element thickness. Poor consolidation and honeycombing causes a rise in Average Mobility.

Modern equipment comes equipped with test hammer, geophone, data acquisition and computer with software (Figure 4). Figure 4 : Impulse Response Test System Figure 5 is an Average Mobility plot from a concrete wall. In this plot, three localised areas showed higher average mobility and verification revealed that there were internal delaminations at all the three areas.

The impulse response test has several advantages over other NDT methods including the robust nature of the apparatus that can be used to test relatively rough concrete surfaces; rapid testing and only one surface is required to perform the test, not restricted in heavily reinforced elements. It is often used as main or preliminary investigation tool. Impulse response test can be used in following areas:-

Rapid screening of large reinforced concrete structures, such as diaphragm walls, silos, tanks, chimney, pavements, bridge deck, bridge abutments, box culvert wall and slab, for presence of internal honeycombing, voids and delamination Detection of debonding of screeds, overlays, veneers and asphalt toppings Evaluation of repair patches Evaluation of anchoring systems of wall panels Detection of cold joint in raft foundation, thick slab and thick flat beams Detection of poor ground slab support

Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)

Radar, which stands for Radio Detection and Ranging, uses electromagnetic waves in the microwaves range of frequencies. In concrete applications, the transmitter in the antenna emits short pulses of electromagnetic waves into the concrete test element. Any embedded objects, particularly steel pipes, reinforcement and tendons, reflect the emitted wave to the built-in receiver in the antenna. Most commonly the technique is used to identify objects underground by testing at the ground surface. Hence, this testing technique is often called Ground Penetration Radar (GPR) or impulse radar.

When the antenna crosses a circular shape object (i.e. steel reinforcement, tendon duct, pipe) at a right angle, the resulting image captured looks like a hyperbola shape i.e. inverted U or V. Its summit is exactly where the object is. The object position on a horizontal plane can be clearly located. The object depth also can be estimated. GPR suitable for concrete application is generally has a main control box (with control unit, recorder and display units inside) and an antenna with frequency ranging from 1000 MHz to 2000 MHz. This can provide a suitable penetration depth and the acceptable resolution. Figure 7 shows a concrete imaging system. GPR has many applications in civil engineering, such as utility detection, pavement evaluation. The followings are common concrete applications:

Detection of rebars, e.g. for rapid scan over large area Detection of plastic conduits and metal pipes Verification of construction features, e.g. embedded I-beams in concrete or brick, any ground beams in ground floor