PRIMARY SCIENCE

SCE 3014

CURRICULUM AND PEDAGOGIES

COMPILED NOTE BY AZMAN OMAR | IPG KAMPUS SULTAN MIZAN

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SCE3104 Primary Science Curriculum and Pedagogies

TOPIC 1

Issues in Science Education

Synopsis This topic discusses some issues in science education. These issues relate to the goals of science education, content of science education, teaching of science and scientific literacy.

Learning Outcome 1. Identify and discuss issues in science education. 2. Analyse the effects of issues related to science education on the teaching of science in primary schools.

Overview

Issues in Science Education

Goals of Science Education

Content of Science Education

Teaching of Science

Scientific Literacy

Figure 1.0 Overview of Content Content

Science Curriculum Issues Preparing a national science curriculum that will help school students develop their scientific competencies alongside their acquisition of science knowledge requires attention to four issues.

SCE3104 Primary Science Curriculum and Pedagogies

1. Selection of science content (knowledge, skill, understanding and values) There is a consistent criticism that many of the problems and issues in science education arise from the structure of science curricula which tend to be knowledge-heavy and alienating to a significant number of students. A curriculum that covers an extensive range of science ideas hampers the efforts of even the best teachers who attempt to provide engaging science learning for their students. The effect of such knowledgeladen curricula is for teachers to treat science concepts in a superficial way as they attempt to cover what is expected in the curriculum. Rather than developing understanding, students therefore have a tendency to rely on memorisation when taking tests of their science learning. The challenge is to identify the science concepts that are important and can be realistically understood by students in the learning time available. One of the realities faced in science education is that scientific knowledge is rapidly increasing. While this is valuable for our society, it adds to the pressure on the science curriculum. There is a reluctance to replace the old with the new. Rather, there is a tendency to simply add the new science ideas to the traditional ones. Accompanying this desire to retain the traditional knowledge base is a feeling that understanding this content exemplifies intellectual rigor. Obviously such a situation is not sustainable. The consequence is that many students are losing interest in science. The question then needs to be asked: what is important in a science curriculum? This paper argues that developing science competencies is important, understanding the big ideas of science is important, exposure to a range of science experiences relevant to everyday life is important and understanding of the major concepts from the different sciences is important. It is also acknowledged that there is a core body of knowledge and understanding that is fundamental to the understanding of major ideas. The paper also proposes that it is possible to provide flexibility and choice about the content of local science curriculum. The factors that influence this choice include context, local science learning opportunities, historical perspectives, contemporary and local issues and available learning resources. In managing this choice, there is a need to be conscious of the potential danger of repetition of knowledge through a students school life and ensure repetition is minimised and that a balanced science curriculum is provided for every student. Finally, when selecting content for a national science curriculum it is important to determine how much time can reasonably and realistically be allocated to science and within this time constraint what is a reasonable range of science concepts and skills for learning in primary and secondary school. 2. Relevance of science learning a curriculum is more likely to provide a basis for the development of scientific competencies if it is relevant to individual students, perceived to have personal value, or is presented in a context to which students can readily relate. Instead of simply emphasising what has been described as canonical science concepts, there is a need to provide a meaningful context to which students can relate (Aikenhead 2006). Furthermore, students will be better placed to understand the concepts if they can be applied to everyday experiences. To provide both context and opportunities for application takes time. To increase the relevance of science to students there is a strong case to include more contemporary (and possibly controversial) issues in the science curriculum. In doing so, it is important to note that the complexity of some scientific issues means that they do not have clearcut solutions. Often, the relevant science knowledge is limited or incomplete so that the questions can only be addressed in terms of what may be possible or probable rather than the certainty of what will happen. Even when the risks inherent in making

SCE3104 Primary Science Curriculum and Pedagogies

a particular decision are assessable by science, the cultural or social aspects also need to be taken into consideration. The school science curriculum should provide opportunities to explore these complex issues to enable students to understand that the application of science and technology to the real world is often concerned with risk and debate (Rennie 2006). Science knowledge can be applied to solve problems concerning human needs and wants. Every application of science has an impact on our environment. For this reason, one needs to appreciate that decisions concerning science applications involve constraints, consequences and risks. Such decisionmaking is not value-free. In developing science competencies, students need to appreciate the influence of particular values in attempting to balance the issues of constraints, consequences and risk. While many students perceive school science as difficult, the inclusion of complex issues should not be avoided on the basis that there is a potential for making science seem even more difficult. The answer is not to exclude contemporary issues, but rather to use them to promote a more sophisticated understanding of the nature of science and scientific knowledge. It is important to highlight the implications of a science curriculum that has personal value and relevance to students. This means that the curriculum cannot be a one size fits all, but rather a curriculum that is differentiated so that students can engage with content that is meaningful and satisfying and provides the opportunity for conceptual depth. In this respect the science curriculum should be built upon knowledge of how students learn, have demonstrated relevance to students everyday world, and be implemented using teaching and learning approaches that involve students in inquiry and activity. Within the flexibility of a science curriculum that caters for a broad cohort of students and a range of delivery contexts, there is a need to define what it is that students should know in each stage of schooling. In this way, students can build their science inquiry skills based on an understanding of the major ideas that underpin our scientific endeavour. 3. General capabilities and science education There is an argument, based on research within science education, that curriculum needs to achieve a better balance between the traditional knowledge-focused science and a more humanistic science curriculum that prepares students for richer understanding and use of science in their everyday world (Fensham, 2006). Beyond the science discipline area there is also pressure in some Australian jurisdictions to develop a broader general school curriculum that embraces the view of having knowledge and skills important for future personal, social and economic life. While there is much value in such futuristic frameworks, there is the danger that the value of scientific understanding may be diminished. Unless the details of the general capabilities refer specifically to science content, the importance of science may be overlooked and the curriculum time devoted to it decrease. The science curriculum can readily provide opportunities to develop these general capabilities. Such general capabilities as thinking strategies, decisionmaking approaches, communication, use of information and communication technology (ICT), team work and problem solving are all important dimensions of science learning. There is an increasing number of teachers who will require assistance to structure their teaching in ways that enable students to meld the general life capabilities with the understanding and skills needed to achieve scientific competencies. Such assistance will be found in the provision of quality, adaptable curriculum resources and sustained effective professional learning.

SCE3104 Primary Science Curriculum and Pedagogies

4. Assessment When a curriculum document is prepared there is an expectation that what is written will be what is taught and what is assessed. Unfortunately, there is sometimes a considerable gap between intended curriculum, the taught curriculum and the assessed curriculum; what can be assessed often determines what is taught. This disconnect is a result of the different pressures and expectations in education system. An obvious goal in curriculum development is that the intended, taught and assessed dimensions of curriculum are in harmony. The importance of assessment in curriculum development is highlighted in the process referred to as backward design in which one works through three stages from curriculum intent to assessment expectations to finally planning learning experiences and instruction (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005). This process reinforces the simple proposition that for a curriculum to be successfully implemented one should have a clear and realistic picture of how the curriculum will be assessed. Assessment should serve the purpose of learning. Classroom assessment, however, is often translated in action as testing. It is unfortunate that the summative end-of-topic tests seem to dominate as the main tool of assessment. Senior secondary science assessment related to university entrance has long reinforced a content-based summative approach to assessment in secondary schools. To improve the quality of science learning there is a need to introduce more diagnostic and formative assessment practices. These assessment tools help teachers to understand what students know and do not know and hence plan relevant learning experiences that will be beneficial. Summative testing does have an important role to play in monitoring achievement standards and for accountability and certification purposes, but formative assessment is more useful in promoting learning. Assessment should enable the provision of detailed diagnostic information to students. It should show what they know, understand and can demonstrate. It should also show what they need to do to improve. It should be noted that the important science learning aspects concerning attitudes and skills as outlined in the paper cannot be readily assessed by pencil and paper tests. For that reason, it is important to emphasise the need for a variety of assessment approaches. While assessment is important, it should not dominate the learning process. Structure of the curriculum There is value in differentiating the curriculum into various parts that are relevant to the needs of the students and the school structure (Fensham, 1994). 5. In regard to the school structure, the nature of the teachers expertise becomes a factor to consider. For early childhood teachers, their expertise lies in the understanding of how children learn. Secondary science teachers have a rich understanding of science while senior secondary teachers have expertise in a particular discipline of science. Each part would have a different curriculum focus. The four parts are: early childhood primary junior secondary senior secondary. Developing scientific competencies takes time and the science curriculum should reflect the kinds of science activities, experiences and content appropriate for students of different age levels. In sum, early science experiences should relate to self awareness and the natural world. During the primary years, the science curriculum should develop the skills of investigation, using experiences which provide opportunities to practice language literacy and numeracy. In secondary school, some differentiation of the sub-disciplines of science may be appropriate, but as local and community issues are interdisciplinary, an integrated science may be the best approach. Senior secondary science curricula should be differentiated, to provide for students who wish to pursue career-related science specializations, as well those who prefer a more general, integrated science for citizenship. Early

SCE3104 Primary Science Curriculum and Pedagogies

Childhood Curriculum focus: awareness of self and the local natural world. Young children have an intrinsic curiosity about their immediate world. They have a desire to explore and investigate the things around them. Purposeful play is an important feature of their investigations. Observation is an important skill to be developed at this time, using all the senses in a dynamic way. Observation also leads into the idea of order that involves comparing, sorting and describing. 2. PrimaryCurriculum focus: recognising questions that can be investigated scientifically and investigating them. During the primary years students should have the opportunity to develop ideas about science that relate to their life and living. A broad range of topics is suitable including weather, sound, light, plants, animals, the night sky, materials, soil, water and movement. Within these topics the science ideas of order, change, patterns and systems should be developed. In the early years of primary school, students will tend to use a trial and error approach to their science investigations. As they progress through their primary years, the expectation is that they will begin to work in a more systematic way. The notion of a fair test and the idea of variables will be developed, as well as other forms of science inquiry. The importance of measurement will also be fostered. 3. Junior secondaryCurriculum focus: explaining phenomena involving science and its applications. During these years, the students will cover topics associated with each of the sciences: earth and space science, life science and physical science. Within these topics it is expected that aspects associated with science for living, scienceinquiry and contemporary science would be integrated in the fields of science. While integration is the more probable approach, it is possible that topics may be developed directly from each one of these themes. For example, there may be value in providing a science unit on an open science investigation in which students conduct a study on an area of their choosing. While there may be specific topics on contemporary science aspects and issues,teachers and curriculum resources should strive to include the recent science research in a particular area. It is this recent research that motivates and excites students. In determining what topics students should study from the broad range of possibilities, it is important to exercise restraint and to avoid overcrowding the curriculum and providing space for the development of students science competencies alongside their knowledge and understanding of science content. Topics could include states of matter, substances and reactions, energy forms, forces and motion, the human body, diversity of life, ecosystems, the changing earth and our place in space. The big science ideas of energy, sustainability, equilibrium and interdependence should lead to the ideas of form and function that result in a deeper appreciation of evidence, models and theories. There are some students ready to begin a more specialised program science in junior secondary and differentiation as early as Year 9 may need to be considered to extend and engage these students interest and skills in science. 4. Senior Secondary. There should be at least three common courses across the country: physics, chemistry and biology. There could also be one broader-based course that provides for students wanting only one science course at the senior secondary level. It could have an emphasis on applications. The integrating themes of science for life, scientific inquiry and contemporary science should be embedded into all these courses where realistically possible. Other specialised courses could also be provided. Existing courses in the states and territories are among the possibilities available. National adoption would improve the resources to support the individual courses. (Source: National Curriculum Board (2008). National Science Curriculum: Initial advice. Retrieved 10 Sept. 2009 from www.acara.edu.au/verve/_.../Science_Initial_Advice_Paper.pdf )

SCE3104 Primary Science Curriculum and Pedagogies

Exercise (1 hour)

1. Read the content above. 2. State the issues in science education found in the content above. 3. Discuss and write a two page reflection on the effects of these issues on primary science teaching.

Making Notes

Gather information concerning scientific literacy and its relationship to science education from books or the internet. Build a mind map to express the information that you have gathered.

Checklist

Take the test below to test your level of scientific literacy.

Test of Scientific Literacy

Answer each question with 'true' if what the sentence most normally means is typically true and 'false' if it is typically false. 1. 2. 3. Scientists usually expect an experiment to turn out a certain way. Science only produces tentative conclusions that can change. Science has one uniform way of conducting research called the scientific method.

SCE3104 Primary Science Curriculum and Pedagogies

4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Scientific theories are explanations and not facts. When being scientific one must have faith only in what is justified by empirical evidence. Science is just about the facts, not human interpretations of them. To be scientific one must conduct experiments. Scientific theories only change when new information becomes available. Scientists manipulate their experiments to produce particular results.

10. Science proves facts true in a way that is definitive and final. 11. An experiment can prove a theory true. 12. Science is partly based on beliefs, assumptions, and the nonobservable. 13. Imagination and creativity are used in all stages of scientific investigations. 14. Scientific theories are just ideas about how something works. 15. A scientific law is a theory that has been extensively and thoroughly confirmed. 16. Scientists education, background, opinions, disciplinary focus, and basic guiding assumptions and philosophies influence their perception and interpretation of the available data. 17. A scientific law will not change because it has been proven true. 18. An accepted scientific theory is an hypothesis that has been confirmed by considerable evidence and has endured all attempts to disprove it. 19. A scientific law describes relationships among observable phenomena but does not explain them. 20. Science relies on deduction (x entails y) more than induction (x implies y). 21. Scientists invent explanations, models or theoretical entities. 22. Scientists construct theories to guide further research. 23. Scientists accept the existence of theoretical entities that have never been directly observed. 24. Scientific laws are absolute or certain.

SCE3104 Primary Science Curriculum and Pedagogies

Answer Key:

1. T 2. T 3. F 4. T 5. T 6. F 7. F 8. F

9. T 10. F 11. F 12. T 13. T 14. F 15. F 16. T

17. F 18. T 19. T 20. F 21. T 22. T 23. T 24. F

0 wrong = A+ 1 wrong = A 2 wrong = A3 wrong = B+ 4 wrong = B 5 wrong = B6 wrong = C 7 wrong = D 8 or more wrong = F

Reference Fleer, M., & Hardy. T. (2001). Science for Children: Developing a to Teaching. (2nd Edition). Sydney: Prentice Hall. Pg 146 147) Personal Approach

National Curriculum Board (2008). National Science Curriculum: Initial advice. Retrieved on10 Sept. 2009 from : www.acara.edu.au/verve/_.../Science_Initial_Advice_Paper.pdf Hazen, R.M. (2002). What is scientific literacy? Retrieved on 10 Sept. 2009 from : http://www.gmu.edu/robinson/hazen.htm

SCE3104 Primary Science Curriculum and Pedagogies

TOPIC 2

Historical Development of the Primary Science Curriculum in Malaysia

Synopsis This topic outlines the historical development of the primary science curriculum in Malaysia. The curriculum has gone through a number of changes from Nature Study to Special Project, Man and His Environment and the present KBSR Science.

Learning Outcome 1. State the changes in the primary science curriculum in Malaysia. 2. State the rational for the changes in the primary science curriculum in Malaysia. 3. Compare and contrast the strengths and weaknesses of each of the primary science curriculum that was introduced in Malaysia.

Overview
Historical Development of the Primary Science Curriculum in Malaysia

Man and His Nature Study Special Project Environment KBSR Science

Figure 2.0 Overview of content Content

Curriculum development of primary science programme in Malaysia Nature Study Primary Science Special Project (Projek Khas) Man and His Environment (Alam dan Manusia) KBSR Primary Science Syllabus

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SCE3104 Primary Science Curriculum and Pedagogies

Primary school science: Looking back

In tracing the historical development of the Malaysian primary science education programmes, it can be concluded that most of the innovations are curriculum changes (Ministry of Education and UNESCO, 1988; SEAMEO- RECSAM, 1983; SEAMEORECSAM, 1973). They are also multidimensional in the sense that they involve at least three dimensions at stake in implementing them (Fullan, 1991). The components are:

(i) The use of new or revised curriculum materials or technologies; (ii) The use of new teaching approaches; (iii) The alteration of beliefs, for example, pedagogical assumptions and theories
underlying new policies or innovations. In Malaysia, all the curriculum changes have been, and still are, initiated and developed by the Ministry of Education (MOE) and disseminated to all schools in the country. Finances and resources are tightly controlled by the Ministry through a bureaucratic organisation.

In the late nineteenth century till the mid-twentieth century, science was taught in the primary school as Nature Study; knowledge of the facts and laws of nature as a This approach had the advantage that students

foundation of scientific investigation.

were encouraged to learn through careful observation and classification, but it ignored much of the natural environment that had an impact on students lives (Keeves and Aikenhead, 1995). Gradually, the teaching of science in the primary level was

introduced in a way that linked together ideas from all fields (botany, biology, earth science, chemistry and physics) and related them to the students immediate

surroundings and everyday experiences.

Thus, Nature Study was replaced by the Primary Science syllabus in 1965.

This

innovation was adopted from the Nuffield Junior Science project (1964) in UK but adapted to local needs. The curriculum was subject-based, in which the focus was on mastery of scientific knowledge rather than student characteristics. Most of the

teachers teaching science in the primary schools, especially in the rural areas, had not only poor educational backgrounds (ranging from grade six to nine which meant only six to nine years of basic schooling) but had also received inadequate professional training in the methodology of science and in the subjects themselves. They were also by

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SCE3104 Primary Science Curriculum and Pedagogies

training, general purpose teachers; trained to teach all the primary school subjects.

great deal of classroom practice was centred around the reading of texts and the memorising of notes and Figures from the chalkboard. reinforced this trend. The existing textbooks further

With these realities in mind and the concern for the poor performance of pupils in the rural primary schools, particularly in science, they resulted in the introduction of the Primary Science Special Project (Projek Khas) in 1968. The project introduced new

approaches to the teaching of science within the framework of the existing syllabus. The rationale of introducing new teaching approaches rather than curriculum change

was because curriculum developers felt that the former was more critical than the latter and teachers were already familiar with the existing syllabus. This move prevented teachers having the double trauma of both a new syllabus and new methods introduced simultaneously. The curriculum was adopted from the School Council Science 5 - 13

project (1967) in UK and other science projects in USA, such as the Science- A Process Approach (1967), which were implemented at that time, but adapted to local needs. It emphasised pupil-centred, activity- orientated, discovery-based teaching and learning of science through the use of workbooks. It also provided sustained teacher support services in implementing the existing syllabus, particularly in the rural areas. Teachers guide, workbooks and materials introducing the enquiry-orientated approach to teaching science were produced for Standard One to Standard Six (Appendix D). General of Education at that time, Haji Hamdan bin Sheik Tahir, introduction page of all the guide-books, wrote: The Director writing in the

Objective of this Special Project is to equip teachers with new teaching methodology in the hope of generating pupils who will be able to experiment and think and really know all the concepts that will be taught by the teacher. All the activities suggested in the guide-book will reduce the pupils reliance on rote learning and encourage them to gain experiences in a concept that is taught. It is hoped that pupils will be attracted to science not only in the primary schools but also in the secondary schools. (Standard One Science Guide-book, 1971)

In 1970, a plan of action was drawn up with a view to determining the target dates by which certain phases of the projects work should be completed. Selected teacher training college lecturers and school teachers of primary science were sent to overseas

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courses to get a hands-on general view of available curriculum models and materials in use there, with the ultimate aim of adopting and adapting them to local requirements. On returning home, they were seconded to the Science Centre, now Curriculum Development Centre (CDC) where Projek Khas was located, to write and prepare the teachers guide.

The writing of the guide-books followed a general pattern. First, the syllabus of a given standard was reviewed and discussed with all personnel concerned in science education such as university lecturers, teacher trainers, school inspectors, curriculum developers and teachers. The topics were reorganised, if necessary, and the kinds of experiences which could be provided for pupils were identified. Next, various resources were examined for relevant and useful ideas. Then, the general approach was outlined, apparatus and experiments went on trial and drafts were reviewed. Finally, the guidebooks were written. One outcome from the writing workshops, was the accumulation of curriculum materials from all over the world, especially materials from those projects which had been backed by research and trial-run in actual classroom situations. Sad to say, those long kept materials were destroyed by an early morning fire in CDC around April, 1997. Up to this day, no one knows the cause of the fire (Sh/CDC/2-9-97; Gi/CDC/6-5-98). Like the innovation, it remains a puzzle.

A number of special schools called activity centres were set up to cater for the dissemination of knowledge and resources to primary teachers in all states. Selected teachers were also trained as key personnel. In 1970, forty teachers from thirty of these centres were specially trained in Kuala Lumpur. These teachers or key personnel then went back to their schools to train teachers teaching Standard One in 1971 to use the guide-books and worksheets. This cascade effect of training continued up to Standard Six. Thus, key personnel and teachers trained by them in in-service courses not only taught, but also acted as change agents in their schools by spreading the acquired techniques to other teachers. Teachers were also informed of the latest teaching materials and feedback information through the circulation of a newsletter produced by the activity centres. Evaluative questionnaires were also administered to the teachers to monitor the implementation process and to make improvements based on feedback and suggestions. Throughout the project, teacher training college lecturers were involved in providing expertise and training.

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However, the sheer size of the teacher workforce and lack of trained trainers impeded the flow of training and implementation of the innovation. The unrealistic planning schedule failed to take account of inherent problems during implementation. Particularly interesting was the report made by the Malaysian delegate to the SEAMEORECSAM seminar in 1973 on the innovations in primary science and mathematics curricula and problems of implementation in Malaysia.

The cost of curriculum development and implementation has got to be paid in time, not merely in cash and personnel. The ultimate price of having to untangle knots of mis-implementation as a result of hurried efforts will be more than whatever time is saved in pushing through an ill-planned crash programme. (Ali Razak, 1973; p. 218)

There is no short-cut to curriculum development. Although it was initially planned to complete writing the guide-books in two years, eventually it took four years. The implementation process spread to seven years.

Other views on the development and implementation of Projek Khas were sought. A non-scientist, Tan Sri Professor Awang Had Salleh (1983), who was the vice-chancellor of the National University of Malaysia at that time, primary science curriculum. was asked to comment on the

It does provide for what might be called science literacy, but the orientation of the syllabus is towards mastery of scientific facts with little emphasis on social and religious meaning and significance of scientific discoveries. In other words, the syllabus is cognitively orientated with little attention given to the affective domain of educational objectives... The orientation of the textbooks reinforces memory work and encourages very little, if at all, enquiry skills. .. The teaching of science subjects seems to be guided almost entirely by two powerful variables, namely, examination and textbooks. (Awang Had Salleh, 1983; p. 63 - 64)

These observations seemed to indicate that science had been taught as an end in itself, rather as a means to an end. The reformers had lost sight of the supposed central question of the purpose of change: What is science education for? What kind of pupils

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and society do we want to produce? These comments and the strong movement for a humanised science curriculum at that time, resulted in a radical change in science education. It included a multidisciplinary approach to science education in which motivation to learn was facilitated through relating science content to real problems of the world, in areas not generally regarded as science. It included a multidisciplinary approach to science education in which motivation to learn was facilitated through relating science content to real problems of the world, in areas not generally regarded as science. Emphasis was given to the basic skills in education and science was incorporated as part of the subject of Man and the Environment within KBSR. The

curriculum was introduced in 1982 on a trial basis and fully implemented in all primary schools in 1983.

There are three main components in the Man and the Environment model, that is: man, environment, and interaction of man and his environment. The inter-relationship between the three components is shown in Figure 1. Integration is a key word in the curriculum as a device to reduce content overload and compartmentalisation of disciplines in the earlier curriculum. There is inter-field integration of disciplines such as science, history, geography, health science and civics. There is also the study of the environment to highlight the social relevance of science to the world outside the classroom. There is the interaction of man and the environment through the enquiry approach to teaching and learning. In addition, there is intra-field integration, where the content of the curriculum is placed into a defined conceptual structure, with certain conceptual themes running through it and the materials reflected the processes of enquiry which produced them.

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SCE3104 Primary Science Curriculum and Pedagogies

Figure 1: Framework of Man and the Environment

Communication Moral values (Civic) Social Science (Geography and History) Creativity Interaction Living skills Man Health Science

Environment

Physical world

Environmental science Science and Technology

(Source: Sufean Hussain et.al., 1988).

The aims of the subject Man and the Environment emphasised three broad aspects. Firstly, to develop in pupils knowledge concerning man, the environment, society and the interaction between them. Secondly, to enhance enquiry and thinking skills and the utilisation of these skills in problem-solving. Thirdly, to inculcate moral values and attitudes in individuals towards harmonious living in a plural society Environment syllabus, 1984). There are five main themes in the syllabus emphasising man and its environment. The aim is that pupils will understand, appreciate and inculcate love for the environment and hence, develop love for the nation. (Man and the

Unlike Projek Khas which was introduced in Year One through Year Six, Man and the Environment was introduced at the upper primary level in Year Four to Year Six. To

implement the new curriculum, a one-week in-service orientation course was held for would be teachers of science. After the course, the education authorities assumed that their task was over and the teachers had no cause to say that they did not know enough nor how to teach the subject (Syed Zin, 1990).

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The limitations of this innovation are well illustrated by Syed Zins (1990) research on its implementation in four primary schools in the state of Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia.

Among the major limitations were lack of competency of the teachers in integrating the subject content and using the enquiry approach in teaching; inadequate in-service physical

training and professional support in terms of personnel and expertise;

constraints such as large class size and inadequate facilities; lack of clarity in the design of the innovation; vagueness in the curriculum specifications and its scope and

insufficient time lag between trial and implementation of the innovation for improvements to be made. As a consequence of the innovation, teachers were stressed, burdened by extra workload, anxious, lost confidence in teaching, relied on textbooks and did not maximise the use of curriculum materials. There was only partial implementation in the sense that the teachers modified or did not use the pedagogical strategies and curriculum materials of the courses. Teachers still emphasised the acquisition of factual knowledge through didactic methods rather than the enquiry approach. There was no evidence that there was alteration in teachers beliefs and values towards the innovation.

In Man and the Environment, a humanistic curriculum stressed the integration of disciplines, enquiry approach to learning, enhancement of thinking skills and inculcation of moral values. Nature Study and Primary Science highlighted the relevance in the approach to the teaching of science. The argument for relevance in science teaching is for science to be interesting and meaningful to children, it must be related to their daily experiences and geared to their cognitive development. In Projek Khas, new teaching approaches through the development of guide-books and materials appropriate to the cognitive development of children were the focal points. It also looked at the involvement of teachers in curriculum development and the diffusion of curriculum knowledge and materials through local teacher- activity centres.

Structure and organisation of the KBSR Primary School Science (PSS) syllabus

The PSS syllabus was developed within the KBSR, formulated and guided by the National Philosophy of Education and the tenets of Rukunegara. The principles that guided KBSR are an integrative approach to knowledge, skills and values, overall development of the individual, equal opportunities for education and life-long education. The main aim of KBSR is to provide a basic education for all pupils that focuses on their

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overall development. Overall development includes the intellectual, spiritual, physical and emotional development as well as the development of self and inculcation of moral values and attitudes. The PSS syllabus was designed to accommodate the principles and aim of KBSR.

(a) Aim and objectives

The aim of PSS is to nurture a science and technology culture by focusing on the development of individuals who are able to master scientific knowledge and skills, possess moral values, are dynamic and progressive so that there is responsibility

towards the environment and appreciation of nature. (KBSR Handbook, MOE, 1993). This is achieved by providing learning opportunities for pupils to learn through experience so that they will be able to;

develop thinking skills develop scientific skills of enquiry enhance interest towards the environment understand themselves and their environment through the acquisition of knowledge, understandings, facts and concepts solve problems and make responsible decisions cope with the latest contributions and innovations in science and technology practice the moral values and scientific attitudes in daily living appreciate the contribution of science and technology to a better life appreciate the order and creation of nature

(PSS Syllabus Handbook, 1993, p. 2)

According to Lewis and Potter (1970), the above objectives can be grouped into three major goals of science education. They believe that through (1) the practice of the process skills of critical enquiry and (2) the acquisition of facts, understandings and concepts (3) desirable attitudes and worthwhile pupil behaviour will be developed. The three goals are stated in the PSS syllabus as achievement objectives, which are then divided into general objectives and specific objectives according to the cognitive development of the pupils. The general objectives are statements to explain the

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achievement of the intended objective in the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains as well as the scope to be covered. The specific objectives are elaboration of the general objectives and are stated in measurable behaviours. The achievement objectives are accompanied by corresponding suggestions for learning experiences to enable teachers to plan suitable activities to achieve the objectives.

(b)

Process skills and thinking skills

The mastery of process skills, manipulative skills and thinking skills are emphasised in the PSS syllabus. All the three skills are interrelated. Thinking skills require the ability to think critically, creatively and analytically through the practice of process skills and manipulative skills. The process skills identified are the skills of observing, classifying, measuring, recognising number relationships, inferring, predicting, communicating, recognising space-time relationships, interpreting data, making operational definitions, controlling and manipulating variables, formulating hypothesis and experimenting. Manipulative skills are the psychomotor skills in critical enquiry such as the proper way of handling, cleaning and storing of the science apparatus, safe and correct handling of live specimens, and proper sketching of specimen and apparatus Handbook, 1993 p. 3 - 5). (c) Attitudes and values (PSS Syllabus

The PSS syllabus also seeks to cultivate positive scientific attitudes and values in pupils, such as interest and inquisitiveness towards the world around them, honesty and

accuracy in recording and validating data, flexibility and open-mindedness, patience, co-operation, responsibility towards self, others and environment, gratefulness to

Gods creations and appreciation of science and technology (PSS Syllabus Handbook, 1993, p. 3 - 6). According to Lewis and Potter (1970), development of positive attitudes and values should be the ultimate goal of education.

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(d)

Content

PSS is viewed as a field of knowledge and as an enquiry approach.

As a field of

knowledge, science provides a framework for the pupils to understand their environment through the application of scientific principles in daily living. As an enquiry approach, it enables pupils to investigate the world around them. This encourages the pupils to be inquisitive, creative, open-minded, tolerant, to love and appreciate nature and the environment.

The principle of integration is maintained in the PSS syllabus in line with KBSR. There is intra-integration which cuts across traditional subject disciplines of Biology, Physics and Chemistry through the use of concepts and science processes. A thematic approach has been used in organising the contents of the syllabus. In the lower primary level, in Year 1, the syllabus is divided into two parts: Part A Learning about living things and Part B Learning about the world. In each part, there are three sub-topics. The subtopics in Part A are Ourselves, Animals and Plants. The sub-topics in Part B are Using our senses, Finding out about things that float or sink and Finding out about light and darkness. In the upper primary level, from Year 4 to Year 6, the themes are The five fields of investigation

built around man and investigation of the environment. are in the: Living environment Physical environment Material environment Earth and the universal environment World of technology

The living environment investigates the basic needs and life processes of human beings, animals and plants. The physical environment delves into the concept of space and time and phenomena of light, sound, heat, force, movement, electricity, magnet and energy. The material environment compares natural materials and man-made materials and the differences between them. Earth and the universal environment examines the earth

and its relationship with the sun, the moon and other planets in the solar system. Finally, the world of technology probes the advancement of technology in the field of

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SCE3104 Primary Science Curriculum and Pedagogies

agriculture, communication, transport and construction and its contribution to the wellbeing of man. Each of the fields of investigation has to achieve internal integration of two kinds: horizontal integration, so that what is learned today ought to be related to what was learned yesterday and what will be learned tomorrow and so on; and also vertical integration, so that what is learned within one field should be related as fully as possible to other fields of investigation. An essential feature of this science is that every pupil should reach a minimum level of understanding and experience in each of the science disciplines.

(e) Teaching strategies

The PSS syllabus implies that there are two views of learning science; a process view and a constructivist view. The process view of science supports an enquiry approach (Livermore, 1964). The constructivist view supports the notion of learners taking a mentally active and creative part in constructing their own knowledge based on their set of existing ideas drawn from past experiences (Duit and Treagust, 1995; Harlen, 1992). Thus, the teaching strategy used for teaching and learning science is discovery learning which is the result of activities of the learner rather than exposition by the teacher. The role of the teacher is as a facilitator, providing hands-on experiences, encouraging pupils to raise questions to which answers are to be sought by enquiry, rather than a disseminator of knowledge. The teacher guides the pupils to discover for themselves science principles and concepts and to use their own ideas using a variety of methods such as experiments, discussion, simulation and projects (PSS Syllabus Handbook, 1993, p. 9).

(f)

Curriculum materials

Curriculum materials are basic essentials of scientific activity in the primary school (The International Encyclopaedia of Education, Vol.9).

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SCE3104 Primary Science Curriculum and Pedagogies

(i) Lower Primary Level (Years 1,2 and 3)

In PSS Year 1 (implemented in January 2003 in English ), the curriculum materials come in a package that consists of a syllabus handbook for teachers, an activity book for pupils, a teachers guide and CD-Roms as support materials in teaching and

learning. Teachers teaching science are also provided with notebooks and LCDs to integrate the use of technology into the teaching and learning of science.

(ii) Upper Primary Level (Years 4,5 and 6)

In Years 4, 5 and 6 (implemented in December 1994 in Bahasa Malaysia), the curriculum materials come in a package that consists of a syllabus handbook for teachers, a textbook for pupils, a teachers guide and a training package (PULSAR) for teachers which includes twelve modules. Teachers also use various commercial

textbooks, workbooks, charts and transparencies

The syllabus outlines the aims, objectives, content, skills and values to be taught, teaching strategies, as well as assessment procedures. The textbook is for pupils and contains suitable activities by topics for acquisition of scientific knowledge, process skills, attitudes and values through an enquiry approach. Reinforcement and enrichment in learning are also in-built into the activities. The teachers guide is prepared in accordance with the activities in the textbook and contains suggestions of teaching and learning and further reading materials for enhancement of knowledge and skills.

There are twelve training modules for teachers; five modules for Year Four science, three modules for Year Five science and four modules for Year Six science. The

modules cover a wide range of topics conforming to the PSS syllabus such as an introduction to the field of science and science concepts, process skills, thinking skills, scientific attitudes and values, strategies of teaching and learning, evaluation in science, and organisation and management of science resources like the science panel, science room, science garden and teaching aids. Each module consists of notes, hands-on activities, self-evaluation activities, exemplar lesson plans and references. Some modules are accompanied by videos and transparencies, such as the modules on

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SCE3104 Primary Science Curriculum and Pedagogies

scientific attitudes and values, strategies of teaching and learning, and organisation of the science garden. (g) Target pupils

PSS is compulsory for all pupils in primary school. (h) Time allocation

At the lower primary level, science has been allocated 3 periods of 30 minutes each per week while at the upper primary level, it is 5 periods of 30 minutes each per week. (i) Assessment

Assessment procedures in PSS are of two types: formative assessment and summative assessment. Pupils are assessed on three aspects of the syllabus; knowledge, skills, (PSS Syllabus Handbook, 1993, p. 11- 12). Formative

attitudes and values

assessment is mainly continuous school-based assessments in the form of written tests, practical tests, projects, portfolio, oral work and group work. diagnose pupils weaknesses and reinforce learning. The main aim is to

Summative assessment is of two

kinds, namely, the Practical Skills Assessment (PEKA) and the UPSR.

PEKA is a continuous assessment to gauge how well pupils have mastered the process and manipulative skills in science (Guide to PEKA, 1997). It is implemented in Year Six for a period of six months. Based on a criteria assessment form developed by the Examination Syndicate of the MOE, the teachers plan a series of experiments to assess pupils in the classrooms. The instruments for assessment are rating scales and portfolio. Pupils are assessed on eight process skills; observing, classifying, measuring and using numbers, communicating, using space-time relationships, making operational definitions, controlling variables and experimenting. They are also assessed on five manipulative skills; proper use and handling of science materials and apparatus, proper and safe handling of live and dead specimens, accurate and proportional drawing of specimen, science materials and apparatus, proper way of cleaning science apparatus, and proper

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SCE3104 Primary Science Curriculum and Pedagogies

and safe way of storing science apparatus and materials. Assessment of aptitudes, attitudes and values is also in-built into the test items in PEKA.

The other assessment is UPSR, which is a form of assessment meant to gauge how well the education system prepares students for the secondary school curriculum. It is a written test consisting of two parts; part A and part B. Part A consists of thirty multiplechoice questions and part B consists of five structured questions. The marks allocated for part A is 30 marks and for part B is 20 marks. Emphasis is on the questions in part B, which test pupils ability to think critically and creatively. To get a good mark in the science paper, pupils must get a pass mark for part B. Interestingly, the marks achieved in PEKA, do not contribute at all to the overall marks in the UPSR. This might open the system to abuse where assessment in PEKA is not seriously carried out by teachers which is highly subjective.

(Reference: Tan, J. N. (1999). The Development and Implementation of The Primary School Science Curriculum in Malaysia. Unpublished PhD thesis of the University of East Anglia, Norwich, United Kingdom.)

Exercise

1. Write a one page report on the changes in the primary science curriculum in Malaysia. 2. State the rational for the changes in the primary science curriculum in Malaysia. 3. Draw a table to compare and contrast the strengths and weaknesses of each of the primary science curriculum that was implemented in Malaysia.

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SCE3104 Primary Science Curriculum and Pedagogies

Thinking

Study the present primary science curriculum. Discuss and write a report on whether this curriculum is an adpation, modification or a new approach from the previous curricula.

Reference Tan, J. N. (1999). The Development and Implementation of The Primary School Science Curriculum in Malaysia. Unpublished PhD thesis of the University of East Anglia, Norwich, United Kingdom. Pusat Pembangunan Kurikulum (2002). Huraian Sukatan Pelajaran Sains. Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia

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SCE3104 Primary Science Curriculum and Pedagogies

TOPIC 3

Malaysian Primary Science Curriculum I

Synopsis This topic explores the present KBSR Science curriculum in greater detail in terms of its objectives, learning outcomes, emphases and content organization.

Learning Outcome 1. Explain the emphases of the National Science Education Philosophy. 2. State the aims and objectives of the KBSR primary science curriculum 3. Discuss the challenges involved in incorporating the emphases of the KBSR primary science curriculum in the lesson. 4. Describe the organisation of content in the KBSR primary science curriculum.

Overview
Malaysian Primary Science Curriculum I

Objectives

Learning Outcomes

Content Emphases organization

Figure 3.0 Overview Content

Content Integrated Curriculum for Primary Schools (Science) Aim The aim of the primary school science curriculum is to develop pupils interest and creativity through everyday experiences and investigations that promote the acquisition of scientific and thinking skills as w ell as the inculcation of scientific attitudes and values.

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SCE3104 Primary Science Curriculum and Pedagogies

Objectives The level one science curriculum aims to: 1. Stimulate pupils curiosity and develop their interest about the world around them. 2. Provide pupils with opportunities to develop science process skills and thinking skills. 3. Develop pupils creativity. 4. Provide pupils with basic science know ledge and concepts. 5. Inculcate scientific attitudes and positive values. 6. Create an awareness on the need to love and care for the environment.
The Level Two Primary School Science Curriculum aims to: 1. Stimulate pupils curiosity and develop their interest about the world around them. 2. Provide pupils with opportunities to develop science process skills and thinking skills. 3. Develop pupils creativity. 4. Provide pupils with basic science knowledge and concepts. 5.To provide learning opportunities for pupils to apply knowledge and skills in a creative, critical and analytical manner for problem solving and decision-making. 6. Inculcate scientific attitudes and positive values. 7. Foster the appreciation on the contributions of science and technology towards national development and well-being of mankind. 8. Be aware of the need to love and care for the environment.

Emphases
Science emphasises inquiry and problem solving. In inquiry and problem solving processes, scientific and thinking skills are utilised. Scientific skills are important in any scientific investigation such as conducting experiments and carrying out projects. Scientific skills encompass science process skills and manipulative skills. Thinking is a mental process that requires an individual to integrate knowledge, skills and attitude in an effort to understand the environment. One of the objectives of the national education system is to enhance the thinking ability of pupils. This objective can be achieved through a curriculum that emphasises thoughtful learning. Teaching and learning that emphasises thinking skills is a foundation for thoughtful learning. Thoughtful learning is achieved if pupils are actively involved in the teaching and learning process. Activities should be organized to provide opportunities for pupils to apply thinking skills in conceptualisation, problem solving and decision-making. Thinking skills can be categorised into critical and creative thinking skills. A person who thinks critically always evaluates an idea in a systematic manner before accepting it. A person who thinks creatively has a high level of imagination, is able to generate original and innovative ideas, and modify ideas and products. Thinking strategies are higher order thinking processes that involve various steps. Each step involves various critical and creative thinking skills. The ability to formulate thinking strategies is the ultimate aim of introducing thinking activities in the teaching and learning process. Science learning experiences can be used as a means to inculcate scientific attitudes and noble values in students. The inculcation of scientific attitudes and noble values generally occurs through the following stages:

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SCE3104 Primary Science Curriculum and Pedagogies

Being aware of the importance and the need for scientific attitudes and noble values. Giving emphasis to these attitudes and values. Practising and internalising these scientific attitudes and noble values. When planning teaching and learning activities, teachers need to give due consideration to the above stages to ensure the continuous and effective inculcation of scientific attitudes and values.

Content Organisation
The science curriculum is organised around themes. Each theme consists of various learning areas, each of which consists of a number of learning objectives. A learning objective has one or more learning outcomes. Learning outcomes are written in the form of measurable behavioural terms. In general, the learning outcomes for a particular learning objective are organised in order of complexity. However, in the process of teaching and learning, learning activities should be planned in a holistic and integrated manner that enables the achievement of multiple learning outcomes according to needs and context. Teachers should avoid employing a teaching strategy that tries to achieve each learning outcome separately according to the order stated in the curriculum specifications. The Suggested Learning Activities provide information on the scope and dimension of learning outcomes. The learning activities stated under the column Suggested Learning Activities are given with the intention of providing some guidance as to how learning outcomes can be achieved. A suggested activity may cover one or more learning outcomes. At the same time, more than one activity may be suggested for a particular learning outcome. Teachers may modify the suggested activity to suit the ability and style of learning of their pupils. Teachers are encouraged to design other innovative and effective learning activities to enhance the learning of science.

Exercise

Answer the questions below. (Refer to the Curriculum Specifications for primary science.) Malaysian Primary Science Curriculum 1. Give two important documents teachers must refer to understand the Primary Science Curriculum. What is the main purpose of each document? 2. The Primary Science Curriculum is formulated in line with the National Philosophy of Education (NPE). State four important elements emphasized in the NPE. .

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SCE3104 Primary Science Curriculum and Pedagogies

3. State the aims of the Primary Science Curriculum. How are these aims in line with the aspirations of the NPE? 4. List all the objectives of the Primary Science Curriculum. What are the differences in the objectives for Level I and Level II? 5. Give three major emphases/elements of the Primary Science Curriculum. Discuss the challenges in incorporating these emphases into the lesson. 6. List all the skills and values the curriculum hopes to develop. Why are these skills and values important? 7. Using a suitable graphic organizer, show how the curriculum content is organized. 8. The Primary Science Curriculum is organized around specific themes. Write the themes for Level I and Level II. 9. Each theme in the curriculum content consists of various Learning Areas. Tabulate the Learning Areas by their appropriate themes for each Year Level (Year 1 to Year 6). What can you conclude about the arrangement of these learning areas? Theme Yr 1 Yr 2 Yr 3 Yr 4 Yr 5 Yr 6

10. In the Curriculum Specification, the content organization is shown using 5 columns. Name and explain each column headings. 11. The Primary Science Curriculum emphasizes the integration of knowledge, skills and values. Provide examples of how teachers are expected to integrate these three elements in a science lesson. 12. What are the suggested teaching and learning strategies in the primary science curriculum? Give a brief description of each of the strategies. 13. What are the three aspects evaluated in the primary science curriculum and how are they evaluated?

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SCE3104 Primary Science Curriculum and Pedagogies

Reading Materials and Surf the Internet

Compare and contrast the primary science curriculum in Malaysia and in New Zealand in terms of objectives, emphases and scope (New Zealand Primary Science Curriculum: http://www.tki.org.nz/r/science/curriculum/toc_e.php )

Reference Pusat Pembangunan Kurikulum (2002). Huraian Sukatan Pelajaran Sains. Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia Ministry of Education, Wellington, New Zealand (2002). Science in the New Zealand Curriculum. Retrieved on 10 Sept. 2009 from: http://www.tki.org.nz/r/science/curriculum/toc_e.php

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TOPIC 4

Malaysian Primary Science Curriculum II

Synopsis This topic explores good practices in teaching and learning science. These include various strategies, learning activities and assessment procedures.

Learning Outcome

1. Identify problems faced in teaching primary science. 2. Describe various strategies, activities and assessments that could be used in teaching science. Overview

Malaysian Primary Science Curriculum II

Teaching and Learning Strategies

Learning Activities

Assessment Procedures

Figure 4 Overview Content

Content Teaching and Learning Strategies Teaching and learning strategies in the science curriculum emphasise thoughtful learning. Thoughtful learning is a process that helps pupils acquire knowledge and master skills that will help them develop their minds to the optimum level. Thoughtful learning can occur through various learning approaches such as inquiry, constructivism, contextual learning, and mastery learning. Learning activities should therefore be geared towards activating pupils critical and creative thinking skills and not be confined to routine or rote learning. Pupils should be made aware of the thinking skills and thinking strategies that they use in their learning. They should be challenged with higher order questions and problems and be required to solve problems utilising their creativity and critical thinking. The teaching and learning process should enable pupils to acquire

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SCE3104 Primary Science Curriculum and Pedagogies

knowledge, master skills and develop scientific attitudes and noble values in an integrated manner.

Teaching and Learning Methods The use of a variety of teaching and learning methods can enhance pupils interest in science. Science lessons that are not interesting will not motivate pupils to learn and subsequently will affect their performances. The choice of teaching methods should be based on the curriculum content, pupils abilities, pupils repertoire of intelligences, and the availability of resources and infrastructure. Different teaching and learning activities should be planned to cater for pupils with different learning styles and intelligences. The following are brief descriptions of some teaching and learning methods. Experiment An experiment is a method commonly used in science lessons. In experiments, pupils test hypotheses through investigations to discover specific science concepts and principles. Conducting an experiment involves thinking skills, scientific skills, and manipulative skills. In the implementation of this curriculum, besides guiding pupils to carry out experiments, where appropriate, teachers should provide pupils with the opportunities to design their own experiments. This involves pupils drawing up plans as to how to conduct experiments, how to measure and analyse data, and how to present the results of their experiment. Discussion A discussion is an activity in which pupils exchange questions and opinions based on valid reasons. Discussions can be conducted before, during or after an activity. Teachers should play the role of a facilitator and lead a discussion by asking questions that stimulate thinking and getting pupils to express themselves. Simulation In simulation, an activity that resembles the actual situation is carried out. Examples of simulation are role-play, games and the use of models. In role-play, pupils play out a particular role based on certain pre-determined conditions. Games require procedures that need to be followed. Pupils play games in order to learn a particular principle or to understand the process of decision-making. Models are used to represent objects or actual situations so that pupils can visualise the said objects or situations and thus understand the concepts and principles to be learned. Project A project is a learning activity that is generally undertaken by an individual or a group of pupils to achieve a particular learning objective. A project generally requires several lessons to complete. The outcome of the project either in the form of a report, an artifact or in other forms needs to be presented to the teacher and other pupils. Project work promotes the development of problem-solving skills, time management skills, and independent learning. Visits and Use of External Resources The learning of science is not limited to activities carried out in the school compound. Learning of science can be enhanced through the use of external resources such as

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SCE3104 Primary Science Curriculum and Pedagogies

zoos, museums, science centres, research institutes, mangrove swamps, and factories. Visits to these places make the learning of science more interesting, meaningful and effective. To optimise learning opportunities, visits need to be carefully planned. Pupils may be involved in the planning process and specific educational tasks should be assigned during the visit. No educational visit is complete without a post-visit discussion. Use of Technology Technology is a powerful tool that has great potential in enhancing the learning of science. Through the use of technology such as television, radio, video, computer, and Internet, the teaching and learning of science can be made more interesting and effective. Computer simulation and animation are effective tools for the teaching and learning of abstract or difficult science concepts. Computer simulation and animation can be presented through courseware or Web page. Application tools such, as word processors, graphic presentation software and electronic spreadsheets are valuable tools for the analysis and presentation of data.

Surf the Internet

According to Sharifah Maimunah Syed Zin in her article Current trends and main concerns as regards science curriculum development and implementation in selected States in Asia: Malaysia at http://www.ibe.unesco.org/curriculum/China/Pdf/IImalaysia.pdf, she states a number of problems faced by Malaysian teachers in the teaching of science and technology. Discuss whether you agree or disagree with the problems that she raised and if so, state ways to overcome these problems.

Reading Materials and Surf the Internet

Compare and contrast the primary science curriculum in Malaysia and in New Zealand in terms of strategies, activities and assessment procedures. (New Zealand Primary Science Curriculum: http://www.tki.org.nz/r/science/curriculum/toc_e.php )

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SCE3104 Primary Science Curriculum and Pedagogies

Reference Esler,W.K.&Esler.M.K.(2001). Teaching Elementary Science(8th ed.) Washington: Wadsworth Publishing Company Sharifah Maimunah Syed Zin (1999). Current trends and main concerns as regards science curriculum development and implementation in selected States in Asia: Malaysia. Diperolihi pada 10 Sept. 2009 dari: http://www.ibe.unesco.org/curriculum/China/Pdf/IImalaysia.pdf Ministry of Education, Wellington, New Zealand (2002). Science in the New Zealand Curriculum. Diperolehi pada 10 Sept. 2009 dari: http://www.tki.org.nz/r/science/curriculum/toc_e.php

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TOPIC 5

Teaching and Learning Strategies for Primary Science Inquiry and Discovery Approach

Synopsis This topic discusses the inquiry and discovery approach in teaching primary science.

Learning Outcome

1. Define inquiry and discovery approach. 2. State the importance of inquiry in science education. 3. State the characteristics of teachers in an inquiry classroom. 4. State the characteristics of students in an inquiry classroom.

Overview
Teaching and Learning Strategies for Primary Science

Inquiry Approach

Discovery Approach

Figure 5 Overview Content

Content What is inquiry? The essence of the inquiry approach is to teach pupils to handle situations which they encounter when dealing with the physical world by using techniques which are applied by research scientists. Inquiry means that teachers design situations so that pupils are caused to employ procedures research scientists use to recognise problems, to ask questions, to apply investigational procedures, and to provide consistent descriptions, predictions, and explanations which are compatible with shared experience of the physical world.

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SCE3104 Primary Science Curriculum and Pedagogies

"Inquiry" is used deliberately in the context of an investigation in science and the approach to teaching science described here. "Enquiry" will be used to refer to all other questions, probes, surveys, or examinations of a general nature so that the terms will not be confused. "Inquiry" should not be confused with "discovery". Discovery assumes a realist or logical positivist approach to the world which is not necessarily present in "inquiry". Inquiry tends to imply a constructionist approach to teaching science. Inquiry is open-ended and on-going. Discovery concentrates upon closure on some important process, fact, principle, or law which is required by the science syllabus.

Inquiry to Investigate Problems Our first entry into the effort is to recognize a problem. There after we must construct our design as to how we are going to attack the problem and attempt to solve it. We may not solve the problem within the given time frame and what we do may raise other associated problems. That is okay. Any good research does the same. Basic structure of inquiry: WHAT DO WE KNOW? WHAT DO WE NEED TO KNOW? HOW CAN WE FIND IT OUT? Steps to follow: 1. Identifying/Presenting the PROBLEM we are attempting to solve. 2. Forming HYPOTHESES: tentative solutions to the problem that can be verified with data . 3. DATA gathering This may include: a. Observation notes b. Pictures c. Drawings and diagrams d. Recordings (audio or video) 4. DATA analysis 5. GENERALIZING + Closure The Suchman Inquiry Method In the classroom, occasions frequently arise in which students come across unusual phenomena. Each of these occasions, and many others like them, provide the teacher with rich opportunities to encourage students to carefully analyze the situation and to hypothesize and test explanations. These situations make it difficult for students to remain indifferent - they demand explanations and want to know why. Robert Suchman developed a strategy, similar to the game "twenty questions", to teach students a process for investigating and explaining unexpected and surprising events.

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SCE3104 Primary Science Curriculum and Pedagogies

Overview of the strategy:

A. Students are confronted with a puzzling situation. It is important that the explanation of the event should be based on ideas with which the students already have some familiarity - the explanation of the situation should be discoverable. B. Students form hypotheses (possible solutions) The number of hypotheses should be small enough so that students can see to which hypothesis their data relate . C. Students ask the teacher questions: Data gathering These must be of a form which can be answered by a "yes" or a "no". For example, a student may not ask, "What is inside the radiometer?" but may ask, "Is there air inside the radiometer?" If a question isnt answerable by yes or no , the students are asked to rephrase it . Moreover, the questions must be worded so that the answer could be obtained through observation alone. The strategy eliminates all open ended questions and forces students to focus their ideas and to develop questions which are, in effect, limited hypotheses. With practice, students should be encouraged to structure their inquiry so that they ask questions which analyze the situation they have observed - trying to find out what things are made of , what actually happened , before they consider relationships between the variables involved in the situation. It is important that students learn to distinguish between: * Questions which are fact gathering, and * Questions which experiment with the relationships between the variables involved in the situation. Questions such as: "Is the strip made of metal?" "Is there a vacuum inside the radiometer?" help to clarify the situation which has been observed or described, whereas questions such as: "If the soldiers had run rather than marched would the bridge still have collapsed?" seek to explore the relationships between some of the variables involved in their situations.

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D. Assessing hypotheses It is important that in this stage, the teacher and the students remember that even after lengthy questioning, a number of satisfactory explanations may be possible and that students should be encouraged to explore a range of alternative hypotheses. E. Generalizations + Reflection and analysis of the process. The final stage of the strategy involves students examining the process they have worked through - considering the stages of the process and the effectiveness of the different questions which have been asked.

Finally, there should not be too much emphasis on "getting the right answer" - rather students should be encouraged to see that there are a number of satisfactory explanations in many situations. Inquiry-based Approach and Traditional Approach The chart below compares characteristics of inquiry-based approaches to more traditional approaches. INQUIRY BASED Principle Learning Theory Student Participation Student Involvement in Outcomes Student Role Curriculum Goals Teachers Role What is discovery? The discovery approach was first popularised by Jerome Bruner in a book The Process of Education. The concept behind the discovery approach is that the motivation of pupils to learn science will be increased if they experience the feelings scientists obtain from "discovering" scientific knowledge. Further, the idea was supported by the notion that pupils would learn about the nature of science, and the formation of scientific knowledge through the process of "discovery". It could be said that Bruner's heart was in the right place, but that his rationale was faulty. Even your limited studies in the history and philosophy of science to this point should indicate that Bruner's idea poses some philosophical problems about the nature of science and the formation of scientific knowledge. Constructivism Active Increased Responsibility Problem solver Process oriented Guide/facilitator TRADITIONAL Behaviorism Passive Decreased Responsibility Direction follower Product oriented Director/ transmitter

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The discovery approach is presented by Schulman (Good, 1972). This could be followed by reading Strike (1975) and Feifer (1971). These readings deal with the procedures of discovery learning and relevant issues and conflicting points of view. In a discovery lesson, the teacher decides, in advance, the concept, process, law or piece of scientific knowledge which is to be "discovered" or un-covered by the pupils. The lesson proceeds through a hierarchy of stages which may be associated with Bruner's levels of thought.

Discovery method Mayer describes these as pure discovery, guided discovery, and expository, respectively. The Discovery method refers to how much guidance a teacher should give their students. There are three levels of guidance in teaching: 1. Pure Discovery - The student recieves representative problems to solve with minimal teacher guidance (Mayer, 2003). 2. Guided Discovery - The student recieves problems to solve, but the teacher provides hints and directions about how to solve the problemto keep the student on track (Mayer, 2003). 3. Expository - The final answer or rule is presented to the student (Mayer, 2003).

Implications of the Discovery Method: Pure Discovery Pure discovery methods often require excessive amounts of learning time, result in low levels of initial learning, and result in inferior performance on transfer and long term retention (Mayer 68). When the principle to be learned is obvious or when a strict criterion of initial learning is enforced, pure discovery students are likely to behave like guided discovery students. Apparently, pure discovery encourages learners to get cognitively involved but fails to ensure that they will come into contact with the rule or principle to be learned (Mayer 68). Guided Discovery Guided discovery may require more or less timethan the third, expository instruction, depending on the task, but tends to result in better long term retention and transfer (Mayer 68). Guided discovery both encourages learners to search actively for how to apply rules and makes sure that the learner comes into contact with the rule to be learned (Mayer, 68). Expository Instruction Expository Instruction may sometimes result in less learning time than other methods and generally results in equivalent levels of initial learning as compared to guided

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discovery (Mayer 69). If the goal of instruction is long-term retention and transfer, expository methods seem inferior to guided discovery. Apparently expository instruction does not encourage the learner to actively think about the rule but does ensure that the rule is learned (Mayer, 69).

Exercise

Find out more about the inquiry and discovery approaach. Write a report on (i) (ii) (iii) definition of inquiry and discovery approach. importance of inquiry in science education. characteristics of teachers and students in an inquiry classroom.

TASK ( 5 hours )

Read more about Shuchmans inquiry method. Choose a topic in the curriculum that could use Shuchmans inquiry method. Plan a lesson using Shuchmans inquiry method.Teach your lesson. Write a reflective report on your experience in using this method.

Collecting Information

Choose a plant part, for example, leave, stem, flower, fruit or root. Take photographs of the chosen plant part from different plants. Find similarity and differences in the characteristics of the plant part. Example: Leaves have different shapes like oval, oblong, round etc. Present your discoveries in the form of a powerpoint presentation with suitable supporting photographs that you have taken.

Reference Dettrick, G. W. Constructivist Teaching Strategies. Retrieved on 20.10.2009 from: http://www.inform.umd.edu/UMS+State/UMD-Projects/MCTP/Essays/Strategies.txt

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Mayer, Richard, E. (2002). The Promise of Educational Psychology Volume II: Teaching for Meaningful Learning. Pearson Education, Inc., New Jersey. Mayer, R.E. (2003). Learning and Instruction. Pearson Education, Inc: Upper Saddle River, 287-88. Martin, R.;Sexton,C;Gerlovich,J.(2002). Teaching Science for All Children-Methods for Constructing Understanding. Boston: Allyn and Bac Poh,S.H.(2005) Pedagogy Of Science Volume 1.Kuala Lumpur: Kumpulan Budiman Sdn Bhd.

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